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Student leadership at the university: an explanatory model.

1. Introduction

Conceptualization of the term leadership, 2. methodology, 2.1. research design and participants, 2.2. measure, 2.3. data analysis, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

	n	%

Male	28	18.4
Female	124	81.6

15–18	84	55.3
19–26	68	44.7

Course Representative	108	71.1
Faculty Council Representative	28	18.4
General Representative of the Academic Council	4	2.6
Special Representative of the Academic Council	12	7.9

1–2 years	112	73.7
3–4 years	36	23.7
>4 years	4	2.6

Factors	Qualities			Expectations			Training			Practice
Factors	M	SD	p	M	SD	p	M	SD	p	M	SD	p

Male	73.3	5.5	0.21	67.9	5.9	0.13	33	3.7	0.10	30.1	5	0.03
Female	75	6.7	0.21	69.1	3.1	0.13	34.2	3.4	0.10	32.1	4.2	0.03

15–18	75.3	6.2	0.20	68.9	4	0.90	34.2	3.4	0.30	31.3	4.8	0.21
19–26	73.9	6.9		68.9	3.5		33.7	3.6		32.2	4

CR	75.4	6	0.02	68.6	4	0.14	34.1	3.4	0.00	31.9	4.4	0.10
FCR	74	5.8		69.1	3.8		34.7	3.4		31.3	5.1
GRAC	78	0.3		73	0.3		37	0.2		27	0.4
SRAC	68.3	9.4		68.3	0.49		29.7	3.5		33	0.85

1–2 years	75	6.1	0.30	69.25	4	0.06	33.8	3.3	0.06	32.1	4.9	0.08
3–4 years	73.3	7.9		67.9	3.1		34.1	4		30.3	2.3
>4 years	77	0.4		66	0.2		38	0.3		33	0.2

Fit Indices	Obtained Values	Criteria
χ	32.84
df	13
χ /df	2.52	≤3
GFI	0.953	≥0.90
RMSEA	0.045	<0.05
NFI	0.934	≥0.90
CFI	0.933	≥0.90
AGFI	0.971	≥0.90
SRMR	0.063	<0.08

Associations between Variables	RW	SE	CR	p	SRW
Gender → Qualities	−0.743	1.292	−0.575	0.566	−0.047
Age → Qualities	−1.621	1.060	−2.474	0.013	−0.200
Position → Qualities	−2.271	0.598	−3.796	***	−0.307
Time → Qualities	−0.609	1.039	−0.586	0.558	−0.048
Gender → Expectations	1.520	0.771	1.972	0.049	0.163
Age → Expectations	0.271	0.632	0.428	0.669	0.035
Position → Expectations	0.109	0.357	0.307	0.759	0.025
Time → Expectations	−1.832	0.620	−2.957	0.003	−0.245
Qualities → Training	0.364	0.031	11.551	***	0.683
Qualities → Practice	0.076	0.073	1.054	0.292	0.113
Expectations → Training	−0.057	0.054	−1.059	0.290	−0.063
Expectations → Practice	−0.068	0.091	−0.751	0.453	−0.059
Training → Practice	−0.420	0.137	−3.074	0.002	−0.331

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Cáceres-Reche, M.P.; López-Gómez, M.; Sadio-Ramos, F.J.; Berral-Ortiz, B.; Martínez-Domingo, J.A. Student Leadership at the University: An Explanatory Model. Educ. Sci. 2021 , 11 , 703. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11110703

Cáceres-Reche MP, López-Gómez M, Sadio-Ramos FJ, Berral-Ortiz B, Martínez-Domingo JA. Student Leadership at the University: An Explanatory Model. Education Sciences . 2021; 11(11):703. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11110703

Cáceres-Reche, María Pilar, Miguel López-Gómez, Fernando José Sadio-Ramos, Blanca Berral-Ortiz, and José Antonio Martínez-Domingo. 2021. "Student Leadership at the University: An Explanatory Model" Education Sciences 11, no. 11: 703. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11110703

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Research: How Leadership Experience Affects Students

Michael L. Anderson

An experiment in a Chinese secondary school.

Early leadership experience can be very valuable. Selective colleges screen for demonstrated leadership experience , and studies have found that people with high school leadership experience are paid up to 33% more than those without it. This wage premium is similar to the one associated with a college degree.

MA Michael L. Anderson is an associate professor of Agricultural and Resource Economics at University of California, Berkeley. His primary research focuses on issues in health, environmental, and transportation economics.
FL Fangwen Lu is an associate professor of Economics at Renmin University of China. Her primary research focuses on using randomized field experiment to explore issues in education, health, and transportation. She is the corresponding author on this article.

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Three Questions About Education Leadership Research

Anna J. Egalite

A commonly cited statistic in education leadership circles is that 25 percent of a school’s impact on student achievement can be explained by the principal, which is encouraging for those of us who work in principal preparation, and intuitive to the many educators who’ve experienced the power of an effective leader. It lacks nuance, however, and has gotten us thinking about the state of education-leadership research—what do we know with confidence, what do we have good intuitions (but insufficient evidence) about, and what are we completely in the dark on? With this in mind, we’ve brainstormed three big questions about school leaders. The research in this area is incomplete, but a recent development makes us hopeful that better data are on the horizon.

1. Do principals impact student performance?

Quantifying a school leader’s impact is analytically challenging. How should principal effects be separated from teacher effects, for instance? Some teachers are high-performing, regardless of who leads their school, but effective principals hire the right people into the right grade levels and offer them the right supports to propel them to success.

Another issue relates to timing: Is the impact of great principals observed right away, or does it take several years for principals to grapple with the legacy they’ve inherited—the teaching faculty, the school facilities, the curriculum and textbooks, historical budget priorities, and so on. Furthermore, what’s the right comparison group to determine a principal’s unique impact? It seems crucial to account for differences in school and neighborhood environments—such as by comparing different principals who led the same school at different time points—but if there hasn’t been principal turnover in a long time, and there aren’t similar schools against which to make a comparison, this approach hits a wall.

Grissom, Kalogrides, and Loeb carefully document the trade-offs inherent in the many approaches to calculating a principal’s impact, concluding that the window of potential effect sizes ranges from .03 to .18 standard deviations. That work mirrors the conclusions of Branch, Hanushek, and Rivkin, who estimate that principal impacts range from .05 to .21 standard deviations (in other words, four to 16 percentile points in student achievement).

Our best estimates of principal impacts, therefore, are either really small or really large, depending on the model chosen. The takeaway? Yes, principals matter—but we still have a long way to go to before we can confidently quantify just how much.

2. What skills are needed to ensure success as a modern school leader?

The fundamentals haven’t changed, as a quick read of Dale Carnegie’s classic text will reveal—smile; don’t criticize, condemn, or complain; show appreciation. Specific applications to the field of education administration are obvious: Be a good manager, be organized, and follow the policies you set. These are concrete skills that can be taught in a preparation program and their value has been quantified. See, for instance, Grissom and Loeb , who point to the importance of practical managerial skills; Hess and Kelly , who write about the principal’s role in supporting curriculum and instruction; and Grissom, Loeb, and Master , who demonstrate the value of teacher coaching.

But there are also intangible skills that cannot be easily taught—being visionary and motivating, showing compassion, being a force for good, keeping children at the center of the work, and being cognizant of whether civil rights are being advanced or inhibited by the culture you build. This latter list highlights the skills that principal candidates need to bring to the table before their preparation program even begins, and it’s this latter list that matters the most in our current context.

3. What are the characteristics of high-quality principal preparation programs?

Principal preparation programs have two primary responsibilities: Identify and admit the most promising candidates, then provide them with concrete skills that will equip them to be successful upon graduation. Studying exemplary programs offers a roadmap for how to do this well, but data limitations restrict how closely we can actually monitor their success in meeting these responsibilities.

We can show that there is sufficient systematic variation between programs in terms of test-score growth, for instance, that allows us to sort them into high, medium, and low performance categories. But we know too little about differences in the actual training received across programs. Administrative datasets rarely allow us to link principals to the specific program from which they graduated. Most programs can’t even self-evaluate because they don’t have data systems to track their graduates.

So what are we doing about all this?

With support from the Wallace Foundation’s $47 million initiative to improve the quality of principal preparation, NC State has been engaged in redesigning our program to train principals who are ready to meet the demands of a constantly changing job. We joined forces with local school leaders to identify the skills and attributes of effective school leaders. We then developed our program selection criteria, curricula, assessments, and internship to align with this framework. We’re now partnering with the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction and SAS to develop a leadership-development dashboard that tracks the career pathway and performance of our graduates, with a vision of scaling the system state-wide to include all North Carolina-based principal preparation programs and school districts.

The data don’t exist yet to answer the most pressing questions about the relationship between principal preparation and leadership effectiveness. It’s our hope that’s about to change.

— Anna Egalite and Tim Drake

Anna J. Egalite is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Educational Leadership, Policy, and Human Development at North Carolina State University. Tim Drake is an Assistant Professor of Education Leadership and Policy at North Carolina State University.

This post originally appeared on Rick Hess Straight Up .

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Five Questions About Data Use for School Leaders

by Anna J. Egalite

Kristyn Klei Borrero (center, holding a sheet of paper) and the CT3 team.

Some Practical Advice for School Leaders Facing Familiar Challenges

by Frederick Hess

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Educational Leadership - Ed.D. and Ph.D.

Example research questions.

Example Research Questions
Topic	Subtopic	Issue or Problem	Research Question
High School Education	Drop-outs	Socio-cultural impacts on high school completion	What are the socio-cultural influences on high school completion and how might these be addressed?
Higher Education	Access	Barriers to college entry	How well are college access interventions working in North Carolina?
K-12	Special Education	School administrators views of the disabled	How do K-12 principals' beliefs about disabilities affect their leadership of students with disabilities?
Middle School	Mathematics	Serving the learning needs of gifted and challenged middle school students in mathematics	What impact would a tiered system in middle school mathematics have on learning by students with varying aptitudes for mathematics?

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Starting the research process
10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project

10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Research question	Explanation
	The first question is not enough. The second question is more , using .
	Starting with “why” often means that your question is not enough: there are too many possible answers. By targeting just one aspect of the problem, the second question offers a clear path for research.
	The first question is too broad and subjective: there’s no clear criteria for what counts as “better.” The second question is much more . It uses clearly defined terms and narrows its focus to a specific population.
	It is generally not for academic research to answer broad normative questions. The second question is more specific, aiming to gain an understanding of possible solutions in order to make informed recommendations.
	The first question is too simple: it can be answered with a simple yes or no. The second question is , requiring in-depth investigation and the development of an original argument.
	The first question is too broad and not very . The second question identifies an underexplored aspect of the topic that requires investigation of various to answer.
	The first question is not enough: it tries to address two different (the quality of sexual health services and LGBT support services). Even though the two issues are related, it’s not clear how the research will bring them together. The second integrates the two problems into one focused, specific question.
	The first question is too simple, asking for a straightforward fact that can be easily found online. The second is a more question that requires and detailed discussion to answer.
? dealt with the theme of racism through casting, staging, and allusion to contemporary events?	The first question is not — it would be very difficult to contribute anything new. The second question takes a specific angle to make an original argument, and has more relevance to current social concerns and debates.
	The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not . The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically . For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

Type of research	Example question
Qualitative research question
Quantitative research question
Statistical research question

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COMMENTS

(PDF) Addressing leadership effectiveness for student academic
Abstract. Student leadership practice and engagement are gaining some relevance within the academic area, in order to prevent failure and train engaged students to achieve success in their studies ...
PDF Student Leadership at the University: An Explanatory Model
Student Leadership at the University: An Explanatory Model María Pilar Cáceres-Reche 1, Miguel López-Gómez 2, Fernando José Sadio-Ramos 3, Blanca Berral-Ortiz 1 and José Antonio Martínez-Domingo 1,* Citation: Cáceres-Reche, M.P.; ... The research questions posed were: RQ1. Are there signiﬁcant differences in the student leader ...
(PDF) Student Leadership And Development: A Panoramic ...
Abstract. The millennium age of educational leadership opens a new perspective towards student leadership (Black et al., 2014). The idea of student leadership in the 21st century has risen (Adams ...
(PDF) A systematic review of research on the relationship between
A systematic review of research on the relationship between school leadership and student achievement: An updated framework and future direction August 2022 Educational Management Administration ...
PDF Learn How Education Leadership Improves Student Learning
Strengthen education leadership to improve student achievement Improve after-school learning opportunities Expand participation in arts and culture For more information and research on education leadership: www.wallacefoundation.org University of Minnesota Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement College of Education and Human ...
Establishing a dynamic understanding of factors that influence
Leadership skills are an important area of students' development and a key learning outcome of their university education. This systematic review aims to identify, summarise, and map out the various factors that influence university students' leadership approaches, perceptions, and beliefs, in order to establish a more comprehensive understanding of how development in these areas can be ...
Relationship between Principal Leadership Style and Student Achievement
To address the research questions, we adopted a two-step strategy to explore the relationship between leadership style and student achievement. First, latent class analyses (LCA) were conducted to examine the typologies of leadership and to identify to which extent different hidden groups are patterned into each meaningful group ( Dolan, 2009 ...
Student leadership and academic performance
In this research, we extend the range of the study of student leadership experience in several ways. First, we distinguish the long-run effects of leadership experience on academic performance from the short-run effects by investigating how being a leader influences current and later academic achievement. Second, we explore the differences in ...
Student leadership competencies development
Abstract. The main purpose of this research was to gain an understanding of a framework for student leadership competencies development. This research used a qualitative method. This study involved triangulation as a result of combining in- depth individual interviews, focus group interviews, review of documentation, and informal discussions ...
Student Leadership at the University: An Explanatory Model
The exercise of leadership in the educational area and its diverse forms of being reflected in practice continue to arouse interest at the time of designing and developing research that reveals the characteristics that a leader must have in order to be considered a competent university leader, that is, a college student who carries out activities and a leadership position on his or her campus ...
Addressing leadership effectiveness for student academic engagement: a
Student leadership practice and engagement are gaining some relevance within the academic area, in order to prevent failure and train engaged students to achieve success in their studies. However, empirical evidence on the subject is saturated with research focused on adult leadership and engagement, making research difficult. Therefore, the ...
Student Leadership Development: Theory, Research, and Practice
Abstract. This chapter advances a life span approach to the process of leadership development through the exploration of educational contexts experienced by youth and college students as powerful venues for building leadership capacity.
Full article: Leadership for school improvement
International and national studies have shown that school leadership is a major factor in schools' and students' results (Robinson et al. 2008, OECD 2013, Jarl et al. 2017, Leithwood et al. 2020 ), and thus also in school improvement (Fullan 2015 ). These findings have increased interest in identifying effective educational measures to ...
Assessing successful school leadership: What do we know?
As student outcomes and school leadership are closely entwined, making confident judgements about successful leadership is difficult. ... She notes that development of the PEI involved addressing several research questions, including principal perceptions of emotions, and the reliability and validity of the PEI construct. ...
Student Leadership at the University. An Explanatory Model
is, a college student who carries out activities and a leadership position on his or her campus. In this. sense, the present work aims to analyze the proﬁle of the student leader to generate an ...
Research: How Leadership Experience Affects Students
Fangwen Lu. February 21, 2017. Early leadership experience can be very valuable. Selective colleges screen for demonstrated leadership experience, and studies have found that people with high ...
Three Questions About Education Leadership Research
The research in this area is incomplete, but a recent development makes us hopeful that better data are on the horizon. 1. Do principals impact student performance? Quantifying a school leader's impact is analytically challenging. How should principal effects be separated from teacher effects, for instance? Some teachers are high-performing ...
Example Research Questions
Example Research Questions; Topic Subtopic Issue or Problem Research Question; High School Education: Drop-outs: Socio-cultural impacts on high school completion: ... How do K-12 principals' beliefs about disabilities affect their leadership of students with disabilities? Middle School:
PDF Student Leadership and Academic Performance
The research question is whether transfer students who served as club leaders and/or in student government, ... leadership and/or student government with regard to retention and graduation directly, with quantitative measurements. Comparative Analyses Mean GPA, Good Standing, and Retention All transfer students from within the 2007-2009 cohort
(PDF) Building the capacity for student leadership in high school: A
Design/methodology/approach A review of the student voice literature conducted in high schools was used to identify organizational mechanisms for enhancing student leadership.
10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project
The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not focused or researchable. The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically feasible. For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries.
Effective practice in EAL education: enacting distributed school leadership
Interviews of approximately 30 min were also conducted with small groups of 3-5 EAL students. A set of questions guided students' discussion of their learning experiences, and two researchers recorded responses. These allowed for the inclusion of students' voices in the analysis of teaching and learning practices within the research schools.
(PDF) Student Leadership: Challenges and Possibilities
Conference, 4 September 2016. ** Associate at the Insti tute for Reconciliation and Social Justice, U niversity of the Free State, South Africa. Email: [email protected]. O . Student Leadership ...
(PDF) Student involvement in leadership
Many scholars have pointed to the potential benefits accruing to students when and if they are. involved in leadership activities, regardless of the approach to leadership undertaken. According to ...