literature review on experiential learning

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Original research article, the effectiveness of experiential learning in teaching arithmetic and geometry in sixth grade.

1 Department of Mathematics Education, School of Education, Can Tho University, Can Tho, Vietnam
2 Duc Tri Secondary School, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Many educators and policymakers worldwide have noticed the burgeoning field of experiential learning in the twenty-first century. Learning theory and practice together is beneficial to education in general, and mathematics education in particular, because it enables students to realize their full potential for knowledge and skill, and it connects the two aspects of knowledge. A focus on the cross-cutting and critical role of experience activities within the framework was emphasized in Vietnam’s general education program in mathematics, released in 2018 and included views on the content and methods of teaching and learning mathematics in the country. Experiential learning in mathematics was studied to see if this method could positively help students participate, increase their motivation and interest in learning, and impact their math outcomes. A series of pedagogical experiments with 29 sixth-grade students on arithmetic and geometric topics was conducted to confirm the research goals. Students were required to develop solutions to real-world problems related to their studying subjects. The experimental and control classes are subjected to a pre-test and a post-test design. Mixed methods, including qualitative and quantitative analysis, are handled by the statistical data processing software (SPSS) program and the results of observations and surveys of learners’ opinions. The results were found that experiential learning activities positively influenced math learning attitudes and student achievement progress in the classroom.

Introduction

The educational trend of the twenty-first century is student-centered, experiential, technology-based, and question-based learning and empathic and understanding ( Habib et al., 2021 ). According to Vietnam’s General Education Curriculum for 2018, the math program focuses on application, linking to practice or educational activities. It is not just about implementing math learning topics and projects; it is also about organizing math learning games, clubs, forums, seminars and contests, and other practical and experiential activities in mathematics education that reflect this. In these activities, learners should be allowed to put their knowledge into practice through creative means ( Ministry of Education and Training, 2018 ). Thus, students can learn and be creative while exploring and putting their knowledge into practice in real-world contexts through experiential teaching activities ( Ministry of Education and Training, 2018 ). Experiential learning is essential ( McCarty et al., 2018 ). Many mathematical concepts have been studied and taught experientially by students at the high school and university levels, including the equation of a circle ( Tong et al., 2020 ), function continuity and angle between two planes ( Davidovitch et al., 2014 ), mathematics with statistics ( Venkatraman et al., 2019 ), arithmetic ( Mayoral-Rodríguez et al., 2018 ), some advanced algebraic topics ( Wynn, 2018 ), as well as mathematics and science ( Roberts et al., 2016 ). Also, according to Pambudi’s (2022) research, elementary students’ motivation and achievement in geometry can be attributed to outdoor learning methods. For mathematics education in Vietnam and worldwide, research on mathematical experiential activities should be promoted to allow students to experience positive emotions, exploit their personal experiences, and mobilize their knowledge and skills to perform assigned tasks or solve real-world problems. As a result, learners transform their experiences into new knowledge, understanding, and skills, thereby promoting their creative potential and adaptability to the future life, environment, and career.

Literature Review

The concept of experiential learning.

Experiential learning has been studied by many educators in a wide range of fields, including Kolb (1984) , is “…the process by which knowledge is created through the transformation of personal experience” [ Kolb (1984) , as cited in Mutmainah et al. (2019) , Cotič et al. (2020) ]. According to Dewey (1938), the experience can be divided into two types: the entire experience and the universal experience. An experience is simply a collection of random activities or events someone has joined. In contrast, universal experience results from a methodical, self-reflective survey that considers prior knowledge and future predictions [Dewey, 1938; as cited in Breunig (2017) ]. Davidovitch et al. (2014) agree that experiential learning can be divided into personal experiences in life and events and educational programs. The second group’s interpretation necessitates thorough preparation and a lengthy process to conclude ( Davidovitch et al., 2014 ). As such, experiential learning is a form of active learning in which students are actively involved in learning through direct participation, supported by experience, analysis, and reflection ( Mutmainah et al., 2019 ; Habib et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, the author Voukelatou (2019) claims that students are the driving force behind the learning process and that the effectiveness of learning is influenced by the student’s “learning style” and “thinking”. While participating in various activities, students are encouraged to think critically and creatively, investigate, inquire, and make decisions, according to Mutmainah et al. (2019) . Their participation in learning opportunities for students directly results in the development of the necessary skills and knowledge that will support them in succeeding in their future studies [Atherton, 2009; cited in Chesimet et al. (2016) ], a concentration on maximizing students’ potential ( Tong et al., 2020 ; Mc Pherson-Geyser et al., 2020 ). The Design–Instruction–Assessment–Learning model has been remixed by Heinrich and Green (2020) to promote high-quality experiences for both learners and instructors.

Characteristics of Experiential Learning

Students are more likely to persevere in an active learning role if exposed to an authentic experience [Dewey (1938), cited in Behrendt and Franklin (2014) , Cotič et al. (2020) ]. An experiential learning framework can be successful if each student is directly involved in the experience by carrying out tasks, as Venkatraman et al. (2019) stated. Ultimately, each student must respond rationally to any feedback they receive by transforming their analytical skills experience into higher-order thinking strategies.

According to Kolb and Kolb (2017) , experiential learning is characterized by a unique dynamic between educators, students, and the content they are studying. Hence, teachers and students can gain firsthand knowledge of the subject. It is transmitted to them, but they are also responsible for creating it themselves. From there, all subjects can directly participate in the subject experience when using this method, which is similar to previous methods in that they can do so. Depending on the experience’s design and implementation, a wide range of viewpoints on the subject will be expressed.

According to Voukelatou (2019) , experiential learning is based on students’ thoughts, feelings, and openness during the educational process. Student-teacher collaboration is also important in teaching and learning because it allows teachers to better engage with and understand the material. Among the ways, question-and-answer, discussion, role play, case study and model interviews, educational tours, brainstorming, confrontation, expert interviews and exercises, group work, art education, and debate are all examples of experiential teaching techniques that can help students participate actively, interact and communicate more effectively ( Voukelatou, 2019 ; Canino et al., 2021 ). According to Vietnam’s General Mathematics Education Program issued in 2018, it is possible to engage a wide range of students in hands-on math activities by implementing topics and projects focused on the practical application of mathematics; organizing math learning games, math clubs, forums, seminars, and competitions ( Ministry of Education and Training, 2018 ). In their study, the term “mathematical debate” was coined by Davidovitch et al. (2014) . For that reason, this is an exercise where students work in groups to solve high-level problems and present their solutions to the class and other groups of students. The most important part of emulation is learning about and critiquing the various options available to members.

Thus, experiential and project-based learning (PBL) are closely related. Moreover, cooperative and collaborative learning are also closely related ( Burrell et al., 2017 ; Scogin et al., 2017 ; Cline et al., 2020 ). According to author Larmer (2015) , project-based learning is defined as experiential activities linked to oriented and open-ended problems and questions, real-world application of content and skills, and student-centered learning. Students create productions, presentations, or performances that address issues underlying questions. Additionally, cooperative learning is one of the ways to organize group work to improve learning effectiveness and student achievement by organizing how students interact and participate in achieving goals together [Zaitou (2003), as cited in Hossain and Ariffin (2018) , Algani and Alhaija (2021) ]. Because of these features, these methods of instruction can help foster an environment where experiential learning can have fruitful results. Also, it is believed that the flipped classroom approach, which is based on the experiential learning theoretical perspective, has gained preliminary validation in the system course environment ( Chen, 2021 ).

The Cycle of Experiential Learning

There is no denying that many educational institutions have examined hands-on experience in teaching. In addition, the research of authors Kolb (2014) , Breunig (2017) , Hsu (2019) , Cotič et al. (2020) , Lamya et al. (2020) , and Mc Pherson-Geyser et al. (2020) in general education and other fields mentioned the application of this model. According to Kolb (1984) , the four stages of experiential learning are individual experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation ( Muro and Terry, 2007 ; Cotič et al., 2020 ). Chesimet et al. (2016) provide the following explanation of the model described above: Starting with a specific experience (e.g., a traumatic event), students then reflect on their experiences from a variety of perspectives (observation). Students build theories or models (conceptualization) from their reflections in order to conduct experiments and act on their findings (experimentation) ( Chesimet et al., 2016 ). Learning through and from experience is described by Kolb (2014) as a process of (1) engaging in individual experiences, (2) observing and reflecting, (3) forming knowledge and testing concepts in new situations, (4) applying and testing concepts ( Kolb, 2014 ). There is also a five-step experiential learning process put forth by that comprises of the following steps: setting up an experiential situation; sharing it with others; putting it into practice; generalizing it; and finally, applying it. Student skill development and knowledge application are encouraged through active, experiential learning, as proposed by this model ( Davidovitch et al., 2014 ).

Benefits of Experiential Learning

It has long been known about the positive effects of experiential learning on educational outcomes, particularly in the field of mathematics education ( Avelino et al., 2017 ; Mutmainah et al., 2019 ). The quality and effectiveness of learning can be improved by experiential learning ( Weinbern et al., 2011 ; Mayoral-Rodríguez et al., 2018 ; Wynn, 2018 ) motivating learning ( Venkatraman et al., 2019 ).

Furthermore, Venkatraman et al. (2019) show that experiential learning positively impacts students’ mathematical creativity. The study of Chesimet et al. (2016) found that the experiential learning method is more effective than traditional teaching and learning methods in enhancing students’ mathematical creativity. As a result, students who engage in experiential learning can better express their creativity in mathematics and develop their critical thinking skills. To help students improve their problem-solving skills, researchers suggest incorporating hands-on activities into the classroom. A study by Mwei (2017) and Manfreda and Hodnik (2021) found that providing students with the opportunity to resolve real-life problems impacted their mathematical problem-solving abilities. It has been found that experiential activities in mathematics help improve students’ knowledge and understanding of math and active learning activities that reduce the burden on the curriculum. Especially, students who complete tasks requiring a thorough understanding of the lesson and openness to confronting unfamiliar problems benefit from this ( Davidovitch et al., 2014 ). Mayoral-Rodríguez et al. (2018) found that experiential learning can teach mathematics.

The use of experiential learning in the classroom has numerous advantages for educators. Teachers must consider whether their teaching methods are in harmony with the skills they want to teach their students or if they need to change them ( Wang, 2006 ). Consequently, according to Pittaway and Cope (2007) , teachers are encouraged to abandon a traditional approach in favor of one that emphasizes hands-on learning opportunities through experiential learning. When teachers and schools engage in experiential activities, they are more likely to create effective educational programs, foster an educational and cultural climate for students, and create a positive learning environment ( Tong et al., 2020 ). Besides, using liminality as a lens to examine experiential learning activities provides a new perspective on their impact on individuals, institutions and society ( Amigó and Lloyd, 2021 ).

Drawbacks of Experiential Learning

Despite extensive research into experiential learning and its educational benefits, its application in the classroom remains limited and subject to a set of rules and guidelines. As Kolb and Kolb (2017) found when researching experiential learning in higher education, some challenges can be traced back to similar issues in the educational system. Secondary school students are learning math through hands-on activities. According to the authors, experiential learning should cover all four modes of the learning cycle and apply to all learning situations in class and real-life situations. As a result, the disparity between theoretical courses and hands-on activities hurts both types of learning. Students’ actions in learning projects are not integrated with the conceptual reflections and analyses in the classroom. Experiential learning programs are considered ancillary and only prepare students for low-level professional development in the fixed-duration system.

On the other hand, the teacher focuses on teaching higher-level knowledge ( Kolb and Kolb, 2017 ). According to authors, Cranton (2011) and Tong et al. (2020) found obstacles to implementing experiential learning in the classroom due to time constraints, class structure, and the number of students. Besides, learning content, textbooks, student participation requirements, and grades are all factors that contribute to the difficulties that students face in the classroom. Another factor is that educators and students come from various cultural backgrounds ( Giroux, 2015 ). Another concern Darling-Hammond (2016) expressed was a lack of compatibility between learning content and pedagogy of experiential learning in the traditional teaching program.

Evaluation of Experiential Learning

In an educational setting, learning, and assessment are inextricably linked; therefore, it is critical to determine whether learning serves as the foundation for assessment or vice versa students, according to educators, are concerned about the purpose of assessments, whether or not students assess what they learn, and whether or not course experiences should be taken into account when developing assessments. When evaluating students’ performance, this includes considering fairness and the public interest. On the other hand, research shows that evaluating students’ knowledge and skills must be in harmony with the aspects above ( Venkatraman et al., 2019 ). For the author, this assessment offers a chance to integrate information that students have been taught about cognition, attitude, and psychology. The author mentions cognitive aspects like knowing, comprehending, putting into practice, and synthesizing and evaluating [Payne, 1997; as cited in Venkatraman et al. (2019) ].

While students are engaged in active classroom learning activities, practical assessments can be made. There are various ways to conduct student evaluations, from informal to more formal ones. First, teachers must determine which skills will be tested to develop an appropriate assessment strategy ( Venkatraman et al., 2019 ).

A self-assessment tool called the Kolb Educator Role Profile (KERP) was developed by Kolb and Kolb (2017) to help teachers evaluate their teaching methods from the perspective of the experiential learning cycle. For teachers, there are four roles: facilitator, expert, standard-setter and coach, according to the KERP model. Using this model, teachers can better understand the available types of instruction, the responsibilities of teachers and students, and how to make the best possible decisions in specific circumstances.

Theoretical Framework

The process of teaching based on experiential learning.

According to the findings, a five-stage process for designing and organizing experiential mathematics education is proposed. These steps are illustrated in Figure 1 .

Figure 1. The process for designing and organizing experiential mathematics education.

Stage 1: Decide on a subject matter of study. Students’ characteristics, basic conditions, and educational objectives are used to determine the characteristics of mathematics in the general education curriculum in mathematics. Teachers in each school work together to identify and develop educational themes.

Stage 2: Aim to organize the experience. The teacher chooses experiential teaching organizations by the learning topic and classroom conditions. The teaching process can be made more efficient by combining different organizational forms. There must be a clear connection between the objectives, content, organizational structure, and activities. Determine the objectives and implementation methods for each task to ensure the project’s success.

Stage 3: Preparation is a key when it comes to academic success. The instructor will gather all necessary supplies and equipment for the hands-on learning session during this step. Basic knowledge is taught and put into practice through hands-on activities.

Stage 4: Experiential activities should be organized. New knowledge will be clarified based on the comprehension of related knowledge; students work with teachers to practice and gain experience. Students learn in school by applying, honing existing skills, and acquiring new knowledge and skills due to new experiences.

Stage 5: Verify and assess the outcomes. Making appropriate assessment tools and criteria for students’ abilities and overall experience outcomes helps teachers understand the level of achievement in each student’s abilities and overall experience outcomes. Teachers can use various assessment methods at this stage to determine whether or not the lesson has been completed successfully.

Experience-based learning processes have been studied by Kolb (1984) and educators on the application of experiential learning in mathematic, all of which have resulted in the proposal of organizational processes. There are six distinct steps of organizing experiential activities in mathematics instruction for students’ experiential learning.

Step 1: Describe what the experience is all about. The teacher gives a brief description of the experience before beginning the lesson by naming it and introducing it.

Step 2: Set up a plan for the time here. Instructors experiment with students, guiding them and asking for their feedback on their performance. It is common practice for students to work in groups to practice what they have learned in their own lives. The teacher will monitor each student’s participation and progress throughout the class, assisting as needed.

Step 3: Feedback, discussion, and evaluation are all encouraged. The teacher does the organization of students to present practice results. The teacher arranges for groups to meet and exchange ideas about working and accomplishing their goals. The teacher organizes students to analyze the data and draw conclusions about their findings.

Step 4: Plan out the ideas. Teachers allow students to draw from their own experiences in the classroom and then sum up their findings with a final statement. The instructor notes the discussion and then calls time on the class.

Step 5: Apply. The teacher helps students put what they have learned into practice in other settings. After the experiment, the teacher helps students identify any behavioral changes they may have made and provides additional opportunities to apply or discuss what they have learned with others.

Step 6: Summarize. The teacher’s responsibility is to provide feedback and assign homework based on the lesson’s content.

Arithmetic and Geometric Topics in the Vietnamese Mathematics Curriculum and Textbooks

Teaching through outdoor activities consists of two main directions in the Math curriculum in Vietnam. The first direction concerns experience to form new knowledge. It is the process by which students directly work with learning objects, observe, analyze, predict, and connect existing knowledge to discover and form new mathematical knowledge. Indeed, that knowledge can be a new concept, a new formula or a theorem, a way of proving under the direction and organization of the teacher. The other direction is practical activities and math experiences for students, such as: Conducting math learning topics and projects, especially topics and projects on applying mathematics in real life; organizing math games, math clubs, forums, seminars, competitions on math; publishing a wall newspaper (or internal magazine) on mathematics; exchanges with gifted students in math, exhibition ( Lykke et al., 2021 ), creative dance ( Payne and Costas, 2021 ), simulation decision-making games ( Kuczera, 2021 ), folk stories ( Menon, 2021 ), and school field trips ( Behrendt and Franklin, 2014 ). These activities will help students apply accumulated knowledge, knowledge, skills, and attitudes; help students initially identify their capacity and forte to orient and choose a career; create some basic competencies for future workers and responsible citizens. Also, learning topics create opportunities for students to recognize their talents and interests, develop interest and confidence in learning mathematics, develop mathematical competence, and explore mathematics-related problems throughout life. Some activities oriented by the program to organize experiences for students are as follows:

(1) Get familiar with savings deposits and bank loans; calculate loss, profit, and outstanding balance; practice calculating interest rates in savings deposits and loans.

(2) The invoice should make payment, or the change should be calculated when making a purchase. Practice keeping track of the income and expenses, and keep invoices on hand if needed.

(3) Apply statistical knowledge to read and understand Grade 6 History and Geography tables.

(4) Collect and represent data from a few real-life situations; for example, collect local temperatures at a certain time in a week to make comments about time changes of local weather for the week.

(5) Put symmetry into practice: folding paper to create shapes with symmetry axis or center of symmetry; collecting shapes in nature that have a center of symmetry or have an axis of symmetry; searching for videos of centered, axial symmetry in the natural world.

(6) Apply the concept of three straight points into practice, such as planting trees in a straight line and placing objects in a straight line.

(7) Apply formulas for calculating area and volume in practice. Measure and calculate the surface area, calculate the volume of objects related to the learned shapes.

Life and nature are reflected in the arithmetic and geometric sequences taught in the 6th-grade math program. When teaching these topics, the learning method can be put into practice. Aside from that, the Vietnam Mathematics General Education Program (2018) emphasizes several requirements for the organization of practical activities and experiences in the teaching of the topic of arithmetic and geometric sequences, which include: Mathematical concepts such as arithmetic and geometry are emphasized heavily in the new 6th grade Math curriculum, and they are covered in numerous periods throughout the school year. Hence, students become more open to the world of numbers, sets, calculations, and problems that they encounter in their daily lives when they study arithmetic in high school. To overcome these problems, they begin to reason, analyze, compare, and synthesize to find solutions to problems and situations they find themselves in. Meanwhile, geometry study progresses, with particular attention paid to the edges and corners of visual and metrological geometry. Using activities such as collage, drawing, and experimenting can help students apply what they have learned about ants in a natural and non-coercive manner outside of the classroom.

According to the General Education Program in Mathematics 2018, the content of calculations with natural numbers includes the requirement to deal with real-world problems that arise as a result of performing the calculations in question (for example, calculating the shopping money, calculating the number of goods purchased from the amount already available). For this reason, students must have the opportunity to apply their learning in real-world situations. As a starting point, students should become familiar with spending and finance, think about balancing needs and wants, gain a more in-depth understanding of the value of money and labor, and learn how to manage their money effectively and appropriately organize their lives.

One of the objectives of visual geometry in the General Education program of mathematics in grade 6 about rectangles, rhombuses, parallelograms, and the isosceles trapezoid is to cope with some real-world problems associated with calculating the perimeter and area of the special shapes mentioned above in the previous paragraph. Because of this, the content of knowledge about perimeter and area is extremely appropriate for students to experience and contribute to developing students’ capacity. Although students need to understand the construction of formulas, they must also calculate the perimeter and area of special shapes. Therefore, the educators want to design and organize a knowledge-forming experiment that will involve developing formulas to calculate the area of geometrical objects. Because of this, the researchers propose that experiential learning be applied to the topic of arithmetic and geometric topics to improve teaching quality, spark student interest in learning, and support students in creating a more positive attitude toward mathematics. Vietnamese math curricula and textbooks strongly emphasize experiential math activities because they are regarded as innovative teaching methods associated with socio-constructivist teaching methods. Because of this, it requires teachers to have digital competences ( Pozo-Sánchez et al., 2020a ).

Evaluation of Students’ Activities in Experiential Learning

Students may be asked to grade their performance on the criteria in Table 1 .

Table 1. Criteria for students to self-assess.

Teachers evaluate students based on the criteria and levels of assessment in Table 2 .

Table 2. Criteria for teachers to evaluate students.

The Study’s Purpose, as Well as the Research Questions That Will Be Addressed

Ultimately, this research aimed to determine the effectiveness and feasibility of incorporating experiential learning methods into the teaching of arithmetic and geometric topics in sixth grade. The following are the questions that the research will address:

1. When students read the 6th-grade textbook, how do they learn about arithmetic and geometric topics?

2. Can experiential learning help students learn more effectively and achieve better results?

3. When students are instructed through experiential learning, how has their participation, motivation, and attitude toward mathematics changed?

Materials and Methods

Participants.

The research team provided training in experiential learning to 30 volunteers, all of whom worked as substitute teachers in their spare time. A teacher was selected because she demonstrated proficiency in implementing the fundamental principles of the experiential learning model while instructing the experimental class of 29 students. In addition, the first names of the students in the experimental groups were coded with the letters S01–S29. According to tradition, a teacher who had not been trained used a conventional model to instruct a class of 27 students who served as the control group. Parents of students were notified in advance of their children’s participation in the experiment, and they were allowed to express their concerns. In this study, the students enrolled are 6th graders at a Duc Tri secondary school in Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam (from September 29, 2021, to October 29, 2021). Especially, school districts in the city had closed their doors, and students had to attend online classes because of the Covid-19 pandemic, which significantly impacted educational activities at the time of the research.

Data Collection and Analysis

The research looks at classes formed by the school rather than regrouping random samples, so it uses a quasi-experimental approach. The quasi-experiment was conducted similarly to the studies on Sumirattana et al. (2017) , Yuberti et al. (2019) , and Chusni et al. (2022) to examine how the collected data might differ from testing a hypothesis. The data collection process is shown in Table 3 .

Table 3. Quasi-experimental study design.

The data was gathered using the first year’s average scores (rather than the pre-test results), the post-test results, and responses from a survey of students. After completing the post-test, an evaluation was made of how much the students had learned about problem-solving abilities. The test instrument contained three items related to the arithmetic and geometric topics covered during this study. The pre-test contains three items based on real-world problems in construction and grocery shopping that require students to apply their newly acquired arithmetic and geometry knowledge to complete. The questions on conceptual comprehension were adapted from previous state-level trial examinations to meet the needs of the researchers who used them. According to Anderson Taxonomy, the test question items were also created. Also devised by researchers, the test’s scoring method was given a rubric by the team. The instrument and rubric were reviewed and scored by three mathematics teachers with over 10 years of classroom experience and two mathematics lecturers who were subject experts on arithmetic and geometry to determine their facial and content validity. The study by Yuberti et al. (2019) provided data that was confirmed to be extremely reliable.

The data was analyzed quantitatively with statistical data processing software (SPSS) 22 software and qualitatively with a qualitative analysis tool. Experiential learning-based treatment was effective by conducting qualitative assessments before and after each intervention. According to the paired t-test method, it was hypothesized that the average score of students in the experimental class would differ from the average score of students in the control class. The qualitative assessment results were used to analyze students’ worksheets, which evaluated students’ abilities to identify problems and resolve them in a real-world context.

Experimental Design

Based on the learning outcomes of the experimental and control classes, the researcher team and teacher collaborated to develop lesson plans that covered the arithmetic and geometric topics in the context of the experiential learning model application and its applications. Three distinct periods are proposed for the experimental lesson plan, which are as follows: the new lesson period, the practice-and-consolidation period, and the test period. Finally, students completed a post-test and a survey about their overall experience with the program. To evaluate the effectiveness of the pedagogical experiment, both quantitative and qualitative data were collected.

About Quantitative Analysis

Table 4 shows the tests using Shapiro-Wilk distributions to see if the scores before and after the classes were normally distributed. It can be concluded from the data processing results obtained using the SPSS 20 software that the two data scores have Sig values greater than 0.05, indicating that the two test scores obtained before and after the experiment are normally distributed.

Table 4. Shapiro-Wilk test normally distributed pre-test and post-test.

Before the experiment, the t-test independent of the experimental class and the control class was used to determine level equivalence between the experimental class and the control class and the difference in mean score value between the experimental class and the control class after the experiment (2-tail). The formula developed by Cohen et al. (2005) is used to determine the extent to which the experimental class influences the mean score difference between the experimental class and the control class between two groups. The magnitude of the impact is indicated by the level of influence (ES), which is a percentage.

In order to assess attitudes, the student survey statements include a total of six items on a Likert scale with five levels, as follows: The following are the possible responses: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree. A set of questionnaires to survey students after the experiment about their attitudes toward experiential lessons in the experimental class was developed based on a 5-level Likert scale and SPSS results. Correspondingly, the researchers concluded that the scale meets the requirements of internal reliability with a suitable variable-total correlation coefficient (not less than 0.3). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the post-test questionnaire is greater than 0.7; specifically, this coefficient equals 0.871. With a variable-total correlation coefficient that is appropriate, the researchers also concluded that the scale meets the requirements for external reliability (not less than 0.3). Additionally, students in the experimental class were asked to answer the additional question “Do you have a different opinion about the class?” to express their opinions about the lessons taught. Besides, the criteria in Tables 1 , 2 were used to clarify the student worksheets further.

Pre-test Results

As previously described in the data collection and analysis section, a pre-test was administered to both the experimental and control classes to ensure that the two classes were on the same level of performance. These are the pre-test results that have been statistically processed and presented in Tables 5 , 6 .

Table 5. Descriptive statistics of pre-test scores.

Table 6. Independent t -test of pre-test results.

Table 5 shows that the mean of the experimental and control classes were 6.83 and 6.85, respectively, with no statistically significant differences between them. To test for variance differences between the experimental and control groups, the Levene test in Table 6 yielded Sig values of 0.601 > 0.05. The independent t-test revealed that the difference between the mean scores of the two classes was statistically insignificant (Sig = 0.957 > 0.05). As a result, the experimental and control classes’ mathematical learning levels can be related well.

Post-test Results

Table 7 shows that the experimental and control classes had mean values of 7.66 and 6.26, respectively, indicating a statistically significant difference between the two groups. The Levene test in Table 8 shows Sig = 0.501 > 0.05, indicating no variance difference between the two groups. The results of the independent t-test reveal the significance of the result. Because the difference in mean score between the two classes was statistically significant (two-tailed), the difference in mean score between the two classes was 0.005. So the null hypothesis was rejected, and the alternative hypothesis was accepted as the conclusion. Notably, the experimental students appear to have outperformed the control students in overall academic achievement, based on the two classes’ average scores. The mean standard deviation has been calculated as 0.74 based on the data. It is between 0.50 and 0.79 on Cohen’s scale, indicating a moderate effect size. In conclusion, experiential learning has a moderate impact on students and helps them learn more efficiently.

Table 7. Descriptive statistics of post-test scores.

Table 8. Independent t -test of post-test results.

To test the hypothesis, the study used a 0.05 significance level in Table 9 . This resulted in the value of 0.003 < 0.05. The evidence rejected the hypothesis because the value applied fell within the rejection domain. Pre- and post-test scores were significantly different for the experimental class. The findings indicate that students’ learning efficiency increased in the experimental class compared to before the experiment. After a successful intervention is promoted, students perform better academically. Before and after the experiment, the correlation test results show a correlation between experimental class scores on both tests with a Sig significance level (2-tailed) less than 0.05, as shown in Table 10 . Table 11 shows a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.659, which indicates a significant correlation.

Table 9. Pair samples test of the experimental group.

Table 10. Pair samples correlations of the experimental group.

Table 11. Pair samples statistics of the experimental group.

With only one student in the experimental group, the post-test revealed that the control group had an unusually high percentage of students below average, accounting for 18.5% with five students, whereas the control group had only one student, accounting for 3.9%. With 13.8% of the students in the experimental class scoring a 10, the experimental class had more students scoring a 10. Because of the difference in performance between the experimental and control classes at milestones 7, 8, and 9, it can be concluded that many students in the experimental group performed exceptionally well. Meanwhile, most students scored between 5 and 6 points in the control class.

During the post-test, the control group saw a decrease in the percentage of students who received excellent scores and an increase in the number of students who received scores below the average, indicating that students were still having difficulty in solving real-world problems and applying their newly acquired knowledge. Compared to the pre-test, the experimental class tended to increase the number of students who received good grades; specifically, many students who received good grades of 8 or higher saw an increase of more than 10%. The experiment discovered that most students in the experimental class were more engaged and enthusiastic about real-world issues than their counterparts in the control group. The wide variety of mathematical applications found in diverse fields of study has led to the discovery that there is a correlation between the attraction of real-world problems and mathematical interest.

Results of a Survey of Student Opinion and Observation

It was observed that most students in the experimental group studied very actively and enthusiastically. More specifically, they expressed an interest in gaining practical experience as smart diners by enthusiastically contributing ideas and participating in group discussions to handle the given situation and choose the most cost-effective option. As a result, students better understand how mathematics can be applied in everyday life and progress after the experimental class.

The student survey results on Google Form conducted after the lesson demonstrated that students began to enjoy learning mathematics, with more than 75.9% of students completely agreeing and 20.7% of students agreeing in the question “I love to study maths more” following the experiment. Regarding question 6, “I want to learn similar experiential lessons,” in the experiment, 62.1% of students were completely in agreement, and 27.6% of students wanted to learn through hands-on experiences.

To better understand what students were experiencing after the lesson, the researchers also asked question 7 when evaluating students’ attitudes. Student responses to the lesson they had just completed were sought through this activity, which was designed to express their thoughts and feelings about the lesson they had just completed. Based on this, the researchers can see how much students enjoy creating situations and having the opportunity to connect knowledge and experience in order to overcome real-world math problems.

Some answers to the question “Do you have a different opinion about the class?” are as follows.

Student S01: “I really enjoyed today’s class because she made the lesson easy to understand and absorb. I hope you will do classes like this because it makes me feel interesting, fun, and receptive.”

Student S09: “This class is very fun because it gives me much knowledge and helps me love math more.”

Student S15: “The class was very fun, and the teacher spoke very interestingly.”

Student S26: “Tea teacher teaches very easy to understand.”

In regards to the individual assessment of students: based on the criteria established by the researchers and the results of the individual assessment of the students, it was concluded that the students were always enthusiastic and responsible and that they participated in the organization and management of the group with 34.5% of students; the majority of learners performed at a satisfactory level, and the evaluation points were at 3, 4, and 5 in the remaining criteria such as the spirit of cooperation, respect, and responsibility; the majority of students performed at a satisfactory level, and the evaluation points are. The test results after the experience period show that the students have made positive changes. As a result of this study, students’ learning outcomes in mathematics have been oriented toward assessment based on competence with the combination of different assessment methods, including learners’ self-assessments.

When it comes to group assessment, the groups worked quite actively, had lively discussions, and many students were able to manipulate technology quickly and effectively; they shared the screen on their own, prepared PowerPoint presentations, vivid and attractive videos, and shared the screen when giving a presentation with others on their own. It was decided to use the given criteria to evaluate the group evaluation results in content experiment 1. It was discovered that 41.4 and 27.3% of students participate in group activities, respectively, and that 6.9% of students participated in group activities only rarely because they had device problems when learning online, thereby reducing their participation.

In the arithmetic lesson, the students were aware that they were expected to observe, analyze, and consider making appropriate choices for the problem’s requirements. For instance, the students were presented with cases to select the most appropriate one for their needs and circumstances. From there, the students would better understand the value of money, learn how to manage money effectively, and learn how to organize their lives.

As a result of the design project “My Dream City” in geometric lessons in Figure 2 , the researchers discovered a great deal of students imagination in designing and creating ideas, such as designing a city for residents who were bunnies or cities of fun and strength or designing a city for residents who would use utility apps during payment, among other things. As well as demonstrating knowledge through experiential activities and the spirit of cooperation, learners could connect their learning to the design of a great city filled with interesting and modern facilities.

Figure 2. Product of student work.

This finding demonstrates that incorporating exercises into group activities in the classroom had numerous benefits. For starters, it increased the practicality of learning while still in school. During their time at the school, students were exposed to a great deal of theoretical information about the subject matter they were studying. Indeed, an exercise associated with real-life situations that are related to mathematics assisted students in applying theory to practice more effectively. Furthermore, it encouraged students to take the initiative, be creative, and most importantly, be excited about their learning process. The lecture method imparted one-way theoretical knowledge, whereas active exercises assisted students in applying the knowledge they gained to analyze situations or devise solutions based on the theories they had learned. As a result, students became more involved and interested in the learning process, and nothing stood in the way of their ability to be creative when confronted with a challenge.

Additionally, this method aided the learners in developing teamwork and other skills. As soon as assignments were given out, students were divided into groups to work on them. They had to be given specific tasks to complete the work as a team. As a result, students’ teamwork abilities improved an important skill for them during the learning process and later in their educational careers. Aside from that, skills in analysis, presentation, and problem-solving were developed while defending the group’s points. Teaching students to work in groups provided teachers with diverse experiences and solutions that they could use to enrich their lessons and other students’ lessons.

The teacher’s evaluation: Due to the time constraints, the researchers only conducted group evaluations based on a few criteria. By the evaluation results, up to three groups were performing at a high level, scoring highly on the criteria of positivity, enthusiasm for group discussions, and coordination among group members. All five groups consulted teachers on a satisfactory level. However, only two of the participants made the necessary progress, and only two gave good presentations in the experiment. Groups in the experiments were split into seven, with four groups meeting all the requirements, while three did not sound all that great. As a result, mathematics teachers in schools should employ the same tools used to assess competence: mind maps, a criteria sheet for evaluation, and research products created by students during learning activities. In particular, the math test questions are designed to assess the ability to apply previously learned knowledge and skills to solve real-world problems. Generally speaking, this is considered to be one of the most significant characteristics of the learner’s competency assessment procedure.

The majority of the time, students actively and enthusiastically participated in activities, gaining skills such as mathematical communication, mathematical modeling, mathematical thinking, and reasoning in real-world situations. Aside from that, the design and organization of mathematical experiential activities aided students in developing necessary qualities through the delivery of content, messages, and integration that teachers had communicated. Specific to group activities, personalization was encouraged, whether in person or online learning, regardless of the setting. When students participated in hands-on activities that were related to arithmetic and geometry topics, their learning outcomes had shown to be better. Organizing activities in various situations provided the teacher with more hands-on experience. Aside from that, the teacher gained a better understanding of the difficulties and advantages faced by students and have launched appropriate activities as soon as possible, promoting students’ abilities and qualities while also fostering stronger relationships between students and teachers, among other things.

Following the experiment, the researchers were able to obtain results that were consistent with the goals that had been established. In line with the authors’ research ( Mayoral-Rodríguez et al., 2018 ; Wynn, 2018 ), additional results significantly impact student knowledge acquisition, comprehension of mathematical sequences, and application of that knowledge from experiential activities were planned and implemented. Researchers hypothesized that partly because of the short duration of the experiment, the students did not adjust well to the new learning method, which helped explain the average impact of the effect on the students’ average score on the test. Although the effect was not particularly large, this was a promising indication of the positive impact of experiential learning on student achievement in mathematics. Analyzing student work and tests revealed that their analytical and computational abilities had improved, as had their capacity for applying what they had learned in the classroom to the real world ( Davidovitch et al., 2014 ; Mayoral-Rodríguez et al., 2018 ). Students’ interest and motivation to learn increased due to these activities observed in the classroom during experiential activities ( Weinbern et al., 2011 ). Those findings can be explained by assuming that students’ learning activities were actively engaged due to participating in group work activities. These activities included instructing students on the skills of assigning tasks, debating, and reaching consensus while working in teams ( Weinbern et al., 2011 ; Venkatraman et al., 2019 ). In addition, it was documented that the cooperative learning method improved students’ academic performance in mathematics ( Algani and Alhaija, 2021 ).

Furthermore, the student survey results revealed that students had a positive attitude toward hands-on mathematics experiences related to arithmetic and geometric topics. This outcome is also in line with what was discovered by Pambudi’s (2022) investigation. This author has concluded that using outdoor learning methods to teach geometry to elementary students positively impacts their motivation and learning achievement. Based on students’ responses to survey questions, it appears that they were aware of the importance of experiential activities in the formation of knowledge and their ability to apply newly acquired knowledge to real-world problems. At the same time, students could see how far they had come in terms of mathematical reasoning and real-world problem-solving ( Manfreda and Hodnik, 2021 ). Accordingly, students could provide valuable feedback through this outcome. After this feedback, students believed that this new learning method was effective enough to participate actively in future experiential activities to gain additional knowledge ( Habib et al., 2021 ). This result also explains why many students expressed an interest in using this method in future lessons.

It has been discovered through observation and analysis of experimental teaching and assessment results that teaching through experiential activities is highly effective and feasible. After being exposed to experiential learning activities associated with two topics in arithmetic and geometry, it has been demonstrated that the experimental class achieves higher test scores than the control class. The students in the experimental class had a positive attitude toward learning and were eager to learn about lessons that included content-related math experiences that they could apply in their real-life situations. As a result of students’ active and enthusiastic participation, they developed skills in mathematical communication, modeling, thinking, and reasoning in real-life situations. Additionally, through the content, messages, and integration those teachers convey to students, the design and organization of experiential activities aid students in developing necessary qualities that they will need in the future. More specifically, personalization is encouraged in group activities regardless of the setting, face-to-face or online. Also, students’ learning outcomes improve due to their involvement in experiential activities. Students benefit from the knowledge and skills teachers have gained from organizing activities in a variety of settings.

Furthermore, teachers better understand the difficulties and advantages students face from this position. It appears that they can offer appropriate activities quickly, promote students’ abilities and qualities, and build stronger bonds between students and teachers. In addition, experiential math activities generate a great deal of information and data from students’ observations and observations. Teacher digital competencies are also required as a result of this in order to effectively analyze and manage data, which includes product analysis and evaluation, as well as student learning outcomes ( Pozo-Sánchez et al., 2020b ).

Experiential activities in math assisted students in developing personal qualities and competencies. From here, they gained the ability to adapt to various living, learning, and working environments, adapt to the changes that modern society brings; and organize their lives, work, and management. Moreover, they can develop an interest in a career related to mathematics and make decisions about choosing a future career; develop a training plan to meet the requirements of this career, and contribute to society as productive citizens. Consequently, the mathematics program must be open and flexible in order for educational institutions and teachers to choose the content actively, methods of instruction, location of operations, and hours of operation that are appropriate for their particular circumstances and conditions. the principle of ensuring educational goals and requirements for quality and competence at every level and in every classroom.

In addition to the findings, the research has some limitations. Time spent in experiments was short; activities had to be planned to fit into an already-short learning program, which was constrained in its duration. As a result of some students’ inability to adjust to the new way of doing things, some initial confusion has been on their part. Thus, some of these students’ educational outcomes are negatively impacted. Several other studies have also found that this is a problem ( Cranton, 2011 ; Kolb and Kolb, 2017 ).

These findings and limitations suggest that future research on experiential learning in mathematics should consider long-term planning that includes both inside and outside classroom activities and an interdisciplinary approach. Mathematical topics in algebra, calculus, statistics, and probability can be studied at various levels of study. When combined, experiential, problem-based, and project-based learning should be used greatly in educational settings. Another trend to consider is incorporating technology elements into the classroom, becoming increasingly popular as science and technology advance ( Tran et al., 2020 ).

The studies on improving teachers’ theoretical and practical knowledge of experiential learning are unnecessary to improve the effectiveness of this method for teaching mathematics and general education. According to this point of view, Jay and Miller (2016) present three models of teacher training programs that assist students in being fostered in the theory and practice of experiential learning, which is consistent with this viewpoint. The authors identify the most generalizable aspects of these programs, identify the factors that lead to the breakdown of theory and practice, and propose more sustainable models. Math projects, STEM, and competitions can all benefit from the integration of arithmetic and geometry, which is another area of study worth exploring further in the future.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Institutional Ethics Committee of the School of Education at Can Tho University in Vietnam. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to all of the students who took part in this investigation, as well as the faculty and staff who assisted with it.

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Keywords : arithmetic, experiential learning, geometry, mathematics achievement, students’ attitudes

Citation: Uyen BP, Tong DH and Lien NB (2022) The Effectiveness of Experiential Learning in Teaching Arithmetic and Geometry in Sixth Grade. Front. Educ. 7:858631. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.858631

Received: 20 January 2022; Accepted: 07 March 2022; Published: 28 April 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Uyen, Tong and Lien. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Duong Huu Tong, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Pedagogical Methods and Technological Resources in Education in Times of Pandemic

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The Role of Experiential Learning on Students' Motivation and Classroom Engagement

Affiliations.

1 School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China.
2 Faculty of Educational Science, Shaanxi Xueqian Normal University, Xi'an, China.
PMID: 34744950
PMCID: PMC8569223
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.771272

Due to the birth of positive psychology in the process of education, classroom engagement has been flourished and got a remarkable role in the academic field. The other significant determining factor of success in education is motivation which is in line with classroom engagement. Moreover, based on the constructivist approach, experiential learning (EL) as a new method in education and a learner-centric pedagogy is at the center of attention, as a result of its contributions to improving the value of education which centers on developing abilities, and experiences. The current review makes an effort to consider the role of EL on students' classroom engagement and motivation by inspecting its backgrounds and values. Subsequently, the efficacy of findings for academic experts in educational contexts is discussed.

Keywords: classroom engagement; education; experiential learning; positive psychology; students’ motivation.

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Experiential learning interventions and healthy eating outcomes in children: a systematic literature review.

1. Introduction

2.1. search strategy, 2.2. eligibility criteria, 2.3. study selection, 2.4. data extraction, 2.5. risk of bias appraisal, 2.6. data synthesis and analysis, 3.1. study selection, 3.2. study and intervention characteristics, 3.3. experiential learning activities, 3.4. intervention effects, 4. discussion, 4.1. main findings, 4.2. implications for interventions, 4.3. implications for future research, 4.4. implications for policy, 4.5. strengths and limitations, 5. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

PICO	Booleans	Search Terms
Population		“Child*” OR “Preschool” OR “Elementary school” OR “Elementary student” OR “Elementary education” OR “Grade 1” OR “Grade 2” OR “Grade 3” OR “Grade 4” OR “Grade 5” OR “Grade 6” OR “Kindergarten” OR “Primary education” OR “Primary school” OR “Early years”
Intervention	AND	“Play-based learning” OR “Learning through play” OR “Experiential learning” OR “Learning centered play” OR “Student-centered learning” OR “Guided play” OR “Facilitated play” OR “Play-based education” OR “Play education” OR “Educati* Activ” OR “Interactive learning” OR “Playful pedagogy” OR “Active learning” OR “Experiential education” OR “Experience-based learning” OR “Program” OR “Intervention” OR “Workshop” OR “Promotion” OR “Project”
Outcome	AND	“Nutrition” OR “Food” OR “Diet” OR “Eating habits” OR “Fruit” OR “Vegetable” OR “Healthy eating”

Authors (Year) Country	Study Design/ Theory	Sample Size, Age/Grade Involved Parent	Setting, Duration, Experiential Learning Activity	Measures/ Tools	Results	Overall Risk of Bias

Vereecken et al., (2009) Belgium [ ]	RCT IMP	N = 1063 2–3 years No	Preschools. Six months. Tasting food, role- modelling (story and characters)	Changes in consumption of fruit, vegetables, snacks (pastry, savoury snacks, and sweets) and drinks. Observations recorded by teachers and parent-reported using FFQ.	I > C for children’s fruit consumption (parental reported), due to an increase in fruit made available at school 0.11 (95 % CI: 0.00, 0.21) p < 0.044) and not due to an increase in fruit brought from home (intervention effect = –0.02 (95 % CI: −0.13, 0.08) p = 0.677). I = C for other food items (snacks, vegetables, and beverages).	High
Witt et al., (2012) U.S. [ ]	CRCT NR	N = 268 4–5 years Yes	Preschool-based. Six weeks: 2 x 15-30min lessons + 1 imaginary trip per week. Fun, interactive activities, songs/music, colour, appeal to senses, role plays, healthful eating, food tasting	Weighed snack consumption of fruit and vegetables during childcare. 3-day food diary, FFQ.	I > C for all. Post-test: Fruit - d = 1.29, p < 0.001; vegetables - d = 0.90, p < 0.001 follow-up: Fruit - d = 0.68, p < 0.001; vegetables - 1.20, p < 0.001	Some Concerns
Brouwer and Neelon, (2013) U.S. [ ]	RCT NR	N = NR. (Average 19 children × 4 centres) 3–5 years. Yes	Child-care centres. Four-month gardening program to yield one crop per month and tasting produce.	Increase in no. of V & F provided to & consumed by children in childcare. Observation (meals and snacks). Recording (all foods/beverages served, consumed, and wasted). Nutritional value and food groupings (USDA MyPlate).	Post-intervention, Vegetable consumption, (mean intake) I (0.25 (1.10)) > C (−0.18 (0.52)). Fruit consumption, (mean intake) I (−0.33 (0.72)) < C (0.15 (0.25)).	High
Martínez-Andrade et al., (2014) U.S. [ ]	CRCT CCM	N = 306 2–5 years No	Primary care clinics. Six weeks x 2 h. 90 min - nutrition education, 30 min- preparation and consumption of healthy foods, calculating the quantity of sugar/ fat in processed foods, creating shopping lists.	Parent-reported (three- and six-month follow-up). Dietary intake- Child FFQ	I > C for vegetable consumption: 6.3 servings/week, (95% CI, 1.8, 10.8) at 3 months. I = C for behaviour at 3 and 6 months. At 3-month sweet snacks (−3.9 servings/ week; 95% CI, −8.9, 1.1), sugar added to drinks (−2.2 Servings/week; 95% CI, −8.4, 4.1), and effects reduced at 6 months.	High
Dazeley and Houston-Price, (2015) England [ ]	CRCT NR	N = 92 1–3 years No	Day-care nurseries. Once/ day x four weeks. Four activity sheets in total, each with three games specific to senses: sight, smell, touch or sound and activities such as drawing, colouring, storybooks nursery rhyme and taste testing.	Researchers recorded foods touched and tasted by children (video camera) and online coding.	I > C, children touched and tasted more of the vegetables to which they had been familiarised in their playtime activities than of a matched set of non-exposed foods t (53) = 2.05, p = 0.046).	Low
Jisoo et al., (2018) U.S. [ ]	CRCT BET	N = 42 4–5 years Yes	Preschool & home. Family backpack (hands-on activities/supplies) distributed over 12 weeks. Children’s picture book, hands-on activities (1) “Mystery Bag,” math activity on F&V by touch; (2) “My Favourites’,” art activity on F&V by drawing (3) “Graphing F&V”	Parent-reported children’s fruit and vegetable consumption FFQ	I > C for children’s fruit and vegetable consumption. [t (21) = 2.49, p < 0.05 for fruits; t (21) = 3.92, p < 0.01 for vegetables].	High

Perry et al., (1998) U.S [ ]	CRCT SLT	N = 441 Grades 4–5 No	Primary schools. Two curricula: “High 5” and “5 for 5,” Each included, 16 × 40–45-min classroom sessions, 2 × a week for eight weeks. Skill-building, problem-solving activities, snack preparation & taste testing. Curricula introduced; role models (comic books in High 5), adventure stories (5 for 5), competitions (eating fruits & vegetables).	Lunchroom observations and 24-h food recall measured food consumption. Parent telephone surveys and a health behaviour questionnaire (psychosocial factors).	Lunch observations: I > C for vegetable consumption in girls (Δ = 0, 26 servings, p < 0.05) than boys (Δ = 0, 04). 24-Hr recalls. I > C for servings of fruits & vegetables per 1000 kcal, and servings of fruit per 1000 kcal. Health Behaviour: Teacher perceived- I > C for eating, need to eat, reports of asking for, daily servings of fruits and vegetables.	High
Bere et al., (2005) Norway [ ]	CRCT NR	N = 517 12–13 years Grade 6 Yes	School-based. Two school years; baseline to follow-up 1 = 8 months and follow-up 2= 20 months. Preparing fruit and vegetables (snacks), taste testing.	Self-reported fruit and vegetable intake (24-h fruit and vegetable recall).	I > C for fruit and vegetable intake at follow-up 1 and follow-up 2 (effect sizes = 0.6 and 0.5), p = 0.07) at school and all day.	High
Bere et al., (2006) Norway [ ]	CRCT SCT	N = 369, 12–13 years Grade 6. No	School-based. One school year. Preparing fruit and vegetables (snacks), taste testing, information session, monitoring own fruit and vegetable intake for three days, self-assessment and goal setting for future intake.	Self-reported fruit and vegetable intake (24-h fruit and vegetable recall).	I = C for intake of fruit and vegetables eaten at school or all day, neither at follow-up 1 (22% versus 15% subscribers) nor follow-up 2 (15% versus 26% subscribers), p = (0.51, 0.76 0.41).	High
Chen et al., (2009) U.S [ ]	RCT SCT	N = 67 8–10 years. Yes	Family-based. Once/ week for eight weeks, interactive fun activities (games & play), role-playing selecting healthy meals, food choices-high sugar, high-fat foods, interactive food preparation. Family component (two 2-h sessions)	Self-reported. Dietary intake of children (3-day food diary) and food choices (Health Behaviour Questionnaire)	I > C for the decrease in fat intake and increase vegetable and fruit intake. (p < 0.05)	High
Fulkerson et al., (2010) U.S. [ ]	RCT SCT	N = 44 8–10 years. Yes	Elementary School. Five × 90-min sessions, six months - interactive nutrition education, taste testing, cooking skill building, parent discussion groups, and hands-on meal preparation.	Child food preparation skill (Questionnaire). Home food availability/meal offering (Inventories). Dietary assessment (24-h diet recalls).	I > C for food preparation skill development (p < 0.001), consumption of fruits and vegetables (p < 0.08), and intakes of key nutrients (all p values < 0.05).	High
Rosenkranz et al., (2010) U.S [ ]	CRCT	N = 76, 9–12 years. No	Girl Scouts and home. Educational curriculum, FV snack preparation, role-playing, tasting of FV snacks, promotion of FV consumption and prohibition of SSB, candy over 4 months.	Troop leader health promotion behaviours and environmental opportunities for healthful eating in the troop meetings.	I > C for all. Opportunities for healthful eating (d= 210.8, p < 0.001), promotion of healthful eating (d = 18.14, p < 0.001). 1< C for discouraged healthful eating (p = 0.002)	Some Concerns
Keihner et al., (2011) U.S [ ]	RCT SCT	N = 1154 8–12years Grades 4–5. No	Elementary schools. 10 × 50 min classroom-based nutrition education lessons (grade-specific) with activities including Fruit and Vegetable rap songs, serving size poster, and stickers over the eight weeks.	Pre/post surveys measured knowledge, outcome expectations, and self-efficacy (SE) using a questionnaire.	I > C for Fruit and Vegetable knowledge (4 items, p < 0.05 to p < 0.001); positive outcome expectations (fifth grade only, p <0.001); asking/shopping and eating Self Efficacy (p = 0.04 and p < 0.001).	Some Concerns
Katz et al., (2011) U.S [ ]	CRCT SEM	N = 1180 7–9 years. Grades 2–4. Yes	Elementary School. Four × 20-min sessions over two school years. (Minilessons) on food choice and health, interactive activity/ hands-on ‘‘spying on food labels’’ game, emphasising healthy choice and summarising key points.	Nutrition Knowledge (food label literacy/ food choices) – a standardised test instrument. Dietary Pattern- Youth and Adolescent Questionnaire and (FFQ).	I > C for nutrition knowledge (p < 0.01). Grade 3 students showed the most improvement, 23% (p < 0.01). I = C for improvements in dietary patterns, in terms of total caloric, sodium, and total sugar intake (p > 0.05).	High
Wall et al., (2012) U.S [ ]	CRCT NR	N = 1937 9 years Grade 4. No	Elementary school. Four lessons × 3–5 weeks of learner-centred activities; vegetable tastings, worksheets, handouts.	Food preference, attitude, and self-efficacy survey items (from SNAP-Ed intervention)	I > C for vegetable-related preference, attitude, self-efficacy, and knowledge (p < 0.001). (Intervention 1.56 ± 5.80); (control 0.08 ± 4.82).	Some Concerns
Brown et al., (2013) U.S [ ]	CRCT SCT	N = 1619 11–14 years. Grades 4–8. No	School-based. Four lessons on calcium and osteoporosis. Prevention and taste-testing food items within two weeks over one academic year.	Interest in lessons, enjoyment of food tasting, eating attitude, tasting experience, new knowledge (21-item survey)	For all foods tasted, students who did not enjoy the food tasting were less interested in the lesson than students who did enjoy the food tasting (all p < 0.001).	High
Habib-Mourad et al., (2014) Lebanon [ ]	RCT SCT	N = 387 9–11 years. Grades 4–5. No	Primary school. 45 min classroom sessions per week for 12 weeks (10–15 min discussion on nutrition, 30 min - interactive activities (games, hands-on activities- posters, pamphlets, activity booklets, card & board games), food preparation.	Dietary habits, nutrition knowledge and self-efficacy (Questionnaire)	I > C for purchasing and consuming less chips and sugar sweetened beverage (SSB) (86% & 88%, p < 0.001) and knowledge and self-efficacy (+ 2.8 & +1.7, p < 0.001).	High
Wells et al., (2015) U.S. [ ]	RCT NR	N = 3061, 6–12 years, Grades 2, 4, & 5. No	Elementary school. 40 lessons x 60 min (20 for grade two to three, 20 for grade four to six/ week for two years (classroom & garden) Garden activities- planting, harvesting, and tasting as snacks.	Effect school gardens on children’s science knowledge (Nutritional Science Questionnaire)	I > C for science knowledge from wave 1 to waves 2, 3, 4 (p < 0.0001), and for dose response (p < 0.0001).	High
Allirot et al., (2016) Spain [ ]	RCT NR	N = 137 7–11 years. No	Primary school. Single session × 2 h. 1hr cooking workshop- preparing three food items/ chance to see, smell and touch taste ingredients. 1hr creative workshop- collage session (food images-fruits/ vegetables) creating portrait (cutting & gluing food images, making stories with (created characters), drawings (whiteboard), playing games (guessing & drawing). Food selection (familiar/unfamiliar), tasting.	Willingness to choose and taste unfamiliar foods/food intake estimation (Photographs). Liking of the food items (electronic 5-point facial scale) Subjective hunger and satiety (Bennet and Blisset’s “Teddy the Bear” hunger and satiety scale).	I > C for mean number of unfamiliar foods chosen per child (p = 0.037), for willingness to taste the unfamiliar foods (p = 0.011), liking for the whole afternoon snack (p = 0.034), for 2 of 3 unfamiliar foods and for 1 of 3 familiar foods (p < 0.05). I = C for overall food intake and hunger/satiety scores.	Some Concerns
LaChausse, (2017) U.S. [ ]	CRCT NR	N = 275 Grades 4–6. No	Primary schools. Onex 30–40min session per month × four months.14 HOTM activities included fruit and vegetable tastings, student workbooks, storybooks related to a monthly fruit or vegetable, farm-to-school presentations, and cafeteria posters.	Self-reported. Eating behaviours (Youth Network Survey). Fruit (F) and vegetable (V) preferences (F/V Preferences Scale). Knowledge on F &V- (5 items from General Knowledge Survey). Self-Efficacy to i) Ask for F and V ii) to Prepare F and V iii) to Eat fruits and vegetables.	I = C for both: fruit consumption (b = 0.14, t = 0.89, p = 0.38), vegetable consumption (b = –0.17, t = –0.73, p = 0.47). I > C for fruit & vegetable preferences, (b = 3.41, t = 2.19, p = 0.04) I = C for knowledge of fruits and vegetables, (b = 0.13, t = 0.77, p = 0.45). Self-efficacy, I = C for all (to ask for, prepare and eat fruits and vegetables.	Some Concerns
Schreinemachers et al., (2017) Nepal [ ]	CRCT NR	N = 1275 10–15 years. No	School-based. Two school years. Gardening lessons and hands-on practice (cultivation of nutrient-dense vegetables), lessons on gardening and promotional activities to reinforce lessons and strengthen impact by poster displays.	Awareness of fruit (F) & vegetables (V), knowledge about food & nutrition & sustainable agriculture, preferences & liking for F&V (structured questionnaire with (colour photos and multiple choice). F& V consumption (24-hr recall)	I > C for children’s awareness about F and V, knowledge on sustainable agriculture, food, nutrition and health and their stated preferences for eating fruit and vegetables (p < 0.01). I = C for improvements in F and V consumption or nutritional status.	High
Schreinemachers et al., (2017) Bhutan [ ]	CRCT NR	N = 468 9–15 years Yes	School-based. One school year of gardening projects to cultivate nutrient-dense vegetables and weekly lessons on gardening/ nutrition. Promotional activities to reinforce the lessons (poster displays, poem displays on school boards, songs, nutrition charts, vegetable charts, pledges)	Awareness of fruit (F) & vegetables (V), knowledge about food & nutrition & sustainable agriculture, preferences/ liking for F and V (structured questionnaire with (colour photos and multiple choice). F and V consumption (24-h recall)	I > C, for children’s awareness of fruit & vegetables by 18.0 % (p < 0.01), their knowledge of sustainable agriculture by 15.2 % (p < 0.05), preferences for consuming fruit & vegetables by 9.5 % (p < 0.05), children’s probability of consuming vegetables the previous day, 11.7 % (p < 0.05) but I = C for number of different fruits or vegetables consumed.	High
Keihner et al., (2017) U.S. [ ]	CRCT NR	N = 3463 8–12 years Grades 4–5. No	Elementary schools. 10 weeks of activities during/after school-weekly fruits &vegetable lessons, biweekly classroom promotions/taste tests; posters displayed in/around schools; weekly nutrition materials for parents.	Child reported fruit and vegetable (FV) intake using a 24-h food diary.	I < C for daily Fruit and Vegetable intake, (Mean difference in change between groups, 0.26 cups, p < 0.001)	Some Concerns
Scherr et al., (2017) U.S. [ ]	CRCT SCT	N = 409 9–10 years Grade 4 Yes	Elementary school. Nutrition education, cooking demonstrations, school gardens, family newsletters, health fairs, salad bars, tasting over one school year.	Increase in nutrition knowledge (Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire). Fruit and vegetable intake (FFQ).	I > C nutrition knowledge (mean d = 2.2; p < 0.001), total vegetable identification (mean d = 1.18; p < 0.001), vegetable preferences or reported fruit & vegetable intake, self-reported general or diet-related parenting practices.	High
Allirot et al., (2018) Spain [ ]	CRCT NR	N = 86 8–10 years No	Primary school. Single session × 2 h. 1-h workshop- simulated purchasing of ingredients for the preparation of three unfamiliar foods and classifying them as per recipe: 1-h creative workshop—drawing a dish using vegetable or fruit, oral presentation, personal nutritional pyramid and playing guessing game: consumption of afternoon snack—from six food items.	Willingness to choose and taste unfamiliar foods/Food intake estimation (Photographs). Liking of food items (validated illustrative five-point facial scale). Subjective hunger and satiety (Bennet and Blisset’s “Teddy the Bear” hunger and satiety scale).	I > C for mean number of unfamiliar foods chosen per child (0.70 ± 0.14), (0.19 ± 0.07) (p = 0.003) and liking for 1 of 3 unfamiliar foods (p < 0.05). I = C for food intake estimation and levels of subjective appetite.	Some Concerns


	Experiential Learning Activities	Mean Effect Size (Cohen’s d)

Dazeley et al. (2015) [ ]	Taste-testing, sensory evaluation, games, storybooks, creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.13
Jisoo et al. (2018) [ ]	Games, storybooks, sensory evaluation creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.12
Vereecken et al. (2009) [ ]	Taste-testing, role modelling	Healthy foods 0.01
Vereecken et al. (2009) [ ]	Taste-testing, role modelling	Unhealthy foods 0.03
Martinez et al. (2014) [ ]	Taste-testing, food preparation/cooking, calculations, creating shopping lists	Healthy foods −0.12
Martinez et al. (2014) [ ]		Unhealthy foods −0.004
Brouwer et al. (2013) [ ]	Gardening, taste-testing	Healthy foods −0.04
Outcome: Attitudes
Dazeley et al. (2015) [ ]	Taste-testing, sensory evaluation, games, storybooks, creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.23
Outcome: Knowledge
Witt et al. (2012) [ ]	Taste-testing, roleplays, games, songs	Insufficient reported data
Primary school-aged children
Study	Experiential learning activities	Mean effect size (Cohen’s d)
Outcome: Behaviour
Chen et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation, role-playing, games	Healthy foods 1.31
Chen et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation, role-playing, games	Unhealthy foods −0.05
Scherr et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening, taste-testing	Healthy foods 0.9
Scherr et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening, taste-testing	Unhealthy foods −0.66
Allirot et al. (2016) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, games, sensory evaluation, creative art activities	Healthy foods 0.5
Allirot et al. (2016) [ ]		Unhealthy foods 0.2
Allirot et al. (2018) [ ]	Food purchasing, food preparation/cooking, games, taste-testing, creative/art activities	Healthy foods −0.12
Allirot et al. (2018) [ ]		Unhealthy foods 0.4
Schreinemachers et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening	Healthy foods 0.3
Brown et al. (2013) [ ]	Taste-testing	Unhealthy foods 0.13
Habib-Mourad et al. (2014) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, games	Healthy foods 0.12
Habib-Mourad et al. (2014) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, games	Unhealthy foods −0.13
Schreinemachers et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening, songs, creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.09
LaChausse, (2017) [ ]	Taste-testing, storybooks	Healthy foods 0.06
Katz et al. (2011) [ ]	Games	Healthy foods 0.06
Katz et al. (2011) [ ]	Games	Unhealthy foods 0.07
Fulkerson et al. (2010) [ ]	Taste-testing, food preparation/cooking.	Healthy foods 0
Rosenkranz et al. (2010) [ ]	Taste-testing, food preparation/cooking, role-playing	Unhealthy foods 0.04
Perry et al. (1998) [ ]	Taste-testing, food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, storybook	Insufficient reported data
Bere et al. (2005) [ ]	Food preparation, taste-testing	Insufficient reported data
Bere et al. (2006) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, taste-testing	Insufficient reported data
Keihner et al. (2017) [ ]	Taste-testing	Insufficient reported data
Keihner et al. (2011) [ ]	Songs	Insufficient reported data
Outcome: Attitudes
Schreinemachers et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening	Healthy foods 1.12
Habib-Mourad et al. (2014) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, games	Healthy foods 0.8
Rosenkranz et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, role-playing, taste-testing.	Healthy foods 0.7
Chen et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, role-playing, games	Healthy foods 0.5
Allirot et al. (2016) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, sensory evaluation, games, creative art activities	Healthy foods 0.3
Allirot et al. (2016) [ ]		Unhealthy foods 0.3
Wall et al. (2012) [ ]	Taste-testing	Healthy foods 0.3
Allirot et al. (2018) [ ]	Food purchasing, food preparation/ cooking, taste-testing, games creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.09
Allirot et al. (2018) [ ]		Unhealthy foods 0.14
LaChausse (2017) [ ]	Taste-testing, storybooks	Healthy foods 0.04
Outcome: Knowledge
Schreinemachers et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening	Healthy foods 1.43
Habib-Mourad et al. (2014) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, games	Healthy foods 1.03
Wall et al. (2012) [ ]	Taste-testing	Healthy foods 1.03
Brown et al. (2013) [ ]	Taste-testing	Healthy foods 0.9
Fulkerson et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, taste-testing.	Healthy foods 0.2
Chen et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, role-playing, games	Healthy foods 0.2
LaChausse (2017) [ ]	Taste-testing, storybooks	Healthy foods 0
Katz et al. (2011) [ ]	Games	Healthy foods −0.14
Wells et al. (2015) [ ]	Gardening, taste-testing	Insufficient reported data

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Varman, S.D.; Cliff, D.P.; Jones, R.A.; Hammersley, M.L.; Zhang, Z.; Charlton, K.; Kelly, B. Experiential Learning Interventions and Healthy Eating Outcomes in Children: A Systematic Literature Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021 , 18 , 10824. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010824

Varman SD, Cliff DP, Jones RA, Hammersley ML, Zhang Z, Charlton K, Kelly B. Experiential Learning Interventions and Healthy Eating Outcomes in Children: A Systematic Literature Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2021; 18(20):10824. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010824

Varman, Sumantla D., Dylan P. Cliff, Rachel A. Jones, Megan L. Hammersley, Zhiguang Zhang, Karen Charlton, and Bridget Kelly. 2021. "Experiential Learning Interventions and Healthy Eating Outcomes in Children: A Systematic Literature Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 20: 10824. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010824

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Int J Environ Res Public Health

Experiential Learning Interventions and Healthy Eating Outcomes in Children: A Systematic Literature Review

Sumantla d. varman.

1 Early Start, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia; ua.ude.wou@cnalyd (D.P.C.); ua.ude.wou@jlehcar (R.A.J.); ua.ude.wou@sremmahm (M.L.H.); ac.atreblau@1naugihz (Z.Z.); ua.ude.wou@yllekb (B.K.)

2 School of Health & Society, Faculty of Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia

Dylan P. Cliff

3 School of Education, Faculty of Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia

4 Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia; ua.ude.wou@cnerak

Rachel A. Jones

Megan l. hammersley, zhiguang zhang.

5 Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H9, Canada

Karen Charlton

6 Faculty of Science, School of Medicine, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia

Bridget Kelly

Associated data.

Experiential learning is the process where learners create meaning from direct experience. This systematic review aimed to examine the effects of experiential learning activities on dietary outcomes (knowledge, attitudes, behaviors) in children. Four databases: Education Research Complete, Scopus, Web of Science and PsychINFO were searched from database inception to 2020. Eligible studies included children 0–12 years, assessed effect of experiential learning on outcomes of interest compared to non-experiential learning and were open to any setting. The quality of studies was assessed using the revised Cochrane risk of bias tool by two independent reviewers and effect size was calculated on each outcome. Nineteen studies were conducted in primary school, six in pre-school and one in an outside-of-school setting and used nine types of experiential learning strategies. Cooking, taste-testing, games, role-playing, and gardening were effective in improving nutrition outcomes in primary school children. Sensory evaluation, games, creative arts, and storybooks were effective for preschool children. Multiple strategies involving parents, and short/intense strategies are useful for intervention success. Experiential learning is a useful strategy to improve children’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors towards healthy eating. Fewer studies in pre-school and outside of school settings and high risk of bias may limit the generalizability and strength of the findings.

1. Introduction

Overweight and obesity among children is a global public health concern [ 1 , 2 ]. Excess weight in childhood is associated with an increased risk of developing physical, social, and psychological conditions, overweight and obesity and earlier onset of non-communicable diseases [ 3 , 4 ], such as diabetes [ 5 ] and cardiovascular disease [ 6 ]. Healthy eating is essential in the early years of life (0–12 years) to ensure optimal growth and development, as well as reducing the risks of life-long health problems [ 7 ]. Data from several surveys of fruit and vegetable intake of children conducted globally [ 8 , 9 , 10 ], ref. [ 11 ] have reported low intakes of fruit and vegetables in children of between two to three portions compared to the recommended five portions per day [ 12 ]. Given children’s low adherence to nutrition recommendations, interventions that target nutritional knowledge, attitudes and dietary behaviors are needed. Nutrition-related knowledge [ 13 ], attitudes [ 14 ] and eating behaviors [ 15 , 16 ] learned in childhood have been shown to track into later years; therefore, it is imperative to establish healthy eating behaviors early in life [ 17 ]. The World Cancer Research Fund’s Nourishing Framework has provided a repository of global policy actions that promote healthy diets and reduce obesity and identifies behavior change communication as a key policy area [ 18 ]. Experiential learning approaches such as gardening and cooking may be more engaging to children compared to more traditional learning approaches, in which children are more passive recipients of the information [ 19 , 20 ]. Positive behaviours, attitudes, and knowledge of healthy eating in children have been successfully demonstrated through using experiential learning approaches [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Experiential learning is beneficial because it exposes children to hands-on experiences and active engagement with activities promoting critical thinking [ 24 ]. Experiential learning-based approaches can be a useful strategy to improve children’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors towards healthy eating because they enable children to experiment, explore, play, and become familiar with materials and concepts that are related to the targeted behaviours [ 25 , 26 ].

In the case of improving children’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors towards healthy eating, experiential activities such as taste-testing, cooking, gardening, games, and role-play can actively involve children with hands-on experiences, engagement with activities and extend their thinking and curiosity [ 24 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. It may be a particularly useful strategy for pre-school and community settings as these are ideal settings to develop personal understanding, knowledge, skills, and attitudes through active engagement and reflection on their experiences and activities.

Two previous reviews on primary schools have found experiential learning approaches to be effective in improving nutrition-related behaviors, knowledge, and attitudes in children. A systematic review by Dudley et al. [ 22 ] also found that school-based interventions that were inclusive of experiential learning strategies, such as cooking, preparing food or gardening were associated with the largest effects in increasing nutritional knowledge, preferences and consumption of fruit and vegetables and reducing energy intake in primary school children compared to interventions without experiential learning components. Another systematic review reported on characteristics of successful nutrition-related experiential learning interventions and found that cooking-related activities and gardening increased children’s willingness to taste unfamiliar foods (e.g., new fruits and vegetables) and increased nutritional knowledge in primary school children [ 30 ]. Both reviews provide important contributions to the field; however, these reviews did not include children below five years of age and only focused on the primary/elementary school setting. Additionally, because the review by Charlton and colleagues (2020) aimed to identify the key characteristics of successful nutrition-focused experiential learning interventions for children, only effective interventions were included. Consequently, unbiased estimates of intervention effects (i.e., by comparing effective and ineffective interventions that used the same approach) could not be provided. To extend the existing knowledge in this area, this systematic review aimed to examine the effects of experiential learning activities among a broader age range of children (0–12 years), and in a broader range of settings including both school/pre-school and community settings, to provide a more comprehensive assessment of experiential learning opportunities for children.

This review was registered with PROSPERO International prospective register of systematic reviews (no. CRD42018103629) and adheres to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) statement for systematic reviews [ 31 , 32 ] to ensure transparent reporting.

2.1. Search Strategy

Four databases were searched for eligible studies: Education Research Complete, Scopus, Web of Science and Psych Info. Search terms used to obtain relevant studies were guided by the PICO approach: Population children between birth to age 12 years old (Children 0–12 years); Intervention (experiential learning activities); Comparison (no or non-experiential learning activity); Outcome behaviors i.e., food intake, knowledge, attitudes). Reference lists of included studies were also hand searched. The search terms are shown in the table below ( Table 1 ). No limits were applied to the publication date and the search was conducted (“to obtain articles published from database inception to 2020”).

Search terms.

PICO	Booleans	Search Terms
Population		“Child*” OR “Preschool” OR “Elementary school” OR “Elementary student” OR “Elementary education” OR “Grade 1” OR “Grade 2” OR “Grade 3” OR “Grade 4” OR “Grade 5” OR “Grade 6” OR “Kindergarten” OR “Primary education” OR “Primary school” OR “Early years”
Intervention	AND	“Play-based learning” OR “Learning through play” OR “Experiential learning” OR “Learning centered play” OR “Student-centered learning” OR “Guided play” OR “Facilitated play” OR “Play-based education” OR “Play education” OR “Educati* Activ” OR “Interactive learning” OR “Playful pedagogy” OR “Active learning” OR “Experiential education” OR “Experience-based learning” OR “Program” OR “Intervention” OR “Workshop” OR “Promotion” OR “Project”
Outcome	AND	“Nutrition” OR “Food” OR “Diet” OR “Eating habits” OR “Fruit” OR “Vegetable” OR “Healthy eating”

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

Included studies were randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or cluster/group RCTs (CRCTs) reported in original, peer-reviewed articles. Studies were excluded if they were not published in English, were non-experimental designs or were reviews or opinion articles and were not an outcome of interest. A post hoc protocol deviation was made to exclude non-randomized controlled trials and non-controlled trials because of the higher than anticipated number of RCTs and CRCTs identified. Only RCTs and CRCTs were included as these were deemed to be the most robust level of evidence. Eligible studies were identified using the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Out-comes (PICO) framework.

Population: For the purpose of this review, children were defined as those aged between birth to age 12 years old (0–12 years). Studies were included if the mean age of participants was between 0–12 years and excluded if the mean age of participants was above 12 years at baseline of the intervention. This age range was selected for this review because children 0–5 years were not included in the previous reviews and children 0–5 and 5–12 years perhaps are more likely to have similar approaches of learning healthy eating while, due to differences in nutrition requirements and other environmental influences in older age/adolescents, distinct intervention strategies may be needed [ 33 ]. Intervention: Studies were included where the intervention was inclusive of an experiential learning activity, with one or more of the following characteristics: (1) children played a central role in the activity, allowing them to engage with and explore the phenomena; (2) the activity went beyond the provision of information, purely instruction, encouragement, equipment or change to the environment; (3) the activity required children’s input and children had to physically do something as part of the learning activity; (4) the children had a level of autonomy in completing some part of the activity that required them to be creative, problem-solve, be reflective; (5) the activity invoked the children’s thoughts as well as a sense of taste, touch, smell, feel; (6) the activities were specifically designed to have a learning experience that enhanced healthy eating measured post-intervention; (7) the activities had a clear learning task or skill as the outcome; (8) the children had direct exposure to the phenomena being studied; (9) the activity was coordinated/ facilitated by a leader such as a teacher or an educator, farmer, or parent; and (10) the facilitator(s) provided the structure for the activity such as basic instruction, posing questions to invoke problem-solving, creative thinking or reflection. The study was excluded if there was no experiential activity for children as part of the intervention. Setting : Studies were included from all settings (e.g., school, after school programs, preschools/early childhood education and care centers, farms, and school canteens) and there was no exclusion based on the study setting. Outcome: a study was included if it had at least one outcome related to food or nutrition behavior, attitudes, or knowledge. A post hoc protocol deviation was made to exclude studies where the outcome was physical activity because of the higher than anticipated number of studies identified. Studies investigating effects on physical activity outcomes will be reported in a separate review.

2.3. Study Selection

Study records were imported into EndNote reference software version X9 (Clarivate Analytics, London, UK). Duplicate studies were removed, and two reviewers (M.L.H. and G.N.) independently screened the titles and abstracts. All studies included by at least one reviewer were then assessed for inclusion by the two reviewers (M.L.H. and G.N.) at the full-text stage. Where discrepancies of inclusion/exclusion existed, discussions were conducted between the reviewers to reach a consensus.

2.4. Data Extraction

Data for the included studies were extracted using a standardized data extraction table ( Table 2 ) devised by one reviewer (S.D.V.) and discussed with the author group. The information collected included study authors/year of publication, country of study, study design, theoretical framework used, study sample (size, age of participants), intervention (duration, experiential-based learning activities, outcome measures/tools) and results. A second reviewer (D.P.C.) verified the information extracted to reduce error and bias.

Experiential learning interventions and healthy eating outcomes in children.

Authors (Year) Country	Study Design/ Theory	Sample Size, Age/Grade Involved Parent	Setting, Duration, Experiential Learning Activity	Measures/ Tools	Results	Overall Risk of Bias

Vereecken et al., (2009) Belgium [ ]	RCT IMP	= 1063 2–3 years No	Preschools. Six months. Tasting food, role- modelling (story and characters)	Changes in consumption of fruit, vegetables, snacks (pastry, savoury snacks, and sweets) and drinks. Observations recorded by teachers and parent-reported using FFQ.	I > C for children’s fruit consumption (parental reported), due to an increase in fruit made available at school 0.11 (95 % CI: 0.00, 0.21) < 0.044) and not due to an increase in fruit brought from home (intervention effect = –0.02 (95 % CI: −0.13, 0.08) = 0.677). I = C for other food items (snacks, vegetables, and beverages).	High
Witt et al., (2012) U.S. [ ]	CRCT NR	= 268 4–5 years Yes	Preschool-based. Six weeks: 2 x 15-30min lessons + 1 imaginary trip per week. Fun, interactive activities, songs/music, colour, appeal to senses, role plays, healthful eating, food tasting	Weighed snack consumption of fruit and vegetables during childcare. 3-day food diary, FFQ.	I > C for all. Post-test: Fruit - d = 1.29, < 0.001; vegetables - d = 0.90, < 0.001 follow-up: Fruit - d = 0.68, < 0.001; vegetables - 1.20, < 0.001	Some Concerns
Brouwer and Neelon, (2013) U.S. [ ]	RCT NR	= NR. (Average 19 children × 4 centres) 3–5 years. Yes	Child-care centres. Four-month gardening program to yield one crop per month and tasting produce.	Increase in no. of V & F provided to & consumed by children in childcare. Observation (meals and snacks). Recording (all foods/beverages served, consumed, and wasted). Nutritional value and food groupings (USDA MyPlate).	Post-intervention, Vegetable consumption, (mean intake) I (0.25 (1.10)) > C (−0.18 (0.52)). Fruit consumption, (mean intake) I (−0.33 (0.72)) < C (0.15 (0.25)).	High
Martínez-Andrade et al., (2014) U.S. [ ]	CRCT CCM	= 306 2–5 years No	Primary care clinics. Six weeks x 2 h. 90 min - nutrition education, 30 min- preparation and consumption of healthy foods, calculating the quantity of sugar/ fat in processed foods, creating shopping lists.	Parent-reported (three- and six-month follow-up). Dietary intake- Child FFQ	I > C for vegetable consumption: 6.3 servings/week, (95% CI, 1.8, 10.8) at 3 months. I = C for behaviour at 3 and 6 months. At 3-month sweet snacks (−3.9 servings/ week; 95% CI, −8.9, 1.1), sugar added to drinks (−2.2 Servings/week; 95% CI, −8.4, 4.1), and effects reduced at 6 months.	High
Dazeley and Houston-Price, (2015) England [ ]	CRCT NR	= 92 1–3 years No	Day-care nurseries. Once/ day x four weeks. Four activity sheets in total, each with three games specific to senses: sight, smell, touch or sound and activities such as drawing, colouring, storybooks nursery rhyme and taste testing.	Researchers recorded foods touched and tasted by children (video camera) and online coding.	I > C, children touched and tasted more of the vegetables to which they had been familiarised in their playtime activities than of a matched set of non-exposed foods t (53) = 2.05, = 0.046).	Low
Jisoo et al., (2018) U.S. [ ]	CRCT BET	= 42 4–5 years Yes	Preschool & home. Family backpack (hands-on activities/supplies) distributed over 12 weeks. Children’s picture book, hands-on activities (1) “Mystery Bag,” math activity on F&V by touch; (2) “My Favourites’,” art activity on F&V by drawing (3) “Graphing F&V”	Parent-reported children’s fruit and vegetable consumption FFQ	I > C for children’s fruit and vegetable consumption. [t (21) = 2.49, < 0.05 for fruits; t (21) = 3.92, < 0.01 for vegetables].	High

Perry et al., (1998) U.S [ ]	CRCT SLT	= 441 Grades 4–5 No	Primary schools. Two curricula: “High 5” and “5 for 5,” Each included, 16 × 40–45-min classroom sessions, 2 × a week for eight weeks. Skill-building, problem-solving activities, snack preparation & taste testing. Curricula introduced; role models (comic books in High 5), adventure stories (5 for 5), competitions (eating fruits & vegetables).	Lunchroom observations and 24-h food recall measured food consumption. Parent telephone surveys and a health behaviour questionnaire (psychosocial factors).	Lunch observations: I > C for vegetable consumption in girls (Δ = 0, 26 servings, < 0.05) than boys (Δ = 0, 04). 24-Hr recalls. I > C for servings of fruits & vegetables per 1000 kcal, and servings of fruit per 1000 kcal. Health Behaviour: Teacher perceived- I > C for eating, need to eat, reports of asking for, daily servings of fruits and vegetables.	High
Bere et al., (2005) Norway [ ]	CRCT NR	= 517 12–13 years Grade 6 Yes	School-based. Two school years; baseline to follow-up 1 = 8 months and follow-up 2= 20 months. Preparing fruit and vegetables (snacks), taste testing.	Self-reported fruit and vegetable intake (24-h fruit and vegetable recall).	I > C for fruit and vegetable intake at follow-up 1 and follow-up 2 (effect sizes = 0.6 and 0.5), = 0.07) at school and all day.	High
Bere et al., (2006) Norway [ ]	CRCT SCT	= 369, 12–13 years Grade 6. No	School-based. One school year. Preparing fruit and vegetables (snacks), taste testing, information session, monitoring own fruit and vegetable intake for three days, self-assessment and goal setting for future intake.	Self-reported fruit and vegetable intake (24-h fruit and vegetable recall).	I = C for intake of fruit and vegetables eaten at school or all day, neither at follow-up 1 (22% versus 15% subscribers) nor follow-up 2 (15% versus 26% subscribers), = (0.51, 0.76 0.41).	High
Chen et al., (2009) U.S [ ]	RCT SCT	= 67 8–10 years. Yes	Family-based. Once/ week for eight weeks, interactive fun activities (games & play), role-playing selecting healthy meals, food choices-high sugar, high-fat foods, interactive food preparation. Family component (two 2-h sessions)	Self-reported. Dietary intake of children (3-day food diary) and food choices (Health Behaviour Questionnaire)	I > C for the decrease in fat intake and increase vegetable and fruit intake. ( < 0.05)	High
Fulkerson et al., (2010) U.S. [ ]	RCT SCT	= 44 8–10 years. Yes	Elementary School. Five × 90-min sessions, six months - interactive nutrition education, taste testing, cooking skill building, parent discussion groups, and hands-on meal preparation.	Child food preparation skill (Questionnaire). Home food availability/meal offering (Inventories). Dietary assessment (24-h diet recalls).	I > C for food preparation skill development ( < 0.001), consumption of fruits and vegetables ( < 0.08), and intakes of key nutrients (all values < 0.05).	High
Rosenkranz et al., (2010) U.S [ ]	CRCT	= 76, 9–12 years. No	Girl Scouts and home. Educational curriculum, FV snack preparation, role-playing, tasting of FV snacks, promotion of FV consumption and prohibition of SSB, candy over 4 months.	Troop leader health promotion behaviours and environmental opportunities for healthful eating in the troop meetings.	I > C for all. Opportunities for healthful eating (d= 210.8, < 0.001), promotion of healthful eating (d = 18.14, < 0.001). 1< C for discouraged healthful eating ( = 0.002)	Some Concerns
Keihner et al., (2011) U.S [ ]	RCT SCT	= 1154 8–12years Grades 4–5. No	Elementary schools. 10 × 50 min classroom-based nutrition education lessons (grade-specific) with activities including Fruit and Vegetable rap songs, serving size poster, and stickers over the eight weeks.	Pre/post surveys measured knowledge, outcome expectations, and self-efficacy (SE) using a questionnaire.	I > C for Fruit and Vegetable knowledge (4 items, < 0.05 to < 0.001); positive outcome expectations (fifth grade only, <0.001); asking/shopping and eating Self Efficacy ( = 0.04 and < 0.001).	Some Concerns
Katz et al., (2011) U.S [ ]	CRCT SEM	= 1180 7–9 years. Grades 2–4. Yes	Elementary School. Four × 20-min sessions over two school years. (Minilessons) on food choice and health, interactive activity/ hands-on ‘‘spying on food labels’’ game, emphasising healthy choice and summarising key points.	Nutrition Knowledge (food label literacy/ food choices) – a standardised test instrument. Dietary Pattern- Youth and Adolescent Questionnaire and (FFQ).	I > C for nutrition knowledge ( < 0.01). Grade 3 students showed the most improvement, 23% ( < 0.01). I = C for improvements in dietary patterns, in terms of total caloric, sodium, and total sugar intake ( > 0.05).	High
Wall et al., (2012) U.S [ ]	CRCT NR	= 1937 9 years Grade 4. No	Elementary school. Four lessons × 3–5 weeks of learner-centred activities; vegetable tastings, worksheets, handouts.	Food preference, attitude, and self-efficacy survey items (from SNAP-Ed intervention)	I > C for vegetable-related preference, attitude, self-efficacy, and knowledge ( < 0.001). (Intervention 1.56 ± 5.80); (control 0.08 ± 4.82).	Some Concerns
Brown et al., (2013) U.S [ ]	CRCT SCT	= 1619 11–14 years. Grades 4–8. No	School-based. Four lessons on calcium and osteoporosis. Prevention and taste-testing food items within two weeks over one academic year.	Interest in lessons, enjoyment of food tasting, eating attitude, tasting experience, new knowledge (21-item survey)	For all foods tasted, students who did not enjoy the food tasting were less interested in the lesson than students who did enjoy the food tasting (all < 0.001).	High
Habib-Mourad et al., (2014) Lebanon [ ]	RCT SCT	= 387 9–11 years. Grades 4–5. No	Primary school. 45 min classroom sessions per week for 12 weeks (10–15 min discussion on nutrition, 30 min - interactive activities (games, hands-on activities- posters, pamphlets, activity booklets, card & board games), food preparation.	Dietary habits, nutrition knowledge and self-efficacy (Questionnaire)	I > C for purchasing and consuming less chips and sugar sweetened beverage (SSB) (86% & 88%, < 0.001) and knowledge and self-efficacy (+ 2.8 & +1.7, < 0.001).	High
Wells et al., (2015) U.S. [ ]	RCT NR	= 3061, 6–12 years, Grades 2, 4, & 5. No	Elementary school. 40 lessons x 60 min (20 for grade two to three, 20 for grade four to six/ week for two years (classroom & garden) Garden activities- planting, harvesting, and tasting as snacks.	Effect school gardens on children’s science knowledge (Nutritional Science Questionnaire)	I > C for science knowledge from wave 1 to waves 2, 3, 4 ( < 0.0001), and for dose response ( < 0.0001).	High
Allirot et al., (2016) Spain [ ]	RCT NR	= 137 7–11 years. No	Primary school. Single session × 2 h. 1hr cooking workshop- preparing three food items/ chance to see, smell and touch taste ingredients. 1hr creative workshop- collage session (food images-fruits/ vegetables) creating portrait (cutting & gluing food images, making stories with (created characters), drawings (whiteboard), playing games (guessing & drawing). Food selection (familiar/unfamiliar), tasting.	Willingness to choose and taste unfamiliar foods/food intake estimation (Photographs). Liking of the food items (electronic 5-point facial scale) Subjective hunger and satiety (Bennet and Blisset’s “Teddy the Bear” hunger and satiety scale).	I > C for mean number of unfamiliar foods chosen per child ( = 0.037), for willingness to taste the unfamiliar foods ( = 0.011), liking for the whole afternoon snack ( = 0.034), for 2 of 3 unfamiliar foods and for 1 of 3 familiar foods ( < 0.05). I = C for overall food intake and hunger/satiety scores.	Some Concerns
LaChausse, (2017) U.S. [ ]	CRCT NR	= 275 Grades 4–6. No	Primary schools. Onex 30–40min session per month × four months.14 HOTM activities included fruit and vegetable tastings, student workbooks, storybooks related to a monthly fruit or vegetable, farm-to-school presentations, and cafeteria posters.	Self-reported. Eating behaviours (Youth Network Survey). Fruit (F) and vegetable (V) preferences (F/V Preferences Scale). Knowledge on F &V- (5 items from General Knowledge Survey). Self-Efficacy to i) Ask for F and V ii) to Prepare F and V iii) to Eat fruits and vegetables.	I = C for both: fruit consumption (b = 0.14, t = 0.89, = 0.38), vegetable consumption (b = –0.17, t = –0.73, = 0.47). I > C for fruit & vegetable preferences, (b = 3.41, t = 2.19, = 0.04) I = C for knowledge of fruits and vegetables, (b = 0.13, t = 0.77, = 0.45). Self-efficacy, I = C for all (to ask for, prepare and eat fruits and vegetables.	Some Concerns
Schreinemachers et al., (2017) Nepal [ ]	CRCT NR	= 1275 10–15 years. No	School-based. Two school years. Gardening lessons and hands-on practice (cultivation of nutrient-dense vegetables), lessons on gardening and promotional activities to reinforce lessons and strengthen impact by poster displays.	Awareness of fruit (F) & vegetables (V), knowledge about food & nutrition & sustainable agriculture, preferences & liking for F&V (structured questionnaire with (colour photos and multiple choice). F& V consumption (24-hr recall)	I > C for children’s awareness about F and V, knowledge on sustainable agriculture, food, nutrition and health and their stated preferences for eating fruit and vegetables ( < 0.01). I = C for improvements in F and V consumption or nutritional status.	High
Schreinemachers et al., (2017) Bhutan [ ]	CRCT NR	= 468 9–15 years Yes	School-based. One school year of gardening projects to cultivate nutrient-dense vegetables and weekly lessons on gardening/ nutrition. Promotional activities to reinforce the lessons (poster displays, poem displays on school boards, songs, nutrition charts, vegetable charts, pledges)	Awareness of fruit (F) & vegetables (V), knowledge about food & nutrition & sustainable agriculture, preferences/ liking for F and V (structured questionnaire with (colour photos and multiple choice). F and V consumption (24-h recall)	I > C, for children’s awareness of fruit & vegetables by 18.0 % ( < 0.01), their knowledge of sustainable agriculture by 15.2 % ( < 0.05), preferences for consuming fruit & vegetables by 9.5 % ( < 0.05), children’s probability of consuming vegetables the previous day, 11.7 % ( < 0.05) but I = C for number of different fruits or vegetables consumed.	High
Keihner et al., (2017) U.S. [ ]	CRCT NR	= 3463 8–12 years Grades 4–5. No	Elementary schools. 10 weeks of activities during/after school-weekly fruits &vegetable lessons, biweekly classroom promotions/taste tests; posters displayed in/around schools; weekly nutrition materials for parents.	Child reported fruit and vegetable (FV) intake using a 24-h food diary.	I < C for daily Fruit and Vegetable intake, (Mean difference in change between groups, 0.26 cups, < 0.001)	Some Concerns
Scherr et al., (2017) U.S. [ ]	CRCT SCT	= 409 9–10 years Grade 4 Yes	Elementary school. Nutrition education, cooking demonstrations, school gardens, family newsletters, health fairs, salad bars, tasting over one school year.	Increase in nutrition knowledge (Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire). Fruit and vegetable intake (FFQ).	I > C nutrition knowledge (mean d = 2.2; < 0.001), total vegetable identification (mean d = 1.18; < 0.001), vegetable preferences or reported fruit & vegetable intake, self-reported general or diet-related parenting practices.	High
Allirot et al., (2018) Spain [ ]	CRCT NR	= 86 8–10 years No	Primary school. Single session × 2 h. 1-h workshop- simulated purchasing of ingredients for the preparation of three unfamiliar foods and classifying them as per recipe: 1-h creative workshop—drawing a dish using vegetable or fruit, oral presentation, personal nutritional pyramid and playing guessing game: consumption of afternoon snack—from six food items.	Willingness to choose and taste unfamiliar foods/Food intake estimation (Photographs). Liking of food items (validated illustrative five-point facial scale). Subjective hunger and satiety (Bennet and Blisset’s “Teddy the Bear” hunger and satiety scale).	I > C for mean number of unfamiliar foods chosen per child (0.70 ± 0.14), (0.19 ± 0.07) ( = 0.003) and liking for 1 of 3 unfamiliar foods ( < 0.05). I = C for food intake estimation and levels of subjective appetite.	Some Concerns

RCT = Randomized control trial, CRCT = cluster randomized control trial, NR = Not reported, SCT = Social cognitive theory, SLT = Social learning theory: BET = Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory: SEM = Social-ecological model, CCM= Chronic Care Model, IMP = Intervention Mapping Protocol: FFQ = Food Frequency Questionnaire, HOTM = Harvest of the Month, I = Intervention, C = Control, (↑ +) = Increase in healthy foods - fruits and vegetables, (↓-) = Decrease in unhealthy foods - sweet snacks, sugar-sweetened beverages, chips, and fast foods. FV = Fruits &Vegetables, Δ = change, d = difference, Overall risk of bias = See Supplementary Table S1 for Risk of Bias ratings on individual criteria.

2.5. Risk of Bias Appraisal

To assess the potential risk of bias of included studies, the revised Cochrane Risk-of-Bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2) [ 34 ] was independently completed by two reviewers (S.D.V. and Z.Z.), with two additional reviewers (R.A.J. and D.P.C.) consulted if consensus could not be reached. This tool examines five domains: the randomization process; deviations from the intended interventions (effect of assignment to intervention or effect of adhering to intervention); missing outcome data; measurement of the outcome; and selection of the reported results. We used the Revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2) criteria for overall risk-of-bias judgement [ 35 ]. The overall risk-of-bias was judged using the following criteria: (1) low risk of bias—the study was judged to be at low risk of bias for all domains for this result,(2) some concerns—the study is judged to raise some concerns in at least one domain for this result, but not to be at high risk of bias for any domain (3) high risk of bias—the study was judged to be at high risk of bias in at least one domain for this result or the study is judged to have some concerns for multiple domains in a way that substantially lowers confidence in the result [ 35 ].

2.6. Data Synthesis and Analysis

To enable comparison between studies and estimate the relative magnitude of the effect of the interventions, effect sizes for the difference between the intervention and control groups on each outcome measure (increased intake of fruits and vegetables/decreased consumption of unhealthy foods, increased preference for healthy foods/decreased preference for unhealthy foods, and increased nutritional knowledge) were calculated, regardless of their statistical significance. Firstly, the pooled SD was calculated by using the following equation from Cohen [ 36 ]:

where: SD 1 is the standard deviation of the intervention group, SD 2 is the standard deviation of control group 2, n 1 is the size of the intervention group and n 2 is the size of the control group. The mean difference between the intervention and control groups was divided by the standard deviation ( SD ) for both groups (pooled standard deviation SD ). Effect sizes were then calculated using the Cohen’s d formula: d = (M1—M2)/ SD pooled [ 37 ], where M1 is the mean of the intervention group, M2 is the mean of the control group and SD p is the pooled standard deviation for both groups.

Finally, the studies were divided into two categories according to the age of the intervention participants; that is, pre-school and primary school and mean effect size was then calculated for each study by dividing the sum of all effect sizes by the number of effect sizes (for healthy/unhealthy foods separately) for behavior, attitude, and knowledge outcomes. Effect sizes were interpreted as small (<0.2), medium (0.2–0.8), and large (>0.8) [ 36 ].

3.1. Study Selection

Ninety-eight studies described healthy eating-related outcomes in children. Of these, 52 studies did not have a control group and 21 studies were non-randomized controlled trials, thus were excluded. In total, 25 eligible studies were included in the final review, as shown in Figure 1 .

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Flow chart of the study selection process. (PRISMA flow diagram [ 32 ]).

3.2. Study and Intervention Characteristics

The characteristics of the studies and outcomes are summarized in Table 2 . Of the 25 included studies, nine were RCTs and 17 were CRCTs. Six studies involved children aged 0–five years and 19 studies involved children aged six–12 years. Most of the included studies (16/25) were conducted in the United States, with the remainder in England ( n = 1), Spain ( n = 2), Norway ( n = 2), Belgium ( n = 1), Lebanon ( n = 1), Nepal ( n = 1) and Bhutan ( n = 1). A number of studies were underpinned by a number of different theoretical frameworks including Social Cognitive Theory ( n = 8, [ 45 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 53 , 54 , 61 ]), Social Learning Theory ( n = 1, [ 44 ]), Intervention Mapping Protocol ( n = 1, [ 38 ]) Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory ( n = 1, [ 43 ]), Chronic Care Model ( n = 1, [ 41 ]) and Social-Ecological Model ( n = 1, [ 51 ]). Though nearly half of the studies (12/25) did not report the use of any theoretical model in the intervention development [ 39 , 40 , 42 , 46 , 52 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 ].

The majority (18/25) of studies were conducted in the primary school setting [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 ], six in pre-school settings [ 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ] and one in a non-school or education setting, namely scout camps [ 49 ]. Nearly three-quarters of the studies (16/25) had a high risk of bias. Eight studies were graded as having ‘some concerns’ [ 39 , 49 , 50 , 52 , 56 , 57 , 60 , 62 ] while only one study was rated as having a low risk of bias [ 42 ]. Overall, the included intervention studies had low methodological quality due to three of the domains consistently being rated low quality for most of the included studies, which may impact the validity of the results. The assessment domains that consistently were rated as low quality included missing outcome data, risk of bias in the measurement of the outcome and risk of bias in the selection of the reported result (see Supplementary Table S1 ). Of the 25 studies, nine [ 39 , 40 , 43 , 45 , 47 , 48 , 51 , 58 , 61 ] studies involved parents directly in the intervention activities with children. Of the nine studies that directly involved parents, three were conducted in the preschool setting.

3.3. Experiential Learning Activities

Nine types of experiential learning activities were used across the 25 studies, which included: (1) Taste-testing (i.e., children tasting food products ( n = 19)); (2) Games (i.e., guessing food, food labelling competitions, card/board games, fun play, mystery bag ( n = 8)); (3) Creative/art activities (i.e., coloring, drawing, collage, portraits, art and craft on fruits and vegetables, fruit and vegetable charts, posters/pamphlets ( n = 10)); (4) Storybooks (i.e., making food-related stories (characters) ( n = 6)); (5) Shopping list development and food purchasing (i.e., creating a shopping list, selecting food/meals, simulated shopping and food classifications, imaginary trips to supermarket and gardens ( n = 7)); (6) Food preparation and cooking/preparing foods, fruit and vegetables, snacks and other foods/meals ( n = 7)); (7) Calculations/recording (i.e., sugar and fat, veggie math, three-day fruit and vegetable intake, the personal food pyramid and other math activities with food ( n = 5)); (8) Sensory evaluation (i.e., smell, feel, sight and sound of foods ( n = 4)); and (9) Gardening (i.e., planting and harvesting of fruits or vegetables ( n = 2)) (see Supplementary Table S2 ).

The types of activities used in interventions with preschool-aged children (in early childhood education and care settings) and with primary school-aged children (in primary schools and community settings) were mostly similar, although activities used in early years education and care settings were targeted to earlier developmental stages using sensory play, storybooks, songs, and creative art activities. Of the six studies with preschool children, four studies focused entirely on experiential learning activities [ 38 , 40 , 42 , 43 ] while two studies [ 39 , 41 ] combined experiential activities with nutrition education lessons (i.e., a theory-based component). Of the 19 studies conducted with primary school-aged children, seven studies focused entirely on experiential learning activities [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 49 , 56 , 57 , 62 ] while 12 studies combined experiential activities with nutrition education [ 44 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ].

3.4. Intervention Effects

The effect sizes of the intervention (experiential learning activities) on the outcomes; behavior, attitudes, and knowledge (healthy foods and unhealthy foods) are presented in Table 3 .

Experiential learning activities and effect sizes on outcomes (Healthy foods and unhealthy foods).


	Experiential Learning Activities	Mean Effect Size (Cohen’s d)

Dazeley et al. (2015) [ ]	Taste-testing, sensory evaluation, games, storybooks, creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.13
Jisoo et al. (2018) [ ]	Games, storybooks, sensory evaluation creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.12
Vereecken et al. (2009) [ ]	Taste-testing, role modelling	Healthy foods 0.01
Vereecken et al. (2009) [ ]	Taste-testing, role modelling	Unhealthy foods 0.03
Martinez et al. (2014) [ ]	Taste-testing, food preparation/cooking, calculations, creating shopping lists	Healthy foods −0.12
Martinez et al. (2014) [ ]		Unhealthy foods −0.004
Brouwer et al. (2013) [ ]	Gardening, taste-testing	Healthy foods −0.04
Outcome: Attitudes
Dazeley et al. (2015) [ ]	Taste-testing, sensory evaluation, games, storybooks, creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.23
Outcome: Knowledge
Witt et al. (2012) [ ]	Taste-testing, roleplays, games, songs	Insufficient reported data
Primary school-aged children
Study	Experiential learning activities	Mean effect size (Cohen’s d)
Outcome: Behaviour
Chen et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation, role-playing, games	Healthy foods 1.31
Chen et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation, role-playing, games	Unhealthy foods −0.05
Scherr et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening, taste-testing	Healthy foods 0.9
Scherr et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening, taste-testing	Unhealthy foods −0.66
Allirot et al. (2016) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, games, sensory evaluation, creative art activities	Healthy foods 0.5
Allirot et al. (2016) [ ]		Unhealthy foods 0.2
Allirot et al. (2018) [ ]	Food purchasing, food preparation/cooking, games, taste-testing, creative/art activities	Healthy foods −0.12
Allirot et al. (2018) [ ]		Unhealthy foods 0.4
Schreinemachers et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening	Healthy foods 0.3
Brown et al. (2013) [ ]	Taste-testing	Unhealthy foods 0.13
Habib-Mourad et al. (2014) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, games	Healthy foods 0.12
Habib-Mourad et al. (2014) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, games	Unhealthy foods −0.13
Schreinemachers et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening, songs, creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.09
LaChausse, (2017) [ ]	Taste-testing, storybooks	Healthy foods 0.06
Katz et al. (2011) [ ]	Games	Healthy foods 0.06
Katz et al. (2011) [ ]	Games	Unhealthy foods 0.07
Fulkerson et al. (2010) [ ]	Taste-testing, food preparation/cooking.	Healthy foods 0
Rosenkranz et al. (2010) [ ]	Taste-testing, food preparation/cooking, role-playing	Unhealthy foods 0.04
Perry et al. (1998) [ ]	Taste-testing, food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, storybook	Insufficient reported data
Bere et al. (2005) [ ]	Food preparation, taste-testing	Insufficient reported data
Bere et al. (2006) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, taste-testing	Insufficient reported data
Keihner et al. (2017) [ ]	Taste-testing	Insufficient reported data
Keihner et al. (2011) [ ]	Songs	Insufficient reported data
Outcome: Attitudes
Schreinemachers et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening	Healthy foods 1.12
Habib-Mourad et al. (2014) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, games	Healthy foods 0.8
Rosenkranz et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, role-playing, taste-testing.	Healthy foods 0.7
Chen et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, role-playing, games	Healthy foods 0.5
Allirot et al. (2016) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, sensory evaluation, games, creative art activities	Healthy foods 0.3
Allirot et al. (2016) [ ]		Unhealthy foods 0.3
Wall et al. (2012) [ ]	Taste-testing	Healthy foods 0.3
Allirot et al. (2018) [ ]	Food purchasing, food preparation/ cooking, taste-testing, games creative/art activities	Healthy foods 0.09
Allirot et al. (2018) [ ]		Unhealthy foods 0.14
LaChausse (2017) [ ]	Taste-testing, storybooks	Healthy foods 0.04
Outcome: Knowledge
Schreinemachers et al. (2017) [ ]	Gardening	Healthy foods 1.43
Habib-Mourad et al. (2014) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, games	Healthy foods 1.03
Wall et al. (2012) [ ]	Taste-testing	Healthy foods 1.03
Brown et al. (2013) [ ]	Taste-testing	Healthy foods 0.9
Fulkerson et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, taste-testing.	Healthy foods 0.2
Chen et al. (2010) [ ]	Food preparation/cooking, role-playing, games	Healthy foods 0.2
LaChausse (2017) [ ]	Taste-testing, storybooks	Healthy foods 0
Katz et al. (2011) [ ]	Games	Healthy foods −0.14
Wells et al. (2015) [ ]	Gardening, taste-testing	Insufficient reported data

Table 3 highlights the experiential learning activities and effect sizes on outcomes which were grouped as healthy foods and unhealthy foods. (Healthy foods/ Unhealthy foods = see Table 2 ).

In preschool-aged children, five studies [ 38 , 40 , 42 , 43 ] measured behavior change. Two of these [ 42 , 43 ] reported small effects for healthy foods (increasing fruit and vegetable consumption), with both involving sensory evaluations such as feeling/touching fruits and vegetables, or food drawing and coloring activities and games and [ 43 ] involved parents in the intervention activities. Only one study in this age group measured changes to children’s attitudes towards healthy foods [ 42 ]. This study reported a statistically significant but small mean effect (M d = 0.23) on changing preschool children’s preferences for, and self-efficacy and willingness to taste, unfamiliar fruits and vegetables. This intervention used multiple experiential learning activities including taste-testing, sensory evaluation, games, storybooks, and creative/art activities. One study measured change in nutrition-related knowledge [ 39 ] but effect sizes could not be calculated due to missing data.

In primary school-aged children, sixteen studies [ 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 53 , 54 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 ] measured food-related behavior change. Effect sizes were able to be calculated for eight studies in which the duration of intervention lasted between two and eighteen months [ 47 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 57 , 58 ]. Two of these [ 47 , 61 ] had large, significant mean effects (M d = 1.0) in relation to healthy foods (fruits and vegetable intake). Multiple combinations of experiential learning activities were reported by these studies, including games, role-playing food preparation/cooking, school gardens, and taste-testing. Two of the studies [ 47 , 61 ] with high effects on increasing intake of healthy foods had involved parents directly in the intervention activities. One study [ 61 ] also combined experiential learning activities with nutrition education classroom lessons. Three additional studies [ 56 , 59 , 62 ] reported medium effects (M d = 0.4). One of these studies [ 59 ] was moderately effective in increasing the consumption of healthy foods (fruits and vegetables) through school gardening and taste-testing over one school year however they also included nutrition education lessons. The other two studies [ 56 , 62 ] were moderately effective in reducing consumption of unhealthy foods and used a range of experiential learning activities such as food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, games, creative art activities, sensory evaluation [ 62 ] and one study additionally used simulated food purchasing [ 56 ].

The remaining seven studies [ 48 , 49 , 51 , 53 , 54 , 57 , 58 ] had small (M d = 0.2) but significant effects for increasing consumption of healthy foods (fruits and vegetables) [ 48 , 57 , 58 ] or reducing consumption of unhealthy foods such as sugar-sweetened beverages [ 49 ] chips and sugar-sweetened drinks [ 54 ], sweet snacks, fast foods [ 53 ] or intakes of sodium, sugar, and total calories [ 51 ]. Six [ 48 , 49 , 51 , 53 , 54 , 57 ] of the seven studies used a range of experiential learning activities, such as food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, games, songs, creative/art activities, storybooks and, role-playing, while one [ 58 ] focused only on gardening. Most of these studies (5/8) [ 48 , 49 , 51 , 53 , 54 ] combined experiential learning with nutrition education lessons. Half of these studies (4/8) [ 48 , 49 , 54 , 57 ] had an intervention duration between three to six months, while three studies [ 51 , 53 , 58 ] had a duration ranging between one to two years.

Eight studies [ 47 , 49 , 52 , 54 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 62 ] conducted with primary school-aged children measured changes in children’s attitudes towards healthy eating, such as self-efficacy and willingness to try new foods. One of these studies [ 58 ], involving a two-year school-based gardening program, had a large significant effect ( d = 1.12) on increasing attitudes related to healthy eating (preferences and self-efficacy for choosing fruits and vegetables). Three studies [ 47 , 49 , 54 ] had a medium significant effect (M d = 0.7) on improving attitudes towards healthy and unhealthy foods. All studies that reported large or medium effects used a range of experiential learning activities including food preparation, taste-testing, games, role-plays, and storybooks. The duration of these interventions was between two to four months. One study [ 49 ] was conducted in a scout camp setting, another [ 47 ] included home-based activities, and one [ 54 ] included nutrition education lessons in a school classroom. The remaining four studies [ 52 , 56 , 57 , 62 ] had small effects (M d = 0.29) on changing preferences and self-efficacy for healthy foods, including choosing/liking of fruits [ 57 ], fruits and vegetables [ 52 , 62 ], and willingness to choose unfamiliar fruits and vegetables [ 62 ]. All four studies used a variety of experiential learning activities, such as simulated food purchasing, food preparation, taste-testing, games, storybooks, and creative/art activities. These studies were of short duration, ranging from single sessions to a period of four months. Two studies [ 54 , 58 ] combined nutrition education classroom lessons with experiential learning activities.

Ten studies [ 39 , 47 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58 ] measured change in primary school-aged children’s knowledge regarding food, nutrition or healthy eating. Of the eight studies for which effect sizes could be calculated [ 47 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 57 , 58 ], four [ 52 , 53 , 54 , 58 ] had a large effect (M d = 1.1) and reported significant effects on increasing knowledge about healthy eating (nutrition, fruits, and vegetables). Of these four studies, three [ 52 , 53 , 54 ] used a range of experiential learning activities, such as food preparation, taste-testing and games combined with nutrition education lessons. One of the studies [ 58 ] included only gardening. Two of these studies were conducted over one to two months [ 52 , 53 , 54 ], while two took place over one to two years [ 47 , 59 ]. The remaining four studies [ 47 , 48 , 51 , 57 ] had a small effect (M d = 0.01) on increasing children’s knowledge of healthy foods and these studies used a range of experiential learning activities, such as food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, games, songs, creative/art activities, storybooks, and role-playing. Three studies [ 48 , 51 , 57 ] combined nutrition education with experiential learning activities. The duration of the interventions ranged between two to six months [ 47 , 48 , 57 ] and two years [ 51 ].

4. Discussion

4.1. main findings.

The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the effectiveness of experiential learning interventions conducted in pre-schools, primary schools, and community settings for improving healthy eating related knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour in children aged birth to 12 years. Interventions with pre-school aged children that applied strategies such as sensory evaluation activities, playing games, storybooks, role-modelling and creative art activities tended to have a large effect on food behaviours and attitudes. However, there were fewer studies conducted in preschool-aged children compared to older children and the effects were smaller, therefore less evidence of effective experiential learning approaches was found for this age group. Most of the included intervention studies were conducted in the primary school setting, and those that used strategies such as food preparation/cooking, taste-testing, games, role-playing, and gardening, had the greatest effect across the three outcomes (behaviour, attitude, and knowledge) in this age group. There was only one study conducted in a community setting (i.e., a scout’s camp) and it reported a small intervention effect.

The majority of the included studies had used a combination of experiential learning approaches; therefore, the impact of individual experiential learning approaches could not be established. However, a few approaches showed promise and were typically used across the most effective studies. For instance, gardening showed a large effect across the three outcomes (increasing knowledge, preferences and consumption of fruits and vegetables) in studies among primary school-aged children [ 53 , 58 ]. The exception was one study [ 59 ] which reported a very low effect due to the reported small study sample. Our findings on the effectiveness of gardening strategy are consistent with other studies among primary school children [ 63 , 64 ], however, these studies had compared an active comparison group with gardening (teacher-led versus expert-led gardening) instead of a control group.

Taste-testing was also commonly used in studies across both age groups and demonstrated a large effect on behavioral outcomes [ 42 , 61 ] however, it was often applied together with sensory evaluation, food preparation, cooking and/or gardening. The exceptions were two studies that had included taste-testing in their intervention and reported a small effect [ 38 , 43 ]. However, these two studies had (1) a lower intervention intensity (six weekly group educational sessions), (2) a low adherence by the intervention group, (3) combined nutrition education with the experiential learning activities, and (4) a smaller sample size (e.g., <100). Previous studies that investigated the effectiveness of taste-testing in primary school curriculum have recommended using experiential learning approaches for desired outcomes [ 65 ]. A recent scoping review that examined children’s involvement in meal preparation and the associated nutrition outcomes also found that hands-on meal preparation can instil positive perceptions towards nutrition/healthy foods, and potentially improve children’s diet [ 66 ]. Hence our finding is consistent with the existing literature.

Creative art activities such as coloring, drawing, making a collage using food pictures, portraits, art and craftwork and charts on fruit and vegetables, making posters and pamphlets were also utilized consistently in studies with large effect sizes across the age groups and outcomes. These activities were effective when used in combination with other strategies such as cooking and taste-testing. Art and craft activities linking colors (rainbow) with fruit and vegetables possibly broadened children’s knowledge and awareness of eating a variety of fruits and vegetables [ 67 ]. However, there is a lack of existing supporting evidence on this potential influence.

In relation to children’s dietary behavior changes, studies that focused on both healthy and unhealthy foods were effective. However, for changing attitudes and knowledge, interventions that focused on providing positive messages related to increased consumption of healthy foods tended to be more effective than those that focused on discouraging unhealthy foods. Furthermore, studies in primary school children with medium to large effects reported using used Social Cognitive Theory SCT in their intervention development [ 47 , 53 , 61 ]. However, these studies did not specify how the concepts of SCT concepts were incorporated. These interventions may have been effective because SCT explains how children can acquire and maintain behaviour patterns and that behavior, personal and environmental factors interact to describe and predict behaviour change in a reciprocal way [ 68 ]. Self-efficacy, outcome expectation, skill mastery and self-regulation are the key concepts of social cognitive theory that can be used to explain and predict behaviour changes [ 69 ] Furthermore, knowledge gained through direct involvement in experience is integral to experiential learning [ 27 ]. This central idea is found in a range of theories and outlines surrounding experiential learning.

The studies with a short-term intervention duration (up to twelve weeks) for preschool-aged children were also more effective compared to those of longer duration (up to six months) for demonstrated behavior change. However, these studies did not report any follow-up assessments thus it is unclear whether the effects were only short-term or if longer-lasting benefits were produced. The exception was one study [ 47 ] that conducted a follow-up assessment eight months after the intervention and reported that effects were maintained.

Regarding the interventions with preschool-aged children, the strategies that seemed more suitable to their developmental stages were effective. The two most promising programs included a study by Dazeley et al. [ 42 ] which used sensory evaluation activities (use of senses), especially with fruits and vegetables and reported a large effect. The other study was by Jisoo et al. [ 43 ], which focused on storybooks (with visuals) and involved parents completing activities with their children. Younger children perhaps acquire their food preferences by direct contact with foods through sensory experiences such as tasting, feeling, seeing, and smelling foods [ 70 ] which might explain why this strategy is effective for this age group. Our finding is similar to recent research [ 71 ] which also showed positive results from the exposure to pictures of foods in toddlers.

In contrast, it was also evident that some of the intervention studies that reported smaller effects also used similar experiential learning approaches to those of more effective studies. However, a range of other possible factors, beyond the intervention strategies, may have influenced their relative impact. For example, these studies tended to use child reports of eating behaviors, did not use validated tools to measure behavior, had extended durations but with lower intensity of intervention strategies (e.g., infrequent intervention sessions), and combined experiential learning activities with more didactic classroom sessions.

The relative effectiveness of school-based experiential learning approaches to promote healthy eating in children compared to nutrition education alone was supported in an earlier systematic review and meta-analysis by Dudley et al. [ 22 ] They examined the teaching strategies of 49 interventions that reported on healthy eating outcomes for primary school children and found that experiential learning strategies had the largest effects across all outcomes. However, that review did not focus on the effectiveness of different types of experiential learning activities and only included studies conducted in the primary school setting. Similarly, another review by Charlton et al. [ 30 ] that focused on school-based experiential learning and nutrition education interventions among primary school children found that interventions that included multiple or a combination of experiential learning strategies increased children’s preferences for, knowledge of, and consumption of healthier foods. Both the earlier reviews included quasi-experimental study designs as well. Our findings extend these reviews by examining only RCT interventions and including pre-school and community settings.

4.2. Implications for Interventions

This review suggests that the experiential learning interventions may be more successful to the extent that they (a) include multiple or a combination of experiential learning strategies in the intervention, indicating that the more diverse the intervention, the more likely it was to be successful, (b) involve parents in the intervention activities, such as models in cooking and gardening which may create awareness, reinforce knowledge gained and encourage healthy behaviours [ 72 ], (c) make strategies fun, interesting, realistic, and more engaging for children, which demonstrates the importance of experiential learning (hands-on activities) as they involve processes where the learners actively experience activities, attempt to conceptualize what is observed, and reflect on those experiences [ 27 ], (d) are grounded on an effective behaviour change theory such social cognitive theory, (e) are focused on specific and targeted food behaviours for improvement such as “choose vegetables as snacks”.

4.3. Implications for Future Research

Based on this review there are recommendations for future research in this area. There are fewer experiential learning healthy eating interventions conducted in pre-school and community settings compared to primary school, thus more studies are needed in these settings. Most of the studies were overall rated as having low methodological quality due to the following factors being consistently rated as low quality: missing outcome data, risk of bias in the measurement of the outcome and risk of bias in the selection of the reported results. Future researchers could focus on addressing these limitations to enhance the quality of the evidence. Our review supports the need for more among preschool-aged children and for settings beyond primary schools, such as communities. Furthermore, most of the included studies did not report the use of any theoretical model in the intervention development, thus it is recommended that future interventions are built on a behavioural theory. For effectiveness, future studies should consider conducting follow-up assessments to understand if intervention effects are maintained. Development of short and intense interventions that are better suited for the specific settings.

4.4. Implications for Policy

For primary school-based experiential learning interventions, to deliver our recommendations to policymakers, factors such as cost, context, dose-response, and sustainability of the intervention should be considered. Policymakers should also focus on specific school food environment policies that improve targeted dietary behaviours such as healthy eating [ 73 ].

4.5. Strengths and Limitations

The current review updates and extends the previous reviews and includes studies with a broader age group and interventions delivered outside of school settings. We used broad search terms and a comprehensive inclusion criterion, which yielded many eligible studies which were independently screened by two reviewers. Only RCT and CRCT studies with experiential learning interventions were included, which enhances the internal validity of the review. We calculated effect sizes (Cohen’s d) to quantify the relative effect of the intervention strategies on the outcomes as well as the relative effect on healthy and unhealthy choices across age groups, which has not been done previously. We also assessed the risk of bias using the Cochrane Collaboration tool, which was important for highlighting methodological gaps in the evidence base.

There were a few limitations associated with this review. This review only included papers published in English, therefore we may have not included papers published in other languages. Our review only included RCTs and CRCTs, but not quasi-experimental studies, which would have strengthened the internal validity of our review. However, in relation to studies conducted in schools, it may not always be possible to randomize groups to intervention or control conditions (e.g., if schools were building gardens). Evidence from such studies with less robust designs may still provide useful information about the effectiveness of experiential learning interventions. We were not able to calculate effect sizes for some studies, despite best efforts to obtain further information from study investigators. Given that only one study was conducted outside of the school setting, there was a limited ability to identify effective experiential learning activities for other settings. Likewise, many of the interventions were conducted with school-aged children, rather than with younger age groups. The risk of bias assessments of the studies was generally high, therefore the strength of the conclusions from this review may need to be considered carefully. Lastly, this review is limited to the effects of experiential learning activities on healthy eating outcomes only, and therefore findings are not generalized to other lifestyle behaviours such as physical activity.

5. Conclusions

Experiential learning activities are a useful strategy to improve children’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors towards healthy eating. Strategies such as food preparation/cooking, taste testing, playing games, role-playing, and gardening were found to positively affect nutrition outcomes for primary school-aged children. For preschool-aged children, strategies such as sensory evaluation, taste-testing, interactive games, creative arts activities, and storybooks hold promise, but more research in this age group is needed. Key features of successful interventions included combining multiple strategies, involving parents, being grounded on a theoretical model and delivering shorter but more intense interventions. The findings of this review provide useful insight for future interventions that seek to apply experiential learning to the improvement of healthy eating in children.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Grace Norton (GN) for her assistance in conducting the review.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijerph182010824/s1 , Table S1: Quality assessment of the included studies, Table S2: Experiential learning strategies used by the included studies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, B.K., D.P.C. and R.A.J.; methodology, D.P.C., R.A.J., B.K., K.C. and S.D.V.; writing—original draft preparation, S.D.V.; writing—review and editing, S.D.V., D.P.C., R.A.J., M.L.H., Z.Z., K.C., B.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Developing student's skills and work readiness: an experiential learning framework

Journal of Work-Applied Management

ISSN : 2205-2062

Article publication date: 29 June 2023

Issue publication date: 27 September 2023

This paper outlines a contemporary conceptual framework for the embedding of experiential learning into a business consultancy module. Experiential learning is a fundamental teaching approach that allows students to apply theory into a working business context.

Design/methodology/approach

As a conceptual and not an empirical paper, the methodological approach was to draw upon the literature reviewed and to build a framework to support student learning through a business consultancy module.

Exploration of the literature suggests that there are four elements critical to student learning in experiential learning environments: action, reflection, social and context. A framework has been developed utilising these elements with the interaction between the factors being key to developing learning.

Research limitations/implications

So far, the framework is conceptual, and further research is needed to explore its use when staff members are developing these types of modules and to understand the interaction of the factors over the course of the student learning experience.

Originality/value

The originality comes from the intersection and interaction between the core factors in experiential learning, which enables this framework to move thinking beyond more static models and hence work in a more fluid student learning environment.

Experiential learning

Business consultancy module
Conceptual framework

Shore, A. and Dinning, T. (2023), "Developing student's skills and work readiness: an experiential learning framework", Journal of Work-Applied Management , Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 188-199. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWAM-02-2023-0016

Emerald Publishing Limited

Published in Journal of Work-Applied Management . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

As educators, we face the biggest challenge and opportunity of our generation in providing the inspiration, optimism, confidence, enterprising skills and tools which will enable students to start or resume their lives and careers beyond university, and to contribute to economic and social regeneration. Every student needs to be flexible, adaptable, confident of their abilities, resourceful – in short, enterprising. Enterprising learning is a vital capability which can help students become more self/employable in this new era. More enterprising people are more likely to thrive in times of economic change and uncertainty ( Rae, 2009 , p. 290).

Over the past 20 years, there has been an acknowledgement that higher education (HE) has a dual role to play in the development of graduates. In addition to providing intellectually stimulating learning, they are also required to produce work-ready individuals with the necessary skills to thrive in today's ever-changing workplace and global markets ( Tymon, 2013 ). The need to find ways to put students in touch with the realities of what is being studied, and their future workplace has never been as important ( Davies and Pillay, 2000 ) as the employability agenda within HE continues to gain relevance ( Bennett, 2019 ).

An established vehicle within the UK business schools to make this happen is through a business consultancy module that has experiential learning at its heart. This pedagogic approach provides students with the opportunity for both the contextual practice of skills and the demonstration of the application of theory. The learning opportunity comes from students working on a “real-world” live problems or challenges that have been provided by external organisations or businesses. This has been demonstrated to support student engagement and gives learners the opportunity to experience first-hand how the application of a particular skill or theory effects the environment ( Shore et al. , 2010 ; Pittaway et al. , 2015 ). Reflection within this contextualised environment allows the learner to develop almost instantly and reapply developed skills or theories until honed within the environment to which said skills are most applicable ( McKeever et al. , 2014 ). Whilst this context may be live (organisational or work-based learning) or simulated, experiential learning is most focused when a contextual element is included. In addition, active learning approaches such as “live projects” have been previously described by scholars to foster enterprise and employability skills ( Rae, 2010 ). This skill-/competency-based approach has become one of the most significant changes seen in education, in which competencies becomes the core element of the learning experience ( Ferreras-Garcia et al. , 2019 ).

The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (2020) , which is based in the USA, highlights the role of business curricula and educators in helping businesses respond to the profound changes taking place today. By introducing experienced-based modules within the syllabus, we can create a challenging and inspirational environment, which through the contextual practice of skills provides clear opportunities for learning and development. One key element of this way of learning is to enable students to judge their own skill level as research suggests that students may over judge what they can do resulting in a mismatch of student and employer expectations ( Dinning, 2017 ). Furthermore, in the context of management education, these experience-based modules provide a level of support to the local business and third sector community in provision of a resource of students that are nearing graduation.

Bacigalupo et al . (2016) , writing from a European perspective, highlight that given the current economic and post-pandemic environment, it is imperative that graduates are provided with the opportunity to develop skills and competences, thus enabling them to secure a brighter economic future for themselves whilst being able to demonstrate they are able to contribute to the business recovery through innovation and creativity.

The need to upskill students becomes more important as universities navigate through the landscape in order for their graduates to be successful in the jobs market as we enter the 5th industrial revolution. In 2020, the World Economic Forum predicted that there would be an increase in the need for skills associated with active learning, learning capability and creativity. Equally, the need to develop a student's digital capital should not come as a surprise; over 10 years ago, scholars were predicting a changing landscape of graduate roles ( Wickramasinghe and Perera, 2010 ), preparing students for jobs that currently do not exist is also nothing new; it has been captured in academic writing over the last decade ( Neck and Greene, 2011 ). In 2012 the Wilson Report in the UK suggested that graduates do not have the necessary skills to meet the needs of today businesses, making it imperative for universities to ensure that student profiles include an employability and enterprise aspect and accept it as their responsibility ( Neck and Greene, 2011 ). This paper develops an experiential learning framework which has been drawn from the principles, concepts and theories within the literature base of experiential learning, learning in context and reflection alongside the experiences of the authors who have each worked in this field of education for over 15 years. Whilst there is already extensive research in the area of experiential learning and business activity, the framework aims to move thinking beyond a static model by considering how four distinct elements in the student learning experience interact, through the process of undertaking a business consultancy project. In addition, it is a timely reminder of how business management education must continue to evolve if business schools are to continue to operate in a rapidly changing world. As a conceptual paper, the authors now provide a clear review of the literature to underpin the development of the framework.

Literature review

Experiential learning is a term used by many authors and presenters to describe pedagogy that is different from the usual didactic information deliverance commonplace in HE ( Rae, 2009 ). Some use the term to describe a form of learning that happens outside of the classroom – learning “through” experience or “learning by doing” ( Corbett, 2005 ; Pittaway and Cope, 2007 ; Reynolds, 2009 ; Bergsteiner et al. , 2010 ). Experiential learning not only is recognised as an important contributor to HE ( Kruger et al. , 2015 ) but also has been demonstrated as supporting student engagement and giving the learner the opportunity to experience first-hand how the application of a particular skill or theory effects the environment.

Although it is unclear as to when the term experiential learning was first used – indeed many refer back to Confucius circa 500BC – the modern field of experiential learning has focused around two key authors: namely Kolb and Schön. From the late 1970s, these two developed theories, based on related experiments and writings on reflective learning ( Dewey, 1938 ), experiential learning ( Lewin, 1946 ) and the theories and stages of cognitive development ( Piaget, 1976 ). While Schön developed his theory of double loop learning and focused on reflection, Kolb has dedicated his work to a spiral of learning developing a theory of learning styles that fits alongside that of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which in turn built on the work of Carl Jung. This history builds a picture of the wide variety of work that is associated with the term experiential learning. It goes some way to explaining why there is such a depth of definitions and interpretations within the field. Contrary to much of the work that sites Kolb, Dewey (1938) labels all learning as experiential learning, and this can be justified within Kolb's learning cycle: A learner receives an experience, reflects on this experience, forms a concept/theory, applies this theory in experiment and thus receives a new experience from which the cycle may begin again.

Experiential learning is often described as a tool for developing skills and competencies ( Leal Rodriguez and Albort-Morant, 2019 ), and teamwork is cited as one of those skills/competencies. Payne et al. (2011) use a team-based component to enable the development of teamwork and communication skills, amongst other cited skills, through a contextualised, action-based (as well as competitive) process, whilst a classroom-based approach to developing teamwork through experiential learning can be found in the work of Marasi (2019) . The objectives set out by Regev et al. (2009 , p. 273) were “(1) to ease the transition of students into the workplace, (2) to give students an understanding of enterprise architecture issues”. Kayes et al. (2005) focus on the application of an experiential learning approach to team learning in order to overcome negative factors associated with teamwork. They discuss the importance of “the self-analytic group” ( Lewin, 1946 ) where members reflect on and talk about their experience together through a “conversational space” to develop a “shared self-image”. It is recognised that the description of group work is very much in line with that of experiential learning, whereby “learning is the social process of transforming experience into knowledge” ( Lewin, 1946 , p. 77).

Six functional aspects of team learning are presented by Kayes et al. (2005) , namely learning about purpose, learning about membership, learning about roles and role leadership, learning about context, learning about process and learning about action. Joshi et al. (2005) and Rae (2009) also look to incorporate what they call “a social dimension” to their studies. The social learning that occurs within teams could be considered as a system of processes of reflection, both externally amongst participants but also internally as an individual experiment with their own ways of interacting and behaving with the rest of the group and then reflecting on the results. Finally, we draw on Saenz and Cano's (2009) review of learning, which suggests that learning comes from three principal sources: learning from content, learning from experience and learning from feedback.

The relationship between experimental learning and the development of teamwork is two-way, each can impact on the other ( Pittaway and Cope, 2007 ). This action-oriented process of co-participation can be best reflected through students working in teams on real problems that do not have clear solutions ( Marsick and O'Neil, 1999 ). So, working in a team promotes action, reflection as well as contextualisation within a social environment.

Simulation is often used in a classroom environment in order to address the challenge of teaching a complex and changing subject area ( Payne et al. , 2011 ), but at the same time

is often cited as a safe way to practice real-world processes ( Pittaway and Cope, 2007 ). This is common with those studies that focus on entrepreneurial learning, notably in an HE environment. Here, it is “the important interaction between theory and practice and the need to create a learning environment where students are able to experiment with theoretical knowledge gained during their academic studies” ( Pittaway and Cope, 2007 , p. 214). Simulations can create an artificial environment where the individual can apply knowledge and skills with relatively low-risk that contextualise the learning objectives and allow for the development of new knowledge and skills through a process of experience and reflection ( Pittaway et al. , 2015 ). While standing the test of time, this concept of simulation through using live-case studies or computer programmes to simulate a real-world scenario is motivated partly by a quest to engage the individual with an aim to improve the effective learning environment for the sake of the learner ( Daly, 2001 ).

Alongside the literature on experiential learning, other associated literature references action and active learning. Rae (2009 , p. 290) describes action learning as “a structured and collaborative process of enquiry undertaken through questioning, acting, sharing experience and reflecting on problem-solving in practical situations”; however, it is noted by Pittaway and Cope (2007) that the contextual part of the learning process is missing. Also, despite a clear definition of action learning from Rae (2009) , there is a blending of terms in the literature with the use of the word active instead of action, which opens new contexts of interpretation. Bonwell and Eison (1991) offer that active learning involves students in doing activities and thinking about what they are doing. This blending of action and reflection as action inquiry is noted as sharing common ideas to experiential learning “by eliminating the traditional gap between inquiry and action, a more efficient, effective and legitimate form of experiential learning can be achieved” ( Meyer, 2003 , p. 356).

Whilst the literature review so far provides an indication of what experiential learning does, it does not tell us what experiential learning is, or how it is obtained. Much attempt has been made to fit new models with that of the Kolbs (1984) experiential learning cycle (ELC) ( Kolb and Kolb, 2012 ) ( Figure 1 ).

Bergsteiner et al. (2010) display an adaptation of Svinicki and Dixon’s (1987) model, who assign various teaching methods across the bimodal axes of concrete experience and abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation and reflective observation (see Table 1 ).

Similarly, Daly (2001) provides experiential exercises that highlight how each one meets four key elements. Of note here is the reference to “real relationships” (social) and “real consequences”. The latter element of “real consequences” could be interpreted as being part of the contextual framing that will be discussed in the next section. More recently, a criticism of Kolb's ELC is that it failed to specify the nature of a concrete experience ( Morris, 2019 ). Morris proposes a revised model that remains untested, but all the same, it includes the need for a contextually rich concrete experience, critical reflective observation and pragmatic active experimentation.

Learning in context

The concept of learning in context is one that has been repeated throughout the literature, and it is a key aspect in the experiential learning paradigm. The positioning of such context varies, depending on the focus of practice, namely, entrepreneurial learning, organisational learning, work-based learning and service learning, with the last three in this list seemingly merging in their definitions. So much so, whilst providing a work-based learning case study, Kevin and Ann (2012 , p. 26) focus on organisational learning: “the coming together of individuals to enable them to support and promote each other's learning, which will eventually benefit the organisation”. Skills development appropriate to the contextual environment is a key driver on the increased employability of the learners involved through the development of concrete experience ( Daly, 2001 ), or employer-relevant skills acquisition ( Green and Farazmand, 2012 ), developing an understanding of enterprise architecture and easing the transition of students into the workplace ( Regev et al. , 2009 ). More recently, Rohm et al . (2021) positioned student skills at the heart of their research suggesting that the development of meta skills is critical for graduates to ensure their work readiness. Clearly, the contextual focus of the programmes being delivered is seen to influence the future employment of the participants.

Community service learning is defined as the carrying out of “needed tasks in the community with intentional learning goals and with conscious reflection and critical analysis” (Kendall, 1990, in Seider et al. , 2011 , p. 290). Pittaway and Cope (2007) refer to “communities of practice” which “emphasizes that learning is linked to the conditions in which it is learned ” ( Brown and Duguid, 1991 , p. 219). This “authentic work practice” helps students “ ‘ pick up invaluable “know-how” from being on the periphery of competent practitioners ” ( Pittaway and Cope, 2007 , p. 219). Wiese and Sherman (2011 , p. 48) suggest that service learning “is a form of experiential learning in which students are asked to participate in learning activities connected to community service”. In this case, it is clear that there is a contextual element to the students’ learning outcomes with reference to clear learning goals and inclusion in the curriculum. Tracey (2012) suggests that work-based learning is a practice that enables the student to focus on application and acquisition of knowledge through work-related opportunities to achieve a specific set of learner outcomes.

Notable in the literature is the common occurrence of participation in an activity that is directly linked to the focus of study (be it within a university course or a specific work-related skill) that is applied and reflected upon to promote development or learning. Sometimes, context is not clear within an activity or an event, and Meyer (2003) attempts to address the lack of context within outdoor adventure training (when used as an experiential learning activity). They refer to Baldwin and Ford (1988) and Cheng and Ho (2001) when discussing the need to transfer training back to the organisational setting. Standard methods involve post-activity stages of reflective observations or debriefings for example. The article talks about learning taking place either “near”, where the experiential learning (or application of a skill) is of a situation directly related to the desired future application, or “far”, where the experiential learning is of a situation unrelated and focuses on general skills improvement for future applications. Specifically, outdoor adventure activities are identified as meeting the “far” criteria, and more general skills such as personal development, interpersonal communication and creative problem-solving are developed. This second concept of “far” learning develops only general skills, where active learning did not necessitate an application to context and therefore could risk any potential learning being unfocused. Context then is a concept that allows learning to focus on desired learning outcomes, giving the learner the opportunity to experience first-hand how the application of a particular skill or theory effects the environment.

Reflection within this contextualised environment allows the learner to develop [learn] almost instantly and reapply developed skills or theories until honed within the environment to which said skills are most applicable ( McKeever et al ., 2014 ). This reduces the effect of any mismatch and self-overrating that a student can typically make when applying skills in the workplace ( Dinning, 2017 ). Sometimes, this context may be live (organisational or work-based learning) or simulated, but it is clear from the studies reviewed that experiential learning is most focused when a contextual element is included. If Schon (1984) reflective model is then considered, it suggests that any reflection needs to take place during the action, and it should not be viewed as a retrospective process. Singh (2008) draws upon the Schon's model and further argues that such reflection in and on action is best served as an oral assessment, thus allowing for a fair and valid form of assessment that can be administered during the event. More recently, research on assessment in enterprise education supports Schon, claiming that reflection needs to be ongoing and not just something that the student is asked to think about at the end of a module ( Dinning, 2018 ).

Methodology

An abductive approach was adopted to develop this conceptual framework. Central to this methodology is the ability to form arguments and opinions from observation and experience ( Ward et al ., 2017 ), which is why it is significant in the construction of the conceptual framework. More recently, Davidsen and Hojlung (2022) report similarities between abduction and concepts in entrepreneurship as both allow for researchers to foster and develop hunches and experiments. Both authors have over 15 years' experience developing student learning experiences focusing on experiential learning and enterprise education. Thus, due to the personal interests and experiences of the authors, a focus of enquiry was established related to how experiential learning can be best placed in a business consultancy module and what underlying key elements were needed to support the experience for all stakeholders.

The development of a conceptual framework includes synthesising existing literature ( Imenda, 2014 ) which was the first stage in this process where the authors explored the literature around experiential learning, learning in context and reflection. These were the key terms the authors believed would enable them to draw out the elements needed for the framework. After much discussion, the authors then started to develop the framework which is laid out in the findings and discussion section. The starting point was Kolb's model and associated teaching methods which allowed the authors to consider the nature of student involvement in their learning. Active experimentation was chosen to be the foundation of the framework. Through three academic cycles working with approximately 200 students in each cycle, the authors experimented with other elements noted in the literature such as reflection, social and context. Utilising student and staff feedback, the authors decided on the elements to include in their framework and then explored though the aforementioned feedback, if the chosen elements would be mutually exclusive to each other, completely aligned or partially aligned. The findings and discussion report on how the model was created by the authors.

Findings and discussion

Introduction to the model.

Through analysis and a helicopter view of the literature, four factors appear critical to developing student skills: action, reflection, social and context. These four elements form the foundation of the framework proposed within this paper. However, these are not stand-alone factors, learning occurs through the interaction and this needs to be built into any teaching, learning and assessment experience. Each element will now be discussed through the example of a business consultancy module to show how this framework was developed.

In the context of the module, students take action by responding to a brief set by an external organisation. This requires students to develop a response to problems or challenges set by an external organisation or business. The student will be required to take action.

For learning to take place whilst the students respond to the brief and action is taking place, the literature suggests that this should not be mutually exclusive to reflection. Indeed, there can be reflection throughout the period of action as well as at the end resulting in the first part of the framework (see Figure 2 ).

The literature evidences that there is a requirement for some form of a social interaction if students are to learn, and in a business setting, this can be achieved through the students working in teams or action workgroups. The social interaction occurs when the teams are taking action, although the framework also needs to reflect that students will take action independently, so the social element needs to be a subsection within action. The social element also needs to cut across the reflection. Students who are taking action need to be encouraged to reflect in their teams as well as independently (see Figure 3 ). Therefore, the social interaction needs to cut across action and reflection, with the understanding that both can take place independently.

The inference to be taken from Figure 2 is that social interaction can happen on its own; however, unless aligned with action or reflection, learning is not likely to occur. For social interaction to be the most effective, it needs to occur during action and/or reflection (see Figure 4 ).

Context is either simulated through artificial creation of a “real” environment or through the lived experience. Learners are taking action, are solving problems and are either encouraged to reflect, or do so through the social interactions that they participate in. Therefore, the three elements already discussed need to be set within the context. Figure 5 represents the final conceptual framework.

Conceptual framework in practice

The authors consider that the conceptual framework developed can be applied to any number of learning experiences. An example of the framework in practice is its use across a business consultancy module. Such a module operates to give students the opportunity to work on a real piece of consultancy work for an external organisation or business. The business clinic operates to work with organisations and businesses to source projects for said module. With support from the academic tutors, students will undertake a research/consultancy project in a self-selecting group of 4–6 individuals which puts the students in a position where social interaction will take place. In this case, the social aspect will be between the students, between external project host and the students and between the students and academic tutors. To enact the context and action element, each group of students should be provided with a project brief that has been procured from outside the university. The students are then given time to undertake primary research to address the business problem, generating an improvement plan driven by data and academic analysis [action]. Within the module, this could be between 8 and 12 weeks, where students work on the project as a group enabling action and social learning over a period of time.

Students are taught the art of reflection and encouraged to reflect whilst taking action in the group or working independently and then again at the end of the project. Having specific points of reflection ensures this happens over the course of the 8- to 12-week project. Ideally, over time, the art of self-reflection will become a habit that is automatically included in their day-to-day practices.

It is important that management educators and business school leaders continue to draw upon the lessons from entrepreneurship education, in particular experiential learning in developing curricular and pedagogy that are better able to produce highly skilled graduates for the future workforce and business development. In this paper, the authors have explored four elements which are key to student learning within modules linked to external organisations, these being action, reflection, social and context. These have been used to develop a framework for learning for such modules within but not limited to the business environment. The key element within the framework is the interaction as the students move between taking action, reflecting and working together, which all happen within the context of the situation they have been given.

Now that a framework has been proposed, it is open to be challenged; hence, the need for it to be tested both in terms of its suitability for student learning and also the value and social impact of this type of learning. The next stage for the authors of this paper is to explore how the framework develops the learning experience for a cohort of students. This will include supporting the module team to utilise the framework in their module design alongside following a cohort of students undertaking the module tracking and exploring the interactions between the four concepts. There is also a question as to how such a business consultancy module can be transformed into a broader pedagogical approach of clinical practice, across a whole range of teaching methods.

Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle

Phase 1 of developing the conceptual framework

Phase 2 of developing the conceptual framework

Phase 3 of developing the conceptual framework

A conceptual framework of learning for business consultancy modules

Nature of student involvement in various teaching methods

Node	Teaching methods
Concrete experimentation	Direct experience, recall of experience, in-class experience (lab), simulations, film/tapes, lecture examples
Reflective observation	Rhetorical questions in lecture, thought questions for reading, discussion, brainstorming, logs, journals
Abstract conceptualisation	Lecture analogies, descriptions, text reading, model critiques, paper/project proposals, model building exercises
Active experimentation	Field work, labs, projects, homework, case studies, simulations, lecture, examples

Source(s): Table courtesy of Corbett (2005)

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DOI: 10.1016/j.tate.2022.103919
Corpus ID: 253228473

Experiential learning in entrepreneurship education: A systematic literature review

Victória Figueiredo Motta , S. Galina
Published in Teaching and Teacher… 1 January 2023
Education, Business

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The relative effectiveness of school-based experiential learning approaches to promote healthy eating in children compared to nutrition education alone was supported in an earlier systematic review and meta-analysis by Dudley et al. They examined the teaching strategies of 49 interventions that reported on healthy eating outcomes for primary ...
Developing student's skills and work readiness: an experiential
Whilst the literature review so far provides an indication of what experiential learning does, it does not tell us what experiential learning is, or how it is obtained. Much attempt has been made to fit new models with that of the Kolbs (1984) experiential learning cycle (ELC) (Kolb and Kolb, 2012) .
Experiential learning in entrepreneurship education: A systematic
DOI: 10.1016/j.tate.2022.103919 Corpus ID: 253228473; Experiential learning in entrepreneurship education: A systematic literature review @article{Motta2023ExperientialLI, title={Experiential learning in entrepreneurship education: A systematic literature review}, author={Vict{\'o}ria Figueiredo Motta and Simone Vasconcelos Ribeiro Galina}, journal={Teaching and Teacher Education}, year={2023 ...
Virtual Reality as Pedagogical Tool to Enhance Experiential Learning: A
This paper has a systematic literature review on emerging technologies, such as virtual reality as a pedagogical tool for enhancing students' experiential learning. This review aims to explore ...
PDF Literature Review: Using Experiential Learning to Build Effective Teams
The purpose of this literature review is to highlight the. importance of experiential learning in building effective teams and review the characteristics, skills, and influence necessary to create change in an organization. The importance of. experiential learning dates to 1938 when John Dewey proposed that learning cannot occur.
Using Creative Arts Therapy to Promote Academic Success in the
Purpose: This secondary narrative review of CAT-based educational interventions analyzes preliminary literature gathered from a larger systematic review on the application of CATs in K-12 schools. In the present review, CATs are considered for their unique contributions to postsecondary academic success through experiential learning.
Mix Method Approach of Measuring VR as a ...
This paper is aimed at exploring the effect of virtual reality as a pedagogical tool for enhancing experiential learning among undergraduate students. Considering this, it was a mixed-methods study following the design of sequential exploratory-which includes qualitative followed by quantitative part.

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Introduction

Literature Review

Characteristics of Experiential Learning

The Cycle of Experiential Learning

Benefits of Experiential Learning

Drawbacks of Experiential Learning

Evaluation of Experiential Learning

Theoretical Framework

Arithmetic and Geometric Topics in the Vietnamese Mathematics Curriculum and Textbooks

Evaluation of Students’ Activities in Experiential Learning

The Study’s Purpose, as Well as the Research Questions That Will Be Addressed

Materials and Methods

Data Collection and Analysis

Experimental Design

About Quantitative Analysis

Pre-test Results

Post-test Results

Results of a Survey of Student Opinion and Observation

Data Availability Statement

Ethics Statement

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest

Publisher’s Note

Acknowledgments

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The Role of Experiential Learning on Students' Motivation and Classroom Engagement

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Experiential Learning Interventions and Healthy Eating Outcomes in Children: A Systematic Literature Review

Dylan P. Cliff

Rachel A. Jones

Karen Charlton

Bridget Kelly

1. Introduction

2.1. Search Strategy

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

2.3. Study Selection

2.4. Data Extraction

2.5. Risk of Bias Appraisal

2.6. Data Synthesis and Analysis

3.1. Study Selection

3.2. Study and Intervention Characteristics

3.3. Experiential Learning Activities

3.4. Intervention Effects

4. Discussion

4.2. Implications for Interventions

4.3. Implications for Future Research

4.4. Implications for Policy

4.5. Strengths and Limitations

5. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Supplementary Materials

Author Contributions

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed Consent Statement

Developing student's skills and work readiness: an experiential learning framework

Design/methodology/approach

Research limitations/implications

Originality/value

Experiential learning

Introduction

Literature review

Learning in context

Methodology

Findings and discussion

Conceptual framework in practice

Further reading