essay about modular distance learning in times of pandemic

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• Review Article
• Published: 27 September 2021

Why lockdown and distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to increase the social class achievement gap

• Sébastien Goudeau   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7293-0977 1 ,
• Camille Sanrey   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3158-1306 1 ,
• Arnaud Stanczak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2596-1516 2 ,
• Antony Manstead   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7540-2096 3 &
• Céline Darnon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2613-689X 2  

Nature Human Behaviour volume  5 ,  pages 1273–1281 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The COVID-19 pandemic has forced teachers and parents to quickly adapt to a new educational context: distance learning. Teachers developed online academic material while parents taught the exercises and lessons provided by teachers to their children at home. Considering that the use of digital tools in education has dramatically increased during this crisis, and it is set to continue, there is a pressing need to understand the impact of distance learning. Taking a multidisciplinary view, we argue that by making the learning process rely more than ever on families, rather than on teachers, and by getting students to work predominantly via digital resources, school closures exacerbate social class academic disparities. To address this burning issue, we propose an agenda for future research and outline recommendations to help parents, teachers and policymakers to limit the impact of the lockdown on social-class-based academic inequality.

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The widespread effects of the COVID-19 pandemic that emerged in 2019–2020 have drastically increased health, social and economic inequalities 1 , 2 . For more than 900 million learners around the world, the pandemic led to the closure of schools and universities 3 . This exceptional situation forced teachers, parents and students to quickly adapt to a new educational context: distance learning. Teachers had to develop online academic materials that could be used at home to ensure educational continuity while ensuring the necessary physical distancing. Primary and secondary school students suddenly had to work with various kinds of support, which were usually provided online by their teachers. For college students, lockdown often entailed returning to their hometowns while staying connected with their teachers and classmates via video conferences, email and other digital tools. Despite the best efforts of educational institutions, parents and teachers to keep all children and students engaged in learning activities, ensuring educational continuity during school closure—something that is difficult for everyone—may pose unique material and psychological challenges for working-class families and students.

Not only did the pandemic lead to the closure of schools in many countries, often for several weeks, it also accelerated the digitalization of education and amplified the role of parental involvement in supporting the schoolwork of their children. Thus, beyond the specific circumstances of the COVID-19 lockdown, we believe that studying the effects of the pandemic on academic inequalities provides a way to more broadly examine the consequences of school closure and related effects (for example, digitalization of education) on social class inequalities. Indeed, bearing in mind that (1) the risk of further pandemics is higher than ever (that is, we are in a ‘pandemic era’ 4 , 5 ) and (2) beyond pandemics, the use of digital tools in education (and therefore the influence of parental involvement) has dramatically increased during this crisis, and is set to continue, there is a pressing need for an integrative and comprehensive model that examines the consequences of distance learning. Here, we propose such an integrative model that helps us to understand the extent to which the school closures associated with the pandemic amplify economic, digital and cultural divides that in turn affect the psychological functioning of parents, students and teachers in a way that amplifies academic inequalities. Bringing together research in social sciences, ranging from economics and sociology to social, cultural, cognitive and educational psychology, we argue that by getting students to work predominantly via digital resources rather than direct interactions with their teachers, and by making the learning process rely more than ever on families rather than teachers, school closures exacerbate social class academic disparities.

First, we review research showing that social class is associated with unequal access to digital tools, unequal familiarity with digital skills and unequal uses of such tools for learning purposes 6 , 7 . We then review research documenting how unequal familiarity with school culture, knowledge and skills can also contribute to the accentuation of academic inequalities 8 , 9 . Next, we present the results of surveys conducted during the 2020 lockdown showing that the quality and quantity of pedagogical support received from schools varied according to the social class of families (for examples, see refs. 10 , 11 , 12 ). We then argue that these digital, cultural and structural divides represent barriers to the ability of parents to provide appropriate support for children during distance learning (Fig. 1 ). These divides also alter the levels of self-efficacy of parents and children, thereby affecting their engagement in learning activities 13 , 14 . In the final section, we review preliminary evidence for the hypothesis that distance learning widens the social class achievement gap and we propose an agenda for future research. In addition, we outline recommendations that should help parents, teachers and policymakers to use social science research to limit the impact of school closure and distance learning on the social class achievement gap.

Economic, structural, digital and cultural divides influence the psychological functioning of parents and students in a way that amplify inequalities.

The digital divide

Unequal access to digital resources.

Although the use of digital technologies is almost ubiquitous in developed nations, there is a digital divide such that some people are more likely than others to be numerically excluded 15 (Fig. 1 ). Social class is a strong predictor of digital disparities, including the quality of hardware, software and Internet access 16 , 17 , 18 . For example, in 2019, in France, around 1 in 5 working-class families did not have personal access to the Internet compared with less than 1 in 20 of the most privileged families 19 . Similarly, in 2020, in the United Kingdom, 20% of children who were eligible for free school meals did not have access to a computer at home compared with 7% of other children 20 . In 2021, in the United States, 41% of working-class families do not own a laptop or desktop computer and 43% do not have broadband compared with 8% and 7%, respectively, of upper/middle-class Americans 21 . A similar digital gap is also evident between lower-income and higher-income countries 22 .

Second, simply having access to a computer and an Internet connection does not ensure effective distance learning. For example, many of the educational resources sent by teachers need to be printed, thereby requiring access to printers. Moreover, distance learning is more difficult in households with only one shared computer compared with those where each family member has their own 23 . Furthermore, upper/middle-class families are more likely to be able to guarantee a suitable workspace for each child than their working-class counterparts 24 .

In the context of school closures, such disparities are likely to have important consequences for educational continuity. In line with this idea, a survey of approximately 4,000 parents in the United Kingdom confirmed that during lockdown, more than half of primary school children from the poorest families did not have access to their own study space and were less well equipped for distance learning than higher-income families 10 . Similarly, a survey of around 1,300 parents in the Netherlands found that during lockdown, children from working-class families had fewer computers at home and less room to study than upper/middle-class children 11 .

Data from non-Western countries highlight a more general digital divide, showing that developing countries have poorer access to digital equipment. For example, in India in 2018, only 10.7% of households possessed a digital device 25 , while in Pakistan in 2020, 31% of higher-education teachers did not have Internet access and 68.4% did not have a laptop 26 . In general, developing countries lack access to digital technologies 27 , 28 , and these difficulties of access are even greater in rural areas (for example, see ref. 29 ). Consequently, school closures have huge repercussions for the continuity of learning in these countries. For example, in India in 2018, only 11% of the rural and 40% of the urban population above 14 years old could use a computer and access the Internet 25 . Time spent on education during school closure decreased by 80% in Bangladesh 30 . A similar trend was observed in other countries 31 , with only 22% of children engaging in remote learning in Kenya 32 and 50% in Burkina Faso 33 . In Ghana, 26–32% of children spent no time at all on learning during the pandemic 34 . Beyond the overall digital divide, social class disparities are also evident in developing countries, with lower access to digital resources among households in which parental educational levels were low (versus households in which parental educational levels were high; for example, see ref. 35 for Nigeria and ref. 31 for Ecuador).

Unequal digital skills

In addition to unequal access to digital tools, there are also systematic variations in digital skills 36 , 37 (Fig. 1 ). Upper/middle-class families are more familiar with digital tools and resources and are therefore more likely to have the digital skills needed for distance learning 38 , 39 , 40 . These digital skills are particularly useful during school closures, both for students and for parents, for organizing, retrieving and correctly using the resources provided by the teachers (for example, sending or receiving documents by email, printing documents or using word processors).

Social class disparities in digital skills can be explained in part by the fact that children from upper/middle-class families have the opportunity to develop digital skills earlier than working-class families 41 . In member countries of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), only 23% of working-class children had started using a computer at the age of 6 years or earlier compared with 43% of upper/middle-class children 42 . Moreover, because working-class people tend to persist less than upper/middle-class people when confronted with digital difficulties 23 , the use of digital tools and resources for distance learning may interfere with the ability of parents to help children with their schoolwork.

Unequal use of digital tools

A third level of digital divide concerns variations in digital tool use 18 , 43 (Fig. 1 ). Upper/middle-class families are more likely to use digital resources for work and education 6 , 41 , 44 , whereas working-class families are more likely to use these resources for entertainment, such as electronic games or social media 6 , 45 . This divide is also observed among students, whereby working-class students tend to use digital technologies for leisure activities, whereas their upper/middle-class peers are more likely to use them for academic activities 46 and to consider that computers and the Internet provide an opportunity for education and training 23 . Furthermore, working-class families appear to regulate the digital practices of their children less 47 and are more likely to allow screens in the bedrooms of children and teenagers without setting limits on times or practices 48 .

In sum, inequalities in terms of digital resources, skills and use have strong implications for distance learning. This is because they make working-class students and parents particularly vulnerable when learning relies on extensive use of digital devices rather than on face-to-face interaction with teachers.

The cultural divide

Even if all three levels of digital divide were closed, upper/middle-class families would still be better prepared than working-class families to ensure educational continuity for their children. Upper/middle-class families are more familiar with the academic knowledge and skills that are expected and valued in educational settings, as well as with the independent, autonomous way of learning that is valued in the school culture and becomes even more important during school closure (Fig. 1 ).

Unequal familiarity with academic knowledge and skills

According to classical social reproduction theory 8 , 49 , school is not a neutral place in which all forms of language and knowledge are equally valued. Academic contexts expect and value culture-specific and taken-for-granted forms of knowledge, skills and ways of being, thinking and speaking that are more in tune with those developed through upper/middle-class socialization (that is, ‘cultural capital’ 8 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ). For instance, academic contexts value interest in the arts, museums and literature 54 , 55 , a type of interest that is more likely to develop through socialization in upper/middle-class families than in working-class socialization 54 , 56 . Indeed, upper/middle-class parents are more likely than working-class parents to engage in activities that develop this cultural capital. For example, they possess more books and cultural objects at home, read more stories to their children and visit museums and libraries more often (for examples, see refs. 51 , 54 , 55 ). Upper/middle-class children are also more involved in extra-curricular activities (for example, playing a musical instrument) than working-class children 55 , 56 , 57 .

Beyond this implicit familiarization with the school curriculum, upper/middle-class parents more often organize educational activities that are explicitly designed to develop academic skills of their children 57 , 58 , 59 . For example, they are more likely to monitor and re-explain lessons or use games and textbooks to develop and reinforce academic skills (for example, labelling numbers, letters or colours 57 , 60 ). Upper/middle-class parents also provide higher levels of support and spend more time helping children with homework than working-class parents (for examples, see refs. 61 , 62 ). Thus, even if all parents are committed to the academic success of their children, working-class parents have fewer chances to provide the help that children need to complete homework 63 , and homework is more beneficial for children from upper-middle class families than for children from working-class families 64 , 65 .

School closures amplify the impact of cultural inequalities

The trends described above have been observed in ‘normal’ times when schools are open. School closures, by making learning rely more strongly on practices implemented at home (rather than at school), are likely to amplify the impact of these disparities. Consistent with this idea, research has shown that the social class achievement gap usually greatly widens during school breaks—a phenomenon described as ‘summer learning loss’ or ‘summer setback’ 66 , 67 , 68 . During holidays, the learning by children tends to decline, and this is particularly pronounced in children from working-class families. Consequently, the social class achievement gap grows more rapidly during the summer months than it does in the rest of the year. This phenomenon is partly explained by the fact that during the break from school, social class disparities in investment in activities that are beneficial for academic achievement (for example, reading, travelling to a foreign country or museum visits) are more pronounced.

Therefore, when they are out of school, children from upper/middle-class backgrounds may continue to develop academic skills unlike their working-class counterparts, who may stagnate or even regress. Research also indicates that learning loss during school breaks tends to be cumulative 66 . Thus, repeated episodes of school closure are likely to have profound consequences for the social class achievement gap. Consistent with the idea that school closures could lead to similar processes as those identified during summer breaks, a recent survey indicated that during the COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom, children from upper/middle-class families spent more time on educational activities (5.8 h per day) than those from working-class families (4.5 h per day) 7 , 69 .

Unequal dispositions for autonomy and self-regulation

School closures have encouraged autonomous work among students. This ‘independent’ way of studying is compatible with the family socialization of upper/middle-class students, but does not match the interdependent norms more commonly associated with working-class contexts 9 . Upper/middle-class contexts tend to promote cultural norms of independence whereby individuals perceive themselves as autonomous actors, independent of other individuals and of the social context, able to pursue their own goals 70 . For example, upper/middle-class parents tend to invite children to express their interests, preferences and opinions during the various activities of everyday life 54 , 55 . Conversely, in working-class contexts characterized by low economic resources and where life is more uncertain, individuals tend to perceive themselves as interdependent, connected to others and members of social groups 53 , 70 , 71 . This interdependent self-construal fits less well with the independent culture of academic contexts. This cultural mismatch between interdependent self-construal common in working-class students and the independent norms of the educational institution has negative consequences for academic performance 9 .

Once again, the impact of these differences is likely to be amplified during school closures, when being able to work alone and autonomously is especially useful. The requirement to work alone is more likely to match the independent self-construal of upper/middle-class students than the interdependent self-construal of working-class students. In the case of working-class students, this mismatch is likely to increase their difficulties in working alone at home. Supporting our argument, recent research has shown that working-class students tend to underachieve in contexts where students work individually compared with contexts where students work with others 72 . Similarly, during school closures, high self-regulation skills (for example, setting goals, selecting appropriate learning strategies and maintaining motivation 73 ) are required to maintain study activities and are likely to be especially useful for using digital resources efficiently. Research has shown that students from working-class backgrounds typically develop their self-regulation skills to a lesser extent than those from upper/middle-class backgrounds 74 , 75 , 76 .

Interestingly, some authors have suggested that independent (versus interdependent) self-construal may also affect communication with teachers 77 . Indeed, in the context of distance learning, working-class families are less likely to respond to the communication of teachers because their ‘interdependent’ self leads them to respect hierarchies, and thus perceive teachers as an expert who ‘can be trusted to make the right decisions for learning’. Upper/middle class families, relying on ‘independent’ self-construal, are more inclined to seek individualized feedback, and therefore tend to participate to a greater extent in exchanges with teachers. Such cultural differences are important because they can also contribute to the difficulties encountered by working-class families.

The structural divide: unequal support from schools

The issues reviewed thus far all increase the vulnerability of children and students from underprivileged backgrounds when schools are closed. To offset these disadvantages, it might be expected that the school should increase its support by providing additional resources for working-class students. However, recent data suggest that differences in the material and human resources invested in providing educational support for children during periods of school closure were—paradoxically—in favour of upper/middle-class students (Fig. 1 ). In England, for example, upper/middle-class parents reported benefiting from online classes and video-conferencing with teachers more often than working-class parents 10 . Furthermore, active help from school (for example, online teaching, private tutoring or chats with teachers) occurred more frequently in the richest households (64% of the richest households declared having received help from school) than in the poorest households (47%). Another survey found that in the United Kingdom, upper/middle-class children were more likely to take online lessons every day (30%) than working-class students (16%) 12 . This substantial difference might be due, at least in part, to the fact that private schools are better equipped in terms of online platforms (60% of schools have at least one online platform) than state schools (37%, and 23% in the most deprived schools) and were more likely to organize daily online lessons. Similarly, in the United Kingdom, in schools with a high proportion of students eligible for free school meals, teachers were less inclined to broadcast an online lesson for their pupils 78 . Interestingly, 58% of teachers in the wealthiest areas reported having messaged their students or their students’ parents during lockdown compared with 47% in the most deprived schools. In addition, the probability of children receiving technical support from the school (for example, by providing pupils with laptops or other devices) is, surprisingly, higher in the most advantaged schools than in the most deprived 78 .

In addition to social class disparities, there has been less support from schools for African-American and Latinx students. During school closures in the United States, 40% of African-American students and 30% of Latinx students received no online teaching compared with 10% of white students 79 . Another source of inequality is that the probability of school closure was correlated with social class and race. In the United States, for example, school closures from September to December 2020 were more common in schools with a high proportion of racial/ethnic minority students, who experience homelessness and are eligible for free/discounted school meals 80 .

Similarly, access to educational resources and support was lower in poorer (compared with richer) countries 81 . In sub-Saharan Africa, during lockdown, 45% of children had no exposure at all to any type of remote learning. Of those who did, the medium was mostly radio, television or paper rather than digital. In African countries, at most 10% of children received some material through the Internet. In Latin America, 90% of children received some remote learning, but less than half of that was through the internet—the remainder being via radio and television 81 . In Ecuador, high-school students from the lowest wealth quartile had fewer remote-learning opportunities, such as Google class/Zoom, than students from the highest wealth quartile 31 .

Thus, the achievement gap and its accentuation during lockdown are due not only to the cultural and digital disadvantages of working-class families but also to unequal support from schools. This inequality in school support is not due to teachers being indifferent to or even supportive of social stratification. Rather, we believe that these effects are fundamentally structural. In many countries, schools located in upper/middle-class neighbourhoods have more money than those in the poorest neighbourhoods. Moreover, upper/middle-class parents invest more in the schools of their children than working-class parents (for example, see ref. 82 ), and schools have an interest in catering more for upper/middle-class families than for working-class families 83 . Additionally, the expectation of teachers may be lower for working-class children 84 . For example, they tend to estimate that working-class students invest less effort in learning than their upper/middle-class counterparts 85 . These differences in perception may have influenced the behaviour of teachers during school closure, such that teachers in privileged neighbourhoods provided more information to students because they expected more from them in term of effort and achievement. The fact that upper/middle-class parents are better able than working-class parents to comply with the expectations of teachers (for examples, see refs. 55 , 86 ) may have reinforced this phenomenon. These discrepancies echo data showing that working-class students tend to request less help in their schoolwork than upper/middle-class ones 87 , and they may even avoid asking for help because they believe that such requests could lead to reprimands 88 . During school closures, these students (and their families) may in consequence have been less likely to ask for help and resources. Jointly, these phenomena have resulted in upper/middle-class families receiving more support from schools during lockdown than their working-class counterparts.

Psychological effects of digital, cultural and structural divides

Despite being strongly influenced by social class, differences in academic achievement are often interpreted by parents, teachers and students as reflecting differences in ability 89 . As a result, upper/middle-class students are usually perceived—and perceive themselves—as smarter than working-class students, who are perceived—and perceive themselves—as less intelligent 90 , 91 , 92 or less able to succeed 93 . Working-class students also worry more about the fact that they might perform more poorly than upper/middle-class students 94 , 95 . These fears influence academic learning in important ways. In particular, they can consume cognitive resources when children and students work on academic tasks 96 , 97 . Self-efficacy also plays a key role in engaging in learning and perseverance in the face of difficulties 13 , 98 . In addition, working-class students are those for whom the fear of being outperformed by others is the most negatively related to academic performance 99 .

The fact that working-class children and students are less familiar with the tasks set by teachers, and less well equipped and supported, makes them more likely to experience feelings of incompetence (Fig. 1 ). Working-class parents are also more likely than their upper/middle-class counterparts to feel unable to help their children with schoolwork. Consistent with this, research has shown that both working-class students and parents have lower feelings of academic self-efficacy than their upper/middle-class counterparts 100 , 101 . These differences have been documented under ‘normal’ conditions but are likely to be exacerbated during distance learning. Recent surveys conducted during the school closures have confirmed that upper/middle-class families felt better able to support their children in distance learning than did working-class families 10 and that upper/middle-class parents helped their children more and felt more capable to do so 11 , 12 .

Pandemic disparity, future directions and recommendations

The research reviewed thus far suggests that children and their families are highly unequal with respect to digital access, skills and use. It also shows that upper/middle-class students are more likely to be supported in their homework (by their parents and teachers) than working-class students, and that upper/middle-class students and parents will probably feel better able than working-class ones to adapt to the context of distance learning. For all these reasons, we anticipate that as a result of school closures, the COVID-19 pandemic will substantially increase the social class achievement gap. Because school closures are a recent occurrence, it is too early to measure with precision their effects on the widening of the achievement gap. However, some recent data are consistent with this idea.

Evidence for a widening gap during the pandemic

Comparing academic achievement in 2020 with previous years provides an early indication of the effects of school closures during the pandemic. In France, for example, first and second graders take national evaluations at the beginning of the school year. Initial comparisons of the results for 2020 with those from previous years revealed that the gap between schools classified as ‘priority schools’ (those in low-income urban areas) and schools in higher-income neighbourhoods—a gap observed every year—was particularly pronounced in 2020 in both French and mathematics 102 .

Similarly, in the Netherlands, national assessments take place twice a year. In 2020, they took place both before and after school closures. A recent analysis compared progress during this period in 2020 in mathematics/arithmetic, spelling and reading comprehension for 7–11-year-old students within the same period in the three previous years 103 . Results indicated a general learning loss in 2020. More importantly, for the 8% of working-class children, the losses were 40% greater than they were for upper/middle-class children.

Similar results were observed in Belgium among students attending the final year of primary school. Compared with students from previous cohorts, students affected by school closures experienced a substantial decrease in their mathematics and language scores, with children from more disadvantaged backgrounds experiencing greater learning losses 104 . Likewise, oral reading assessments in more than 100 school districts in the United States showed that the development of this skill among children in second and third grade significantly slowed between Spring and Autumn 2020, but this slowdown was more pronounced in schools from lower-achieving districts 105 .

It is likely that school closures have also amplified racial disparities in learning and achievement. For example, in the United States, after the first lockdown, students of colour lost the equivalent of 3–5 months of learning, whereas white students were about 1–3 months behind. Moreover, in the Autumn, when some students started to return to classrooms, African-American and Latinx students were more likely to continue distance learning, despite being less likely to have access to the digital tools, Internet access and live contact with teachers 106 .

In some African countries (for example, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Tanzania and Uganda), the COVID-19 crisis has resulted in learning loss ranging from 6 months to more 1 year 107 , and this learning loss appears to be greater for working-class children (that is, those attending no-fee schools) than for upper/middle-class children 108 .

These findings show that school closures have exacerbated achievement gaps linked to social class and ethnicity. However, more research is needed to address the question of whether school closures differentially affect the learning of students from working- and upper/middle-class families.

Future directions

First, to assess the specific and unique impact of school closures on student learning, longitudinal research should compare student achievement at different times of the year, before, during and after school closures, as has been done to document the summer learning loss 66 , 109 . In the coming months, alternating periods of school closure and opening may occur, thereby presenting opportunities to do such research. This would also make it possible to examine whether the gap diminishes a few weeks after children return to in-school learning or whether, conversely, it increases with time because the foundations have not been sufficiently acquired to facilitate further learning 110 .

Second, the mechanisms underlying the increase in social class disparities during school closures should be examined. As discussed above, school closures result in situations for which students are unevenly prepared and supported. It would be appropriate to seek to quantify the contribution of each of the factors that might be responsible for accentuating the social class achievement gap. In particular, distinguishing between factors that are relatively ‘controllable’ (for example, resources made available to pupils) and those that are more difficult to control (for example, the self-efficacy of parents in supporting the schoolwork of their children) is essential to inform public policy and teaching practices.

Third, existing studies are based on general comparisons and very few provide insights into the actual practices that took place in families during school closure and how these practices affected the achievement gap. For example, research has documented that parents from working-class backgrounds are likely to find it more difficult to help their children to complete homework and to provide constructive feedback 63 , 111 , something that could in turn have a negative impact on the continuity of learning of their children. In addition, it seems reasonable to assume that during lockdown, parents from upper/middle-class backgrounds encouraged their children to engage in practices that, even if not explicitly requested by teachers, would be beneficial to learning (for example, creative activities or reading). Identifying the practices that best predict the maintenance or decline of educational achievement during school closures would help identify levers for intervention.

Finally, it would be interesting to investigate teaching practices during school closures. The lockdown in the spring of 2020 was sudden and unexpected. Within a few days, teachers had to find a way to compensate for the school closure, which led to highly variable practices. Some teachers posted schoolwork on platforms, others sent it by email, some set work on a weekly basis while others set it day by day. Some teachers also set up live sessions in large or small groups, providing remote meetings for questions and support. There have also been variations in the type of feedback given to students, notably through the monitoring and correcting of work. Future studies should examine in more detail what practices schools and teachers used to compensate for the school closures and their effects on widening, maintaining or even reducing the gap, as has been done for certain specific literacy programmes 112 as well as specific instruction topics (for example, ecology and evolution 113 ).

Practical recommendations

We are aware of the debate about whether social science research on COVID-19 is suitable for making policy decisions 114 , and we draw attention to the fact that some of our recommendations (Table 1 ) are based on evidence from experiments or interventions carried out pre-COVID while others are more speculative. In any case, we emphasize that these suggestions should be viewed with caution and be tested in future research. Some of our recommendations could be implemented in the event of new school closures, others only when schools re-open. We also acknowledge that while these recommendations are intended for parents and teachers, their implementation largely depends on the adoption of structural policies. Importantly, given all the issues discussed above, we emphasize the importance of prioritizing, wherever possible, in-person learning over remote learning 115 and where this is not possible, of implementing strong policies to support distance learning, especially for disadvantaged families.

Where face-to face teaching is not possible and teachers are responsible for implementing distance learning, it will be important to make them aware of the factors that can exacerbate inequalities during lockdown and to provide them with guidance about practices that would reduce these inequalities. Thus, there is an urgent need for interventions aimed at making teachers aware of the impact of the social class of children and families on the following factors: (1) access to, familiarity with and use of digital devices; (2) familiarity with academic knowledge and skills; and (3) preparedness to work autonomously. Increasing awareness of the material, cultural and psychological barriers that working-class children and families face during lockdown should increase the quality and quantity of the support provided by teachers and thereby positively affect the achievements of working-class students.

In addition to increasing the awareness of teachers of these barriers, teachers should be encouraged to adjust the way they communicate with working-class families due to differences in self-construal compared with upper/middle-class families 77 . For example, questions about family (rather than personal) well-being would be congruent with interdependent self-construals. This should contribute to better communication and help keep a better track of the progress of students during distance learning.

It is also necessary to help teachers to engage in practices that have a chance of reducing inequalities 53 , 116 . Particularly important is that teachers and schools ensure that homework can be done by all children, for example, by setting up organizations that would help children whose parents are not in a position to monitor or assist with the homework of their children. Options include homework help groups and tutoring by teachers after class. When schools are open, the growing tendency to set homework through digital media should be resisted as far as possible given the evidence we have reviewed above. Moreover, previous research has underscored the importance of homework feedback provided by teachers, which is positively related to the amount of homework completed and predictive of academic performance 117 . Where homework is web-based, it has also been shown that feedback on web-based homework enhances the learning of students 118 . It therefore seems reasonable to predict that the social class achievement gap will increase more slowly (or even remain constant or be reversed) in schools that establish individualized monitoring of students, by means of regular calls and feedback on homework, compared with schools where the support provided to pupils is more generic.

Given that learning during lockdown has increasingly taken place in family settings, we believe that interventions involving the family are also likely to be effective 119 , 120 , 121 . Simply providing families with suitable material equipment may be insufficient. Families should be given training in the efficient use of digital technology and pedagogical support. This would increase the self-efficacy of parents and students, with positive consequences for achievement. Ideally, such training would be delivered in person to avoid problems arising from the digital divide. Where this is not possible, individualized online tutoring should be provided. For example, studies conducted during the lockdown in Botswana and Italy have shown that individual online tutoring directly targeting either parents or students in middle school has a positive impact on the achievement of students, particularly for working-class students 122 , 123 .

Interventions targeting families should also address the psychological barriers faced by working-class families and children. Some interventions have already been designed and been shown to be effective in reducing the social class achievement gap, particularly in mathematics and language 124 , 125 , 126 . For example, research showed that an intervention designed to train low-income parents in how to support the mathematical development of their pre-kindergarten children (including classes and access to a library of kits to use at home) increased the quality of support provided by the parents, with a corresponding impact on the development of mathematical knowledge of their children. Such interventions should be particularly beneficial in the context of school closure.

Beyond its impact on academic performance and inequalities, the COVID-19 crisis has shaken the economies of countries around the world, casting millions of families around the world into poverty 127 , 128 , 129 . As noted earlier, there has been a marked increase in economic inequalities, bringing with it all the psychological and social problems that such inequalities create 130 , 131 , especially for people who live in scarcity 132 . The increase in educational inequalities is just one facet of the many difficulties that working-class families will encounter in the coming years, but it is one that could seriously limit the chances of their children escaping from poverty by reducing their opportunities for upward mobility. In this context, it should be a priority to concentrate resources on the most deprived students. A large proportion of the poorest households do not own a computer and do not have personal access to the Internet, which has important consequences for distance learning. During school closures, it is therefore imperative to provide such families with adequate equipment and Internet service, as was done in some countries in spring 2020. Even if the provision of such equipment is not in itself sufficient, it is a necessary condition for ensuring pedagogical continuity during lockdown.

Finally, after prolonged periods of school closure, many students may not have acquired the skills needed to pursue their education. A possible consequence would be an increase in the number of students for whom teachers recommend class repetitions. Class repetitions are contentious. On the one hand, class repetition more frequently affects working-class children and is not efficient in terms of learning improvement 133 . On the other hand, accepting lower standards of academic achievement or even suspending the practice of repeating a class could lead to pupils pursuing their education without mastering the key abilities needed at higher grades. This could create difficulties in subsequent years and, in this sense, be counterproductive. We therefore believe that the most appropriate way to limit the damage of the pandemic would be to help children catch up rather than allowing them to continue without mastering the necessary skills. As is being done in some countries, systematic remedial courses (for example, summer learning programmes) should be organized and financially supported following periods of school closure, with priority given to pupils from working-class families. Such interventions have genuine potential in that research has shown that participation in remedial summer programmes is effective in reducing learning loss during the summer break 134 , 135 , 136 . For example, in one study 137 , 438 students from high-poverty schools were offered a multiyear summer school programme that included various pedagogical and enrichment activities (for example, science investigation and music) and were compared with a ‘no-treatment’ control group. Students who participated in the summer programme progressed more than students in the control group. A meta-analysis 138 of 41 summer learning programmes (that is, classroom- and home-based summer interventions) involving children from kindergarten to grade 8 showed that these programmes had significantly larger benefits for children from working-class families. Although such measures are costly, the cost is small compared to the price of failing to fulfil the academic potential of many students simply because they were not born into upper/middle-class families.

The unprecedented nature of the current pandemic means that we lack strong data on what the school closure period is likely to produce in terms of learning deficits and the reproduction of social inequalities. However, the research discussed in this article suggests that there are good reasons to predict that this period of school closures will accelerate the reproduction of social inequalities in educational achievement.

By making school learning less dependent on teachers and more dependent on families and digital tools and resources, school closures are likely to greatly amplify social class inequalities. At a time when many countries are experiencing second, third or fourth waves of the pandemic, resulting in fresh periods of local or general lockdowns, systematic efforts to test these predictions are urgently needed along with steps to reduce the impact of school closures on the social class achievement gap.

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We thank G. Reis for editing the figure. The writing of this manuscript was supported by grant ANR-19-CE28-0007–PRESCHOOL from the French National Research Agency (S.G.).

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Goudeau, S., Sanrey, C., Stanczak, A. et al. Why lockdown and distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to increase the social class achievement gap. Nat Hum Behav 5 , 1273–1281 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01212-7

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MODULAR DISTANCE LEARNING AMIDST OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

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Education is one of the relevant industries caught in the middle of this pandemic and the Philippines has millions of affected learners all over the country. Incidentally, it is necessary to safeguard the education sector through strategies that guarantee the continuous flow of learning integrating online with offline approaches. The researcher aimed to present the difficulties and experiences faced by the learners on Modular Distance Learning. A descriptive, qualitative research was conducted and used an online survey, interview, and observation as tools to gather data and to find out the problems encountered of the learners on this mode of learning. Moore's theory on Transactional Distance Learning served as the framework of analysis and the researcher analyzed the results by thematic coding. A total of 45 learners participated in the online survey and 10 learners participated on online interview. Questions in the survey elicit the situations of the learners and how they managed to study on their own in the absence of learning facilitators to guide them. The result of the survey conducted to section HUMMS 11-Kohlberg determine the accessibility and availability of the gadgets that will be used for modular distance learning, it was revealed that most of the learners' used cellphones to access FB messenger, group chat and google meet for online classes. Learners engaged themselves in understanding the concepts presented in the module as they developed a sense of responsibility in learning on their own and in accomplishing the tasks provided in the module, with limited assistance from the teacher, these learners progress on their own. Today, as the country is at the state of emergency health crisis, these SLMs for Modular Distance Learning were the most convenient, and appropriate to use for our learners to continue learning amidst of Covid-19 pandemic.

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"Remote Learning During the Global School Lockdown: Multi-Country Lessons” and “Remote Learning During COVID-19: Lessons from Today, Principles for Tomorrow"

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The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted education in over 150 countries and affected 1.6 billion students. In response, many countries implemented some form of remote learning. The education response during the early phase of COVID-19 focused on implementing remote learning modalities as an emergency response. These were intended to reach all students but were not always successful. As the pandemic has evolved, so too have education responses. Schools are now partially or fully open in many jurisdictions.

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The reports were developed at different times during the pandemic and are complementary:

The first one follows a qualitative research approach to document the opinions of education experts regarding the effectiveness of remote and remedial learning programs implemented across 17 countries. DOWNLOAD THE FULL REPORT

WHAT ARE THE LESSONS LEARNED OF THE TWIN REPORTS?

• Availability of technology is a necessary but not sufficient condition for effective remote learning: EdTech has been key to keep learning despite the school lockdown, opening new opportunities for delivering education at a scale. However, the impact of technology on education remains a challenge.
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• Research article
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• Published: 21 December 2020

Transitioning to the “new normal” of learning in unpredictable times: pedagogical practices and learning performance in fully online flipped classrooms

• Khe Foon Hew   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4149-533X 1 ,
• Chengyuan Jia 1 ,
• Donn Emmanuel Gonda 1 &
• Shurui Bai 1  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  17 , Article number:  57 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The COVID-19 outbreak has compelled many universities to immediately switch to the online delivery of lessons. Many instructors, however, have found developing effective online lessons in a very short period of time very stressful and difficult. This study describes how we successfully addressed this crisis by transforming two conventional flipped classes into fully online flipped classes with the help of a cloud-based video conferencing app. As in a conventional flipped course, in a fully online flipped course students are encouraged to complete online pre-class work. But unlike in the conventional flipped approach, students do not subsequently meet face-to-face in physical classrooms, but rather online. This study examines the effect of fully online flipped classrooms on student learning performance in two stages. In Stage One, we explain how we drew on the 5E framework to design two conventional flipped classes. The 5E framework consists of five phases—Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate. In Stage Two, we describe how we transformed the two conventional flipped classes into fully online flipped classes. Quantitative analyses of students’ final course marks reveal that the participants in the fully online flipped classes performed as effectively as participants in the conventional flipped learning classes. Our qualitative analyses of student and staff reflection data identify seven good practices for videoconferencing - assisted online flipped classrooms.

Introduction

“It’s now painfully clear that schools ought to have had more robust disaster-preparedness plans in place in the event of interruptions in their campus operations. But because many schools did not have such plans in place…online learning is about to get a bad reputation at many campuses, I suspect.” Michael Horn, cited in Lederman ( 2020 ), ‘Inside Higher Ed’.

In early January 2020, scientists identified a new infectious disease caused by a novel coronavirus. Since then, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused widespread disruptions to schools and universities. According to UNESCO, as of April 10, 2020, more than 188 countries had implemented nationwide school and university closures, impacting over 91% of the world’s student population (UNESCO n.d.).

During these school closures, all face-to-face lessons were cancelled, compelling many institutions, including our own university, to immediately transition from face-to-face in-person learning to completely online lessons. The abrupt switch to fully online learning has been particularly stressful for many instructors and students who prefer in-person instruction. Online learning is often stigmatized as a weaker option that provides a lower quality education than in-person face-to-face learning (Hodges et al. 2020 ). Indeed, such negative attitudes to fully online learning were revealed by a large EDUCAUSE survey (Pomerantz and Brooks 2017 ). The survey of 11,141 faculty members from 131 U.S. institutions found that only 9% of faculty prefer to teach a fully online course. In other words, a whopping 91% of faculty do not wish to teach in a completely online environment. Students’ opinions of fully online courses are not much better; a recent student survey by EDUCAUSE of more than 40,000 students across 118 American universities revealed that as many as 70% of the respondents mostly or completely prefer face-to-face learning environments (Gierdowski 2019 ).

Clearly, many faculty members and students do not see the value of fully online learning, despite the fact that online learning has been around for many decades. During the current health crisis, many instructors have had to improvise quick online learning solutions (Hodges et al. 2020 ). For example, in our own university, there are anecdotal reports of a myriad of emergency online methods. Some instructors, for example, merely uploaded their PowerPoint slides or papers onto a learning management system such as Moodle and asked students to read them on their own. Any questions were asked asynchronously on the Moodle forum. Other instructors recorded their own lectures (usually at least one hour long) and asked students to asynchronously watch the video lectures and then ask individual questions later. Still others talked for more than two hours via synchronous video platforms watched by students in their own homes. Although these online methods may be an efficient method of delivering content, they are not particularly effective in promoting active learning and interest (Bates and Galloway 2012 ). As one student remarked, “Sitting in front of my computer to watch a 2-h live lecture without any active learning activities such as group work is pretty boring!” Indeed, without any active learning activities such as peer interaction, a fully online course will feel more like an interactive book than a classroom (Sutterlin 2018 ).

Well-planned active online learning lessons are markedly different from the emergency online teaching offered in response to a crisis (Hodges et al. 2020 ). One promising strategy for promoting online active learning is the fully online flipped classroom pedagogical approach, hereafter referred to as the online flipped classroom approach. An online flipped classroom is a variant of the conventional flipped model. A conventional flipped classroom model consists of online learning of basic concepts before class, followed by face-to-face learning activities (Bishop and Verleger 2013 ). The conventional flipped model has become very popular in recent years due to its association with active learning, which emphasizes students’ active learning (Xiu and Thompson 2020 ). Active learning activities such as peer discussions can help students construct better understandings of the subject material (Deslauriers et al. 2019 ). Recent meta-analyses have provided consistent overall support for the superiority of the conventional flipped classroom approach over traditional learning for enhancing student learning (e.g., Låg and Sæle 2019 ; Lo and Hew 2019 ; Shi et al. 2019 ; van Alten et al. 2019 ).

The online flipped classroom is similar to the conventional flipped classroom model in that students are encouraged to prepare for class by completing some pre-class activities (e.g., watching video lectures, completing quizzes). However, unlike the conventional flipped classroom approach, students in online flipped classrooms do not meet face-to-face, but online (Stohr et al. 2020 ). Although the online flipped classroom appears to be gathering momentum in higher education, very few studies have examined its effectiveness (for an exception, see Stohr et al. 2020 , who compared the online flipped classroom format with a conventional non-flipped teaching format). So far, we are not cognizant of any research that evaluated the efficacy of the fully online flipped classroom relative to the conventional flipped classroom. Establishing the effectiveness of online flipped classrooms is important, as practitioners need to know whether this active learning approach can be used during prolonged school closures.

Against this backdrop, this study compares the effects of online flipped classrooms versus conventional flipped classrooms on student learning outcomes. To this end, two conventional flipped classes in the Faculty of Education are transformed into online flipped classrooms. Students in both the online and flipped classes participated in the online pre-class activity asynchronously using a learning management system. However, students in the online flipped classes joined the online in-class learning synchronously using a video conferencing app whereas their counterparts in the conventional flipped classes attended face-to-face classes. The online flipped courses were designed using the 5E conceptual framework and used a cloud-based video conferencing app. We used the Zoom application after careful consideration of many different videoconferencing platforms. Our reasons for doing so are given in the Section of “Stage Two: Transforming conventional flipped classes into online flipped classes”.

The 5E framework consists of five phases—Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate (Bybee et al. 2006 ).

Engage—The first phase aims to engage students in the learning process. Methods to engage students usually include using a real-world scenario, or problem, asking students questions that allow them to brainstorm or think critically, and helping them to create connections to their past experiences.

Explore—In the exploration phase, the teacher, who works as a facilitator or coach, gives the students time and opportunity to explore the content and construct their own understanding of the topic at hand.

Explain—This phase starts with students attempting to explain specific aspects of the engagement and exploration experiences. Based on these explanations, the teacher introduces terminology in a direct and explicit manner to facilitate concept building.

Elaborate—In this phase, the teacher provided more detailed information about the subject content through the use of mini lectures and/or whole class discussions. Students are also given the opportunity to apply what they have learned and receive feedback from the teacher and their peers.

Evaluate—Formative assessments (e.g., quizzes) can be used to evaluate students’ mastery of the subject material at the beginning and throughout the 5E phases, and teachers can complete a summative assessment after the elaboration phase (e.g., final exams).

We adopted the 5E framework for the following reasons. First, the 5E framework, which is based on various educational theories and models (e.g., Herbart’s instructional model, Dewey’s instructional model, Atkin-Karplus Learning Cycle) (Bybee et al. 2006 ), provides a sound instructional sequence for designing a course and planning activities. The 5E framework can help instructors organize and integrate both the in-class and out-of-class learning activities (Lo 2017 ).

Second, previous research has shown the positive effect of the 5E framework on student achievement. These positive effects were initially established in science education (e.g., Akar 2005 ; Boddy et al. 2003 ). Recently, the 5E model has yielded positive results when applied to various subject areas and when used to design inquiry- and interaction-based learning activities. Mullins ( 2017 ), for example, found that undergraduate students in a 5E-supported class outperformed their peers in a traditional lecture setting. Hew et al. ( 2018 ) designed two postgraduate courses based on the 5E model in order to foster students’ active learning. Ninety-two percent of the participants agreed that the 5E supported courses were more engaging than traditional classroom instruction.

The rest of this paper is structured as follows. First, we describe our study design and methodology. This is followed by a description of our two stages of research. In Stage One, we explain how we use the 5E framework to design our two conventional flipped classes; In Stage Two, we describe how we transformed the two conventional flipped classes into fully online flipped classes, using a cloud-based video conferencing app. We describe the various pedagogical practices that Zoom videoconferencing can facilitate before and during online flipped classes. In this paper, we use the term “pedagogical practices” to refer to specific activities that are used to structure teaching and learning. This study is guided by the following two questions.

What effect does the change from a conventional flipped classroom format to an online flipped format have on student learning performance?

What are the good practices for videoconferencing - assisted online flipped classrooms, as perceived by students and/or teaching staff?

This study was conducted in a large public Asian university. Four classes were involved: (a) conventional flipped Course 1, (b) conventional flipped Course 2, (c) online flipped Course 1, and (d) online flipped Course 2. Conventional flipped Courses 1 and 2 were the control group. Online flipped Courses 1 and 2 were the experimental group. To avoid any potential instructor confounding bias, the same professor and teaching assistants (TAs) taught the conventional and online flipped formats of each class. Ethical approval to conduct the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board at the University of Hong Kong and consent forms from all participants in the study were collected.

Data collection and analysis

To reiterate, this study had two purposes: (a) to determine the effect of an online flipped classroom on student learning performance as determined by student final course marks, and (b) to determine good practices for videoconferencing - assisted online flipped classrooms, as perceived by the participants (students and teaching staff). We adopted a mixed methods involving quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide a deeper understanding of the research problem (Ivankova et al. 2006 ).

The data collection spanned across two semesters, which corresponded to the aforementioned two stages of the research. The conventional flipped classes were implemented in conventional flipped Courses 1 and 2 during the semester of 2019 Fall before the pandemic (Stage One). Due to the outbreak of Covid-19, all courses were required to be delivered online in our university in the 2020 Spring semester. Therefore, the online flipped classes were conducted in online flipped Courses 1 and 2 during the pandemic in 2020 Spring (Stage Two). Students’ knowledge and skills of the course content were checked at the beginning of the each course. Students final course marks in each course were collected and used as measure of the student learning outcomes at the end of the semester (See Fig.  1 for the research timeline).

Timeline of data collection: 2019 Fall (before the pandemic), 2020 Spring (during the pandemic)

To address the first purpose, we compared the students’ final course marks in the online flipped classrooms and conventional flipped classrooms. Quantitative data from 99 students were collected (see Table 1 ). We used the students’ final course marks to measure performance.

To identify the perceived good practices for videoconferencing - assisted online flipped classrooms, we invited students and the teaching staff to complete a self-reflection exercise based on the following question: “What do you perceive as good practices in a videoconferencing-supported online flipped classroom?” The qualitative data collected from students and instructors were analyzed as follows. The first step was an initial reading of all of the response data to obtain an overall impression. The first author then applied the grounded approach (Strauss and Corbin 1990 ) to the qualitative data to generate relevant codes. Similar codes were organized into themes. In order to increase the consistency of coding, several exemplary quotes that clearly illustrated each constructed theme were identified. We also allowed new themes (if any) to emerge inductively during the coding process. The second author coded the data. There was perfect agreement with the coding. Table 2 summarizes how the data for each research question were collected and analyzed.

Stage one: designing conventional flipped classes using the 5E framework

In this section, we first describe how we use the 5E framework to design our two conventional flipped classes (Course 1: E-Learning Strategies , and Course 2: Engaging Adult Learners ). In the next section, we describe how we transform these two conventional flipped classes into fully online flipped classes. Figure  2 shows the 5E framework that guided our design of the conventional flipped classes. Table 3 shows some of the teaching and learning activities used in each of the 5E phases.

5E framework used to design the two conventional flipped classes

Conventional flipped course 1: E-learning strategies

This course discussed the various e-learning strategies that can be employed to foster six types of learning, including problem-solving, attitude learning, factual learning, concept learning, procedural learning, and principle learning. There were eight sessions in the course. The first seven sessions were flipped—each consisting of an online pre-class learning component and a 3-h face-to-face in-class component. The last session was devoted to students’ presentations. Figure  3 shows an example of how the 5E framework was used in Course 1.

Example of a pre-class activity in Course 1

For instance, in the pre-class phase of Session 2: Instructional Design—Part 1 , we posted a video that posed the question “What do we mean by ‘understand’”. This video engaged students’ curiosity about the importance of writing clear and measurable learning objectives. The instructor in the video highlighted the pitfalls of using vague words such as “know” and “understand” when writing learning objectives. Students then explored and explained their own individual learning objectives using the ABCD model (audience, behavior, condition, degree). Students were able to use a mobile instant messaging (MIM) app such as WeChat to ask questions of their peers or instructor. When a message arrived, a notification appeared on the receiver’s phone screen, encouraging timely feedback and frequent interaction (Rosenfeld et al. 2018 ).

During the face-to-face in-class session, the instructor re-engaged students’ attention by discussing basic instructional design issues such as “How do we write good lesson objectives?” The instructor conducted short debriefing sessions to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of students’ pre-class work. The instructor also facilitated class or small group discussions to build students’ understanding of how to write measurable lesson objectives that help students to achieve specific learning outcomes (e.g., factual learning). These discussions allowed students to elaborate on good lesson objectives practices. To evaluate the students’ understanding, the instructor asked them to work in groups of four on an instructional design scenario (e.g., teaching participants how to deal with angry customers), and then write a learning objective for the lesson in an online forum; their peers then commented on the posted learning objectives (Fig.  4 ).

Example of an in-class activity in Course 1

Conventional flipped course 2: engaging adult learners

This course discussed the key principles of adult learning, as well as strategies used in adult education (e.g., transformational learning theory). There were eight sessions in the course, each session lasted three hours. An example of how the 5E instructional model was used is shown in Fig.  5 .

Example of a pre-class activity in Course 2

For example, in the pre-class session for Session 3: Motivation, we uploaded a four-minute video that briefly described the concepts of reinforcement and punishment. The aim of the video was to engage students’ attention on the focal topic. To help students explore the topic in further, they were asked to respond to the following question: “After watching the video, can you think of other positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers, and punishment methods?” Students posted their opinions ( explained ) on a discussion forum. Students also used the WeChat app to ask questions of their peers or instructor.

During the subsequent face-to-face lesson (Fig.  6 ), the instructor facilitated whole class discussions using relevant questions to elaborate on the topics covered in the pre-class video. An example of a question used was ‘When should we employ positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, or punishment?’ Based on the students’ responses, the instructor was able to provide more in-depth explanation of the subject matter, or correct any student misunderstanding. This will help enhance students’ comprehension of the subject content. The instructor also discussed the notion of intrinsic motivation (e.g., the self-determination theory). In addition to elaborating on the content, the instructor also evaluated the students’ understanding by asking students to complete small group discussion activities. An example of a small group discussion activity was ‘Did you have any experience where you did not like learning a subject or doing an activity? How would you motivate yourself in that situation? Please try to use a mixture of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors.’ Upon completion of the small group activity, students from each group presented their views to the whole class. The instructor, as well as the rest of the classmates provided feedback.

Example of an in-class activity in Course 2

Stage two: transforming conventional flipped classes into online flipped classes

The outbreak of COVID-19 inspired us to transform the two conventional flipped classes discussed above into fully online flipped classes. After careful consideration, the Zoom videoconferencing app was used for the synchronized online meetings (see Table 4 ). The whole transformation process took about one week with the bulk of the time was spent on exploring and testing the features of Zoom.

Zoom is a Web videoconferencing service that allows users to communicate online with individuals in real time via computer, tablet, or mobile device. We chose Zoom because of its ease of use (Kim 2017 ; Sutterlin 2018 ), its lower bandwidth requirements (Sutterlin 2018 ), and its ability to record and store sessions without recourse to third-party software (Archibald et al. 2019 ). More importantly, Zoom was chosen because its functions could easily support the implementation of our online flipped classroom. For instance, it allows instructors to easily create breakout rooms for group discussions. It also makes team-teaching possible by allowing more than one host and giving all of the hosts administrative capabilities such as sharing screens and remote control over shared screens (Johnston 2020 ).

To keep our online meetings secure, we activated the “ only authenticated users can join ” option. Specifically, we only allowed participants using our own university’s email domain to join the online meetings. In addition, we enabled the “ waiting room ” feature so that we could screen all of participants in the “ waiting room ” and admit only students officially enrolled in our classes into the online meeting. After all of the participants had entered, we then locked the meeting using the “ Lock the meeting ” feature. Once we had locked a meeting, no new participants could join.

The same learning materials used in the conventional flipped classes were used in the online flipped classes. Table 4 shows some of the teaching and learning activities. Students in the online flipped classes completed pre-class activities that were similar to those used in the conventional flipped classes, but these were not followed by face-to-face meetings, but by online meetings conducted on the Zoom videoconferencing app.

Online flipped course 1: E-learning strategies

Like the conventional flipped course, the online flipped Course 1 consisted of eight sessions. The first seven sessions were flipped—students were encouraged to complete a set of pre-class sessions asynchronously (similar to Fig.  3 ). Students also used the WeChat MIM app to ask questions of their peers or instructors. However, unlike the conventional flipped approach, the “in-class” session for the online flipped students was conducted completely online through Zoom videoconferencing. In the final session (Session 8), the online flipped students also presented their work on Zoom. Each online “in-class” session lasted three hours—similar in duration to the in-class component of the conventional flipped format.

In the online synchronous “in-class” sessions, the instructor started by reminding students to switch on their webcams and to mute their microphones when not speaking. Next, the instructor lead a short class debriefing session to elaborate on the materials covered in the pre-class session. This was similar to the structure of the conventional flipped class format. For example, the instructor might discuss the students’ completed pre-class work and highlight the overall strengths and weaknesses. The main purpose of these short debriefing sessions was to clarify students’ initial doubts or misconceptions. Following the debriefing sessions, the instructor facilitated class discussions that delved deeper into the subject content. To evaluate students’ understanding of the materials, students were asked to work individually or participate in small group discussions on specific questions similar to those used in the conventional flipped classes. Students then presented their work online to the whole class, and received peer and instructor feedback.

To engage the participants, the instructor used a number of features of the Zoom videoconferencing system. For example, the instructor posed questions during the whole class discussion and used the polling feature to rapidly collect and analyze student responses. The polling feature provided a function similar to a clicker or student response system. Based on the poll results, the instructor then addressed students’ misunderstandings. To enable small group discussions, the instructor used the breakout rooms feature of Zoom . Each student was assigned to one of several groups. Each group consisted of four to five students. Other students could not “drop” into other groups, but the instructor could drop into any group and participate in the discussions. When it was time for the small groups to return to the whole class, students would receive a time indicator reminding them that they were rejoining the whole class. Table 5 shows how the specific features of Zoom helped support the online “in-class” teaching and learning activities. Figure  7 illustrates some of the Zoom features used in the course.

Examples of Zoom features used in Course 1

Online flipped course 2: engaging adult learners

Similar to the conventional flipped course, the online flipped course had eight sessions. The pre-class and in-class activities used in the conventional flipped course were also used in the online flipped course (see Fig.  5 for an example of a pre-class activity). Students also used the WeChat MIM app to ask questions of their peers or instructors. The last three sessions were used for students’ online presentations via videoconferencing. Each online “in-class” session lasted three hours—similar in duration to the in-class component of the conventional flipped class. In the online synchronous “in-class” sessions, the instructor reminded students to switch on their webcams and to mute their microphones when not speaking. The instructor used the features of the Zoom videoconferencing system shown in Table 5 and Fig.  7 .

Results and discussion

Conventional flipped versus online flipped course 1: e-learning strategies.

To address Research Question 1, the learning outcomes of students in the conventional flipped Course 1 and the online flipped Course 1 were measured and compared. The main purpose of both courses was to teach students the skills needed to create an e-learning storyboard and to develop a fully online course based on the 5E framework on Moodle. At the beginning of both the conventional flipped and online flipped classes, students were surveyed if they had any experience creating storyboards or fully online courses. None of the students had any such prior experience. Therefore, we assumed that both groups of students had similar levels of prior knowledge/skill. Next, we used both groups of students’ final course marks as a measure of the student learning outcomes. The maximum final marks in the final assessment was 100.

We first checked the normality of the final course marks data. If there were a significant deviation from normality, the Mann–Whitney U would be the most appropriate test for comparing the groups; otherwise, an independent samples t -test would be appropriate. The results showed that the course marks for both the conventional flipped ( W (23) = 0.920, p  = 0.068) and online flipped classes ( W (26) = 0.964, p  = 0.479) were normally distributed, as assessed by the Shapiro–Wilk’s test. There was also homogeneity in the variances for the course marks, as assessed by Levene’s test for equality of variances ( p  = 0.652). In addition, there were no outliers in the data, as assessed by an inspection of the boxplots (Fig.  8 ).

The boxplots of final marks in Course 1 for conventional flipped class and online flipped class

An independent-samples t -test was therefore conducted to determine if there were differences in the final marks of the conventional flipped and online flipped classes. The results suggested that online flipped participants ( M  = 66.00, SD = 11.63) performed as effectively as participants in the conventional flipped learning format ( M  = 65.04, SD = 11.80), t (47) = 0.285, p  = 0.777.

Conventional flipped versus online flipped course 2: engaging adult learners

The main purpose of both the conventional flipped and online flipped Engaging Adult Learners courses was to introduce students to the key characteristics of adult learners, the key principles of adult learning, and strategies for adult education. First, to test if there were any initial differences in students’ prior knowledge of the course content, a short quiz was administered to both groups at the start of the semester. The Mann–Whitney U test found no significant initial differences between the conventional flipped group ( Mdn  = 0) and the online flipped group ( Mdn  = 0.5), U  = 218.5, p  = 0.06.

Next, we used the students’ final course marks as a measure of the student learning outcomes. The final assessment included individual written reflections on course topics and relevant articles, and a group demonstration of an adult-teaching strategy. The maximum final marks for the final assessment was 100. As in the above analysis, we first checked the normality of the final course mark data. The course marks for both the conventional flipped and online flipped classes were normally distributed, as assessed by Shapiro–Wilk’s test: W (25) = 0.963, p  = 0.470 for the conventional flipped course and W (24) = 0.930, p  = 0.096 for the online flipped course. There was also a homogeneity of variances, as assessed by Levene’s test for equality of variances ( p  = 0.304). In addition, there were no outliers in the data, as assessed by an inspection of the boxplots (Fig.  9 ).

The boxplots of final marks in Course 2 for conventional flipped class and online flipped class

We subsequently carried out an independent-samples t-test to examine if there was any significant difference in the final course marks of the conventional flipped and online flipped classes. The results suggested that online flipped learning participants ( M  = 83.25, SD = 4.56) performed as effectively as participants in the conventional flipped learning classes ( M  = 83.40, SD = 5.51), t (47) = 0.104, p  = 0.918.

What are the good practices for videoconferencing-assisted online flipped classrooms, as perceived by students and/or teaching staff?

The analyses of the participants’ comments identified the following seven good practices for videoconferencing-assisted online flipped classrooms.

Remind participants to mute their microphones when not speaking to eliminate undesirable background noise . According to Gazzillo ( 2018 ), muting participants’ microphones allows the speaker to have center stage while eliminating the distraction of audio feedback. As one teaching staff member said, .

It’s a good practice at the beginning to mute all of the participants by selecting the “Mute All” button at the bottom of the participants panel. This will eliminate all background noise (e.g., television sounds, audio feedback). I will then ask the participants to turn their audio back on if they wish to talk

In terms of Zoom functionality, by pressing and holding the “space bar” allows the participants to temporarily switch on their microphone. We also ask the participants to install an AI-enabled application called “Krisp” to minimize the background noise of the participants.

Remind participants before the online “in-class” session begins to switch on their webcams . Webcams show a person’s face to other people on the video call, which can help to increase online social presence among classmates (Conrad and Donaldson 2011 ). Online social presence is positively correlated with student satisfaction and student perceived learning (Richardson et al. 2017 ). The participants also strongly prefer to see a face during instruction as it is perceived as more educational (Kizilcec et al. 2014 ). Students’ facial expressions are also a valuable source of feedback for the instructor to know whether the students could understand the subject matter (Sathik and Jonathan 2013 ). An instructor can use students’ facial expressions to determine whether to speed up, or slow down, or provide further elaborations. Feedback from the teaching staff included the following comments.

It is important to ask students to turn on their cameras. Students will be more focused and interactive and teaching will be better when teachers can see students’ responses.

As an instructor, I do not feel as if I’m talking to a wall when I can see some actual faces. Students also feel they are talking to someone rather than to an empty black screen. But it’s important to inform the students in advance to switch on their webcams so that they can do their hair properly or put on makeup beforehand—this was what some students actually told me!

During teaching, seeing your students' faces will give you another form of feedback. For example, when they look confused or nod their heads, it allows me to fine-tune the delivery of the content. These reactions give me visual feedback on whether I need further explanations or examples to elaborate on the topic.

Feedback from the students included the following comments.

Showing our faces is really helpful as we can see our classmates’ faces and remember them. Also, it makes the class more alive because we can see their expressions. Showing our faces is very helpful! It can make me feel like I’m in a real class! I enjoy the feeling of having a class with my classmates.

Turning on the camera helps us be more attentive in the online class.

To avoid showing any undesirable background objects (e.g., a messy bedroom) during the video meeting, participants can choose to replace their actual background with a virtual background. The participants can easily do this using the Zoom virtual background feature.

Manage the transition to the online flipped classroom approach for students . Not every student will be familiar with the videoconferencing app or the flipped classroom approach. Therefore, to promote student buy-in of this new pedagogical approach, it is important for the staff to directly address two main issues: (a) the structure and activities of the online flipped course, and (b) the functions of the video conferencing app. Feedback from the students included the following comments.

If teachers would like to use some functions in Zoom, they need to first help students get familiar with it. A brief introduction to Zoom at the beginning of the class is helpful.

First, I informed the students that these two courses would have two components: a pre-class session and an online “in-class” session. This helped students understand the flipped approach better. Next, my teaching assistant and I conducted a short introduction to using Zoom online before the class began. This helped students get familiar with the features we would be using in Zoom.

Constant fine-tuning is also a key element in managing the transition to the online flipped classroom. Asking the students what works and what doesn’t have become our practice every after the lesson. These comments allow us to rethink and re-plan for the next online synchronous session.

Feedback from the teaching staff included the following comments.

Having a technical-related orientation session before the actual class starts helps a lot for students who are not familiar with the videoconferencing tool.

Instructors should use dual monitors to simulate, as close as possible, the look and feel of a face-to-face class—one monitor to view all the participants in “gallery view,” and the other to view the presentation material . It is very useful for instructors and teaching assistants to use the dual-monitor display function, which allows the video layout and screen share content to be presented on two separate monitors. One monitor can be used to view the participants (up to 49) in “gallery view,” and the other to display the presentation materials. In the “gallery view,” the instructor can see thumbnail displays of all of the participants in a grid pattern that expands and contracts automatically as participants join and leave the meeting (Zoom Video Communications 2019 ). The use of a dual monitor feature is also useful for PowerPoint presentations and hiding notes from the participants. Feedback from the teaching staff included:

During the preparation for this course, we would like to simulate, as close as possible, the look and feel of a face-to-face class. This thinking brought us to the dual monitor layout for our Zoom sessions. The first monitor is for the teaching assistant; in this case, it acts as a co-host for the Zoom session. The teaching assistant extends the computer screen to a monitor to show the participants’ faces or the “gallery view.” This monitor acts as a “classroom” in the traditional face-to-face class. During the session, this first monitor also serves as a tool for classroom management. This view is where the “chat” and “raise hand” functions can be seen. The second monitor is where the instructor places the presentation materials. This view acts as the projector in the traditional face-to-face class. Occasionally, we added a third screen, which is an iPad to do real-time annotation. This iPad can is a replacement of the conventional “whiteboard” in a face-to-face class.

Activate and evaluate students’ pre-class learning with a short review. At the beginning of the online “in-class” sessions, instructors should use short formative assessment methods (e.g., a quiz) to activate and evaluate students’ understanding of the pre-class activities. The activation of prior learning enhances student learning because it is the foundation for the new material presented in the classroom (Merrill 2002 ). Indeed, recent meta-analyses have suggested that flipped learning is more effective when formative assessments (e.g., quizzes or reviews) are used before and/or during class time (e.g., Hew and Lo 2018 ; Låg and Sæle 2019 ; Lo et al. 2017 ; van Alten et al. 2019 ). Students in this study reported positive benefits of using short formative assessments such as reviews or quizzes. Examples of student feedback include the following comments.

I find the reviews at the beginning of the “in-class” sessions very helpful! It’s good to start from something we are familiar with, and then go to the new materials. The reviewing of pre-class work is great because we can know what points we do not understand well and how we can improve.

The reviews helped me understand the issue more deeply. I could find out what my misunderstandings of the content are.

I find the teachers’ explanation and review of the pre-class work helpful.

Use an MIM app on mobile phones to foster quicker online response times and to communicate with students during their online breakout sessions . Although students can ask questions via discussion forums or email, the asynchronicity of these apps creates a time lag between postings and replies which can discourage students from communicating with each other (Hew et al. 2018 ). In contrast, MIM apps such as WhatsApp and WeChat allow users to engage in quasi synchronous communications on their mobile phones. When communication needs are urgent, many students may only have their phones available. As soon as an MIM message is sent, a notification automatically shows up on the user’s phone screen, which encourages timely response (Hew et al. 2018 ; Rosenfeld et al. 2018 ). In addition, MIM is more popular than voice calls, emails, and even face-to-face communication among young people (Lenhart et al. 2010 ). As of March 2019, more than 41 million mobile instant messages are sent every minute (Clement 2019 ). Student feedback on using MIM in classrooms included the following comments.

I like using MIM such as WeChat because it allows us to communicate with other people immediately.

I enjoy using WeChat to ask questions and get immediate feedback from my classmates and teaching staff.

Use a variety of presentation media as well as a variety of activities to sustain student interest . No matter how interested a learner is in the topic of a presentation or discussion, that interest will wane in the face of monotony (Driscoll 2000 ). Therefore, it is recommended that instructors sustain student interest by varying the use of presentation media. Instructors, for example, can alternate the use of PowerPoint slides with digital handwriting on an iPad. The instructor in this study made the following comments.

I find continual use of PowerPoint slides to be boring. It’s always the same style: a bullet list of information with some animations or pictures. I find it useful to sustain my students’ attention by writing on an iPad.

Comments from the students were also positive.

I find the instructor writing on an iPad helps to focus my attention better than PowerPoint slides.

Writing on the iPad is like writing on a whiteboard in real face-to-face classrooms. It helps me develop a better understanding of the topic.

Digital writing on an iPad can help learners see the progressive development of the subject content (Hulls 2005 ), and follow the instructor’s cognitive process better than pre-prepared PowerPoint presentations (Lee and Lim 2013 ). Writing on an iPad can also enable an instructor to immediately adjust his or her instruction in response to the students’ needs. Using digital writing can significantly improve students’ understanding of conceptual knowledge when compared to PowerPoint-based presentation lectures (Lee and Lim 2013 ).

In addition to varying the presentation media, an instructor should also use different activities, including guest speakers, during the online class session. Feedback from the students included the following comments.

The use of different functions in Zoom, such as breakout rooms for group activities, voting, and raising hands, is useful because they help us to be involved. It helps increase the learner-learner and learner-instructor interaction, which may be lacking in a fully online class.

During the three-hour online class, we had not only the teacher’s explanations, but also had a guest speaker and online group discussions via breakout rooms, which made the class engaging.

In this study, the instructor invited a United Kingdom-based practicing instructional designer as a guest speaker in the two online flipped courses to talk about her experience in developing e-learning courses and engaging adult learners. Guest speakers enhance students’ educational experience by giving them real-world knowledge (Metrejean and Zarzeski 2001 ). Guest speakers can offer students a different point of view, one that students may better understand. Guest speakers can also alleviate the monotony of listening to a single instructor.

Amidst the burgeoning use of online learning during the unpredictable present, this study evaluates the efficacy of a videoconferencing - supported fully online flipped classroom. It compares student outcomes in four higher education classes: conventional flipped Course 1 versus online flipped Course 1, and conventional flipped Course 2 versus online flipped Course 2. Overall, this study makes three contributions to the literature on flipped classrooms. First, it provides a thick description of the development of the conventional flipped classroom approach based on the 5E framework, and the transformation of the conventional flipped classroom into a fully online flipped classroom. A thick description of the development of the flipped classrooms is provided to encourage replication by other researchers and practitioners. Second, our findings reveal that the online flipped classroom approach can be as effective as the conventional flipped classroom. Third, we identify seven good practices for using videoconferencing to support online flipped classrooms. This set of good practices can provide useful guidelines for other instructors who might be interested in implementing an online flipped approach.

One potential limitation of our study is that it was relatively short in duration (8 weeks). However, according to Fraenkel et al. ( 2014 ), some researchers do collect data within a fairly short time. A short-term data collection period enables researchers to collect and analyze data to see if an intervention is workable before committing to a longer study (Creswell 2015 ). We therefore urge future researchers to examine the use of videoconferencing - supported online flipped classrooms over a longer period of time, such as one year or more, to verify the results of this study.

Another interesting area for future work will be examining how instructors can support learners’ self-regulation during online flipped classroom (Cheng et al. 2019 ), as well as what strategies can best motivate students to complete the pre-class work.

Availability of data and materials

The anonymized datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Hew, K.F., Jia, C., Gonda, D.E. et al. Transitioning to the “new normal” of learning in unpredictable times: pedagogical practices and learning performance in fully online flipped classrooms. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 17 , 57 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00234-x

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Study Protocol

Assessing the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic, shift to online learning, and social media use on the mental health of college students in the Philippines: A mixed-method study protocol

Roles Funding acquisition, Writing – original draft

Affiliation College of Medicine, University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines

Roles Methodology, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Department of Clinical Epidemiology, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines, Institute of Clinical Epidemiology, National Institutes of Health, University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines

Roles Methodology

Affiliation Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

• Leonard Thomas S. Lim, 
• Zypher Jude G. Regencia, 
• J. Rem C. Dela Cruz, 
• Frances Dominique V. Ho, 
• Marcela S. Rodolfo, 
• Josefina Ly-Uson, 
• Emmanuel S. Baja

• Published: May 3, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267555
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic declared by the WHO has affected many countries rendering everyday lives halted. In the Philippines, the lockdown quarantine protocols have shifted the traditional college classes to online. The abrupt transition to online classes may bring psychological effects to college students due to continuous isolation and lack of interaction with fellow students and teachers. Our study aims to assess Filipino college students’ mental health status and to estimate the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic, the shift to online learning, and social media use on mental health. In addition, facilitators or stressors that modified the mental health status of the college students during the COVID-19 pandemic, quarantine, and subsequent shift to online learning will be investigated.

Methods and analysis

Mixed-method study design will be used, which will involve: (1) an online survey to 2,100 college students across the Philippines; and (2) randomly selected 20–40 key informant interviews (KIIs). Online self-administered questionnaire (SAQ) including Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21) and Brief-COPE will be used. Moreover, socio-demographic factors, social media usage, shift to online learning factors, family history of mental health and COVID-19, and other factors that could affect mental health will also be included in the SAQ. KIIs will explore factors affecting the student’s mental health, behaviors, coping mechanism, current stressors, and other emotional reactions to these stressors. Associations between mental health outcomes and possible risk factors will be estimated using generalized linear models, while a thematic approach will be made for the findings from the KIIs. Results of the study will then be triangulated and summarized.

Ethics and dissemination

Our study has been approved by the University of the Philippines Manila Research Ethics Board (UPMREB 2021-099-01). The results will be actively disseminated through conference presentations, peer-reviewed journals, social media, print and broadcast media, and various stakeholder activities.

Citation: Lim LTS, Regencia ZJG, Dela Cruz JRC, Ho FDV, Rodolfo MS, Ly-Uson J, et al. (2022) Assessing the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic, shift to online learning, and social media use on the mental health of college students in the Philippines: A mixed-method study protocol. PLoS ONE 17(5): e0267555. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267555

Editor: Elisa Panada, UNITED KINGDOM

Received: June 9, 2021; Accepted: April 11, 2022; Published: May 3, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Lim et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: This project is being supported by the American Red Cross through the Philippine Red Cross and Red Cross Youth. The funder will not have a role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak as a global pandemic, and the Philippines is one of the 213 countries affected by the disease [ 1 ]. To reduce the virus’s transmission, the President imposed an enhanced community quarantine in Luzon, the country’s northern and most populous island, on March 16, 2020. This lockdown manifested as curfews, checkpoints, travel restrictions, and suspension of business and school activities [ 2 ]. However, as the virus is yet to be curbed, varying quarantine restrictions are implemented across the country. In addition, schools have shifted to online learning, despite financial and psychological concerns [ 3 ].

Previous outbreaks such as the swine flu crisis adversely influenced the well-being of affected populations, causing them to develop emotional problems and raising the importance of integrating mental health into medical preparedness for similar disasters [ 4 ]. In one study conducted on university students during the swine flu pandemic in 2009, 45% were worried about personally or a family member contracting swine flu, while 10.7% were panicking, feeling depressed, or emotionally disturbed. This study suggests that preventive measures to alleviate distress through health education and promotion are warranted [ 5 ].

During the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers worldwide have been churning out studies on its psychological effects on different populations [ 6 – 9 ]. The indirect effects of COVID-19, such as quarantine measures, the infection of family and friends, and the death of loved ones, could worsen the overall mental wellbeing of individuals [ 6 ]. Studies from 2020 to 2021 link the pandemic to emotional disturbances among those in quarantine, even going as far as giving vulnerable populations the inclination to commit suicide [ 7 , 8 ], persistent effect on mood and wellness [ 9 ], and depression and anxiety [ 10 ].

In the Philippines, a survey of 1,879 respondents measuring the psychological effects of COVID-19 during its early phase in 2020 was released. Results showed that one-fourth of respondents reported moderate-to-severe anxiety, while one-sixth reported moderate-to-severe depression [ 11 ]. In addition, other local studies in 2020 examined the mental health of frontline workers such as nurses and physicians—placing emphasis on the importance of psychological support in minimizing anxiety [ 12 , 13 ].

Since the first wave of the pandemic in 2020, risk factors that could affect specific populations’ psychological well-being have been studied [ 14 , 15 ]. A cohort study on 1,773 COVID-19 hospitalized patients in 2021 found that survivors were mainly troubled with fatigue, muscle weakness, sleep difficulties, and depression or anxiety [ 16 ]. Their results usually associate the crisis with fear, anxiety, depression, reduced sleep quality, and distress among the general population.

Moreover, the pandemic also exacerbated the condition of people with pre-existing psychiatric disorders, especially patients that live in high COVID-19 prevalence areas [ 17 ]. People suffering from mood and substance use disorders that have been infected with COVID-19 showed higher suicide risks [ 7 , 18 ]. Furthermore, a study in 2020 cited the following factors contributing to increased suicide risk: social isolation, fear of contagion, anxiety, uncertainty, chronic stress, and economic difficulties [ 19 ].

Globally, multiple studies have shown that mental health disorders among university student populations are prevalent [ 13 , 20 – 22 ]. In a 2007 survey of 2,843 undergraduate and graduate students at a large midwestern public university in the United States, the estimated prevalence of any depressive or anxiety disorder was 15.6% and 13.0% for undergraduate and graduate students, respectively [ 20 ]. Meanwhile, in a 2013 study of 506 students from 4 public universities in Malaysia, 27.5% and 9.7% had moderate and severe or extremely severe depression, respectively; 34% and 29% had moderate and severe or extremely severe anxiety, respectively [ 21 ]. In China, a 2016 meta-analysis aiming to establish the national prevalence of depression among university students analyzed 39 studies from 1995 to 2015; the meta-analysis found that the overall prevalence of depression was 23.8% across all studies that included 32,694 Chinese university students [ 23 ].

A college student’s mental status may be significantly affected by the successful fulfillment of a student’s role. A 2013 study found that acceptable teaching methods can enhance students’ satisfaction and academic performance, both linked to their mental health [ 24 ]. However, online learning poses multiple challenges to these methods [ 3 ]. Furthermore, a 2020 study found that students’ mental status is affected by their social support systems, which, in turn, may be jeopardized by the COVID-19 pandemic and the physical limitations it has imposed. Support accessible to a student through social ties to other individuals, groups, and the greater community is a form of social support; university students may draw social support from family, friends, classmates, teachers, and a significant other [ 25 , 26 ]. Among individuals undergoing social isolation and distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, social support has been found to be inversely related to depression, anxiety, irritability, sleep quality, and loneliness, with higher levels of social support reducing the risk of depression and improving sleep quality [ 27 ]. Lastly, it has been shown in a 2020 study that social support builds resilience, a protective factor against depression, anxiety, and stress [ 28 ]. Therefore, given the protective effects of social support on psychological health, a supportive environment should be maintained in the classroom. Online learning must be perceived as an inclusive community and a safe space for peer-to-peer interactions [ 29 ]. This is echoed in another study in 2019 on depressed students who narrated their need to see themselves reflected on others [ 30 ]. Whether or not online learning currently implemented has successfully transitioned remains to be seen.

The effect of social media on students’ mental health has been a topic of interest even before the pandemic [ 31 , 32 ]. A systematic review published in 2020 found that social media use is responsible for aggravating mental health problems and that prominent risk factors for depression and anxiety include time spent, activity, and addiction to social media [ 31 ]. Another systematic review published in 2016 argues that the nature of online social networking use may be more important in influencing the symptoms of depression than the duration or frequency of the engagement—suggesting that social rumination and comparison are likely to be candidate mediators in the relationship between depression and social media [ 33 ]. However, their findings also suggest that the relationship between depression and online social networking is complex and necessitates further research to determine the impact of moderators and mediators that underly the positive and negative impact of online social networking on wellbeing [ 33 ].

Despite existing studies already painting a picture of the psychological effects of COVID-19 in the Philippines, to our knowledge, there are still no local studies contextualized to college students living in different regions of the country. Therefore, it is crucial to elicit the reasons and risk factors for depression, stress, and anxiety and determine the potential impact that online learning and social media use may have on the mental health of the said population. In turn, the findings would allow the creation of more context-specific and regionalized interventions that can promote mental wellness during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Materials and methods

The study’s general objective is to assess the mental health status of college students and determine the different factors that influenced them during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, it aims:

• To describe the study population’s characteristics, categorized by their mental health status, which includes depression, anxiety, and stress.
• To determine the prevalence and risk factors of depression, anxiety, and stress among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic, quarantine, and subsequent shift to online learning.
• To estimate the effect of social media use on depression, anxiety, stress, and coping strategies towards stress among college students and examine whether participant characteristics modified these associations.
• To estimate the effect of online learning shift on depression, anxiety, stress, and coping strategies towards stress among college students and examine whether participant characteristics modified these associations.
• To determine the facilitators or stressors among college students that modified their mental health status during the COVID-19 pandemic, quarantine, and subsequent shift to online learning.

Study design

A mixed-method study design will be used to address the study’s objectives, which will include Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and an online survey. During the quarantine period of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines from April to November 2021, the study shall occur with the population amid community quarantine and an abrupt transition to online classes. Since this is the Philippines’ first study that will look at the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic, quarantine, and subsequent shift to online learning, the online survey will be utilized for the quantitative part of the study design. For the qualitative component of the study design, KIIs will determine facilitators or stressors among college students that modified their mental health status during the quarantine period.

Study population

The Red Cross Youth (RCY), one of the Philippine Red Cross’s significant services, is a network of youth volunteers that spans the entire country, having active members in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The group is clustered into different age ranges, with the College Red Cross Youth (18–25 years old) being the study’s population of interest. The RCY has over 26,060 students spread across 20 chapters located all over the country’s three major island groups. The RCY is heterogeneously composed, with some members classified as college students and some as out-of-school youth. Given their nationwide scope, disseminating information from the national to the local level is already in place; this is done primarily through email, social media platforms, and text blasts. The research team will leverage these platforms to distribute the online survey questionnaire.

In addition, the online survey will also be open to non-members of the RCY. It will be disseminated through social media and engagements with different university administrators in the country. Stratified random sampling will be done for the KIIs. The KII participants will be equally coming from the country’s four (4) primary areas: 5–10 each from the national capital region (NCR), Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, including members and non-members of the RCY.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The inclusion criteria for the online survey will include those who are 18–25 years old, currently enrolled in a university, can provide consent for the study, and are proficient in English or Filipino. The exclusion criteria will consist of those enrolled in graduate-level programs (e.g., MD, JD, Master’s, Doctorate), out-of-school youth, and those whose current curricula involve going on duty (e.g., MDs, nursing students, allied medical professions, etc.). The inclusion criteria for the KIIs will include online survey participants who are 18–25 years old, can provide consent for the study, are proficient in English or Filipino, and have access to the internet.

Sample size

A continuity correction method developed by Fleiss et al. (2013) was used to calculate the sample size needed [ 34 ]. For a two-sided confidence level of 95%, with 80% power and the least extreme odds ratio to be detected at 1.4, the computed sample size was 1890. With an adjustment for an estimated response rate of 90%, the total sample size needed for the study was 2,100. To achieve saturation for the qualitative part of the study, 20 to 40 participants will be randomly sampled for the KIIs using the respondents who participated in the online survey [ 35 ].

Study procedure

Self-administered questionnaire..

The study will involve creating, testing, and distributing a self-administered questionnaire (SAQ). All eligible study participants will answer the SAQ on socio-demographic factors such as age, sex, gender, sexual orientation, residence, household income, socioeconomic status, smoking status, family history of mental health, and COVID-19 sickness of immediate family members or friends. The two validated survey tools, Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21) and Brief-COPE, will be used for the mental health outcome assessment [ 36 – 39 ]. The DASS-21 will measure the negative emotional states of depression, anxiety, and stress [ 40 ], while the Brief-COPE will measure the students’ coping strategies [ 41 ].

For the exposure assessment of the students to social media and shift to online learning, the total time spent on social media (TSSM) per day will be ascertained by querying the participants to provide an estimated time spent daily on social media during and after their online classes. In addition, students will be asked to report their use of the eight commonly used social media sites identified at the start of the study. These sites include Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, Pinterest, TikTok, YouTube, and social messaging sites Viber/WhatsApp and Facebook Messenger with response choices coded as "(1) never," "(2) less often," "(3) every few weeks," "(4) a few times a week," and “(5) daily” [ 42 – 44 ]. Furthermore, a global frequency score will be calculated by adding the response scores from the eight social media sites. The global frequency score will be used as an additional exposure marker of students to social media [ 45 ]. The shift to online learning will be assessed using questions that will determine the participants’ satisfaction with online learning. This assessment is comprised of 8 items in which participants will be asked to respond on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree.’

The online survey will be virtually distributed in English using the Qualtrics XM™ platform. Informed consent detailing the purpose, risks, benefits, methods, psychological referrals, and other ethical considerations will be included before the participants are allowed to answer the survey. Before administering the online survey, the SAQ shall undergo pilot testing among twenty (20) college students not involved with the study. It aims to measure total test-taking time, respondent satisfaction, and understandability of questions. The survey shall be edited according to the pilot test participant’s responses. Moreover, according to the Philippines’ Data Privacy Act, all the answers will be accessible and used only for research purposes.

Key informant interviews.

The research team shall develop the KII concept note, focusing on the extraneous factors affecting the student’s mental health, behaviors, and coping mechanism. Some salient topics will include current stressors (e.g., personal, academic, social), emotional reactions to these stressors, and how they wish to receive support in response to these stressors. The KII will be facilitated by a certified psychologist/psychiatrist/social scientist and research assistants using various online video conferencing software such as Google Meet, Skype, or Zoom. All the KIIs will be recorded and transcribed for analysis. Furthermore, there will be a debriefing session post-KII to address the psychological needs of the participants. Fig 1 presents the diagrammatic flowchart of the study.

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• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267555.g001

Data analyses

Quantitative data..

Descriptive statistics will be calculated, including the prevalence of mental health outcomes such as depression, anxiety, stress, and coping strategies. In addition, correlation coefficients will be estimated to assess the relations among the different mental health outcomes, covariates, and possible risk factors.

Several study characteristics as effect modifiers will also be assessed, including sex, gender, sexual orientation, family income, smoking status, family history of mental health, and Covid-19. We will include interaction terms between the dichotomized modifier variable and markers of social media use (total TSSM and global frequency score) and shift to online learning in the models. The significance of the interaction terms will be evaluated using the likelihood ratio test. All the regression analyses will be done in R ( http://www.r-project.org ). P values ≤ 0.05 will be considered statistically significant.

Qualitative data.

After transcribing the interviews, the data transcripts will be analyzed using NVivo 1.4.1 software [ 50 ] by three research team members independently using the inductive logic approach in thematic analysis: familiarizing with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing the themes, defining and naming the themes, and producing the report [ 51 ]. Data familiarization will consist of reading and re-reading the data while noting initial ideas. Additionally, coding interesting features of the data will follow systematically across the entire dataset while collating data relevant to each code. Moreover, the open coding of the data will be performed to describe the data into concepts and themes, which will be further categorized to identify distinct concepts and themes [ 52 ].

The three researchers will discuss the results of their thematic analyses. They will compare and contrast the three analyses in order to come up with a thematic map. The final thematic map of the analysis will be generated after checking if the identified themes work in relation to the extracts and the entire dataset. In addition, the selection of clear, persuasive extract examples that will connect the analysis to the research question and literature will be reviewed before producing a scholarly report of the analysis. Additionally, the themes and sub-themes generated will be assessed and discussed in relevance to the study’s objectives. Furthermore, the gathering and analyzing of the data will continue until saturation is reached. Finally, pseudonyms will be used to present quotes from qualitative data.

Data triangulation.

Data triangulation using the two different data sources will be conducted to examine the various aspects of the research and will be compared for convergence. This part of the analysis will require listing all the relevant topics or findings from each component of the study and considering where each method’s results converge, offer complementary information on the same issue, or appear to contradict each other. It is crucial to explicitly look for disagreements between findings from different data collection methods because exploration of any apparent inter-method discrepancy may lead to a better understanding of the research question [ 53 , 54 ].

Data management plan.

The Project Leader will be responsible for overall quality assurance, with research associates and assistants undertaking specific activities to ensure quality control. Quality will be assured through routine monitoring by the Project Leader and periodic cross-checks against the protocols by the research assistants. Transcribed KIIs and the online survey questionnaire will be used for recording data for each participant in the study. The project leader will be responsible for ensuring the accuracy, completeness, legibility, and timeliness of the data captured in all the forms. Data captured from the online survey or KIIs should be consistent, clarified, and corrected. Each participant will have complete source documentation of records. Study staff will prepare appropriate source documents and make them available to the Project Leader upon request for review. In addition, study staff will extract all data collected in the KII notes or survey forms. These data will be secured and kept in a place accessible to the Project Leader. Data entry and cleaning will be conducted, and final data cleaning, data freezing, and data analysis will be performed. Key informant interviews will always involve two researchers. Where appropriate, quality control for the qualitative data collection will be assured through refresher KII training during research design workshops. The Project Leader will check through each transcript for consistency with agreed standards. Where translations are undertaken, the quality will be assured by one other researcher fluent in that language checking against the original recording or notes.

Ethics approval.

The study shall abide by the Principles of the Declaration of Helsinki (2013). It will be conducted along with the Guidelines of the International Conference on Harmonization-Good Clinical Practice (ICH-GCP), E6 (R2), and other ICH-GCP 6 (as amended); National Ethical Guidelines for Health and Health-Related Research (NEGHHRR) of 2017. This protocol has been approved by the University of the Philippines Manila Research Ethics Board (UPMREB 2021-099-01 dated March 25, 2021).

The main concerns for ethics were consent, data privacy, and subject confidentiality. The risks, benefits, and conflicts of interest are discussed in this section from an ethical standpoint.

Recruitment.

The participants will be recruited to answer the online SAQ voluntarily. The recruitment of participants for the KIIs will be chosen through stratified random sampling using a list of those who answered the online SAQ; this will minimize the risk of sampling bias. In addition, none of the participants in the study will have prior contact or association with the researchers. Moreover, power dynamics will not be contacted to recruit respondents. The research objectives, methods, risks, benefits, voluntary participation, withdrawal, and respondents’ rights will be discussed with the respondents in the consent form before KII.

Informed consent will be signified by the potential respondent ticking a box in the online informed consent form and the voluntary participation of the potential respondent to the study after a thorough discussion of the research details. The participant’s consent is voluntary and may be recanted by the participant any time s/he chooses.

Data privacy.

All digital data will be stored in a cloud drive accessible only to the researchers. Subject confidentiality will be upheld through the assignment of control numbers and not requiring participants to divulge the name, address, and other identifying factors not necessary for analysis.

Compensation.

No monetary compensation will be given to the participants, but several tokens will be raffled to all the participants who answered the online survey and did the KIIs.

This research will pose risks to data privacy, as discussed and addressed above. In addition, there will be a risk of social exclusion should data leaks arise due to the stigma against mental health. This risk will be mitigated by properly executing the data collection and analysis plan, excluding personal details and tight data privacy measures. Moreover, there is a risk of psychological distress among the participants due to the sensitive information. This risk will be addressed by subjecting the SAQ and the KII guidelines to the project team’s psychiatrist’s approval, ensuring proper communication with the participants. The KII will also be facilitated by registered clinical psychologists/psychiatrists/social scientists to ensure the participants’ appropriate handling; there will be a briefing and debriefing of the participants before and after the KII proper.

Participation in this study will entail health education and a voluntary referral to a study-affiliated psychiatrist, discussed in previous sections. Moreover, this would contribute to modifications in targeted mental-health campaigns for the 18–25 age group. Summarized findings and recommendations will be channeled to stakeholders for their perusal.

Dissemination.

The results will be actively disseminated through conference presentations, peer-reviewed journals, social media, print and broadcast media, and various stakeholder activities.

This study protocol rationalizes the examination of the mental health of the college students in the Philippines during the COVID-19 pandemic as the traditional face-to-face classes transitioned to online and modular classes. The pandemic that started in March 2020 is now stretching for more than a year in which prolonged lockdown brings people to experience social isolation and disruption of everyday lifestyle. There is an urgent need to study the psychosocial aspects, particularly those populations that are vulnerable to mental health instability. In the Philippines, where community quarantine is still being imposed across the country, college students face several challenges amidst this pandemic. The pandemic continues to escalate, which may lead to fear and a spectrum of psychological consequences. Universities and colleges play an essential role in supporting college students in their academic, safety, and social needs. The courses of activities implemented by the different universities and colleges may significantly affect their mental well-being status. Our study is particularly interested in the effect of online classes on college students nationwide during the pandemic. The study will estimate this effect on their mental wellbeing since this abrupt transition can lead to depression, stress, or anxiety for some students due to insufficient time to adjust to the new learning environment. The role of social media is also an important exposure to some college students [ 55 , 56 ]. Social media exposure to COVID-19 may be considered a contributing factor to college students’ mental well-being, particularly their stress, depression, and anxiety [ 57 , 58 ]. Despite these known facts, little is known about the effect of transitioning to online learning and social media exposure on the mental health of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. To our knowledge, this is the first study in the Philippines that will use a mixed-method study design to examine the mental health of college students in the entire country. The online survey is a powerful platform to employ our methods.

Additionally, our study will also utilize a qualitative assessment of the college students, which may give significant insights or findings of the experiences of the college students during these trying times that cannot be captured on our online survey. The thematic findings or narratives from the qualitative part of our study will be triangulated with the quantitative analysis for a more robust synthesis. The results will be used to draw conclusions about the mental health status among college students during the pandemic in the country, which will eventually be used to implement key interventions if deemed necessary. A cross-sectional study design for the online survey is one of our study’s limitations in which contrasts will be mainly between participants at a given point of time. In addition, bias arising from residual or unmeasured confounding factors cannot be ruled out.

The COVID-19 pandemic and its accompanying effects will persistently affect the mental wellbeing of college students. Mental health services must be delivered to combat mental instability. In addition, universities and colleges should create an environment that will foster mental health awareness among Filipino college students. The results of our study will tailor the possible coping strategies to meet the specific needs of college students nationwide, thereby promoting psychological resilience.

Learning in times of COVID-19: Students’, Families’, and Educators’ Perspectives

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An effective blended online teaching and learning strategy during the COVID-19 pandemic

Lorico ds. lapitan, jr..

a Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines

b Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, Manila, Philippines

Cristina E. Tiangco

Divine angela g. sumalinog, noel s. sabarillo, joey mark diaz.

c Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds West Yorkshire, United Kingdom

Associated Data

The shift to distance teaching and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic brought about a real challenge for both instructors and students. To face these difficulties in teaching undergraduate Chemistry courses at the University of Santo Tomas, a blended learning strategy in the context of teaching and learning of Physical Chemistry 1 and Analytical Chemistry for Chemical Engineering students were employed. Here, we present an online strategy that facilitated the transition from traditional face-to-face learning to full online instruction. This is a five-component blended learning strategy referred to as Discover, Learn, Practice, Collaborate and Assess (DLPCA). In DLPCA, the asynchronous part of the teaching was achieved through broadcast of pre-recorded lecture videos on YouTube to allow students to study and progress with learning at their own pace. The synchronous part of the teaching was conducted using video conferencing platforms, such as Zoom or Google Meet. The DLPCA strategy was presented and discussed to the students prior to its implementation. The analysis of the teaching and learning experience based on three indicators (i) student’s learning experience, (ii) student’s academic performance and (iii) instructor observations showed that DLPCA had a positive impact on students and instructors. The identified challenges were stability of internet connection and instructor’s familiarity with readily available internet-based teaching tools, such as video conferencing software. Instructors must also find means to improve their interaction with students and maintain student interest and engagement during online classes. The survey also indicated that most of the students are satisfied with the DLCPA strategy. Hence, this strategy is considered a manageable and effective alternative that can be adapted to full online instruction to other undergraduate Chemistry lecture courses. Overall, the findings and insights in this study will add valuable resources for further hybrid instruction in the post-COVID-19 time in higher education.

1. Introduction

1.1. context of the study.

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has dramatically changed the higher education system in the Philippines with a distinctive shift in online instruction as an effort to limit further transmission of the virus. This sudden change to online instruction raised concern among many teachers and students because a large segment of the population have unstable internet access and limited electronic devices ( Pastor, 2020 ; Mirandilla-Santos, 2016 ). Since the pandemic started and presently shows little signs of declining, worries whether internet connection would not suffice to support online education persist as a challenge. Undergraduate Chemical Engineering students are required to take Analytical Chemistry and Physical Chemistry 1 courses during their first and second year of studies at universities in the Philippines. The Physical Chemistry 1 curriculum for Chemical Engineering undergraduate students includes topics in properties of gases, laws of thermodynamics, and phase equilibria. The Analytical Chemistry course includes topics in chemical equilibrium, classical quantitative analysis, and instrumental methods analysis.

The second term of the academic year (AY) 2019–2020, which is from January to May 2020, at the University of Santo Tomas (UST) was indefinitely suspended at around March due to the steadily increasing COVID-19 cases in Metro Manila, risks and local transmission concerns of COVID-19. This led to all courses being advised to shift online until the end of the second term. Due to the projected continuous increase of cases, it was also later decided by the University that online classes will be implemented until the first semester of AY 2020–2021 (August to December 2020). The sudden shift to full online instruction led faculty members to adjust their teaching plans, teaching styles and assessment methods. Students also faced the challenge to quickly adapt to the “new normal” in higher education setting. The shift to online instruction was a contingency plan to secure the continuation of the courses offered by the University and enable students to continue with their studies. However, developing countries, like the Philippines, have areas that do not have a reliable or existent internet connection which posed a great and major challenge to the shift to full online instruction.

As the immediate future is uncertain with new outbreaks and looming lockdowns, many instructors had to consider online instruction, which can be given in one of three pedagogical approaches: (1) synchronous, (2) asynchronous and (3) blended learning strategy. In synchronous online lectures (real-time), instructors and students meet online using a video conferencing software during the designated class hours and instructors give lectures on the course. Students participate in the lectures and are able to ask questions vocally or via live text chat. In asynchronous lectures, instructors record lecture videos and upload them in Blackboard learning management system (LMS) or YouTube, so that students can access them in their most convenient time.

The blended online learning strategy is deemed to be the most practical method to adapt as this combines the advantages of synchronous and asynchronous strategies. The main motivation in choosing the blended strategy is to increase the student’s participation in their own learning process rather than quietly sitting during a synchronous discussion. The basis of this approach is the cognitive load theory, on the basis that novice learners are immediately overwhelmed by a large amount of new ideas and terminologies, and resort to surface learning ( Darabi and Jin, 2013 ; Seery and Donnelly, 2012 ; Seery, 2013 ). This type of active learning pedagogy is called “flipped classroom” approach ( Bergmann and Sams, 2012 ; Olakanmi, 2017 ). In this learning approach, traditional lecture and homework are replaced by pre-class activities, such as viewing short, pre-recorded lecture videos. The class time is devoted to further reinforce the topics through problem solving examples, interactive activities and detailed discussions ( Pienta, 2016 ; Rau et al., 2017 ). However, the synchronous online class sessions (called the “virtual classroom”) replaced the traditional face-to-face class for engaging the students with activities and guided problem-solving discussions in the traditional flipped classroom.

The benefits from flipped classroom were reported by economists ( Lage et al., 2000 ). Lage and colleagues showed that reducing variability in teaching styles across classroom and implementing various activities to create an inclusive classroom resulted to an improved student performance ( Lage et al., 2000 ). Several other disciplines have reported a similar success with implementing the flipped learning in materials science courses ( Liou et al., 2016 ), pharmacy ( Koo et al., 2016 ), statistics ( Peterson, 2016 ), engineering education ( Kerr, 2015 ; Chiquito et al., 2020 ), computer science ( Sohrabi and Traj, 2016 ; Davies et al., 2013 ), and health science courses ( Betihavas et al., 2016 ; McLaughlin et al., 2014 ). In chemistry, flipped classrooms were first introduced in a high school general chemistry curriculum ( Bergmann and Sams, 2012 ). There are several literatures that discuss the benefits that can be accrued from flip learning in chemistry courses with most of the examples presented involve high school general chemistry ( Bergmann and Sams, 2012 ; Schultz et al., 2014 ). Moreover, substantial amount of work has been published on the effectiveness of the flipped classroom when implemented higher education chemistry courses such as General chemistry, Organic chemistry, and Biochemistry ( Smith, 2013 ; Fautch, 2015 ; Seery, 2015 ; Mooring et al., 2016 ; Ojennus, 2016 ; Bokosmaty et al., 2019 ). Interestingly, reports published about the effectiveness of flipped learning in calculation intensive courses such as Analytical Chemistry and Physical Chemistry are scarce ( Fitzgerald and Li, 2015 ; Esson, 2016 ). Therefore, it is important for this paper to contribute to this current information gap.

1.2. Course format

The next focus of the instructors was to organize and deliver the content to achieve the learning objectives of the course. Unlike in some developed countries where teaching is designed with the assumption that all the students have equal technical and cultural resources to access academic materials, developing countries, such as the Philippines, must give high consideration on the socio-technical constraints of all students when designing the course content and delivery.

The Discover, Learn, Practice, Collaborate and Assess (DLPCA) strategy was conceptualized for this blended learning technique with the goal of integrating the instructors, students, and readily available technologies to meet the challenges of higher education during this pandemic. Fig. 1 shows the five (5) components of DLCPA with a brief explanation of each component. Students were first asked to discover all learning materials prepared for the assigned topic which were uploaded in the UST Blackboard LMS ( Fig. 1 a). Next, the students are expected to learn the terminologies, concepts, and calculations through the pre-recorded lecture videos and other materials provided, such as notes, web links to other resources (e.g. Khan Academy, ChemLibreText), and chemistry infographics ( Fig. 1 b). The practice component allows students to apply what they learned using the self-assessment questions (SAQs) ( Fig. 1 c). Students are given enough time to view short, pre-recorded video lectures and answer the SAQs before joining the online class session. The class time is devoted for students to collaborate in doing interactive activities, such as quiz bees and discussions ( Fig. 1 d). The synchronous online sessions were used to discuss and clarify specific aspects of the concepts and calculations that students found difficult to understand. The collaborate component is expected to positively impact student engagement with the instructor and peer learning. Finally, the assess component are quizzes or exams that are given with allotted time to test the student’s comprehension of the topics based on the declared intended course learning outcomes ( Fig. 1 e).

The 5 components of the DLPCA strategy – (a) Discover , (b) Learn , (c) Practice , (d) Collaborate , and (e) Assess .

Online lectures are not very common in most universities in the Philippines and chemistry lectures are generally given in classroom settings. The COVID-19 pandemic undeniably accelerated the process of transition to full online instruction and provided opportunities to carry out effective online teaching. It is worthwhile to examine if the implemented DLPCA strategy is an effective method for full online instruction. By collecting the experiences of the authors and students who have worked and studied during the COVID-19 pandemic, we aim to provide a better understanding on how the DLPCA strategy enabled teachers and students to rise to the challenges of online instruction given the resources and technologies present at the time. Specifically, we investigated three important aspects of online instruction, namely: (i) online content delivery strategy, (ii) learning mechanisms (synchronous and asynchronous), and (iii) assessment type and strategies. The results presented in this paper will provide a preliminary basis on the adaption of DLPCA strategy in online undergraduate Analytical chemistry and Physical chemistry courses and will help build a strong foundation for future pedagogical decisions regarding online instruction.

2. Methodology

2.1. equipment and software for recorded lecture videos.

Recorded lecture videos are a very important part of DLPCA strategy which were given to students before attending the synchronous sessions. Lecture videos were made simple, readable, visually appealing, understandable, and easily accessible for students. Narrations or discussions were recorded using Microsoft PowerPoint and was saved as MP4 file. Sound quality adjustments, if necessary, and the addition of introductory and end music animations were done using Movavi video editor software. The lecture videos were then uploaded on YouTube for accessibility and the links were given to students through Blackboard.

2.2. Evaluation and data collection

This study was based on a survey of students who experienced online instruction using the DLPCA strategy. The questionnaires were designed with the aim to understand their opinions on chemistry online teaching and learning, if the students are aware of the DLCPA strategy, impact of online strategy on them, and as well as their satisfaction with the online teaching strategy during the COVID-19 pandemic. The survey was made using the google form and composed mainly of Likert scale questions where the participants indicate their level of agreement or disagreement on statements that cover general feedback on the various aspects of the course. The questionnaire is based on a 5-point Likert scale which are as follows: 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (neutral), 4 (agree), and 5 (strongly agree). The last section of the questionnaire also invited students’ feedback and sentiments through open-ended questions. To assess the internal consistency of the Likert scale questions, Chronbach’s alpha was calculated (Supplemental Information, SI-1). This measures how well a questionnaire measures a variable based on a set of questions like those in a Likert scale ( Tavakol and Dennick, 2011 ; Glen, 2021 ). Pretesting of the questionnaire was administered to 59 respondents and yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 59%–88% implying that the questionnaire’s reliability is acceptable ( Taber, 2018 ). Data gathering which took place at the end of the second term for Physical chemistry 1 (May 2020) and Special Term for Analytical chemistry (July 2020). The UST course codes for Physical Chemistry 1 and Analytical Chemistry are CHE 216 and CHE 211, respectively. These course codes were used in the questionnaire. The google form link containing the questionnaire was sent to the students through their university email accounts. Responses were received over a period of one week.

2.3. Data processing

Descriptive statistics using frequency, percentage, and means, were calculated from the responses to 5-point Likert scale questions. Mean response for each item in the construct variables, as well as the overall mean response per construct variable were calculated and then interpreted using the guide shown in Table 1 ( Sözen and Güven, 2019 ).

Interpretation of responses of the Likert-type scale.

For the open-ended questions, we then performed a text mining and word cloud analysis using R software using a package called tm ( Feinerer and Hornik, 2019 ; Feinerer et al., 2008 ). This comes with an available tutorial published by the Statistical Tool for High-throughput Data Analysis website ( STHDA, 2020 ). This package allowed us to determine the most frequently used keywords in the 3 open-ended questions in the survey. We also removed punctuation, common stop words such as “there”, “as”, “and” “the” and non-printable characters such as emojis in the comments metadata. A word cloud was generated to have a visual representation of the data. The word cloud is an image made of words and the size of the word corresponds to how it often appears (frequency) the students answer in the open-ended questions.

Visualisation of the scores in the four quizzes in CHE 211 during the online term was done using box plots. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the scores of the students among the four quiz periods. Post-hoc test using Tukey’s LSD was used to identify which among quiz scores are significantly different. Welch t -test was used to compare the final grade of students between online and face-to-face classes in CHE 211. All tests are performed at 95 % confidence level.

2.4. Participants

The questionnaires were answered by Chemical engineering student majors enrolled in Physical chemistry 1 (N = 77) and Analytical chemistry (N = 91) during the second and special term of AY 2019–2020. The students were informed about the purpose of this questionnaire and were aware that the data would be used only for research and academic purposes. The participants responded in the survey anonymously. The empirical data were gathered and analysed. Initial results showing frequency and percentages of response in each Likert type question were automatically generated by the Google form.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. development of the teaching approach in online classroom instruction in chemistry, 3.1.1. educational theory.

Several factors were considered in designing the appropriate teaching approach for Analytical chemistry and Physical chemistry. One is by evaluating the proper pedagogical model to use. Among the main learning theories, the cognitivism and constructivism approach are deemed to apply best in the online classroom setting. The concept of cognitivism focuses on the stimulation of the student’s learning strategies ( Acevedo et al., 2020 ). It describes the idea that students process the information that they receive and reorganizes them to gain and store new knowledge. This is promoted through practical discussions and problem solving. On the other hand, constructivism focuses on the idea that students acquire new information by building on their previous knowledge and experience through a series of various activities and assessments ( Ripoll et al., 2021 ). In DLPCA strategy, new information is given in a module-based approach wherein the concepts are linked and built from previous modules. The discussions do not only revolve around the technical topic at hand, but also on practical applications or real-world problems. Assessments are given to challenge their understanding and problem-solving skills. These strategies are believed to be enough to provide learnings to students as these methods also address the conception of learning most applicable to this situation. Negovan et al. (2015) found that students, whether in a face-to-face or distant learning setting, highly regard learning as understanding, which incorporates increasing one’s knowledge, memorizing, and applying what was learned. The proposed DLPCA strategy combines these theories and concepts with the goal of maximum learning for the students through its course content, delivery and assessments.

3.1.2. Socio-technical constraints in online teaching and learning

Designing an effective teaching and learning strategy not only requires the study of different pedagogies, but also the consideration of the students’ and instructors’ current social and technical conditions amidst the on-going pandemic. The different constraints and difficulties experienced by students and instructors alike were first identified. The following constraints were considered in designing the DLPCA:

• a) Due to the unpredicted and short notice of lockdown in the middle of March 2020, most students went home and left their textbooks and other learning materials in their school lockers and/or dormitories.
• b) Students may have technical and personal constraints that may prevent them from online learning during the lockdown, such as lack of computers/laptops or other gadgets, lack of stable internet access, power interruptions, lack of quiet and isolated room to study, slow and old computers, non-academic responsibilities within the family, and some students may need necessary medical appointments.
• c) Asynchronous teaching materials must be made accessible for all students. The differences in the availability and speed of internet connection of the students must be considered.
• d) Physical Chemistry and Analytical Chemistry courses involve a lot of calculations which must be properly taught to students. The online delivery of lectures may pose a challenge in effectively communicating concepts and theories to students.
• e) There is an imminent overload of internet networks due to the large number of students doing online learning and most employees are in a work-from-home arrangement. It is therefore necessary to choose a stable, free of charge, and universally accessible platform for online synchronous class discussions. Moreover, this platform must have the following capabilities: (i) call encryption for security, (ii) screen-sharing, (iii) built-in video recording function, and (iv) can be added or synced to calendar.
• f) Slow or unstable internet connections would result in students being frequently disconnected during synchronous lecture discussions. These students may have difficulty joining the session rooms again and add stress to students.
• g) Some instructors are with other family members which may result in disruptions during the class.
• h) Assessment methods must be re-structured to minimize academic dishonesty while still training the students with the required numerical and analytical skills in solving word problems. It is therefore important to create exams that will minimize collaboration or reduce internet searching.
• i) The difficulty of the provided assessment must be balanced with the given time frame. In addition, the time frame must also consider other factors, such as the time needed to scan and save their solutions, and the upload speed of their internet connection. These factors should not be neglected to promote fairness among students.

Table 2 shows how each DLPCA component addresses the different constraints of the online teaching and learning, and the proposed plans to minimize these constraints. The DLPCA strategy combines the use of asynchronous and synchronous techniques of teaching learning.

Alignment of DLCPA components with online teaching and learning constraints and plans to minimize these constraints.

Asynchronous learning promotes a positive learning environment because it allows the students to feel more involved and responsible for their learning progress. However, with this method alone, students cannot get instant feedback and message from the instructor and vice-versa. This may also lead to students feeling disconnected from their instructors and be less motivated. Thus, it is coupled with a synchronous session using a reliable video conferencing platform. This provides a way for a more effective communication between instructors and students, which is important for clarifications, topic emphasis and instructor-student connection, especially during the challenging time of the pandemic.

3.1.3. The role of instructor, student and LMS

Though the pedagogical theories considered in the design of DLPCA are learner-centred, the roles of the instructor and the technology utilized are also important in the online classroom. In a learner-centred approach, the teachers mainly act as guide for instruction and provide the learning direction to students. They provide the necessary tools and resources that will aid in the students’ development of their knowledge ( Owusu-Agyeman et al., 2017 ). Students then must then take an active role in their own learning process and decisions throughout the course.

Meanwhile, the use of technology in modern systems of teaching and learning approaches have already been widely employed. The integration of instructional technology, such as lecture videos, online course delivery and online assessments, has also been found to promote the development of knowledge and skills of instructors and students alike ( McConnell, 2006 ; Burden et al., 2016 ).

3.2. Organization and delivery of learning objectives

3.2.1. revised course plan and checklists.

During the initial shift to online instruction, course syllabi were reviewed and modified accordingly to ensure that students will still be able to complete their course (refer to Section 3.2.4.1 ). The revised course plan delivery contained weekly expectations of lessons, deadlines for submission of tasks, list of online reference materials, and modified grade components and distribution. In principle, the revised course plan delivery provided continuity and steadiness during the abrupt change of instruction.

Checklists are also recommended in the practice of online and flipped classes because students often preferred more structure in flipped classrooms ( Brandon, 2020 ; O’Flaherty and Craig, 2015 ). Therefore, a progress tracker (Supplemental Information, SI-2) was created in addition to the revised course plan. The progress tracker contained the complete list of all topics in the module, the synchronous and asynchronous tasks for each lecture, and the specific topics included for each exam. The students can tick the appropriate boxes whenever they have accomplished the tasks, thus, keeping them on track with the formative and gradable requirements. Infographic-style weekly expectations announcements were also employed and posted in Blackboard and sent to the students through their university email at the beginning of each week. These announcements reminded students of the specific topics, new materials uploaded, and changes in schedule or exams, if any. Overall, these tools of disseminating information provided a substructure for the instructors and students to achieve learning milestones within the agreed period.

3.2.2. Asynchronous teaching and learning

The use of educational videos has shown positive impact to teaching and learning of chemistry even before the full transition to online lectures ( Smith, 2014 ; Christensson and Jesper, 2014 ). All Analytical Chemistry and Physical Chemistry lecture videos are available to students at any time throughout the semester, and they can fully grasp the knowledge by simply watching it at their most convenient time and they can repeat it whenever some concepts were not understood. Thus, lecture videos offer flexibility and convenience on the part of the students and promote active learning by allowing them to replay parts or the whole video and increasing accessibility to students ( Newton et al., 2014 ).

However, one drawback of using lecture videos in the flipped classroom is the fact that students are trusted to independently complete watching the recorded videos ( Eichler and Peeples, 2016 ). If students do not successfully complete this task and make significant learning gains, then the completion of the synchronous session will be more difficult. The effect can be that students will not gain mastery of the intended learning outcomes. To address this potential drawback, problem-solving based SAQs were given at the end of each lecture video to promote the student’s commitment in completing the lecture. Students were required to answer and submit the SAQs as a dedicated exercise that applies the problem-solving skills discussed in the video. In addition, these problem-solving SAQs present prospects for inquiry and personalisation of learning and avoid the passive watching of videos ( Nerantzi, 2020 ).

Flores and Savage (2007) have previously shown that pre-recorded lecture materials aid in achieving a higher student performance and students pay more attention to classes that makes use of recorded lectures. There are plenty of chemistry videos of practically any topic are readily available on the internet. The main motivation of the authors in preparing their own video materials is the advantage of being more personal to students. Studies have also shown that students reported a higher level of engagement and expressed strong preference for multimedia created by their own instructor in an online course ( Xu and Jaggars, 2014 ; Briggs, 2005 ). In fact, some students expressed their appreciation to the authors for the efforts they put in creating the videos. Some students also commented that they like listening to their instructors’ voice especially when they add humour or explain difficult concepts using the local language. However, the weekly preparation of lecture video recordings was found to be a challenging and exhausting task on the instructors’ end. This problem was resolved by effective collaboration and task distribution between the authors in developing the lecture videos and other online learning materials, such as handouts and SAQs for each topic. The concerted efforts helped amplify advantages of online instruction and lessen any drawbacks involved in online delivery.

The Analytical chemistry playlist shown in Fig. 2 (a) contains 11 videos with an average run time of 24 min and the longest video of 50 min and 35 s. There are 30 lecture videos prepared for Physical chemistry 1 playlist as shown in Fig. 2 (b) . The average run time is 15 min with the longest one being 36 min long. Ideally, the lecture videos should be kept short in length to fully engage the students. In this case, longer topics were divided into several shorter videos (i.e., segmentations). The technical know-how in creating lecture videos was the major challenge because the authors are not trained in making videos. The authors had to record their lectures in their own homes, resulting in lecture videos that are not as fancy as those produced with the help of experts. It is noted that lecture videos have a profound impact on how students process and comprehend the content. Therefore, a video editing software was used to further enhance the lecture videos. A close-ended question with “too short/ low”, “just right”, or “too much” option was surveyed regarding the difficulty level, amount of work, and run time for the lecture videos. It is encouraging that most of the respondents in CHE 211 and 216 responded “just right” when asked about the level of difficulty, amount of work, and run time for the recorded videos.

Lecture video playlists in YouTube for (a) CHE 211 and (b) CHE 216. The student responses to the features of lecture videos for (c) CHE211 and (d) CHE 216. Work refers to the time spent in watching the video and answering the SAQs.

The quality of video lectures represents how the video lectures are designed or how it appears to the students ( Lange and Costley, 2007 ). The lecture videos typically start with a 10 s introductory music and a welcome slide to stimulate the attention of the students. Thereafter, the topic to be discussed is introduced and expected learning outcomes are mentioned before proceeding to the actual discussion. A short summary of the lecture is given before the end slide. A common PowerPoint template design, and font type were used to ensure uniformity in all lecture videos for each Chemistry course. Table 3 shows the results on students’ satisfaction in using the pre-recorded lecture videos. Majority of students in CHE 211 (92.3 %) and CHE 216 (97.4 %) strongly agree that the videos clearly stated the learning outcomes (entry 3.1). The calculated mean values for entry 3.1 are 4.44 and 4.68 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. Most of the respondents also strongly agree that our lecture videos are useful in attaining the objectives of the topic (entry 3.2) in CHE 211 (84.7 %) and CHE 216 (97.4 %). The mean values for entry 3.2 in CHE 211 and CHE 216 are 4.27 and 4.66, respectively. Most of the respondents in CHE 211 (73.7 %) and CHE 216 (91 %) agree that explanations of solutions for sample problems (entry 3.3) are easy to understand. The calculated mean for entry 3.3 is 4.03 and 4.35 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. Majority of respondents in CHE 211 (86 %) and CHE 216 (92.2 %) also agree that theories and concepts in the lecture videos were clearly presented in the video (entry 3.4). Most students in CHE 211 (71.5 %) and CHE 216 (76.7 %) also agree that there are enough guided problems discussed in the video (entry 3.5). The mean values for entry 3.5 in CHE 211 and CHE 216 are 3.85 and 4.08, respectively. These data suggest that students agree that there are sufficient guided problems discussed in the lecture videos.

Distribution of students’ response to Analytical chemistry (CHE 211) and Physical chemistry (CHE 216) questionnaire on lecture videos reported as frequency, percentage and mean for each entry. The total participant surveyed for Analytical chemistry and Physical chemistry are N = 91 and N = 77, respectively. The response for CHE 216 is shown in blue colour.

Clarity of presentation is essential to ensure student engagement and ultimately learning. Audio and visual clarity of lecture videos is a concern among students in online classes because this can have a negative effect on how students perceive and comprehend instruction ( Molnar, 2017 ; Lange and Costley, 2007 ). The production quality and the delivery of the content by the instructor are crucial for engaging the students. Poor audio and visual quality will ultimately decrease attention and understanding among learners ( Molnar, 2017 ). Hence, a video editing software was used to ensure the images, videos and sound are as clear as possible before using the videos to deliver information. To enhance the audio intelligibility, the voice of the instructor was amplified, and extraneous sounds were removed that might distract students from listening to their instructors’ voice. YouTube has a built-in subtitle function that allows text to accompany the narration and incremental audio and visual speed controls. These features can be used by students depending on their need for the video to be perceived manageable. A close-ended question with the “yes” or “no” option was also surveyed regarding whether visuals and audio recording are clear. Majority of respondents in CHE 211 and CHE 216 answered “yes” when asked if the visuals and audio components in the lecture videos are clear (Supplemental Information SI-3).

It is recognized that the learning environment of students differs from each other as well as the capacities of students in understanding the concepts. Common problems, such as power interruptions, unstable internet connection, and non-academic responsibilities are some hurdles encountered during asynchronous learning. These reasons contributed why some CHE 211 students found it difficult to keep in pace with the asynchronous online learning. The aesthetics, production values, and overall design of lecture videos all influence the learning process ( Lange and Costley, 2007 ; Leacock and Nesbi, 2007 ). Hence, lecture videos were evaluated if they had a positive impact on the learning experience of students. Most of the students in CHE 211 (72.5 %) and CHE 216 (81.8 %) agree that they can describe the important concepts in the lecture video (entry 3.7). This is supported by a mean value of 3.91 (Agree) and 3.97 (Agree) for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. The students in CHE 211 (73.7 %7) and CHE 216 (83.81 %) also agree that they can give an overview of the topic after watching the lecture video (entry 3.8). The mean values for entry 3.8 are 3.97 (Agree) and 4.03 (Agree) for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. The students in CHE 211 (52.8 %; mean = 3.60) and CHE 216 (62.4 %) agree that they can present complex facts illustratively in the lecture video (entry 3.9). This is supported by the mean values of 3.60 and 3.68 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. Moreover, respondents in CHE 211 (66 %) agree (mean = 3.88) and CHE 216 (87.1 %) strongly agree (mean = 4.23) that they can work independently on typical word problems after watching the videos (entry 3.10). These data show that CHE 211 has a lower mean value for statements 3.8, 3.9, and 3.10 as compared to CHE 216. Again, these slightly lower mean scores were attributed to the 5-week intensive Special Term when CHE 211 was offered. It is highly suggested that enough time is necessary to fully understand the discussions in the lecture video. The mean of entries from 3.1–3.10 for CHE 211 and CHE 216 were calculated as 4.00 and 4.24, respectively. In general, CHE 211 students agree while CHE 216 students strongly agree that our pre-recorded lecture videos are effective in delivering the learning outcomes, engaging, and useful in their online learning. These results emphasize that lecture videos can reduce cognitive load of the students. The underlying premise of the cognitive load theory is that we have a limited amount of memory and overloading with information impedes learning ( Abeysekera and Dawson, 2015 ). Students can watch the videos several times, pause and/or rewind portions of the videos as needed. This student-pacing may aid in better learning by reducing cognitive load ( Esson, 2016 ).

3.2.3. Synchronous teaching and learning

The common misconception about flipped classrooms is that most people think only of videos. Bergmann et al. (2013) and Tucker (2012) highlighted that watching videos is not enough to make flipped learning effective. The collaborative interaction and learning activities that occur during the face-to-face ( Bergmann et al., 2013 ; Tucker, 2012 ) or online setting ( Nerantzi, 2020 ) is very important. Hence, synchronous lecture sessions were conducted using Google meet ( Google Meet, 2019 ) or Zoom ( Zoom, 2019 ). The synchronous meetings were also recorded for those students who were unable to attend the scheduled meeting and those who are struggling with internet connectivity. One of the benefits of the synchronous instruction is that it can provide students a schedule and sense of community. This also allowed instructors to feel the “whole-class” teaching experience and increase communication for instructor – student engagement. The synchronous sessions were dedicated mainly to reinforce difficult concepts and a summary of learning outcomes of the video lectures. During the synchronous sessions, students were asked to present and explain their solutions to their classmates and answer questions as they arose (Supplemental Information, SI-4). This was done to increase student participation and allowed them to present their alternative solutions to a problem. The instructors also made corrections (if necessary) to the solutions or answers that were presented by the students and answered any further questions on the problems. These activities provide an opportunity to devote more time at higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy ( i.e., applying, analysing, and evaluating) ( Krathwohl, 2002 ).

The instructors have also requested the students to turn on their video cameras during synchronous sessions to promote visual communication. However, most students were unwilling to use their webcams and some reported that their webcams are not working properly. There are several possible reasons for non-video during synchronous meetings and these include: (i) students are shy to show their backgrounds particularly if there are family members present at home; (ii) feeling of not properly dressed or groomed during the synchronous session; (iii) computers have no webcam or the webcam are not working; and (iv) preference of students of being more comfortable with audio-only mode during online synchronous sessions. Therefore, it is difficult to find out whether students are really paying enough attention during the synchronous class. These reasons might have decreased the effectiveness of student-instructor engagement during synchronous online lectures. Therefore, it is advisable that plans should be taken into consideration to promote this vital component in an online class. Based on our personal experience, many students have the tendency to avoid asking questions to instructors in the usual traditional face-to-face classroom. Interestingly, we experienced more questioning from the students either made vocally or through the chat box of Google Meet. It seems that this kind of communication solves the hurdles in asking questions in a traditional lecture class. A possible reason for this behaviour is that students tend to be more active in asking questions when they are not visible in the “virtual” classroom.

The synchronous online lectures in Physical Chemistry 1 were conducted by the individual instructors during the second term of AY 2019–2020, while CHE 211 was conducted through team-teaching in the succeeding term (i.e., Special term, AY 2019–2020). The teamwork of the authors in teaching CHE 211 undeniably reduced the stress and burden of preparing materials for the online classes. In team-teaching approach, each instructor was given a specific set of topics to develop materials and teach synchronously. This arrangement gave enough time for the other instructors to prepare their online materials. The usual online synchronous sessions were taught by the instructor-in-charge of the meeting (i.e., module leader) while the other instructors are also present during the synchronous session (referred as plenary sessions). This arrangement gave the following advantages: (i) peer review of lessons, (ii) best practices of the instructor are shared among colleagues, (iii) standardized lectures were given to all students, (iv) the other instructors were given a chance to add something in the lecture, and (v) other instructors may give their inputs in answering questions from students. This team-teaching approach has been previously shown effective because it allows students to gain new insights from multiple perspectives and critically evaluate these perspectives ( Anderson and Speck, 1998 ; Crawford and Jenkins, 2018 ; Tan et al., 2020 ). CHE 211 students reflected their appreciation towards this type of teaching approach during the survey and some of the comments are shown below:

“The whole plenary sessions for me is the most useful thing. I can ask questions that can benefit not just me but the whole batch too and vice versa.” “At first, I had doubts doing the plenary session since all of the ChE students in my batch would be there and perhaps may be difficult to handle since it was a 3:100 ratio of instructors to students. However, it was a great experience getting to know my future colleagues, as well as the three instructors as I learned different sets of viewpoints from them, which in turn, helped me during this short term, may it be academic related or life-related.” “One of the best features is that 3 instructors are able to provide input from their experiences in the industry giving the lesson clarity, and it makes it more interesting and motivating to hear these from professionals.”

The students were also asked in general of their experience of this synchronous teaching strategy (Supplemental Information, SI-3). Majority of students expressed that the instructors managed the team teaching effectively (94.5 %) and the plenary sessions provided a welcoming, interactive, and engaging virtual classroom (92.3 %). It is expected that large class size can increase the barriers related to student anonymity and passivity ( Eichler and Peeples, 2016 ). However, Hoyt et al. (2010) highlighted that teaching a large enrolment course can be a very engaging and productive learning experience for students and a rewarding experience for the instructor through effective classroom management, careful planning, and ingenuity. The experience in teaching synchronous sessions led the authors to realize that it is important to connect with students through video streaming and frequently ask questions to gauge student’s attention and learning. Moreover, it is also important that students present and discuss their solutions to problems to further increase student-teacher interaction.

3.2.4. Assessments and learning outcomes (LOs)

3.2.4.1. change in course assessments and alignment with los.

In most chemistry courses, assessments were originally given as exams, in-class group presentations, and individual problem sets. Problem sets are regularly given to students because solving relevant problems is indispensable to the understanding concepts, practice of numerical skills, and deepening knowledge of chemistry. Problem sets are referred here as self-assessment questions (SAQs) and module exams were the primary assessment tools employed in online CHE 211 and CHE 216. The number of items usually given in SAQs and the time-involvement are comparable to those in face-to-face lectures. This is to ensure the effectiveness of assignments would not be different. The SAQs were similar to the guided problems discussed in the lecture videos and were selected to fulfil the intended learning outcomes (LOs) of the module. At the very least, students were expected to watch the pre-recorded lecture video and answer the SAQs.

All chemistry courses offered to Chemical Engineering students used to have at least two major exams in a semester, i.e., preliminary exam and final exam and several quizzes. Now that assessments should be given online, academic integrity is one of the concerns of faculty members. In the case of CHE 216, it was decided that preliminary and final exams were replaced by module quizzes as everyone was still adjusting to the online instruction and provide more time for students to understand the lessons. The same decision was made for CHE 211 because of the short and intensive 5-week period during the special term of 2020. The assessments and learning outcomes before COVID-19 (i.e., face-to-face) and during COVID-19 (i.e., online) for CHE 211 are summarized in Table 4 . Table 4 shows how the LOs are aligned with the given assessment before and during COVID-19. The assessments with their corresponding weightings to the final grade before COVID-19 special term (AY 2018–2019) include quizzes (40 %), SAQs (10 %), preliminary exam (25 %) and final exam (25 %). However, assessments during COVID-19 special term (AY of 2019–2020) only included exams (70 %) and SAQs (30 %). Module 1 and Module 2 contained a large number of topics and were divided into smaller quizzes. There were 4 computational exams given and 2 conceptual assessments given in the form of a quiz bee.

Alignment of Assessment with LOs in Analytical Chemistry (CHE 211) before and during COVID-19. Before COVID-19 is based on the course syllabus for Special Term of AY 2018–2019 while During COVID-19 is based on the revised course syllabus for Special Term 2019–2020. Legend: Fully Consistent (●), LO not Delivered (⊘), blank (no assessment conducted).

Table 5 summarizes the alignment of assessments and change in LO’s for Physical Chemistry during the 2nd Term of AY 2019–2020. The class suspensions at the start of community lockdown led to less lecture hours in CHE 216. Hence, the instructors decided to transfer module 4 (with LO-4 and LO-5) to next the Physical Chemistry course. The assessments in CHE 216 include 3 module quizzes and SAQs. The first exam and SAQs was completed in regular classroom set-up before the community lockdown and the other two exams were completed online. Each online quiz was scheduled and conducted asynchronously. To minimize cheating, each student received a unique set of questions for the other two exams with a similar level of difficulty for each question set. A solution template was also provided where they can discuss their plan on how to solve the assigned problem and show the detailed calculations. Their solutions were submitted through specific submission links in the Blackboard portal before the deadline. It was expected that this strategy decreased the feasibility of cheating because each student must give a unique plan to solve the problem and solution. The original percentage of each component module for Physical Chemistry 1 (CHE 216) were module 1 (25 %), 2 (25 %), 3 (30 %), and 4 (20 %). The shift to online instruction necessitated an adjustment in the module weights. The corresponding revised module weights were module 1 (35 %), module 2 (35 %) and module 3 (30 %).

Alignment of Assessment with LOs in Physical Chemistry (CHE 216) before and during COVID-19. The before COVID-19 refers to the course syllabus before community lockdown during 2nd Term AY 2019–2020 while during COVID-19 is based on the same term after switching to online instruction. Legend: Fully Consistent (●), LO not Delivered (⊘), N/A (Not Applicable), blank (no assessment conducted).

3.2.4.2. Student survey on assessment and learning outcomes

The student experiences in accomplishing the assessments were examined. Table 6 shows that most of the students in CHE 211 (75.9 %) agree (mean = 4.07) and majority of students in CHE 216 (94.8 %) strongly agree (mean = 4.55) that the number of SAQs is enough to achieve the declared learning outcomes of the module (entry 6.1). However, only 52.8 % of students in CHE 211 agree (mean = 3.49) that they can easily answer the SAQs after watching the videos compared to those who strongly agree (mean = 4.31) in CHE 216 (89.7 %) (entry 6.2). The somewhat lower mean for CHE 211 might be due to the limited time for students in CHE 211 to fully understand the videos and apply the problem-solving skills discussed in the guided problems. Only 60.5 % of CHE 211 students agree (mean = 3.75) that there is enough time to answer the SAQs as compared to those who strongly agree (mean = 4.51) in CHE 216 (93.5 %) (entry 6.3). Unfortunately, it is counterproductive that some students find SAQs as mere requirements rather than authentically assessing their learning gains. Our survey suggests that students must be given enough time to watch the videos and a longer period of submission of SAQs. In this manner, students will realize the importance of SAQs in achieving the desired numerical solving skills rather than simply submitting the SAQs as a gradable component.

Distribution of students’ response to Analytical chemistry (CHE 211) and Physical chemistry (CHE 216) questionnaire on Assessment type and strategy reported as frequency, percentage and mean for each entry. The total participant surveyed for Analytical chemistry and Physical chemistry are N = 91 and N = 77, respectively. The response for CHE 216 is shown in blue colour.

The students were also asked whether the adjustments in the number of exams are enough to assess the student learning and understanding of the course (entry 6.4). Most of the respondents in CHE 211 (69.3 %) agree (mean = 3.89) and majority of respondents CHE 216 (94.8 %) strongly agree (mean = 4.57) that there are enough exams. However, 13.2 % of students in CHE 211 disagreed on this statement and expressed that additional exams should have been given (entry 6.4). We decided to give only 4 module exams within the 5-week special term of AY 2019–2020.

In CHE 216, quiz 2 and 3 were conducted asynchronously with a recommended 24 -h window for the submission of answers to allow students wider access, especially those who may have limited internet connectivity. Although internet connectivity within Metro Manila is good, it is not clear if the same situation exists in other regions of the country. Nonetheless, the majority of respondents in CHE 216 (93.5 %) strongly agree (mean = 4.47) that timed-release and submission of quizzes for Physical chemistry 1 is a good way to train their problem-solving skills (entry 6.5). The wide time frame for the online submission was also an attempt to mitigate the reduced access to Blackboard online submission from students currently staying in other regions of the Philippines with intermittent internet connections. However, a wide asynchronous window period might pose academic integrity issues. Limiting the time of unsupervised assessment format restricted the amount of time for any potential collaboration. This learning experience was applied in giving assessments in CHE 211 in the succeeding term.

A total of four quizzes were given synchronously for CHE 211. In the first quiz, six problem solving questions were given to each student to answer in 60 min. These problems were given in three consecutive batches with 2 problems and 20 min per batch. To promote academic integrity, the instructors modified the dissemination quiz questions for the succeeding quizzes. Two problem solving questions were still given per batch, however, nine different sets were deployed. To ensure the same level of difficulty, only the given values and questions were rephrased. At the request of students, the time allotted per batch was increased to 30 min to account for the time used for downloading the questions and uploading the answers. These modifications, despite prolonging the time allotment per batch, resulted in a significant decrease in student performance for Quiz 2 (Supplemental Information 9, SI-9). Interestingly, the students were able to positively accept the adjustments for Quiz 3 and Quiz 4, resulting in significant increase in student performance for both quizzes as revealed by ANOVA analysis (Supplemental Information 9, SI-9).

Even with time adjustments, 57.2 % of CHE 211 students agree (mean = 3.59) that the timed-release of the exam questions provided good training to develop their problem-solving skills (entry 6.5). The survey suggests that sufficient time is important in assessing the performance of students in courses requiring intensive numerical calculations. The concepts and theories in Analytical chemistry were assessed using a quiz bee (entry 6.6). The motivation of doing this activity is to promote student-student interaction and provide an environment for active student participation. Most of the respondents in CHE 211 (87.9 %) strongly agreed (mean = 4.52) that assessment of concepts through online game (i.e., quiz bee) provided a fun and stimulating environment. However, some respondents found this assessment strategy neither effective (6.6 %) and some students disagreed (5.5 %) that quiz bees are effective in assessing the concepts learned. This observation was attributed to the various preferences of students on the type assessment. Another possible reason is that some students have unstable internet and affect their ability to quickly send their answers during the quiz bee. Overall, the majority of students in CHE 211(Mean = 3.88) students agree and CHE 216 (Mean = 4.48) students strongly agree that our self-assessment questions SAQs and exam strategy is sufficient and effective in assessing the understanding of the students of the topics in both calculations and theory.

4. Analysis of DLPCA teaching-learning experience

4.1. impact on student learning experience.

The perception and satisfaction of students regarding their DLPCA experience is discussed in this section. It is important that online teaching and learning strategy is laid-out and clearly discussed to the students. In terms of percentage, majority if not all the respondents in CHE 211 (91.2 %) and CHE 216 (100 %) agreed that there was a clear plan (entry 7.1) on how the courses were converted into an online class. The mean values for entry 7.1 are 4.47 and 4.70 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. The regular posting of tasks and deliverables to students further helped them understand the overall structure of the strategy, thus, resulting in a better learning process. This feedback is important because this will allow students to set their expectations in the new learning environment and will give them an impression of order and continuity ( Table 7 ).

Distribution of students’ response to Analytical chemistry (CHE 211) and Physical chemistry (CHE 216) questionnaire on the structure of online instruction and student attributes reported as frequency, percentage, and mean for each entry. The total participant surveyed for CHE 211 and CHE 216 are N = 91 and N = 77, respectively. The response for CHE 216 is shown in blue colour.

Majority of the respondents in CHE 211 (93.4 %) and CHE 216 (96.1 %) agreed that they had received a clear set of instructions for the weekly tasks expected from them (entry 7.2). The calculated mean for entry 5.2 were 4.63 and 4.65 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. This feedback is also important because this will provide students an overview of their weekly tasks, thus, giving them the chance to manage and make use of their time more efficiently. The most significant difference between online and traditional classrooms is that students and instructors cannot see and communicate with each other face-to-face. Hence, DLPCA combines a balance of synchronous and asynchronous components to engage the diverse personalities of students in a more inclusive way and maximizes opportunities for self- and guided learning. Most of the respondents agreed that the DLPCA strategy is balanced (entry 7.3) with a mean of 4.11 and 4.65 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. The term “balanced” refers to having sufficient and complementing mixture of asynchronous (lecture videos and SAQs) and synchronous (online discussion and consultation) teaching strategies. In addition, the mean values were determined for entry 7.4 to be 4.32 and 4.48 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. These data suggest that students strongly agreed that the synchronous component allowed them to easily express their feedback, concerns, and ask questions about the lecture materials (entry 7.4).

The balanced blended approach can help students establish active learning habits such as proactiveness (entry 7.5). The mean values for entry 7.5 were calculated as 4.27 and 4.29 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. These results suggest that the DLPCA strategy enabled students to develop a desirable active learning habit. The balanced online strategy also increases students’ sense of responsibility for learning (entry 7.6). The calculated mean values for the entry 7.6 are 4.42 and 4.35 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. Some of the students’ comments in CHE 211 and CHE 216 related to the balanced online learning strategy are presented below:

[CHE 211] “The best thing about the online learning strategy is the balance between synchronous meetings and asynchronous videos. Since the pre-recorded videos are sharp and concise, they can be repeated multiple times before the synchronous meeting can start. This way, I can better understand the lesson and prepare for the meeting, but still anticipate for the synchronous session in order to gather more detailed information about the topics.” [CHE 211] “The best thing was the asynchronous and synchronous discussion for the lectures because there is balance with self-paced learning and synchronous learning.” [CHE 216] “Asynchronous and synchronous lectures were balanced which is good especially when there comes a technical difficulty particularly the poor internet connection.”

The general acceptance and satisfaction of the students regarding the DLPCA learning strategy was emphasized in entry 7.7. Majority of students in CHE 211 (72.5 %) and CHE 216 (96.1 %) are satisfied with the online strategy. The calculated mean for entry 7.7 were 3.91 and 4.48 for CHE 211 and CHE 216, respectively. A relatively lower agreement was observed among CHE 211 students which may be attributed to the short intensive period of the Special Term resulting in shorter time allotted for accomplishing tasks and studying the lessons. This might have affected the understanding and appreciation of the topics in CHE 211, placing the students in a very stressful situation. In the case of CHE 216, the first half of the semester was conducted in face-to-face instruction (before the community lockdown) and the second half of the term was conducted online. The longer period of the second term (5 months) has spread the workload of students in CHE 216 resulting in a very high acceptance of the online strategy. The overall mean of entries from 7.1–7.7 for CHE 211 and CHE 216 were calculated as 4.23 and 4.53, respectively. These suggest that, in general, students in both courses strongly agreed the DLPCA strategy has a clear laid-out plan, has provided a balance of synchronous and asynchronous components, has promoted active learning habits, and has been accepted by the students as an alternative to face-to-face setup. One possible reason for the high acceptance among students is that they were able to establish a routine towards the end of the semester. DLPCA provides a cohesive strategy where students know what to prepare before going to class and are reassured knowing that any questions that they would have will be answered during the synchronous sessions.

Open-ended questions regarding the students’ general impression of the DLPCA strategy were examined using word clouds. Word cloud generates an image containing the most frequently used words from the comments being analyzed – the more frequently the word is used, the larger it will appear in the image ( Bletzer, 2015 ). It is possible to look for specific patterns of words and phrases, or the lack thereof, in any text data by simply examining frequencies in a word cloud. Further interpretations of the word cloud can be carried out by detailed analysis of the responses ( DePaolo and Wilkinson, 2014 ). Three themes related to the learning experience were identified, i.e. (i) the best experience in the online course, (ii) worst experience in the online course, and (iii) suggestions to improve the online course.

4.2. Theme 1: best experience

The word cloud of the feedback received from CHE 211 and 216 students are shown in Fig. 3 a and b , respectively. The following three major topics emerged for CHE 211: (1) questions, (2) videos, sessions, lessons, and (3) asynchronous, strategy, lecture, instructors, more, time. The frequency table and graph for best experience are presented in Supplemental Information SI-6. The word “questions” was mentioned frequently because students can easily raise their questions and instructors can entertain all their questions during synchronous sessions. The second major topic includes words like “videos”, “sessions”, and “lessons”. The production of pre-recorded videos was appreciated by the students as it makes online learning easier. Further clarifications and explanations for complex lessons were done during the synchronous discussions. The third major topic included words such as “asynchronous”, “strategy”, “lecture”, “instructors”, “more”, “time”. The respondents were optimistic as they enjoyed the learning strategy and emphasized the efficiency of content delivery and the ability to control the pace of learning. The students also emphasized the enthusiasm as well as the positive attitude of the instructors that was reflected throughout the recordings.

Word cloud analysis on the best experiences in the online teaching and learning in (a) CHE 211 and (b) CHE 216.

Four major topics emerged for CHE 216: (1) learning, (2) lecture, (3) videos, asynchronous (4) students, time, understand, synchronous. Like CHE 211, students expressed that their best experience in online learning is the availability of pre-recorded lecture videos which is an essential component of asynchronous learning. Students also appreciate the synchronous sessions because it provided a platform to clarify difficult topics that were discussed in the video. Students also like the amount of time made available to them in the course. The blended learning strategy allowed them to manage their time well and understand the topics in CHE 216. Overall, analysis shows the positive impact of using pre-recorded video lectures in online learning depends on good planning and balanced integration of asynchronous and synchronous components. However, it should be noted that video lectures are not alternative options to face-to-face setup, but an essential supplementary tool in achieving the learning outcomes of the modules in online learning.

4.3. Theme 2: worst experience

Three major topics emerged in the word cloud for CHE 211 on the student’s worst experience ( Fig. 4 a). Among these responses included (1) quizzes/quiz, (2) time, and (3) internet. The word “time” refers to the insufficient amount of time allotted for quizzes. The frequency table and graph for worst experience are presented in Supplemental Information SI-7. Some students in CHE 211 expressed their frustration that exam time is too fast-paced. The exam conditions gave them an impression of being rushed to analyze, answer, and upload their solutions. Although the exam questions were prepared to be similar to the one discussed in the online session, some students still find answering the quizzes (i.e., exams) stressful because the difficulty level of the questions are different from the ones discussed in the guided problems and SAQs. Several students were also affected by unstable internet connection in CHE 211 online class. Interestingly, the word cloud for CHE 216 ( Fig. 4 b) showed the most frequent keyword “none” for their worst experience. Most students appreciated the online strategy and commended their instructors for providing course materials that were sufficient to understand the topics fully. “Internet” and “time” were also the second most frequent words in the feedback. Internet connectivity issues which affected their participation during synchronous sessions and their timely submission of SAQs also contributed to the worst experience of students in their online CHE 216 course although these were mentioned to a lesser extent.

Word cloud analysis on the worst experiences in the online teaching and in (a) CHE 211 and (b) CHE 216 courses.

4.4. Theme 3: suggestions for improvement

The students were also asked about how they would like to experience their online classes in the succeeding semesters. The goal is to determine the enhancements to the DLPCA strategy and to make the students’ learning experience more satisfying. The major topics that emerged in CHE 211 are (1) “more”, (2) “quizzes”, “synchronous” (3) “think”, (4) “time”, “lecture”, “problem”. The frequency table and graph for suggestions for improvement are presented in Supplemental Information SI-8. Most students conveyed that more quizzes, diverse guided problems during synchronous discussion and other forms of assessments must be included to compensate for low scores in their exams. Students also expressed their concern regarding the time devoted in watching the lecture videos and submitting SAQs. Specifically, flexibility in terms of extending the deadlines of SAQs for a day or two would be ideal. The words like “professors” and “instructors” also appeared in the word cloud because the students are appreciative of their teachers’ efforts in their online class ( Fig. 5 ).

Word cloud analysis on further improvements in the online teaching and learning in (a) CHE 211 and (b) CHE 216 courses.

The word cloud for CHE 216 showed the following 2 major topics (1) “course”, “professor”, “time” (2) “learning lecture”, “videos”, “strategy”, “good”. Some students expressed that additional problems must be given, and submission deadlines of assessments must be flexible. In general, there is high satisfaction of the DLPCA strategy among CHE 216 students. The students also acknowledged that CHE 216 course provided a clear structure during the quick transition to online instruction. Students expressed their desire to continue with the DLPCA strategy and credited their teachers for the commendable efforts made in their online class.

4.5. Impact on student performance

To further investigate the impact of DLPCA on student performance, the grade distribution for Special Term 2018–2019 (face-to-face) and Special Term 2019–2020 (online) for CHE 211 were compared and summarized in Fig. 6 . Students are given a 5-point numerical grade which corresponds to 1.00 as the highest and 5.00 as the failed grade at the end of the semester. The grade WP corresponds to those students who withdrew with permission while the grade INC corresponds to incomplete. A grade of INC is given if a student failed to take the final examinations or to submit a major requirement of a course on account of illness or other valid reasons ( UST Student Handbook, 2018 ).

Comparison of the grade distribution, as a percentage of students earning each grade, for the online group (3 sections, n = 98) and the face-to-face group (3 sections, n = 121) in Analytical chemistry.

Although the assessment weightings were different in the face-to-face and online semester, the content and variety of questions stayed the same. Interestingly, the final grade distribution during the online Special Term rendered a comparable grade distribution in face-to-face Special Term. The most evident changes can be seen from the grades 1.75, 2.25 and 5.00. The percentage of students who got “1.75” nearly doubled (online = 16.3 %, face-to-face = 9.1 %) while those who got “2.25” more than doubled (online = 25.5 %, face-to-face = 11.6 %) in the online setting. On the other hand, the percentage of students who got “5.00” or failing grade became significantly lower (online = 4.1 %, face-to-face = 18.2 %) in the online setting. Interestingly, no student was given a grade of “WP” or “INC” in the online flipped classroom. These trends in the grade distribution could indicate that the DLPCA strategy positively impacted the students’ performance. To further verify the observed changes from the grade distributions between online and face-to-face, Welch t -test was used to analyse the data. Results (p = 0.0002962 and p = 0.00306) showed that online grades are indeed higher than face-to-face grades (Supplemental Information 10, SI-10). Unfortunately, the grade distributions between online (i.e., 2nd Term, AY 2019–2020) and previous face-to-face classes in CHE 216 cannot be compared. The community lockdown happened in mid-March 2020 which resulted to combination of face-to-face and online instruction for CHE 216. Hence, the performance of students during 2nd term cannot be assumed the same for the previous face-to-face classes.

4.6. Instructor observation

The instructor’s observations can be used to provide information on the effectiveness of flipped classroom in a qualitative perspective ( Fautch, 2015 ). Instructors also reflected upon their experience while transitioning to online instruction and how DLPCA strategy played an important role in continuing chemistry education during the COVID-19 pandemic. One of the positive outcomes using the DLPCA strategy was the introduction of new technological teaching tools for the instructors. The switch to online instruction resulted in all instructors utilizing synchronous video conferencing tools, online assessments tools, and pre-recorded lecture videos. These changes have the potential to have long term positive impacts on instruction. Specifically, the production of self-made lecture videos, although a time-consuming process, can be a permanent teaching tool. The pre-recorded lecture videos will certainly be useful for the next semesters and will be a part of other innovative learning activities.

The transition to online learning also presented a big challenge to decide which online technology is best suited for lectures. It is very easy for instructors to be overwhelmed by the sheer number of educational platforms and online resources available. However, the DLPCA strategy streamlined all available online resources into an organized strategy. The DLCPA strategy also involved collaboration and delegation of workload (e.g., creating video lectures, construction of new activities, team teaching) among instructors which led to higher-quality learning materials. Additionally, the exchange of ideas helped instructors better plan for giving assessments.

Through the instructors’ perspective, the DLPCA strategy also showed great impact on the students’ learning. Online education has resulted to different kinds of difficulties which has somehow affected the progress of students in understanding the topics in their lecture courses. The implementation of flipped classroom learning is expected to prepare the students to participate in more interactive learning activities that require higher-order cognitive skills ( Cowden and Santiago, 2016 ). Another great benefit for the DLPCA strategy is that synchronous sessions were recorded and uploaded in Blackboard for their exclusive use, and these capture the instructor’s presentation, class discussions and the participations as they occur. The availability and accessibility of the videos is considered to have a positive effect on student learning as no student requested to repeat explanations on complex topics presented in the videos. Comparing to previous semesters where students usually ask instructors to clarify difficult concepts and calculations, this shows that DLPCA offers effectiveness, flexibility, and convenience to online learning.

Regarding the completion of SAQs, all students completed the task properly which may be because SAQs were also required as a gradable assessment. In previous semesters, the solutions to SAQs were primarily discussed by the instructor in the classroom. During the online term, students were randomly asked by the instructor to share their calculations during synchronous sessions. This activity trains students to extract information from the SAQs, organize solutions, communicate their knowledge, and develop a deeper level of thinking. Interestingly, some students would raise questions on the solutions of their classmates which encourages the exchange of ideas between students. Lastly, the team teaching conducted by the instructors had a positive effect on the students. The presence of all instructors during the class sessions allowed students to gain insights from each instructor.

5. Concluding remarks

The COVID-19 pandemic has opened venues for online teaching with a completely new outlook for educators and learners. Online education requires teachers to change from the old teaching paradigm to new teaching methods that also matches with technology. Consultation with students regarding the teaching style is important to check if the students are keeping up with the lecture and helps identify various aspects of online teaching that needs to be adjusted accordingly. This paper presented the DLPCA strategy that paved the way for transition from traditional face-to-face to online instruction during the pandemic. DLPCA consists of asynchronous learning using pre-recorded videos and synchronous session of live exchanges. The major lessons of using DLCPA strategy during the lockdown were (i) asynchronous teaching using lecture videos allowed students to progress at their own pace because they can repeatedly watch the videos at any time, (ii) checklists such as progress trackers and weekly guides helped students organize and manage their tasks, and (iii) asynchronous assessments were effective in addressing problems with slow internet connectivity. However, preventive measures must be in place to prevent unauthorized student collaboration and internet searching. In addition, the benefits of DLCPA outweighs the costs in time associated with the preparation of pre-recorded lecture videos. The various insights and results discussed in this paper could be adapted for designing synchronous and/or asynchronous components of online, flipped, or hybrid classes. In addition, DLPCA strategy can be applied in future events such as disruption of classes due to inclement weather conditions, and emergency situations when a faculty member cannot be physically present in a classroom due to health reasons.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to the university administration for their support in providing trainings in online instruction. The authors are also appreciative to Dr. Edsel B. Calica for contributing materials and inputs for the learning theories.

Appendix A Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the online version, at doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ece.2021.01.012 .

Appendix A. Supplementary data

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