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What is Descriptive Research? Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

Descriptive research is a methodological approach that seeks to depict the characteristics of a phenomenon or subject under investigation. In scientific inquiry, it serves as a foundational tool for researchers aiming to observe, record, and analyze the intricate details of a particular topic. This method provides a rich and detailed account that aids in understanding, categorizing, and interpreting the subject matter.

Descriptive research design is widely employed across diverse fields, and its primary objective is to systematically observe and document all variables and conditions influencing the phenomenon.

After this descriptive research definition, let’s look at this example. Consider a researcher working on climate change adaptation, who wants to understand water management trends in an arid village in a specific study area. She must conduct a demographic survey of the region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what are the water management practices and trends in village X.” Note, however, that it will not cover any investigative information about “why” the patterns exist.

Table of Contents

What is descriptive research?

If you’ve been wondering “What is descriptive research,” we’ve got you covered in this post! In a nutshell, descriptive research is an exploratory research method that helps a researcher describe a population, circumstance, or phenomenon. It can help answer what , where , when and how questions, but not why questions. In other words, it does not involve changing the study variables and does not seek to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of descriptive research

Now, let’s delve into the importance of descriptive research. This research method acts as the cornerstone for various academic and applied disciplines. Its primary significance lies in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview of a phenomenon, enabling researchers to gain a nuanced understanding of the variables at play. This method aids in forming hypotheses, generating insights, and laying the groundwork for further in-depth investigations. The following points further illustrate its importance:

Provides insights into a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research furnishes a comprehensive overview of the characteristics and behaviors of a specific population or phenomenon, thereby guiding and shaping the research project.

Offers baseline data: The data acquired through this type of research acts as a reference for subsequent investigations, laying the groundwork for further studies.

Allows validation of sampling methods: Descriptive research validates sampling methods, aiding in the selection of the most effective approach for the study.

Helps reduce time and costs: It is cost-effective and time-efficient, making this an economical means of gathering information about a specific population or phenomenon.

Ensures replicability: Descriptive research is easily replicable, ensuring a reliable way to collect and compare information from various sources.

When to use descriptive research design?

Determining when to use descriptive research depends on the nature of the research question. Before diving into the reasons behind an occurrence, understanding the how, when, and where aspects is essential. Descriptive research design is a suitable option when the research objective is to discern characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories without manipulating variables. It is therefore often employed in the initial stages of a study before progressing to more complex research designs. To put it in another way, descriptive research precedes the hypotheses of explanatory research. It is particularly valuable when there is limited existing knowledge about the subject.

Some examples are as follows, highlighting that these questions would arise before a clear outline of the research plan is established:

• In the last two decades, what changes have occurred in patterns of urban gardening in Mumbai?
• What are the differences in climate change perceptions of farmers in coastal versus inland villages in the Philippines?

Characteristics of descriptive research

Coming to the characteristics of descriptive research, this approach is characterized by its focus on observing and documenting the features of a subject. Specific characteristics are as below.

• Quantitative nature: Some descriptive research types involve quantitative research methods to gather quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample.
• Qualitative nature: Some descriptive research examples include those using the qualitative research method to describe or explain the research problem.
• Observational nature: This approach is non-invasive and observational because the study variables remain untouched. Researchers merely observe and report, without introducing interventions that could impact the subject(s).
• Cross-sectional nature: In descriptive research, different sections belonging to the same group are studied, providing a “snapshot” of sorts.
• Springboard for further research: The data collected are further studied and analyzed using different research techniques. This approach helps guide the suitable research methods to be employed.

Types of descriptive research

There are various descriptive research types, each suited to different research objectives. Take a look at the different types below.

• Surveys: This involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews to gather qualitative and quantitative data.
• Observational studies: This involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without influencing the study variables or manipulating the conditions. These may be further divided into cohort studies, case studies, and cross-sectional studies:
• Cohort studies: Also known as longitudinal studies, these studies involve the collection of data over an extended period, allowing researchers to track changes and trends.
• Case studies: These deal with a single individual, group, or event, which might be rare or unusual.
• Cross-sectional studies : A researcher collects data at a single point in time, in order to obtain a snapshot of a specific moment.
• Focus groups: In this approach, a small group of people are brought together to discuss a topic. The researcher moderates and records the group discussion. This can also be considered a “participatory” observational method.
• Descriptive classification: Relevant to the biological sciences, this type of approach may be used to classify living organisms.

Descriptive research methods

Several descriptive research methods can be employed, and these are more or less similar to the types of approaches mentioned above.

• Surveys: This method involves the collection of data through questionnaires or interviews. Surveys may be done online or offline, and the target subjects might be hyper-local, regional, or global.
• Observational studies: These entail the direct observation of subjects in their natural environment. These include case studies, dealing with a single case or individual, as well as cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, for a glimpse into a population or changes in trends over time, respectively. Participatory observational studies such as focus group discussions may also fall under this method.

Researchers must carefully consider descriptive research methods, types, and examples to harness their full potential in contributing to scientific knowledge.

Examples of descriptive research

Now, let’s consider some descriptive research examples.

• In social sciences, an example could be a study analyzing the demographics of a specific community to understand its socio-economic characteristics.
• In business, a market research survey aiming to describe consumer preferences would be a descriptive study.
• In ecology, a researcher might undertake a survey of all the types of monocots naturally occurring in a region and classify them up to species level.

These examples showcase the versatility of descriptive research across diverse fields.

Advantages of descriptive research

There are several advantages to this approach, which every researcher must be aware of. These are as follows:

• Owing to the numerous descriptive research methods and types, primary data can be obtained in diverse ways and be used for developing a research hypothesis .
• It is a versatile research method and allows flexibility.
• Detailed and comprehensive information can be obtained because the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative.
• It is carried out in the natural environment, which greatly minimizes certain types of bias and ethical concerns.
• It is an inexpensive and efficient approach, even with large sample sizes

Disadvantages of descriptive research

On the other hand, this design has some drawbacks as well:

• It is limited in its scope as it does not determine cause-and-effect relationships.
• The approach does not generate new information and simply depends on existing data.
• Study variables are not manipulated or controlled, and this limits the conclusions to be drawn.
• Descriptive research findings may not be generalizable to other populations.
• Finally, it offers a preliminary understanding rather than an in-depth understanding.

To reiterate, the advantages of descriptive research lie in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview, aid hypothesis generation, and serve as a preliminary step in the research process. However, its limitations include a potential lack of depth, inability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, and susceptibility to bias.

Frequently asked questions

When should researchers conduct descriptive research.

Descriptive research is most appropriate when researchers aim to portray and understand the characteristics of a phenomenon without manipulating variables. It is particularly valuable in the early stages of a study.

What is the difference between descriptive and exploratory research?

Descriptive research focuses on providing a detailed depiction of a phenomenon, while exploratory research aims to explore and generate insights into an issue where little is known.

What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research?

Descriptive research observes and documents without manipulating variables, whereas experimental research involves intentional interventions to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Is descriptive research only for social sciences?

No, various descriptive research types may be applicable to all fields of study, including social science, humanities, physical science, and biological science.

How important is descriptive research?

The importance of descriptive research lies in its ability to provide a glimpse of the current state of a phenomenon, offering valuable insights and establishing a basic understanding. Further, the advantages of descriptive research include its capacity to offer a straightforward depiction of a situation or phenomenon, facilitate the identification of patterns or trends, and serve as a useful starting point for more in-depth investigations. Additionally, descriptive research can contribute to the development of hypotheses and guide the formulation of research questions for subsequent studies.

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Descriptive Research: Definition, Characteristics, Methods + Examples

Suppose an apparel brand wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York’s buyers, then it must conduct a demographic survey of the specific region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment.

The study will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but will not cover any investigative information about “ why ” the patterns exist. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the study’s main goal. Let’s talk about it.

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research is a research method describing the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This descriptive methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.

The method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the research subject without covering “why” it happens.

Characteristics of descriptive research

The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, the design of the study, and data analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of the research study variables are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

• Quantitative research: It is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
• Uncontrolled variables: In it, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
• Cross-sectional studies: It is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
• The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.

Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before getting into any survey , though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:

• Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For example, understand millennials and the hours per week they spend browsing the internet. All this information helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.
• Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.
• Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location, geographic segmentation , etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing fixes or even create a new product line to cater to high-growth potential groups.
• Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative observation , researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-depth analysis . Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a population.
• Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.

Advantages of descriptive research

Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

• Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods like observational method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three, all primary data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even for developing a hypothesis for your research object.
• Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
• Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.
• Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.

Descriptive research methods

There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

Observational method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score question .

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.

Case study method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.

Survey research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls . They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions . The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.

Examples of descriptive research

Some examples of descriptive research are:

• A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
• Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issue. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change.

Some other research problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

• Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.
• A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
• A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than textbooks.
• To understand if its wellness questionnaire programs enhance the overall health of the employees.

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Descriptive research: what it is and how to use it.

8 min read Understanding the who, what and where of a situation or target group is an essential part of effective research and making informed business decisions.

For example you might want to understand what percentage of CEOs have a bachelor’s degree or higher. Or you might want to understand what percentage of low income families receive government support – or what kind of support they receive.

Descriptive research is what will be used in these types of studies.

In this guide we’ll look through the main issues relating to descriptive research to give you a better understanding of what it is, and how and why you can use it.

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What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research is a research method used to try and determine the characteristics of a population or particular phenomenon.

Using descriptive research you can identify patterns in the characteristics of a group to essentially establish everything you need to understand apart from why something has happened.

Market researchers use descriptive research for a range of commercial purposes to guide key decisions.

For example you could use descriptive research to understand fashion trends in a given city when planning your clothing collection for the year. Using descriptive research you can conduct in depth analysis on the demographic makeup of your target area and use the data analysis to establish buying patterns.

Conducting descriptive research wouldn’t, however, tell you why shoppers are buying a particular type of fashion item.

Descriptive research design

Descriptive research design uses a range of both qualitative research and quantitative data (although quantitative research is the primary research method) to gather information to make accurate predictions about a particular problem or hypothesis.

As a survey method, descriptive research designs will help researchers identify characteristics in their target market or particular population.

These characteristics in the population sample can be identified, observed and measured to guide decisions.

Descriptive research characteristics

While there are a number of descriptive research methods you can deploy for data collection, descriptive research does have a number of predictable characteristics.

Here are a few of the things to consider:

Measure data trends with statistical outcomes

Descriptive research is often popular for survey research because it generates answers in a statistical form, which makes it easy for researchers to carry out a simple statistical analysis to interpret what the data is saying.

Descriptive research design is ideal for further research

Because the data collection for descriptive research produces statistical outcomes, it can also be used as secondary data for another research study.

Plus, the data collected from descriptive research can be subjected to other types of data analysis .

Uncontrolled variables

A key component of the descriptive research method is that it uses random variables that are not controlled by the researchers. This is because descriptive research aims to understand the natural behavior of the research subject.

It’s carried out in a natural environment

Descriptive research is often carried out in a natural environment. This is because researchers aim to gather data in a natural setting to avoid swaying respondents.

Data can be gathered using survey questions or online surveys.

For example, if you want to understand the fashion trends we mentioned earlier, you would set up a study in which a researcher observes people in the respondent’s natural environment to understand their habits and preferences.

Descriptive research allows for cross sectional study

Because of the nature of descriptive research design and the randomness of the sample group being observed, descriptive research is ideal for cross sectional studies – essentially the demographics of the group can vary widely and your aim is to gain insights from within the group.

This can be highly beneficial when you’re looking to understand the behaviors or preferences of a wider population.

Descriptive research advantages

There are many advantages to using descriptive research, some of them include:

Cost effectiveness

Because the elements needed for descriptive research design are not specific or highly targeted (and occur within the respondent’s natural environment) this type of study is relatively cheap to carry out.

Multiple types of data can be collected

A big advantage of this research type, is that you can use it to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. This means you can use the stats gathered to easily identify underlying patterns in your respondents’ behavior.

Descriptive research disadvantages

Potential reliability issues.

When conducting descriptive research it’s important that the initial survey questions are properly formulated.

If not, it could make the answers unreliable and risk the credibility of your study.

Potential limitations

As we’ve mentioned, descriptive research design is ideal for understanding the what, who or where of a situation or phenomenon.

However, it can’t help you understand the cause or effect of the behavior. This means you’ll need to conduct further research to get a more complete picture of a situation.

Descriptive research methods

Because descriptive research methods include a range of quantitative and qualitative research, there are several research methods you can use.

Use case studies

Case studies in descriptive research involve conducting in-depth and detailed studies in which researchers get a specific person or case to answer questions.

Case studies shouldn’t be used to generate results, rather it should be used to build or establish hypothesis that you can expand into further market research .

For example you could gather detailed data about a specific business phenomenon, and then use this deeper understanding of that specific case.

Use observational methods

This type of study uses qualitative observations to understand human behavior within a particular group.

By understanding how the different demographics respond within your sample you can identify patterns and trends.

As an observational method, descriptive research will not tell you the cause of any particular behaviors, but that could be established with further research.

Use survey research

Surveys are one of the most cost effective ways to gather descriptive data.

An online survey or questionnaire can be used in descriptive studies to gather quantitative information about a particular problem.

Survey research is ideal if you’re using descriptive research as your primary research.

Descriptive research examples

Descriptive research is used for a number of commercial purposes or when organizations need to understand the behaviors or opinions of a population.

One of the biggest examples of descriptive research that is used in every democratic country, is during elections.

Using descriptive research, researchers will use surveys to understand who voters are more likely to choose out of the parties or candidates available.

Using the data provided, researchers can analyze the data to understand what the election result will be.

In a commercial setting, retailers often use descriptive research to figure out trends in shopping and buying decisions.

By gathering information on the habits of shoppers, retailers can get a better understanding of the purchases being made.

Another example that is widely used around the world, is the national census that takes place to understand the population.

The research will provide a more accurate picture of a population’s demographic makeup and help to understand changes over time in areas like population age, health and education level.

Where Qualtrics helps with descriptive research

Whatever type of research you want to carry out, there’s a survey type that will work.

Qualtrics can help you determine the appropriate method and ensure you design a study that will deliver the insights you need.

Our experts can help you with your market research needs , ensuring you get the most out of Qualtrics market research software to design, launch and analyze your data to guide better, more accurate decisions for your organization.

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Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.

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Child Care and Early Education Research Connections

Descriptive research studies.

Descriptive research is a type of research that is used to describe the characteristics of a population. It collects data that are used to answer a wide range of what, when, and how questions pertaining to a particular population or group. For example, descriptive studies might be used to answer questions such as: What percentage of Head Start teachers have a bachelor's degree or higher? What is the average reading ability of 5-year-olds when they first enter kindergarten? What kinds of math activities are used in early childhood programs? When do children first receive regular child care from someone other than their parents? When are children with developmental disabilities first diagnosed and when do they first receive services? What factors do programs consider when making decisions about the type of assessments that will be used to assess the skills of the children in their programs? How do the types of services children receive from their early childhood program change as children age?

Descriptive research does not answer questions about why a certain phenomenon occurs or what the causes are. Answers to such questions are best obtained from  randomized and quasi-experimental studies . However, data from descriptive studies can be used to examine the relationships (correlations) among variables. While the findings from correlational analyses are not evidence of causality, they can help to distinguish variables that may be important in explaining a phenomenon from those that are not. Thus, descriptive research is often used to generate hypotheses that should be tested using more rigorous designs.

A variety of data collection methods may be used alone or in combination to answer the types of questions guiding descriptive research. Some of the more common methods include surveys, interviews, observations, case studies, and portfolios. The data collected through these methods can be either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are typically analyzed and presenting using  descriptive statistics . Using quantitative data, researchers may describe the characteristics of a sample or population in terms of percentages (e.g., percentage of population that belong to different racial/ethnic groups, percentage of low-income families that receive different government services) or averages (e.g., average household income, average scores of reading, mathematics and language assessments). Quantitative data, such as narrative data collected as part of a case study, may be used to organize, classify, and used to identify patterns of behaviors, attitudes, and other characteristics of groups.

Descriptive studies have an important role in early care and education research. Studies such as the  National Survey of Early Care and Education  and the  National Household Education Surveys Program  have greatly increased our knowledge of the supply of and demand for child care in the U.S. The  Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey  and the  Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Program  have provided researchers, policy makers and practitioners with rich information about school readiness skills of children in the U.S.

Each of the methods used to collect descriptive data have their own strengths and limitations. The following are some of the strengths and limitations of descriptive research studies in general.

Study participants are questioned or observed in a natural setting (e.g., their homes, child care or educational settings).

Study data can be used to identify the prevalence of particular problems and the need for new or additional services to address these problems.

Descriptive research may identify areas in need of additional research and relationships between variables that require future study. Descriptive research is often referred to as "hypothesis generating research."

Depending on the data collection method used, descriptive studies can generate rich datasets on large and diverse samples.

Limitations:

Descriptive studies cannot be used to establish cause and effect relationships.

Respondents may not be truthful when answering survey questions or may give socially desirable responses.

The choice and wording of questions on a questionnaire may influence the descriptive findings.

Depending on the type and size of sample, the findings may not be generalizable or produce an accurate description of the population of interest.

Explanatory Research | Definition, Purpose & Examples

Dr. Shalonda Skidmore is an educational professional with over 15 years of experience. She taught English I-IV for 5 years, served as a guidance counselor for 7 years, and has been working at the district level for 4 years. Dr. Skidmore has a BS degree from Grambling State University, a MA degree from Southern University in Baton Rouge, and a Ph.D. from Louisiana State University. Her expertise includes social and cultural studies, multi-cultural counseling, and motivating students and adults to reach their academic and professional potential.

Devin has taught psychology and has a master's degree in clinical forensic psychology. He is working on his PhD.

What is the meaning of explanatory research?

Explanatory research is about explaining the causes of something. This requires that the relationship between different variables be studied to identify patterns and trends.

What is an example of explanatory research?

An example of explanatory research would be 'Why are pre-kindergarten programs significant to child learning?' This question shows a possible causal relationship and investigates a relationship among variables.

What is the difference between explanatory and exploratory research?

Explanatory research is structured while exploratory research is nonstructured and flexible. Exploratory research is the first step in a research project to try to gain information while explanatory research seeks to find a cause-effect relationship.

Table of Contents

Purpose of research, research types, explanatory vs exploratory research, lesson summary.

Research exists to enhance society through knowledge. When a person publishes their research, it is in the hopes that the targeted audience will implement their findings through real-life applications. Research can be basic or applied . Basic research, also known as pure research, is a way of researching to learn new things just for the sake of learning them and supporting observable facts instead of trying to solve a problem. Applied research is an investigation into an already well-known theory, so it focuses on solving real-life problems by generating knowledge from a question or problem in which the answer or result can be immediately applied. Its direct objective is to get an answer so that it can immediately be used in everyday life.

Research should be a systematic approach, commonly known as the scientific method. The three purposes of research are:

• To be a tool to contribute to and build the developing knowledge in a specific field of study
• To collect evidence for theories as a means to disprove falsehoods and support truths
• To advise action as a means to understand issues and raise public awareness

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• 0:06 Purpose of Research
• 1:02 Exploratory Research
• 2:38 Descriptive Research
• 4:57 Explanatory Research
• 7:22 Lesson Summary

There are three different research types which include exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory research. Each is distinct in terms of its use and in determining how the researcher will collect and analyze the data.

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is foundational, establishing that it should be the first kind of research to be conducted around an issue or problem that has not yet been clearly defined. Exploratory research seeks to gain a better sense of the exact nature of a problem, although it does not necessarily provide a definitive answer to the problem itself. It strikes at either a new topic or a new angle regarding a research question . Exploratory research usually relies on qualitative data from small sample sizes ; however, the flexibility surrounding the research lends to the number of data collection methods that can be used for this type of research. Exploratory research is unstructured with no pre-planned design for analysis and is generally filled up by either descriptive or explanatory research.

Exploratory research is conducted by first identifying the problem, next by creating a hypothesis , then by conducting research, and lastly, deciding whether the subject is worth further research. An example of exploratory research would be surveying patients who had undergone a specific type of surgery. The researcher would most likely get a myriad of information that contains things such as the patient's feelings regarding their surgery at a particular point in time, their sentiments surrounding their doctor's care of them before and after the procedure, their feelings regarding recovery, any complications, etc. Hence, one can see why exploratory research is so unstructured and flexible. The researcher would then need to decide what specific topics should be studied in terms of a specifically stated problem and the main purpose of the research.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is likely the second step in an attempt to gain knowledge around a research question. Its purpose is to explore situations while providing further information regarding the research topic. Descriptive research is the type of research that expands knowledge of a project or phenomenon by describing it according to its characteristics or concerning the population to answer the questions of what, when, and how but not the why. This type of structured research can be used to present trends, public beliefs or perceptions, and even how those viewpoints help to develop new trends among the studied population. Usually, descriptive studies are concerned with present phenomena; however, previous events can be considered about current conditions. Researchers should not manipulate any variables while conducting this type of research although they should try to collect as much data as possible so that there is as much representation of the sample population as necessary. Data collection instruments used for descriptive research include questionnaires, interviews with closed-ended questions, and observations.

If a person has to undergo a brain scan , the images would reveal clearer results than they would have in prior years. A doctor can now fill in gaps better than they could have before, expanding our understanding of the brain. That is also true as a person conducts descriptive research. As time goes on and more information is collected through descriptive research the results would also be clearer and more useful to the researcher. Concrete examples where this is especially crucial are for things such as sales studies, consumer perception about brands and their spending habits, and also describing how a community or population has reacted to a phenomenon.

Explanatory Research

In considering what is explanatory research it is important to state that it is causal, meaning it should occur as a way to give a cause as to why something is happening. The explanatory research definition includes determining how variables interact with each other and identifying cause and effect relationships. Characteristics of explanatory research include:

• Investigating details with small amounts of data
• Usually begin with a why or how does question
• Identifies impactful information but may not always give a solid conclusion
• Helps form views or theories
• Relies on primary and secondary research methods

The types of explanatory research data collection methods include case studies, literature reviews, observations, pilot studies , and focus studies.

Here are the steps to conduct this type of research along with specific explanatory research examples:

1. Develop a research question by identifying the problem or interest

Suppose a linguist is interested in studying language retention for native English-speaking middle school students who are in a Spanish immersion program. The research question could be “How does the duration of exposure to a Spanish immersion program influence the language retention of middle school students through their high-school years?”

2. Formulate a hypothesis

Develop a hypothesis by giving an educated guess regarding what results from the data could provide “The participation and duration of the exposure to a language for 6th-8th graders will lead to a positive effect on language retention and use as students go through high school.”

3. Design the methodology and collect data

Here, the researcher would choose the way in which they want to gather their information. The data collection method is an important catalyst for data analysis. An example for this is “Compare students who started at the 6th grade versus the 7th grade and the 8th grade. Conduct interviews and testing regarding their Spanish language proficiency at the end of each high school grade level.”

4. Analyze data

For this example, it was important to establish a range and include any new information that was discovered. A possible outcome of the data analysis could be “An analysis of those who started the program in the 6th grade held more retention but the frequency of use among other Spanish speakers aided in retention. ”

5. Interpret results and provide suggestions for future research

The interpretation of results for this example is “Those students who participated in the Spanish immersion program and who were able to continue to speak conversationally with other Spanish-speaking students led to more language retention. Those who started the program in 6th grade were more conversational than those who only had one year of the program (8th grade).”

• Exploratory research provides the foundation in regards to a problem the researcher suspects are present; therefore it is usually the first form of research conducted. On the contrary, explanatory research is a later form and has a direct, stated research question with variables that are studied to try to understand their relationship with each other.
• Explanatory research is unstructured whereas exploratory research is very structured.
• Exploratory can uncover the "what" while the explanatory can uncover the "why" or "how".

Research is conducted as a way to gain understanding around a specific topic. Exploratory research is conducted when researchers are in the early stages of their topic and is usually the first type of research to be conducted. This type of research is best suited for new topics or new angles to existing topics and is very unstructured. Exploratory research is usually followed up with descriptive research is aimed to define a particular phenomenon or to define the characteristics regarding a population's feelings or behavior towards an event or the how/what regarding an object or idea. Variables are not manipulated in descriptive research as it exists to only explain and provide information surrounding a topic. Explanatory research aims to find a correlation between variables. It deals with finding an answer to the why or how regarding a research question so that the researcher can accurately explain what is going on.

Video Transcript

As you probably already know, there are many reasons why research is done. But, what are its purposes? Why bother with all the different styles, techniques, experiments and measurements?

Why did the first sailors hop on canoes and paddle out? Humans naturally explore the world around them, wanting to learn about the planet we have labeled Earth.

Why did Hippocrates and Galen examine and write about the maladies of man? The need to describe and understand our world is found in even the youngest children.

Why did we develop an entire group of sciences to understand humans? Because what good is being human if you cannot explain why we do something. Maybe I am being a little to 'meta' about all this. The purpose of psychology is to explore, to describe and to explain how and why a person thinks, feels and acts.

Exploratory research is defined as the initial research into a hypothetical or theoretical idea. This is where a researcher has an idea or has observed something and seeks to understand more about it. An exploratory research project is an attempt to lay the groundwork that will lead to future studies or to determine if what is being observed might be explained by a currently existing theory. Most often, exploratory research lays the initial groundwork for future research.

To make this a little more understandable, imagine you are blindfolded or placed into a room without light. You are not told if something is in the room, but you have a suspicion there is something in there. You shuffle out slowly into the room, exploring with the tips of your fingers until you find something.

Exploratory research can come in two big forms: either a new topic or a new angle. A new topic is often unexpected and startling in its findings. For example, American psychologist John Watson really began his behaviorism research with a new topic on the study of human behaviors and learning: rats! Because humans have brains and rats have brains, it makes a certain kind of sense. There was an attempt to find the universal laws of learning in all brains.

New angles can come from new ways of looking at things, either from a theoretical perspective or a new way of measuring something. For instance, computers have allowed large populations to be looked at. Old experiments can now involve thousands of people from around the globe instead of a few people from the local train station.

Once the groundwork is established, the newly explored field needs more information. The next step is descriptive research , defined as attempts to explore and explain while providing additional information about a topic. This is where research is trying to describe what is happening in more detail, filling in the missing parts and expanding our understanding. This is also where as much information is collected as possible instead of making guesses or elaborate models to predict the future - the 'what' and 'how,' rather than the 'why.'

Remember that room you're blindfolded in? Descriptive research is the act of exploring the thing in the dark, creating a fuller picture of what you are looking at. It is not quite as tentative as exploratory, but you still are not 100% sure what you've found, although you're starting to get an idea. You begin to fill in what you know with what you find.

A psychological example is the use of CT scans, MRI, fMRI, PET, and SPECT imaging to describe the living brain. We now have the clearest picture in all of history of the thinking, living brain. Just a few decades ago, a person who wanted to look at a living brain had two options: a really blurry CT scan without any detail or to crack open the skull and peel back the protective layers around the brain.

Both options are better than a century ago, where you kind of had to wait for someone to die to examine their brain. Research over the last few decades has been expanding our understanding, providing descriptions of the active processes in the brain.

One field that is quickly growing is the field of forensic psychology. Over the last few decades, studies exploring the decision making process of police officers, the techniques used to question witnesses and the jury processes are all being examined. There has been an active interest in many researchers to explore the field that the judicial system needs.

For instance, looking into eyewitness memory studies reveals research explaining and describing the factors that influence what people see. For example, did you know that a person with different lights shining at different angles on a person's face can alter a person's entire look, including their ethnicity? How about that, even in broad daylight, people still get gender of perpetrators and victims mixed up?

We began exploring something new with exploratory research. Then, we conducted descriptive research to increase our knowledge of it. Lastly, we need to explain it.

Explanatory research is defined as an attempt to connect ideas to understand cause and effect, meaning researchers want to explain what is going on. Explanatory research looks at how things come together and interact. This research does not occur until there is enough understanding to begin to predict what will come next with some accuracy.

The person in the dark has fully explored the elephant and understands what it looks like. Now, the process of 'how did it get here' and 'where is it going next' comes into play. This often requires imaginative studies, more so than just touching an elephant in the dark.

Explanatory research never really ends because new ideas, techniques and information are constantly increasing. This is sort of like, 'the more you know, the more you realize you need to learn.' Explanatory research can even split apart and turn back into exploratory research with a new or unique finding.

For instance, there was a time in psychology that everyone who was anyone was a behaviorist. As time went on, the field kept running into the 'black box' (a term given to the ephemeral mind). Over time, the field of behaviorism went into a sidetrack and developed into the study of cognition and neural processes.

Exploratory research can also end when something has been sufficiently explained to be incorrect. For instance, the study of phrenology, or the measuring of bumps on the head to determine your personality and characteristics, was discovered to be a garbage theory.

Explanatory research is typically concerned with understanding the relationship between things and how they are in the past and the future. This often takes the form of a quantitative approach so that statistical tests can be conducted. Due to the large number of experiments occurring, pinpointing a single researcher or study is difficult.

However, examples of explanatory research include examining the neural development and degradation of drug addicts, as well as the effects of lifestyle on IQ tests in adults and children. (Hint: watching YouTube isn't good for your brain.) Each of these has a great deal of studies behind it, and the current researchers are attempting to pinpoint the exact cause-and-effect relationships between the variables involved.

What are the purposes of research?

Exploratory research is the initial research into a hypothetical or theoretical idea. It is the first step in learning about something. Somebody gets a new idea in their head, and it leads research in a new direction.

Next, is descriptive research , which provides more elaborate descriptions and information. Descriptive research helps fill in the research community's understanding of the initial exploratory studies.

Last is explanatory research , which attempts to connect ideas to understand cause and effect. This occurs when researchers are beginning to understand what they are looking at and trying to create models of cause and effect.

Learning Outcomes

Once you've completed this lesson, you'll be able to:

• Describe the three purposes of research
• Provide examples of exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research
• Explain how exploratory research can often lead to more explanatory research

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Home » Explanatory Research – Types, Methods, Guide

Explanatory Research – Types, Methods, Guide

Table of Contents

Explanatory Research

Definition :

Explanatory research is a type of research that aims to uncover the underlying causes and relationships between different variables. It seeks to explain why a particular phenomenon occurs and how it relates to other factors.

This type of research is typically used to test hypotheses or theories and to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Explanatory research often involves collecting data through surveys , experiments , or other empirical methods, and then analyzing that data to identify patterns and correlations. The results of explanatory research can provide a better understanding of the factors that contribute to a particular phenomenon and can help inform future research or policy decisions.

Types of Explanatory Research

There are several types of explanatory research, each with its own approach and focus. Some common types include:

Experimental Research

This involves manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect on other variables. It allows researchers to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables and is often used in natural and social sciences.

Quasi-experimental Research

This type of research is similar to experimental research but lacks full control over the variables. It is often used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to manipulate certain variables.

Correlational Research

This type of research aims to identify relationships between variables without manipulating them. It involves measuring and analyzing the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.

Case study Research

This involves an in-depth investigation of a specific case or situation. It is often used in social sciences and allows researchers to explore complex phenomena and contexts.

Historical Research

This involves the systematic study of past events and situations to understand their causes and effects. It is often used in fields such as history and sociology.

Survey Research

This involves collecting data from a sample of individuals through structured questionnaires or interviews. It allows researchers to investigate attitudes, behaviors, and opinions.

Explanatory Research Methods

There are several methods that can be used in explanatory research, depending on the research question and the type of data being collected. Some common methods include:

Experiments

In experimental research, researchers manipulate one or more variables to observe their effect on other variables. This allows them to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables.

Surveys are used to collect data from a sample of individuals through structured questionnaires or interviews. This method can be used to investigate attitudes, behaviors, and opinions.

Correlational studies

This method aims to identify relationships between variables without manipulating them. It involves measuring and analyzing the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.

Case studies

Case studies involve an in-depth investigation of a specific case or situation. This method is often used in social sciences and allows researchers to explore complex phenomena and contexts.

Secondary Data Analysis

This method involves analyzing data that has already been collected by other researchers or organizations. It can be useful when primary data collection is not feasible or when additional data is needed to support research findings.

Data Analysis Methods

Explanatory research data analysis methods are used to explore the relationships between variables and to explain how they interact with each other. Here are some common data analysis methods used in explanatory research:

Correlation Analysis

Correlation analysis is used to identify the strength and direction of the relationship between two or more variables. This method is particularly useful when exploring the relationship between quantitative variables.

Regression Analysis

Regression analysis is used to identify the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. This method is particularly useful when exploring the relationship between a dependent variable and several predictor variables.

Path Analysis

Path analysis is a method used to examine the direct and indirect relationships between variables. It is particularly useful when exploring complex relationships between variables.

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

SEM is a statistical method used to test and validate theoretical models of the relationships between variables. It is particularly useful when exploring complex models with multiple variables and relationships.

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis is used to identify underlying factors that contribute to the variation in a set of variables. This method is particularly useful when exploring relationships between multiple variables.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is used to analyze qualitative data by identifying themes and patterns in text, images, or other forms of data. This method is particularly useful when exploring the meaning and context of data.

Applications of Explanatory Research

The applications of explanatory research include:

• Social sciences: Explanatory research is commonly used in social sciences to investigate the causes and effects of social phenomena, such as the relationship between poverty and crime, or the impact of social policies on individuals or communities.
• Marketing : Explanatory research can be used in marketing to understand the reasons behind consumer behavior, such as why certain products are preferred over others or why customers choose to purchase from certain brands.
• Healthcare : Explanatory research can be used in healthcare to identify the factors that contribute to disease or illness, as well as the effectiveness of different treatments and interventions.
• Education : Explanatory research can be used in education to investigate the causes of academic achievement or failure, as well as the factors that influence teaching and learning processes.
• Business : Explanatory research can be used in business to understand the factors that contribute to the success or failure of different strategies, as well as the impact of external factors, such as economic or political changes, on business operations.
• Public policy: Explanatory research can be used in public policy to evaluate the effectiveness of policies and programs, as well as to identify the factors that contribute to social problems or inequalities.

Explanatory Research Question

An explanatory research question is a type of research question that seeks to explain the relationship between two or more variables, and to identify the underlying causes of that relationship. The goal of explanatory research is to test hypotheses or theories about the relationship between variables, and to gain a deeper understanding of complex phenomena.

Examples of explanatory research questions include:

• What is the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance among college students, and what factors contribute to this relationship?
• How do environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity, affect the spread of infectious diseases?
• What are the factors that contribute to the success or failure of small businesses in a particular industry, and how do these factors interact with each other?
• How do different teaching strategies impact student engagement and learning outcomes in the classroom?
• What is the relationship between social support and mental health outcomes among individuals with chronic illnesses, and how does this relationship vary across different populations?

Examples of Explanatory Research

Here are a few Real-Time Examples of explanatory research:

• Exploring the factors influencing customer loyalty: A business might conduct explanatory research to determine which factors, such as product quality, customer service, or price, have the greatest impact on customer loyalty. This research could involve collecting data through surveys, interviews, or other means and analyzing it using methods such as correlation or regression analysis.
• Understanding the causes of crime: Law enforcement agencies might conduct explanatory research to identify the factors that contribute to crime in a particular area. This research could involve collecting data on factors such as poverty, unemployment, drug use, and social inequality and analyzing it using methods such as regression analysis or structural equation modeling.
• Investigating the effectiveness of a new medical treatment: Medical researchers might conduct explanatory research to determine whether a new medical treatment is effective and which variables, such as dosage or patient age, are associated with its effectiveness. This research could involve conducting clinical trials and analyzing data using methods such as path analysis or SEM.
• Exploring the impact of social media on mental health : Researchers might conduct explanatory research to determine whether social media use has a positive or negative impact on mental health and which variables, such as frequency of use or type of social media, are associated with mental health outcomes. This research could involve collecting data through surveys or interviews and analyzing it using methods such as factor analysis or content analysis.

When to use Explanatory Research

Here are some situations where explanatory research might be appropriate:

• When exploring a new or complex phenomenon: Explanatory research can be used to understand the mechanisms of a new or complex phenomenon and to identify the variables that are most strongly associated with it.
• When testing a theoretical model: Explanatory research can be used to test a theoretical model of the relationships between variables and to validate or modify the model based on empirical data.
• When identifying the causal relationships between variables: Explanatory research can be used to identify the causal relationships between variables and to determine which variables have the greatest impact on the outcome of interest.
• When conducting program evaluation: Explanatory research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a program or intervention and to identify the factors that contribute to its success or failure.
• When making informed decisions: Explanatory research can be used to provide a basis for informed decision-making in business, government, or other contexts by identifying the factors that contribute to a particular outcome.

How to Conduct Explanatory Research

Here are the steps to conduct explanatory research:

• Identify the research problem: Clearly define the research question or problem you want to investigate. This should involve identifying the variables that you want to explore, and the potential relationships between them.
• Conduct a literature review: Review existing research on the topic to gain a deeper understanding of the variables and relationships you plan to explore. This can help you develop a hypothesis or research questions to guide your study.
• Develop a research design: Decide on the research design that best suits your study. This may involve collecting data through surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations.
• Collect and analyze data: Collect data from your selected sample and analyze it using appropriate statistical methods to identify any significant relationships between variables.
• Interpret findings: Interpret the results of your analysis in light of your research question or hypothesis. Identify any patterns or relationships between variables, and discuss the implications of your findings for the wider field of study.
• Draw conclusions: Draw conclusions based on your analysis and identify any areas for further research. Make recommendations for future research or policy based on your findings.

Purpose of Explanatory Research

The purpose of explanatory research is to identify and explain the relationships between different variables, as well as to determine the causes of those relationships. This type of research is often used to test hypotheses or theories, and to explore complex phenomena that are not well understood.

Explanatory research can help to answer questions such as “why” and “how” by providing a deeper understanding of the underlying causes and mechanisms of a particular phenomenon. For example, explanatory research can be used to determine the factors that contribute to a particular health condition, or to identify the reasons why certain marketing strategies are more effective than others.

The main purpose of explanatory research is to gain a deeper understanding of a particular phenomenon, with the goal of developing more effective solutions or interventions to address the problem. By identifying the underlying causes and mechanisms of a phenomenon, explanatory research can help to inform decision-making, policy development, and best practices in a wide range of fields, including healthcare, social sciences, business, and education

Advantages of Explanatory Research

Here are some advantages of explanatory research:

• Provides a deeper understanding: Explanatory research aims to uncover the underlying causes and mechanisms of a particular phenomenon, providing a deeper understanding of complex phenomena that is not possible with other research designs.
• Test hypotheses or theories: Explanatory research can be used to test hypotheses or theories by identifying the relationships between variables and determining the causes of those relationships.
• Provides insights for decision-making: Explanatory research can provide insights that can inform decision-making in a wide range of fields, from healthcare to business.
• Can lead to the development of effective solutions: By identifying the underlying causes of a problem, explanatory research can help to develop more effective solutions or interventions to address the problem.
• Can improve the validity of research: By identifying and controlling for potential confounding variables, explanatory research can improve the validity and reliability of research findings.
• Can be used in combination with other research designs : Explanatory research can be used in combination with other research designs, such as exploratory or descriptive research, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.

Limitations of Explanatory Research

Here are some limitations of explanatory research:

• Limited generalizability: Explanatory research typically involves studying a specific sample, which can limit the generalizability of findings to other populations or settings.
• Time-consuming and resource-intensive: Explanatory research can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, particularly if it involves collecting and analyzing large amounts of data.
• Limited scope: Explanatory research is typically focused on a narrow research question or hypothesis, which can limit its scope in comparison to other research designs such as exploratory or descriptive research.
• Limited control over variables: Explanatory research can be limited by the researcher’s ability to control for all possible variables that may influence the relationship between variables of interest.
• Potential for bias: Explanatory research can be subject to various types of bias, such as selection bias, measurement bias, and recall bias, which can influence the validity of research findings.
• Ethical considerations: Explanatory research may involve the use of invasive or risky procedures, which can raise ethical concerns and require careful consideration of the potential risks and benefits of the study.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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Developing a Research Question

16 Exploration, Description, Explanation

As you can see, there is much to think about and decisions to be made as you begin to think about your research question and your research project.  Something else you will need to consider in the early stages is whether your research will be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. Each of these types of research has a different purpose, consequently, how you design your research project will be determined in part by this decision. In the following paragraphs we will look at these three types of research.

Exploratory research

Researchers conducting exploratory research are typically at the early stages of examining their topics. These sorts of projects are usually conducted when a researcher wants to test the feasibility of conducting a more extensive study; he or she wants to figure out the lay of the land, with respect to the particular topic. Perhaps very little prior research has been conducted on this subject. If this is the case, a researcher may wish to do some exploratory work to learn what method to use in collecting data, how best to approach research subjects, or even what sorts of questions are reasonable to ask. A researcher wanting to simply satisfy his or her own curiosity about a topic could also conduct exploratory research. Conducting exploratory research on a topic is often a necessary first step, both to satisfy researcher curiosity about the subject and to better understand the phenomenon and the research participants in order to design a larger, subsequent study. See Table 3.1 for examples.

Descriptive research

Sometimes the goal of research is to describe or define a particular phenomenon. In this case, descriptive research would be an appropriate strategy. A descriptive may, for example, aim to describe a pattern.  For example, researchers often collect information to describe something for the benefit of the general public.  Market researchers rely on descriptive research to tell them what consumers think of their products. In fact, descriptive research has many useful applications, and you probably rely on findings from descriptive research without even being aware that that is what you are doing. See Table 3.1 for examples.

Explanatory research

The third type of research, explanatory research , seeks to answer “why” questions. In this case, the researcher is trying to identify the causes and effects of whatever phenomenon is under studying. An explanatory study of college students’ addictions to their electronic gadgets, for example, might aim to understand why students become addicted. Does it have anything to do with their family histories? Does it have anything to do with their other extracurricular hobbies and activities?  Does it have anything to do with whom they spend their time? An explanatory study could answer these kinds of questions. See Table 3.1 for examples.

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An Introduction to Research Methods in Sociology Copyright © 2019 by Valerie A. Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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12 4.1 Types of research

Learning objectives.

• Differentiate between exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory research

A recent news story about college students’ addictions to electronic gadgets (Lisk, 2011) describes findings from some research by Professor Susan Moeller and colleagues from the University of Maryland . The story raises a number of interesting questions. Just what sorts of gadgets are students addicted to? How do these addictions work? Why do they exist, and who is most likely to experience them?

Social science research is great for answering just these sorts of questions. But in order to answer our questions well, we must take care in designing our research projects. In this chapter, we’ll consider what aspects of a research project should be considered at the beginning, including specifying the goals of the research, the components that are common across most research projects, and a few other considerations.

One of the first things to think about when designing a research project is what you hope to accomplish, in very general terms, by conducting the research. What do you hope to be able to say about your topic? Do you hope to gain a deep understanding of whatever phenomenon it is that you’re studying, or would you rather have a broad, but perhaps less deep, understanding? Do you want your research to be used by policymakers or others to shape social life, or is this project more about exploring your curiosities? Your answers to each of these questions will shape your research design.

Exploration, description, and explanation

You’ll need to decide in the beginning phases whether your research will be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. Each has a different purpose, so how you design your research project will be determined in part by this decision.

Researchers conducting exploratory research are typically at the early stages of examining their topics. These sorts of projects are usually conducted when a researcher wants to test the feasibility of conducting a more extensive study and to figure out the “lay of the land” with respect to the particular topic. Perhaps very little prior research has been conducted on this subject. If this is the case, a researcher may wish to do some exploratory work to learn what method to use in collecting data, how best to approach research subjects, or even what sorts of questions are reasonable to ask. A researcher wanting to simply satisfy her own curiosity about a topic could also conduct exploratory research. In the case of the study of college students’ addictions to their electronic gadgets, a researcher conducting exploratory research on this topic may simply wish to learn more about students’ use of these gadgets. Because these addictions seemed to be a relatively new phenomenon, an exploratory study of the topic made sense as an initial first step toward understanding it.

It is important to note that exploratory designs do not make sense for topic areas with a lot of existing research. For example, the question “What are common interventions for parents who neglect their children?” would not make much sense as a research question. One could simply look at journal articles and textbooks to see what interventions are commonly used with this population. Exploratory questions are best suited to topics that have not been studied. Students may sometimes say there is not much literature on their chosen topic, when there is in fact a large body of literature on that topic. However, that said, there are a few students each semester who pick a topic for which there is little existing research. Perhaps, if you were looking at child neglect interventions for parents who identify as transgender or parents who are refugees from the Syrian civil war, less would be known about child neglect for those specific populations. In that case, an exploratory design would make sense as there is less literature to guide your study.

Descriptive research is used to describe or define a particular phenomenon. For example, a social work researcher may want to understand what it means to be a first-generation college student or a resident in a psychiatric group home. In this case, descriptive research would be an appropriate strategy. A descriptive study of college students’ addictions to their electronic gadgets, for example, might aim to describe patterns in how many hours students use gadgets or which sorts of gadgets students tend to use most regularly.

Researchers at the Princeton Review conduct descriptive research each year when they set out to provide students and their parents with information about colleges and universities around the United States. They describe the social life at a school, the cost of admission, and student-to-faculty ratios (to name just a few of the categories reported). Although students and parents may be able to obtain much of this information on their own, having access to the data gathered by a team of researchers is much more convenient and less time consuming.

Social workers often rely on descriptive research to tell them about their service area. Keeping track of the number of children receiving foster care services, their demographic makeup (e.g., race, gender), and length of time in care are excellent examples of descriptive research. On a more macro-level, the Centers for Disease Control provides a remarkable amount of descriptive research on mental and physical health conditions. In fact, descriptive research has many useful applications, and you probably rely on findings from descriptive research without even being aware that that is what you are doing.

Finally, social work researchers often aim to explain why particular phenomena work in the way that they do. Research that answers “why” questions is referred to as explanatory research. In this case, the researcher is trying to identify the causes and effects of whatever phenomenon she is studying. An explanatory study of college students’ addictions to their electronic gadgets might aim to understand why students become addicted. Does it have anything to do with their family histories? With their other extracurricular hobbies and activities? With whom they spend their time? An explanatory study could answer these kinds of questions.

There are numerous examples of explanatory social scientific investigations. For example, in one study, Dominique Simons and Sandy Wurtele (2010) sought to discover whether receiving corporal punishment from parents led children to turn to violence in solving their interpersonal conflicts with other children. In their study of 102 families with children between the ages of 3 and 7, the researchers found that experiencing frequent spanking did, in fact, result in children being more likely to accept aggressive problem-solving techniques. Another example of explanatory research can be seen in Robert Faris and Diane Felmlee’s (2011) research on the connections between popularity and bullying. From their study of 8th, 9th, and 10th graders in 19 North Carolina schools, they found that aggression increased as adolescents’ popularity increased. (This pattern was found until adolescents reached the top 2% in the popularity ranks. After that, aggression declines).

The choice between descriptive, exploratory, and explanatory research should be made with your research question in mind. What does your question ask? Are you trying to learn the basics about a new area, establish a clear “why” relationship, or define or describe an activity or concept? In the next section, we will explore how each type of research is associated with different methods, paradigms, and forms of logic.

Key Takeaways

• Exploratory research is usually conducted when a researcher has just begun an investigation and wishes to understand the topic generally.
• Descriptive research is research that aims to describe or define the topic at hand.
• Explanatory research is research that aims to explain why particular phenomena work in the way that they do.
• Descriptive research- research that describes or define a particular phenomenon
• Explanatory research- explains why particular phenomena work in the way that they do, answers “why” questions
• Exploratory research- conducted during the early stages of a project, usually when a researcher wants to test the feasibility of conducting a more extensive study

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Descriptive Research vs. Exploratory Research

What's the difference.

Descriptive research and exploratory research are two different approaches used in the field of research. Descriptive research aims to provide a detailed and accurate description of a particular phenomenon or situation. It focuses on collecting and analyzing data to answer specific research questions and provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. On the other hand, exploratory research is conducted when there is limited existing knowledge or understanding of a topic. It aims to explore and gain insights into a subject, often through qualitative methods such as interviews or focus groups. Exploratory research is more flexible and open-ended, allowing researchers to generate hypotheses and identify potential areas for further investigation. While descriptive research provides a detailed account of a phenomenon, exploratory research helps in generating new ideas and theories.

Further Detail

Introduction.

Research is a fundamental aspect of any scientific or academic endeavor. It allows us to gain knowledge, understand phenomena, and make informed decisions. Descriptive research and exploratory research are two common approaches used in various fields to investigate and analyze different aspects of a subject. While both methods aim to gather information, they differ in their objectives, methodologies, and applications. In this article, we will explore the attributes of descriptive research and exploratory research, highlighting their similarities and differences.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a systematic investigation that aims to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors, or patterns of a specific population or phenomenon. It focuses on providing an accurate and detailed account of the subject under study. This type of research is often used to answer questions related to who, what, when, where, and how. Descriptive research relies on observation, surveys, interviews, and existing data to collect information.

One of the key attributes of descriptive research is its emphasis on objectivity and precision. Researchers strive to minimize bias and ensure that the collected data accurately represents the subject being studied. This is achieved through careful design, standardized data collection methods, and statistical analysis. Descriptive research is particularly useful when investigating large populations or when a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon is required.

Another important aspect of descriptive research is its ability to provide a snapshot of a particular situation or group at a specific point in time. By collecting data from a representative sample, researchers can draw conclusions about the larger population. Descriptive research can also be used to identify trends, patterns, or relationships between variables. It serves as a foundation for further research and hypothesis testing.

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research, as the name suggests, is conducted to explore and gain insights into a subject or problem that is not well understood or lacks sufficient previous research. It aims to generate ideas, formulate hypotheses, and identify potential areas for further investigation. Exploratory research is often used when the topic is relatively new, complex, or lacks a clear theoretical framework.

Unlike descriptive research, which focuses on providing a detailed account, exploratory research is more flexible and open-ended. It allows researchers to gather preliminary information, explore different perspectives, and develop a deeper understanding of the subject. Exploratory research methods include literature reviews, focus groups, case studies, and pilot studies.

One of the key attributes of exploratory research is its qualitative nature. It often involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, or textual analysis. This allows researchers to capture rich and nuanced information, uncover hidden patterns, and gain a holistic view of the subject. Exploratory research is particularly useful when investigating complex social phenomena, exploring new markets, or understanding human behavior.

Similarities

While descriptive research and exploratory research have distinct objectives and methodologies, they also share some similarities. Both approaches involve systematic data collection and analysis. They rely on empirical evidence to draw conclusions and make informed decisions. Additionally, both types of research contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.

Furthermore, descriptive research and exploratory research can be used in combination. Exploratory research can help identify variables and generate hypotheses, which can then be tested using descriptive research methods. This iterative process allows researchers to refine their understanding and develop more comprehensive insights.

Differences

While there are similarities between descriptive research and exploratory research, there are also notable differences in their objectives, methodologies, and applications. Descriptive research aims to provide a detailed and accurate account of a subject, while exploratory research focuses on exploring and gaining insights into a relatively unknown or complex topic.

Descriptive research relies heavily on quantitative data collection methods, such as surveys or experiments, to gather information. It emphasizes objectivity, precision, and statistical analysis. In contrast, exploratory research often involves qualitative data collection methods, such as interviews or observations, to capture rich and contextual information. It allows for more flexibility and open-ended exploration.

Another difference lies in the scope and generalizability of the findings. Descriptive research aims to provide a representative snapshot of a larger population, allowing for generalizations and predictions. Exploratory research, on the other hand, focuses on generating insights and hypotheses that can be further tested and refined. Its findings are often more specific and context-dependent.

Descriptive research and exploratory research are two distinct approaches used in various fields to investigate and analyze different aspects of a subject. Descriptive research provides a detailed and accurate account of a specific population or phenomenon, while exploratory research aims to explore and gain insights into relatively unknown or complex topics. Both methods contribute to the advancement of knowledge and can be used in combination to refine understanding and develop comprehensive insights. Understanding the attributes of descriptive research and exploratory research is crucial for researchers to choose the most appropriate approach for their specific research objectives.

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Descriptive Research – Definition, Types & Methods

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Unlike experimental research, which seeks to establish cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating variables, descriptive research aims to accurately describe and understand the characteristics of a subject without influencing it. This descriptive research methodology relies on observation, surveys, and case studies . It’s a crucial step in the scientific process, offering a detailed snapshot of the subject at a specific time and aiding in forming hypotheses and navigating future research.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Descriptive research in a nutshell
• 2 Definition: Descriptive research
• 3 Descriptive research types
• 4 Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
• 5 Advantages and disadvantages

Descriptive research in a nutshell

Descriptive research is a methodology focused on observing and describing the characteristics of a subject without influencing it. This approach is used to gather information about phenomena, processes, or populations as they exist naturally. Through tools like surveys, case studies, and observation, it aims to paint a detailed picture of the subject’s current state, helping to form hypotheses and guide future research by providing a comprehensive overview of patterns and insights.

Definition: Descriptive research

Descriptive research is a research design that is used to investigate different phenomena, groups, and processes, as they exist in a specific population or setting. This methodology does not manipulate the study variables or look for cause-and-effect relationships. Instead, descriptive research focuses on providing a snapshot of the current state of affairs, offering insights into the “what” aspect of the subject under study. Descriptive research is foundational in forming hypotheses, identifying patterns, and setting the stage for further experimental research or correlational research . Essentially, it serves as a cornerstone in the edifice of scientific inquiry, offering a critical lens through which researchers can capture the complexities of the real world. It also lays the groundwork for theory development and subsequent investigative research methodologies . Descriptive research has the following distinct key characteristics:

• Non-experimental: Observes subjects in their natural environment without manipulation.
• Quantitative and qualitative: Uses numerical data collection and qualitative observations.
• Cross-sectional or longitudinal: Conducted at a single point in time or over an extended period.

Descriptive research types

Descriptive research methods are designed to conduct data collection , analysis, and reporting systematically without attempting to influence the subjects under study. These methods are crucial for understanding the characteristics, behaviors, and overall phenomena of interest within their natural settings. The primary aim of descriptive research is to describe and interpret what exists at a given time. The following sections will outline the most commonly used types of methods in descriptive research. Each of them has its strengths and limitations, and the choice of study design and method often depends on the research question, objectives, and the practicalities of the research process and conduction.

Surveys and Questionnaires

Survey research and questionnaires are among the most widely used tools in descriptive research, offering a flexible and efficient means to collect data from a broad audience or specific population segments. These tools are instrumental in gathering quantitative information (numerical data) and qualitative insights (open-ended responses) about people’s behaviors, preferences, and experiences.

Purpose and application

Analysis and reporting.

• They can cover a wide range of topics, e.g. employee satisfaction or social behaviors
• They can be administered in various formats, e.g. online platforms or phone interviews
• Allow researchers to collect data from a large number of respondents within a short timeframe
• It is crucial to craft clear, unbiased questions and determine whether to use open-ended or closed-ended questions for the research
• Conducting a pilot test with a small subset of the target population helps identify ambiguities or issues, ensuring reliability and validity
• Determining the sample size and sampling methods like simple random sampling , convenience sampling, and stratified sampling
• Quantitative analysis: Entails numerical data from closed-ended questions that are analyzed using statistical methods
• Qualitative analysis : Entails responses to open-ended questions that are analyzed to gather deeper insights into subjects
• Reporting: Findings are often presented in graphs, charts, and tables, which are interpreted in the context of the research objectives.
• Encouraging a high response rate is critical for the validity of the survey results. Strategies for this include ensuring anonymity, providing incentives, and simplifying the survey process.
• It is pivotal to be vigilant about potential biases in question generating, response options, and the survey distribution process, as they might influence the accuracy of the findings.
• Market research survey, assessing consumer preferences for eco-friendly packaging
• Questionnaire for college students to study the impact of social media on study habits
• Employee satisfaction survey to identify areas for improvement in the workplace
• Observational studies

Observational studies in descriptive research, involve watching, recording, and analyzing behaviors and phenomena systematically, as they occur naturally, without any intervention. This type of observation of subjects is fundamental in fields where the alteration of variables could change the outcome or where intervention is not ethical or feasible. Observational studies allow collecting real-world data, thereby, offering insights into processes, behaviors, and outcomes in their natural context.

• Naturalistic observation : Observing subjects in their natural environment and most authentic form without any interference
• Participant observation: The researcher becomes part of the studied group, either overtly or covertly, providing first-hand insights
• Structured observation: Some variables within the setting are controlled to ensure specific behaviors can be observed.
• Capture authentic behaviors and phenomena , providing genuine insights
• Adaptable to various settings and subjects, providing flexibility
• Aid hypothesis generation and the direction of future experimental studies
• Observers’ perspective can influence interpretations, bringing across subjectivity
• Presence of researchers might alter the subjects’ behavior ⇾ Hawthorne effect
• Privacy, consent, and ethical treatment of subjects are to be strictly considered
• Quantitative analysis: Entails, e.g., frequency counts of specific actions or behaviors
• Qualitative analysis : Entails, e.g., detailed notes on behaviors and interactions
• Reporting: Findings are often presented through coding behaviors observed during interactions
• Observing behavior of shoppers in a retail store to understand consumer browsing and purchasing patterns
• Studying employee productivity in different office environments by observing natural interactions and workstation usage
• Extensive ethnographic observation of a community, providing insights into cultural practices and social structures

Case study method

Using the case study method in descriptive research allows for a deep investigative approach, focusing on exploring, understanding, and explaining complex issues within their real-life context. This method is distinguished by its intensive examination of a single case or a small number of cases, where a case makes out an individual, group, event, organization, or community. Case studies are particularly valuable in descriptive research, as they provide insights into aspects of the subject that might be overlooked by other research methods.

Key characteristics

Process of the study.

• Comprehensive and in-depth exploration of the case in context
• Qualitative and quantitative data for multifaceted perspectives on the case
• Emphasis on the importance of context in understanding the case
• Focus often on unique, particularly informative, or representative cases
• Provide a level of detail that can reveal deep insights and complexities
• Can be used at any stage of the research process
• Inform the development of hypotheses for further research
• Findings are often not widely generalizable due to unique or specific nature
• Researchers’ perspectives can influence the study throughout the process
• Case studies are often labor-intensive and time-consuming
• Identifying the case(s) for the study
• Collecting data through various means
• Analyzing the data to identify insights
• Presenting and reporting the findings
• Detailed study of a single individual with a rare psychological disorder to understand their experience and the disorder’s impact on their life
• Analysis of a single company’s turnaround strategy to recover from financial distress, focusing on decision-making processes
• Investigating a single school’s approach to integrating technology in the classroom, including the challenges faced and the results achieved.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies

The cross-sectional study design and the longitudinal study design are fundamental cornerstones in the descriptive research design for the subject under investigation. While both are instrumental in various fields of study such as human behavior, health, psychology, and social sciences, they differ significantly in their approach, methodology, and the type of data they produce.

• Cross-sectional studies

A descriptive cross-sectional study observes a specific population or phenomena at a single point in time. This “snapshot” approach aims to examine the prevalence and characteristics of a particular issue within a defined population. As one of its key characteristics in descriptive research, cross-sectional studies collect data simultaneously with the observation taking place. Moreover, they can be used to describe the frequency of characteristics or to explore associations between the study variables. As only a single point in time is observed, temporal trends can’t be evaluated. The following table outlines the advantages and limitations of a cross-sectional study used for descriptive research.

The following outlines several examples illustrating the diversity of the application of cross-sectional studies for descriptive research in the fields of public health, education, psychology, and economics.

Public health

• Measuring the prevalence of hypertension among adults in a specified city

A Representative study sample of adults is surveyed at a specific time to examine blood pressure levels, along with lifestyle factors such as exercise, smoking, and diet. This type of study helps identify the burden of hypertension in the community and associated risk factors.

• Assessing the relationship between classroom environment and student engagement across different schools

Descriptive research with an observational study design, monitoring students in various classrooms one time and analyzing how factors like teaching methods, classroom site, and available resources correlate with student interest and participation.

• Investigating the impact of social media usage on mental health among teenagers

Descriptive research, surveying adolescents from different age groups about their social media habits and mental health indicators such as anxiety, happiness level, and stress. This type of study allows for the comparison of experiences of different age groups at once.

• Analyzing consumer spending patterns across different income levels

Data collection on household income and expenditure from a range of households at a specific time to evaluate how income impacts spending behavior on services and goods.

• Longitudinal studies

Longitudinal studies are across descriptive research types, one of the most prominent ones. They pose cornerstones characterized by their approach of following the same target subjects over a period of time to observe developments and changes. This descriptive research approach allows us to track patterns, potentially infer causal relationships, and understand the evolution of phenomena. In contrast to cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies offer a dynamic view, charting transformations and trends across diverse intervals.

Longitudinal studies are integral for descriptive research and in understanding how study variables and phenomena change over time, uncovering patterns, effects, and causes that might not be grasped through other descriptive study designs. The subsequent section lays out examples of landmark longitudinal studies in several fields such as public health, education, behavioral science, and economics.

Behavioral science

The Framingham Heart Study

This landmark longitudinal study began in 1948 in Framingham, Massachusetts. The initial study aimed to detect common factors that contributed to cardiovascular disease by following a large group of participants over a period of time. It has significantly contributed to the understanding of heart disease risk factors like the effects of diet, exercise, and smoking.

The British Cohort Study

In this descriptive research study, researchers followed 17,000 participants born in England, Scotland, and Wales over a single week in 1970. It provides insights into factors affecting educational development, employment, health, and family life, informing policy on education, social mobility, and employment.

The Swedish Twin Registry

In the late 1950s, the registry retrieved data on over 85,000 twin pairs in Sweden. It examines the relative importance of environmental and genetic factors in various behaviors, diseases, and conditions. This longitudinal twin study has contributed valuable knowledge to the field of genetic epidemiology.

The Panel Study of Income Dynamics

This descriptive research study began in 1968 and follows more than 18,000 people living in 5,000 families in the USA. It aims to assess economic and demographic behavior dynamics at both the individual and family levels, including employment, health expenditure, and income patterns.

Advantages and disadvantages

Overall, descriptive research poses a powerful tool for capturing the essence of what exists or what Is occurring within a particular domain or population. It can provide an accurate and detailed picture, which is invaluable for grasping complex phenomena, laying the groundwork for subsequent studies, and informing policy and practice. However, it is crucial to carefully consider when descriptive research is appropriate to conduct.

It is relevant to use descriptive research, when…

• …there is little information about a case and the need to gather basic information for hypothesis generation.
• …tracking trends and patterns over time is required to understand how phenomena evolve and change.
• …businesses aim to understand consumer preferences, market trends, and behaviors to inform research.
• …the current state of educational practices, student performance, or teaching methodologies is needed.
• …social norms, behaviors, and cultural practices within a population at a given time need to be examined.

Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of descriptive research can help researchers make informed decisions about their study design.

What are the types of descriptive research?

Here is a list of the types of descriptive research:

• Surveys and questionnaires
• Case studies

What is qualitative descriptive research?

Qualitative descriptive research focuses on providing detailed descriptions of experiences, phenomena, or behaviors from the perspective of those experiencing them. It relies on non-numerical data like interviews, observation, and text analysis to capture and interpret the subject matter.

What is a descriptive survey method?

The descriptive research survey method employs surveys, questionnaires, or interviews to collect data on the current state of a population’s characteristics or opinions, providing a snapshot to identify trends and inform decisions.

What are examples of descriptive research?

Here are a few examples of descriptive research:

• Studying the learning styles of high school students to adjust teaching methods to the majority
• Surveying customer satisfaction levels with a new product to assess areas for improvement
• Observing children’s behavior in a playground to understand interaction patterns among various ages
• Determining the prevalence of smoking within a specific demographic group
• Analyzing census data to describe trends in household composition and size over the last decade

What is a descriptive research study?

Descriptive research studies aim to systematically describe a population, phenomenon, or behavioral pattern as it naturally occurs without manipulating or modifying the variables.

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7.1 Types of research

Learning objectives.

• Differentiate among exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory research studies

A recent news story about college students’ addictions to electronic gadgets (Lisk, 2011)  [1] describes findings from some current research by Professor Susan Moeller and colleagues from the University of Maryland ( http://withoutmedia.wordpress.com ). The story raises a number of interesting questions. Just what sorts of gadgets are students addicted to? How do these addictions work? Why do they exist, and who is most likely to experience them?

Social science research is great for answering just these sorts of questions. But in order to answer our questions well, we must take care in designing our research projects. In this chapter, we’ll consider what aspects of a research project should be considered at the beginning, including specifying the goals of the research, the components that are common across most research projects, and a few other considerations.

One of the first things to think about when designing a research project is what you hope to accomplish, in very general terms, by conducting the research. What do you hope to be able to say about your topic? Do you hope to gain a deep understanding of whatever phenomenon it is that you’re studying, or would you rather have a broad, but perhaps less deep, understanding? Do you want your research to be used by policymakers or others to shape social life, or is this project more about exploring your curiosities? Your answers to each of these questions will shape your research design.

Exploration, description, and explanation

You’ll need to decide in the beginning phases whether your research will be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. Each has a different purpose, so how you design your research project will be determined in part by this decision.

Researchers conducting exploratory research are typically at the early stages of examining their topics. These sorts of projects are usually conducted when a researcher wants to test the feasibility of conducting a more extensive study and to figure out the “lay of the land” with respect to the particular topic. Perhaps very little prior research has been conducted on this subject. If this is the case, a researcher may wish to do some exploratory work to learn what method to use in collecting data, how best to approach research subjects, or even what sorts of questions are reasonable to ask. A researcher wanting to simply satisfy her own curiosity about a topic could also conduct exploratory research. In the case of the study of college students’ addictions to their electronic gadgets, a researcher conducting exploratory research on this topic may simply wish to learn more about students’ use of these gadgets. Because these addictions seem to be a relatively new phenomenon, an exploratory study of the topic might make sense as an initial first step toward understanding it.

It is important to note that exploratory designs do not make sense for topic areas with a lot of existing research. For example, the question “What are common interventions for parents who neglect their children?” would not make much sense as a research question. One could simply look at journal articles and textbooks to see what interventions are commonly used with this population. Exploratory questions are best suited to topics that have not been studied. Students may sometimes say there is not much literature on their chosen topic, when there is in fact a large body of literature on that topic. However, that said, there are a few students each semester who pick a topic for which there is little existing research. Perhaps, if you were looking at child neglect interventions for parents who identify as transgender or parents who are refugees from the Syrian civil war, less would be known about child neglect for those specific populations. In that case, an exploratory design would make sense as there is less literature to guide your study.

Another purpose of research is to describe or define a particular phenomenon, termed descriptive research . For example, a social work researcher may want to understand what it means to be a first-generation college student or a resident in a psychiatric group home. In this case, descriptive research would be an appropriate strategy. A descriptive study of college students’ addictions to their electronic gadgets, for example, might aim to describe patterns in how many hours students use gadgets or which sorts of gadgets students tend to use most regularly.

Researchers at the Princeton Review conduct descriptive research each year when they set out to provide students and their parents with information about colleges and universities around the United States. They describe the social life at a school, the cost of admission, and student-to-faculty ratios (to name just a few of the categories reported). Although students and parents may be able to obtain much of this information on their own, having access to the data gathered by a team of researchers is much more convenient and less time consuming.

Social workers often rely on descriptive research to tell them about their service area. Keeping track of the number of children receiving foster care services, their demographic makeup (e.g., race, gender), and length of time in care are excellent examples of descriptive research. On a more macro-level, the Centers for Disease Control provides a remarkable amount of descriptive research on mental and physical health conditions. In fact, descriptive research has many useful applications, and you probably rely on findings from descriptive research without even being aware that that is what you are doing.

Finally, social work researchers often aim to explain why particular phenomena work in the way that they do. Research that answers “why” questions is referred to as explanatory research. In this case, the researcher is trying to identify the causes and effects of whatever phenomenon she is studying. An explanatory study of college students’ addictions to their electronic gadgets might aim to understand why students become addicted. Does it have anything to do with their family histories? With their other extracurricular hobbies and activities? With whom they spend their time? An explanatory study could answer these kinds of questions.

There are numerous examples of explanatory social scientific investigations. For example, in a recent study, Dominique Simons and Sandy Wurtele (2010)  [2] sought to discover whether receiving corporal punishment from parents led children to turn to violence in solving their interpersonal conflicts with other children. In their study of 102 families with children between the ages of 3 and 7, the researchers found that experiencing frequent spanking did, in fact, result in children being more likely to accept aggressive problem-solving techniques. Another example of explanatory research can be seen in Robert Faris and Diane Felmlee’s (2011)  [3] research study on the connections between popularity and bullying. From their study of 8th, 9th, and 10th graders in 19 North Carolina schools, they found that aggression increased as adolescents’ popularity increased.  [4]

The choice between descriptive, exploratory, and explanatory research should be made with your research question in mind. What does your question ask? Are you trying to learn the basics about a new area, establish a clear “why” relationship, or define or describe an activity or concept? In the next section, we will explore how each type of research is associated with different methods, paradigms, and forms of logic.

Key Takeaways

• Exploratory research is usually conducted when a researcher has just begun an investigation and wishes to understand the topic generally.
• Descriptive research is research that aims to describe or define the topic at hand.
• Explanatory research is research that aims to explain why particular phenomena work in the way that they do.
• Descriptive research- research that describes or define a particular phenomenon
• Explanatory research- explains why particular phenomena work in the way that they do, answers “why” questions
• Exploratory research- conducted during the early stages of a project, usually when a researcher wants to test the feasibility of conducting a more extensive study

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• Lisk, J. (2011). Addiction to our electronic gadgets. Retrieved from:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9lVHZZG5qvw ↵
• Simons, D. A., & Wurtele, S. K. (2010). Relationships between parents’ use of corporal punishment and their children’s endorsement of spanking and hitting other children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34 , 639–646. ↵
• Faris, R., & Felmlee, D. (2011). Status struggles: Network centrality and gender segregation in same- and cross-gender aggression. American Sociological Review, 76 , 48–73. The study has also been covered by several media outlets: Pappas, S. (2011). Popularity increases aggression in kids, study finds. Retrieved from:  http://www.livescience.com/11737-popularity-increases-aggression-kids-study-finds.html ↵
• This pattern was found until adolescents reached the top 2% in the popularity ranks. After that, aggression declines. ↵

Scientific Inquiry in Social Work Copyright © 2018 by Matthew DeCarlo is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research

The research design is defined as a framework for carrying out research activities in different fields of study. The research design is classified into two important categories i.e. exploratory and conclusive research. Conclusive research is further subdivided into descriptive and casual research. The people often juxtapose exploratory research and descriptive research, but the fact is that they are different.

Take a read of this article to understand the differences between exploratory and descriptive research.

Content: Exploratory Research Vs Descriptive Research

Comparison chart.

Definition of Exploratory Research

As the name implies, the primary objective of exploratory research is to explore a problem to provide insights into and comprehension for more precise investigation. It focuses on the discovery of ideas and thoughts. The exploratory research design is suitable for studies which are flexible enough to provide an opportunity for considering all the aspects of the problem.

At this point, the required information is loosely defined, and the research process is flexible and unstructured. It is used in the situation when you must define the problem correctly, identify alternative courses of actions, develop a hypothesis, gain additional insights before the development of an approach, set priorities for further examination. The following methods are used for conducting exploratory research

• Survey of concerning literature
• Experience survey
• Analysis of insights stimulating

Definition of Descriptive Research

By the term descriptive research, we mean a type of conclusive research study which is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or group. It includes research related to specific predictions, features or functions of person or group, the narration of facts, etc.

The descriptive research aims at obtaining complete and accurate information for the study, the method adopted must be carefully planned. The researcher should precisely define what he wants to measure? How does he want to measure? He should clearly define the population under study. It uses methods like quantitative analysis of secondary data, surveys, panels, observations, interviews, questionnaires, etc.

Descriptive Research concentrates on formulating the research objective, designing methods for the collection of data, selection of the sample, data collection, processing, and analysis, reporting the results.

Key Differences Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research

The difference between exploratory and descriptive research can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

• Research conducted for formulating a problem for more clear investigation is called exploratory research. Research that explore and explains an individual, group or a situation, is called descriptive research.
• The exploratory research aims at the discovery of ideas and thoughts whereas the primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics and functions.
• The overall design of the exploratory research should be flexible enough so that it provides an opportunity to consider various aspects of the problem. On the contrary, in descriptive research, the overall design should be rigid which protects against bias and also maximise reliability.
• The research process is unstructured in exploratory research. However, it is structured in the case of descriptive research.
• Non-probability sampling i.e. judgment or purposive sampling design is used in exploratory research. As opposed to descriptive research where probability (random) sampling design is used.
• When it comes to statistical design, exploratory research has no pre-planned design for analysis. Unlike, descriptive research that has the pre-planned design for analysis.

Therefore exploratory research results in insights or hypothesis, regardless of the method adopted, the most important thing is that it should remain flexible so that all the facets of the problem can be studied, as and when they arise. Conversely, descriptive research is a comparative design which is prepared according to the study and resources available. Such study minimises bias and maximises reliability.

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