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Strengthen Media Literacy to Win the Fight Against Misinformation

If the world is going to stop deliberate or unintentional misinformation and its insidious effects, we need to radically expand and accelerate our counterattacks, particularly human-centered solutions focused on improving people's media and information literacy.

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By Kristin M. Lord & Katya Vogt Mar. 18, 2021

The deliberate or unintentional spread of misinformation, despite capturing widespread public attention, remains as rampant as ever, showing up recently in the form of false claims about COVID-19 vaccines , the Capitol riot , and many other topics . This “ infodemic ” is polarizing politics , endangering communities , weakening institutions , and leaving people unsure what to believe or whom to trust . It threatens the foundations of democratic governance , social cohesion , national security , and public health .

Misinformation is a long-term problem that demands long-term, sustainable solutions as well as short-term interventions. We've seen a number of quicker, technological fixes that improve the social media platforms that supply information. Companies like Facebook and Twitter, for example, have adjusted their algorithms or called out problematic content . We've also seen slower, human-centered approaches that make people smarter about the media they demand to access online. Evidence-driven educational programs, for instance, have made people better at discerning the reliability of information sources, distinguishing facts from opinions, resisting emotional manipulation, and being good digital citizens.

It hasn't been enough. If we're to stop misinformation and its insidious effects, we need to radically expand and accelerate our counterattacks. It will take all sectors of society: business, nonprofits, advocacy organizations, philanthropists, researchers, governments, and more. We also need to balance our efforts. For too long, too many resources and debates have focused on changing the technology, not educating people. This emphasis on the supply side of the problem without a similar investment in the demand side may be a less effective use of time and energy.

While technology-centered, self-policing solutions—filtering software, artificial intelligence, modified algorithms, and content labeling—do have the ability to make changes quickly and at scale, they face significant ethical, financial, logistical, and legal constraints.

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For one, social media business models thrive on engagement, which incentivizes emotionally charged and freely flowing content. Tech leaders like Facebook's founder, Mark Zuckerberg, hesitate taking action over concerns about free speech and have tried to avoid political debates until pressed . When they do take action, they face scrutiny for an inconsistent approach. Additionally, research shows that some of the most commonly employed methods for combatting misinformation on social media—such as banners that display fact-checks—have little impact on people’s likelihood to believe deliberately misleading news, and some even backfire. And because people often have a deeply held desire to share what they know with others—particularly information that seems threatening or exciting —tech companies can only go so far to regulate content. There is also the challenge of volume. Tech platforms struggle to keep pace with the many forms and producers of disinformation. Stopping them resembles a high-stakes, never-ending game of Whac-A-Mole.

Given these challenges, we need to invest more into human-centered solutions focused on improving people's media and information literacy. They not only demonstrate a much deeper and longer-lasting impact, but also may be easier and cheaper to implement than commonly believed.

Research from the RAND Corporation and others shows media and information literacy improves critical thinking , awareness of media bias , and the desire to consume quality news —all of which help beat back misinformation. Even brief exposure to some training can improve competencies in media literacy, including a better understanding of news credibility or a more robust ability to evaluate biases . Media literacy has a stronger impact than political knowledge on the ability to evaluate the accuracy of political messages, regardless of political opinion. Digital media literacy reduced the perceived accuracy of false news, and training remains effective when delivered in different ways and by different groups .

Media literacy training has lasting impact. A year and a half after adults went through a program from IREX (a nonprofit where the authors work), they continued to be 25 percent more likely to check multiple news sources and 13 percent more likely to discern between disinformation and a piece of objective reporting. In Jordan and Serbia, participants in IREX's training also improved their media literacy skills up to 97 percent . 

Media literacy programs can also be affordably and extensively delivered through schools. Finland and Sweden incorporated media literacy into their education systems decades ago with positive results, and Ukraine is beginning to do the same . In Britain, youth who had training in schools showed an improvement in media literacy skills .

Critics may say that improving people's media literacy and other human-centered solutions are resource-intensive and will not address the problem quickly enough or at sufficient scale. These are real challenges, but the long-term efficacy of such programs is exactly what is needed in the never-ending battle with misinformation. We need to invest more in them while continuing to pursue technology solutions, or we may never create and sustain the accurately informed citizenry that healthy democracies demand.

The effort will require all sectors of societies across the globe collaborating to fully understand and solve the problem. We need nonprofits and advocacy organizations to raise the alarm with the people they serve. We need philanthropists to step up with funding to scale solutions. We need more researchers to provide evidence-based answers to the full scope of the problem and the efficacy of fixes. We need governments to integrate media literacy standards into schools and incentivize training. We need tech companies to do more than tweak their platforms—they need to invest in educating the people who use them, too.

The tools to blunt the power of misinformation are in our hands, but we have to work smarter and faster or risk losing an ever-intensifying fight. Much learning, coalition-building, scaling, and communication remains to be done to " emerge from information bankruptcy ." Solutions are complex but within our reach. And the consequences of inaction are dire: the increasingly severe and invasive destabilization of our societies and daily lives as lies trample the truth.

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Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences

Karina polanco-levicán.

1 Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4780000, Chile; [email protected]

2 Departamento de Psicología, Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco 4780000, Chile

Sonia Salvo-Garrido

3 Departamento de Matemática y Estadística, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4780000, Chile

Associated Data

Not applicable.

Nowadays, people spend long periods on social media, ignoring the implications this carries in daily life. In this context, the concept of social media literacy, an emerging concept scarcely developed in the literature, is relevant. This study sought to analyze, descriptively, the main definitions and competences of the concept of social media literacy. The methodology included a systematic search of literature in the databases Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus between 2010 and 2021, applying filters for English and Spanish, including only scientific articles. A total of 1093 articles were obtained. An article selection process took place, applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, resulting in a total of 15 articles being selected. The findings indicate that the concept of social media literacy is based on media literacy to then integrate the characteristics and the implications of digital platforms. This is linked to the development of cognitive competences, where critical thinking, socio-emotional competences, and technical competences are fundamental, considering the social context. The development of socio-emotional competences stands out since social media are a frequent place of interaction between people.

1. Introduction

The transformation of society has been linked to technological changes that are an important part of people’s lives [ 1 , 2 ]. Digital technologies are inserted in aspects of social life, in families and relations with others, at work, in governance and political participation, and they generate new ways to shape a community [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. In this sense, social media are widely used by different societies, transcending the geographical borders of territories and cultures, connecting the global to the local [ 6 , 7 ]. Staying on the Internet and social media for extended periods has resulted in media and digital literacy continuing to gain importance [ 1 ].

It is important to specify that social media differ from other types of Internet platforms in that they are characterized by their mass use, they allow content creation, and are not only consumed passively, making it possible for people who do not have formal knowledge about mass media to produce information [ 8 ]. This is even more relevant considering the cross-sectional use of social media by different age groups and that children’s exposure to cell phone screens begins at an early age [ 9 ]. Later, in adolescence they spend extensive periods on social media due to their socializing with their peers [ 10 , 11 ], whereas university students spend an average of 20 h a week on such digital platforms [ 12 ], it has been reported that 98.3% of survey respondents state they use social media [ 13 ]. The opposite would mean being outside a relevant social space [ 14 ]. In the older adult population, there is evidence that they use the technology less other age groups; however, the rates of social Internet use are increasing [ 15 ].

It should be noted that users are exposed to different phenomena on social media, such as publicity, images with a positivity bias, and aggressive and violent behaviors. In addition, the way in which social media operate must be considered as they use technology to filter content based on the users’ previous choice, favoring confirmation bias [ 16 ]. They also offer the opportunity to choose with whom one wishes to interact, enabling the formation of groups or communities with similar characteristics [ 17 , 18 , 19 ], which can foster negativity against what is different, which can be particularly relevant in phenomena such as cyberbullying, which has been linked to time spent on social media [ 20 , 21 ].

Thus, there are also messages on social media that can be potentially harmful when they are about health and personal appearance [ 22 ], considering people’s exposure to advertising and photos shared with positivity biases [ 23 , 24 ]. In this sense, exposure to photos that have been manipulated to achieve a positive appearance is associated with reducing body image and body satisfaction, with the increase in the desire of young women to get cosmetic surgery [ 25 ], depending on the time spent on the Internet [ 23 ].

On the other hand, users can be confronted with demands and difficulties such as the dissemination of false and manipulated news in the post-truth era [ 1 , 26 ], which are produced and put into circulation intentionally to obtain benefits such as more visits by users [ 27 ]. This is combined with people sharing information without a review process for this content since positive feedback from other users prevails; consequently, fake news goes viral very quickly [ 26 ]. People are needed in the role of information consumers; they must develop critical thinking, i.e., a skeptical view of the selection of the news provided through algorithms and the news sources must be tracked [ 4 , 26 ], since discerning veracity or falsity is a responsibility that transcends the individual [ 5 ].

It is important to note that the use of social media is not negative in itself as it can increase social capital, foster friendships and reduce feelings of loneliness; however, it depends on the user’s characteristics and how the different platforms are used [ 28 , 29 ]. As a result, teaching and learning competences for the use of these Internet platforms are particularly relevant since they include social and ethical aspects and technical skills [ 14 ], as well as competences that can assess information that aids in better decision-making [ 30 ].

Media literacy was defined by the Aspen Institute [ 31 ] as “the ability to sensitize, analyze and produce information for specific results” (p. 6), although this conceptualization has certainly undergone progressive transformations, moving from printed information to expression and communication that includes new symbolic forms, such as images and multimedia content. In addition, social media have enabled group collaboration and the dialogue of a large number of people who produce content [ 32 ]. It is worth noting that Hobbs [ 32 ] refers in particular to media literacy and understands it as knowledge, competences, and skills for life that make it possible to participate in today’s society by accessing, analyzing, evaluating, and creating messages in different ways and in different media, being the result of media education. For his part, Buckingham [ 33 ] emphasizes the critical component and the understanding that contents are inserted in a broad context, for example, digital capitalism. The emergence of new types of literacy is linked to the appearance of Internet and mobile communication technologies, which have resulted in the appearance of new media. Considering their impact, this is occurring with technologically based sociocultural platforms [ 34 ].

In the same vein, digital literacy refers to a broad set of competences around the use of digital media, computers, and information and communication technologies (ITC), being understood as part of other forms of literacy, such as computer, Internet, media, and informational literacy [ 35 ]. Currently, efforts are being made by the international community to guarantee digital literacy [ 36 ], because since the COVID-19 pandemic time on the Internet and social media has increased [ 37 ]. It is important to mention that digital literacy has been proposed as a strategy against social inequality, given the connection between technological exclusion and wider forms of economic and social exclusion [ 38 ], because people have fewer opportunities to develop skills due to their limited Internet connection, thereby reducing participation levels [ 39 ]. Another relevant element is that it is linked to socio-economic disadvantage with a lack of knowledge about the algorithms that these types of platforms use to recommend content [ 40 ].

Literacy in traditional and digital media is central given that we live permanently receiving messages from different sources [ 41 ]. Generally, these are focused on improving people’s competences to integrate and operate in today’s society [ 42 ]. Therefore, it is necessary to promote the development of skills such as critical thinking because even though teenagers and young adults have known the world with the Internet, they do not have better developed skills in all the areas that digital literacy addresses [ 43 ]. Nevertheless, according to Leaning [ 35 ], the difficulty arises because media literacy does not sufficiently address digital technology, considering that digital literacy does not fully develop a critical approach compared to media literacy. However, it is relevant to point out that the boundaries between the types of literacy can be blurred; in addition, other proposals progressively emerge that link different approaches such as critical digital literacy, rendering the desired distinctions complex [ 44 , 45 , 46 ].

In this sense, due to their mass use, social media have transformed the way we relate to each other, form communities, and use mass media. This has been of interest, with proposals on the issue of literacy being generated that focus particularly on these digital platforms. Therefore, Livingstone [ 47 ] indicates the need for literacy focused on social media to update the analysis of media literacy. Nevertheless, this concept has limited theoretical development and little operationalization [ 7 , 48 ]. In addition, there is evidence that authors define it differently; it has not been clearly established what the competences are that are included in this type of literacy given the authors working with this concept in their research.

In light of the above, this article focuses on social media literacy by performing a systematic literature review to better understand the concept in terms of the competences it provides that adequately guide efforts in the direction of teaching and learning processes in this area. The relevance of these processes must be borne in mind due to the mass use of such platforms and their use by people of different ages for extended periods, considering there are dangers in social media while at the same time they afford possibilities for interaction, entertainment, and other options that can be useful with an adequate understanding of how social media work and how to make use of them. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze, descriptively, the main definitions and competences of the concept of social media literacy.

2. Materials and Methods

A systematic search of the literature was done, considering the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) [ 49 ], in the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases in July 2021. The question that guided the search strategy was: what are the competences that must be developed to operate on social media? The search took place using free terms and terms from Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) including social media, social media sites, digital literacy, media literacy, and social media literacy. The filters were: language (English and Spanish), number of years (from 2010 to date), and article type (article). With respect to the total articles ( n = 1039), they were first selected by relevant title, second, by relevant abstract. Then, the articles were reviewed in full ( n = 59), and the inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied, resulting in 15 articles ( Figure 1 ).

Systematic review flowchart (Adapted from Page et al., 2020 [ 49 ]).

2.1. Criteria for Eligibility

Inclusion criteria: Articles were selected that proposed a conceptual definition of social media literacy and/or that demonstrated the competences that integrate this concept. Articles were included where the participants were children, teenagers, young adults, adults, and families. Only scientific articles, theoretical and empirical, in English and Spanish between 2010 and 2021 were included.

Exclusion criteria: Articles that address social media from digital literacy without specifically considering the scope of social media literacy were not included, since they do not define the concept, nor do they refer to the competences that social media literacy encompasses. In addition, articles that address digital platforms but do not consider social media were not included. Theses, conference proceedings, and systematic reviews were not included. Articles in languages other than English or Spanish or with a publication date before 2010 were also excluded.

2.2. Procedure

Articles were selected considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The articles also had to provide information that responded to the research question; therefore, those articles that did not fit as previously indicated were eliminated. Where questions or disagreements arose about the selected articles, they were resolved through the joint review by the two authors to determine their relevance and to make a decision about their inclusion.

In terms of biases of this study, the language bias was countered by including articles in Spanish and English. In terms of coverage bias, the different databases (Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed) were reviewed.

2.3. Analysis Strategy

With respect to the selection final, the articles were read and reviewed completely, observing if the records provided a conceptual definition of social media literacy or if they reported on the skills that this type of literacy includes. The other criteria of inclusion and exclusion were also considered. The standard quality assessment criteria for evaluating primary research papers were also applied [ 50 ].

Later, a table was constructed to present the studies, considering first the authors, type of study, objective, and information on the sample. Then, the main results were transformed in relation to the research question to report on the studies selected and to organize the findings of this study.

In relation to the biases present in articles, generally the records describe full data in their results; moreover, the results were reported according to the analyses used, considering that this is of interest to this review.

Fifteen articles were obtained for analysis from the following countries: Australia, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Germany, Indonesia, Singapore, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States, it being observed that interest in the concept of social media literacy is concentrated mainly in European countries that develop and contribute theoretical and empirical evidence relating to this concept ( Table A1 in Appendix A ).

3.1. Social Media Literacy: Definition

The conceptualization of social media literacy is based on media literacy [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 ]. However, it is emphasized that social media are oriented to the interpersonal communication that arises from the human need to establish interactions with others [ 48 , 52 , 53 ]. Thus, according to Vanwynsbergue [ 56 ], the focus would be on favoring the efficiency and efficacy of Internet communication, benefitting social relations ( Table A1 in Appendix A ).

On the other hand, the understanding of the particular characteristics of such platforms is worth noting, in that it is relevant how the information is presented on social media, considering the objectives after posts by both people and advertising, in addition to positivity bias [ 51 , 53 , 54 ]. Consequently, social media literacy is oriented towards the prevention of risks such as mental and physical health problems [ 51 , 53 ], as well as other types of consequences that can arise from interactions between people, for example cyberbullying, information spreading, and other difficulties [ 52 , 53 , 55 ].

3.2. Social Media Literacy: Competences

With respect to the different competences that encompass social media literacy according to the different studies, there is evidence that cognitive competences appear cross-sectionally in most of the studies searched. These include understanding, analysis, evaluation, synthesis, and the interpretation of the information, added to the assessment of the motive, purpose, realism, and credibility of the publication. Critical thinking is considered fundamental due to the large volume of information to which social media users are exposed [ 51 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ]. In addition, according to Schreurs and Vandenbosch [ 54 ], cognitive competences include a knowledge of traditional media literacy and the dynamics of interpersonal communication on social media ( Table A1 in Appendix A ).

Similarly, user-generated information requires that they have knowledge of the implications of sharing personal data and the generation of information considering the digital fingerprint, since this information is used by the social media platforms and shared with other companies, so the user must evaluate what content to share [ 62 ]. Likewise, Tandoc et al. [ 63 ] report on the need to raise awareness about the content recommendation algorithms that transform the social media experience.

The technical or practical competences include the ability to create, review, organize and share contents [ 57 , 58 ], access, find information and use functions such as privacy settings [ 62 ], create social media accounts and publish photos and images, and make videos and memes [ 60 , 63 ]. These competences fulfill an important role so people of different ages can perform adequately on these digital platforms [ 51 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ].

On the other hand, the socio-emotional competences are integrated by several authors into the conceptualization of social media literacy because such digital platforms are oriented to the interaction between different people who share content online; therefore, management strategies for interpersonal communications are relevant [ 48 , 51 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 63 ]. Festl [ 48 ] proposes that the development of social competences is central to social media literacy including participation and moral, communicative, and education competences, consistent with other studies that lend relevance to motivation, attitude, and behavior that people on social media exhibit [ 55 , 56 ]. In addition, Schreurs and Vandenbosch [ 54 ] note that effective competences are reflected in the use of adaptive strategies when users are exposed to difficulties on social media, as indicated in Appendix A ( Table A1 ).

The proposals of authors that consider the relevance of the context in which social interactions occur as well as the language used on social media are worthy of note. Specifically, the differences between the different digital platforms must be taken into account since they have particular ways of operating [ 55 ]. Moreover, the sociocultural pragmatics in the different social media must be borne in mind, i.e., changes in the users’ language, relations, and behavior depending on the different social and cultural contexts that take place on the Internet [ 57 ]. This would make it possible to assess the context that could help discern veracity of the information [ 60 ], considering the increase in fake news [ 63 ].

4. Discussion

The objective of this study was to analyze descriptively the main definitions and competences of the concept of social media literacy. The results yielded 15 studies ( Table A1 in Appendix A ) that address social media literacy by either conceptualizing it, or by referring to the competences of which it consists. It should be noted that there are studies that, despite using the concept in their articles, do not develop it, or they use it to talk about another type of literacy without making a suitable distinction on the issue [ 22 , 64 , 65 ].

In relation to the findings of this study, the construction of the concept of social media literacy is based on the knowledge gained through media literacy, to then integrate elements focused on catching the particularities, characteristics, and implications of social media. In this context, it is fundamental to consider the social interactions produced on social media, the possibility of users creating content, the large amount of information that circulates on social media that includes user content and publicity from businesses, as well as the content filtering and recommendation technology. In the same vein, it is suggested that the concept of social media literacy could respond to the requirements of today’s society due to the mass and recurring use of these types of virtual platforms worldwide [ 47 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ].

Consequently, social media literacy is an update of media literacy [ 47 ], being oriented to favoring people being able to perform adequately on social media considering the various difficulties that can arise. Without a doubt, the phenomena that occur on social media are not all negative, rather these digital platforms have benefits that could be taken advantage of better if users have greater knowledge and competences [ 28 ]. Thus, access to the benefits or opportunities that social media afford, such as the possibility of sharing with friends and relatives, should be promoted, but with strategies to protect against damaging trends or risky behaviors [ 54 ].

Generally, the analyzed studies converge in the relevance of cognitive competences in social media literacy. It is worth noting the development of critical thinking because most studies mention it being necessary to obtain a suitable understanding and assessment of the content, being aware of the reliability and credibility of the information [ 55 , 56 , 60 ], reducing the persuasive influence of mass media through the evaluation of the intention and realism of the content [ 53 , 61 ]. This is not an easy task due to the large volume of information and the anonymity of those who produce the content on social media [ 57 ]. In this sense, the knowledge about the algorithms with which social media work acquires relevance, presenting information to the user according to their fingerprint [ 40 ].

As Livingstone [ 52 ] points out, social media literacy is at the intersection between social and mass media, so that the relevance of socio-emotional competences stands out. The social interactions that take place between users in real time or delay time are one of the characteristics that distinguishes social media from other types of digital platforms or mass media; therefore, different authors have focused on the socio-emotional competences to conceptualize and operationalize the construct [ 48 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. In this way, such competences can be considered a protective factor against cybervictimization [ 66 ], and a greater prosocial behavior in Internet activities is implied [ 67 ], since there are adaptive strategies against negative experiences [ 54 ].

With respect to the technical or practical competences, there is evidence that among these are the ability to access, create, review, and share content on social media, adding other functions such as those linked to privacy settings. These competences are considered in a general way; however, social media platforms are different from each other, which is why it is relevant to consider those specific skills that could help people to perform adequately on the different social media. Coincidently, Manca et al. [ 7 ] refers to a higher skill level that can be cross-sectional on the different social media and skills specific to each digital platform.

Likewise, studies have shown the relevance of the context in which the content is generated in order to assess its construction [ 55 , 57 , 60 ]. Then, the specific platform can be considered, the context in which differences in the language used and the forms of interaction between users are reflected. On the other hand, it is important to place social media within a broader social and economic context such as digital capitalism [ 33 ], being aware of the objectives of the social media companies such as generating profits [ 68 ], transforming the private experience into merchandise [ 69 ].

Another finding of this study is the different areas in which studies are being conducted that involve this concept. On the one hand, evidence shows that different authors work with this concept applied to the area of physical and mental health related to body perception [ 51 , 53 , 61 , 70 ], developing interventions to reduce eating disorders and the negative impact of exposure to social media because they show idealized appearances, such that social media literacy is considered a protective factor [ 24 , 61 ]. Meanwhile, another group of authors focuses on research with children and adolescents due to the continuous use of social media as a result of their need to establish relations with their peers and how their families mediate the use of digital platforms [ 48 , 52 , 54 , 58 ]. Consequently, the development of competences by teenagers is fundamental for them to operate suitably on social media, considering that parents show deficiencies in technical competences and knowledge of social media because they use them less or they use digital platforms passively [ 54 , 58 ].

Finally, the relevance of the analysis and the assessment of news content on social media to determine its veracity stands out in the current context [ 5 , 26 , 60 , 63 ]. In this sense, the contribution of social media literacy is significant since it considers aspects of such platforms, because when sharing information, it prioritizes the expectation of positive feedback from other users, or that the content supports one’s personal beliefs and values.

5. Conclusions

This systematic review collaborated in the understanding of the construct of social media literacy in its definition and the skills that integrate it, being considered an area of emerging research and that its development is very necessary due to people staying on social media specifically for extended periods. Social media literacy is focused on the development of different abilities that range from the technical to the socio-emotional. In this sense, social media, by making possible and favoring social interactions, bring with them requirements for people to perform adequately on digital platforms, understanding that there is no separation between the digital plane and the physical plane; therefore, a mutual influence is produced that could affect people’s experience by being exposed to the dangers on social media that worsen without the skills to deal with such situations.

On the other hand, the social, economic, cultural, and political context is integrated into the analysis conducted on social media given that such platforms have product advertising, political announcements, and other situations to which social media users are exposed. At the same time, the social media differ from each other, so it is relevant to visualize the characteristics of each of them and their differences, noting they each have their own culture that is reflected in the language, behavior, and interactions generated.

In terms of the limitations of this study, it should be noted that there may be articles that were not detected in the systematic search, or that were not selected for the analysis considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria of this study because the authors used concepts linked to media and digital literacy to refer to the concept of social media literacy. Other databases could be added to verify whether there are new articles and integrate them into the results, contributing to different research questions. Similarly, other types of articles such as systematic reviews or conference proceedings could be added since they were excluded here. With respect to the future lines of investigation, studies must be generated considering the construct of social media literacy and its relation to other constructs such as cyberbullying and cyberaggression as the dangers of social media are considered, making it possible to observe which competences that make up social media literacy are those that would mainly protect against these dangers. In addition, it would be interesting to identify the relations with constructs that reflect if social media literacy facilitate the opportunities that such platforms offer. Finally, other studies could broaden the inclusion criteria by incorporating articles that address social media literacy, although the authors have used other broader concepts or approaches in their research. This way, future studies could analyze and evaluate which of the different literacies that focus on social media obtain the best results.

Concept and competences of Social Media Literacy.

Funding Statement

K.P.-L. received financial support by the National Agency for Research and Development (ANID)/Scholarship Program/DOCTORADO BECAS CHILE/2020-21200712.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; methodology, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; formal analysis, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; investigation, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; data curation, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; writing—original draft preparation, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; writing—review and editing, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; supervision, K.P.-L. and S.S.-G.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Critical thinking and media l iteracy are essential for a conscious interaction with the media, allowing us to distinguish facts from opinions and evaluate messages. They help us not to fall for deception s and to understand persuasion strategies, such as the use of authority figures and emotional appeal s, which seek to influence our perceptions.

Understanding these techniques turns us into more informed consumers, capable of making conscious and critical decisions in the face of media messages. Media literacy is, therefore, a powerful tool for navigating the world of media and maintaining a critical stance towards the information we receive.

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Amid AI, filters and misinformation, experts say it's crucial for kids to learn about media literacy. Here's how.

W hen parents teach their kids to be vigilant, they're probably thinking about, say, avoiding strangers or looking out for cars when crossing the street — not deciphering whether or not that picture of the pope is real or AI (artificial intelligence), or vetting claims they read online. But modern-day technology has come with new challenges for parents who want their kids to have the skills they need to stay safe and spot questionable and information online. 

Media literacy isn’t an issue many parents feel equipped to handle, and it’s not regularly taught in U.S. schools. So why is it a big deal? Dr. Ryan Sultan, a mental health physician, clinical director of Integrative Psych , and research professor at Columbia University , says that in his practice, he talks about digital media literacy “constantly … including the idea of what is real and what’s not real.” Jolie Rinebarger , a licensed clinical social worker with Kaiser Permanente, adds that good media and social media literacy skills “can help parents and teens build resiliency and hopefully lead to more positive impacts.” And according to Rebekah Fitzsimmons , assistant teaching professor of professional communication at Carnegie Mellon University’s Heinz College, there is another reason to teach these skills early. “We don't want to raise kids who are gullible and scammable,” she says.

What is media literacy?

Media literacy is “the ability to critically analyze and understand the content and nature of media platforms,” Sultan explains. He elaborates that this “ includes recognizing biases, evaluating the credibility of sources, understanding privacy settings and fostering responsible online behavior.” Social media literacy is a sub-set of media literacy and is an important layer to add to the conversation in a time when deep-fake videos and AI-generated content are ubiquitous. It includes “understanding the language, technology and impact of various social media platforms,” says Rinebarger .

When should parents start talking to their children about social media literacy?

These conversations should happen early. Even very young children can understand that an app that makes them look like a monster isn’t real. However, “these lessons get trickier when the kids get older and the differences get more subtle,” says Fitzsimmons. “It's easy for me to tell my 6-year-old that the puppy dog ear filter on Snapchat isn't real. It is harder to remind a teenager that the skin-smoothing filters, artful lighting and carefully chosen photo angle makes people look different on Instagram than they do in real life,” she explains.

When it comes to social media , parents should start talking to their children about social media literacy as soon as they start using the internet and accessing social media platforms , Sultan recommends. He says this will vary from family to family, but typically starts around age 8.

What are the risks of not teaching social media literacy?

According to Adam Chiara , an applied associate professor in the School of Communications at Hartford University, “information is power. If kids don't know how to discern quality information from incorrect information, they'll be missing out on opportunities and advantages, and at worst, be engaging in media that could be harmful and dangerous for them.”

Sultan explains that without media literacy skills children are susceptible to believing misinformation and “fake news.” They may also inadvertently compromise their privacy and security by inadvertently revealing where they live or go to school or disclosing information that makes it easy for someone to guess their passwords and access sensitive information.

There are social consequences as well. Children who do not have media literacy skills are more likely to engage in cyberbullying or other harmful online behaviors, Sultan says. They are also more likely to develop unhealthy relationships with social media and technology, he adds.

What are the social media literacy skills children need to learn?

Children need to learn five different skills in order to be literate in social media, Sultan says.

How to eealuate sources

Sultans says it's crucial for kids be able to understand “how to determine the credibility of a source, recognizing biases and identifying fake news.”

Fitzsimmons advises parents to instill “a healthy skepticism of the top results on Google and content posted on sources like Wikipedia.” Teaching children to check multiple sources to look for credible information is the next step, Sultan says. If a child comes across questionable material, a parent can help the child find other credible sources that cover the same topic to help their child evaluate what they find. Parents can show children that questionable images can be checked using a reverse image search to see if they have been altered.

Sultan adds that parents should teach children that “if you're still unsure about the content, it's better to err on the side of caution and … not to share or engage with the content until more information is available.”

Privacy and security

Second, children need to be literate in online privacy and security. This means “knowing how to protect personal information online, understanding privacy settings and being aware of potential dangers,” Sultan says. Fitzsimmons notes that she sees “grown adults who still fall for the online memes that ask people to post the answers to common security questions on their Facebook page.” Teaching children when it is safe to share photos publicly and “when it is appropriate to put their home address or phone number into a form is very important,” Fitzsimmons adds.

Sultan also recommends showing children phishing emails and texts to help them learn how to identify them on their own.

Digital etiquette

According to Sultan, digital etiquette involves “practicing responsible online behavior, such as not engaging in cyberbullying or sharing inappropriate content.”

Rinebarger says that encouraging perspective-taking by asking children to put themselves in someone else’s shoes can help them develop appropriate digital etiquette skills. Talking about the real-world consequences of poor digital etiquette can be helpful, too. Sharing embarrassing or inappropriate photos can lead to upset peers, discipline at school or open a child up to ridicule.

Critical thinking skills

Sultan says that “developing the ability to question, analyze and interpret the information they come across online” is a key part of being media literate. Fitzsimmons says that this goes beyond teaching children whether or not something is true. For example, if a child sees a video about a toy mentioning where it is sold and the price, that information is likely accurate. However, “it's also worthwhile to help them understand that the YouTuber is likely getting paid to try to sell that toy to their followers and so might be exaggerating how great the toy is,” Fitzsimmons says. One way to do this is by asking your child, “Do you think that influencer on social media got paid to make that post or not?” suggests Chiara.

When a child spots information they aren’t sure is credible, asking a parent for help and making a determination together can be a great teaching moment, Sultan says. Rinebarger tells parents to encourage children to ask questions suggested by Common Sense Media , including “Who made this? Who is the target audience? Does someone profit if you click on it? Who paid for this content? Who might benefit or be harmed by this message? What important information is left out of the message? Is this credible? Why or why not?”

Emotional intelligence skills

Finally, children must learn emotional intelligence skills and apply them to social media and online behavior. “Recognizing and managing emotions evoked by social media content, as well as empathy and respect for others' feelings” is important, Sultan says. Fitzsimmons says that parents should help children recognize that social media is not an accurate representation of anyone’s life. She believes children need to be taught that “what we put on social media is a self-selected view of what is happening in our lives” and that ”just because [people] aren't posting the moments when they are sad, discouraged or disappointed doesn't mean it isn't happening.”

How can parents reinforce the message?

Teaching media literacy isn’t something parents can teach by sitting their children down and having “the talk.” Instead, Chiara advises parents to raise the issue “whenever the opportunity arises” by looking for “organic moments” to ask their kids questions that make them think critically.

“Practice and build consistent habits," he says. Parents will know that their children have made progress by observing how they react to the media they consume. “When there's a questionable image, the instinct should be to do a Google reverse image search to see if the picture has been altered," he adds. "If they read a questionable story, the reflex should be to search if authoritative news sites or trusted organizations are reporting the same thing." Rinebarger advises parents to monitor their children’s online activity and gradually allow more independence when they see their teen “demonstrate trust, maturity and good media literacy skills.”

All of this might seem like a lot of work, but it’s well worth the effort. “While technology and media change, the ability to think critically transcends mediums," Chiara says. "By helping to teach your kids this vital skill, you're setting them up for a lifetime of knowledge, no matter how the information ecosystem evolves."

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From Digital Literacy to Critical Digital Ecology: Curricula as Digital Places in Art Education

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• Volume 50, Number 1, Issue 98, Summer 2024
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This article makes a case for the critical potential of media ecology frameworks to address the limits of the media literacy frameworks prevalent in visual culture art education pedagogies that focus on art education with digital materials. In this article, I articulate a brief history of the literacy metaphor in visual culture art education, before summarizing recent arguments advocating for a shift from media literacy to media ecology in critical digital pedagogies. I then examine my own digital curricular place-craft in the development of Crafting Digital Places , a Web-based teaching resource that played a part in a series of remotely taught summer camp programs focusing on critical digital place-craft. In this article, I aim to illustrate the critical and practical limits of engaging digital materials via the literacy metaphor. I also aim to show how a media ecology approach—framing digital systems as places with agentic material qualities—affords art educators distinctive potentials for critical practice and curriculum design.

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Students to get digital media literacy lessons to help combat misinformation

Strategy says young learners need enhanced skills to help navigate an increasingly complex and interconnected world.

Minister for Education Norma Foley and Minister for Children Roderic O‘Gorman launch the Literacy, Numeracy & Digital Literacy Strategy, with students from Presentation Secondary School of Warrenmount, Dublin 8. Photograph: Leon Farrell/Photocall Ireland

Students of all ages will receive lessons on how to be more media literate and counteract misinformation under a new initiative.

It is one of the aims in Ireland’s new literacy, numeracy and digital literacy strategy (2024-3033) which seeks to ensure all young people are equipped with the skills to navigate and succeed in an increasingly complex and interconnected world.

The strategy, developed jointly by the Department of Education and the Department of Children, was launched by Minister for Education Norma Foley and Minister for Children Roderic O’Gorman on Wednesday.

The strategy notes that an increased focus on digital literacy is needed, given the central role played by technology in society.

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While international rankings indicate Ireland performs strongly in literacy and numeracy, countries such as Finland perform better in terms of resilience against misinformation.

Experts say the Finland’s success is linked to a concerted effort to teach students about fake news and the key role of media literacy in the national curriculum, starting in preschool.

Ireland’s new strategy will seek to embed digital literacy in education at an earlier age.

“With the rapid advancements in digital technologies, including social media, the increasing number of online information sources, and emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, learners need enhanced digital literacy skills to function and participate fully in a digital world,” the strategy states.

It defines digital literacy as including an understanding of digital citizenship, data privacy and online safety.

Ms Foley said while the digital world provided “enormous benefits”, it also posed challenges around misinformation, as well as risks around exploitation and use of vulnerable young people as “money mules”.

She said her department is planning to involve parents and guardians, as well as students, in the new plans as part of an effort to ensure wider society is better informed and able to counter disinformation.

This will include running programmes through the State’s network of Education Support Centres, to help parents develop and promote digital literacy skills with their children.

The strategy has been informed by research and consultation including the views of learners, parents, staff in schools and early learning and care settings, as well as the wider public.

This new strategy’s vision is that “every learner, from birth to young adulthood, develops the necessary literacy, numeracy, and digital literacy skills to thrive and flourish as an individual, to engage and contribute fully as an ethical, active member of society and to live a satisfying and rewarding life.”

It aims to deliver “systematic improvement” in literacy, numeracy and digital literacy across the continuum of education from early learning and care to post-primary level, and to strengthen supports for the critical roles played by parents and communities in supporting the development of children’s literacy, numeracy and digital literacy skills.

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Carl O'Brien is Education Editor of The Irish Times. He was previously chief reporter and social affairs correspondent

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Media and Information Literacy for Critical Thinking in Nigeria

Nigeria’s media scene is one of the liveliest in africa. state tv and hundreds of radio stations have the capacity to reach tens of millions of viewers and listeners. along with the wide spread of mobile phones and networks, millions of nigerians are actively on the social media platforms. this has entailed challenges such as disinformation and hate speech, which unesco is helping to take on through media and information literacy..

Preparing young minds for a new world of information, technology, and media should be a priority for all educators. Yet, the world is still facing a grave challenge with basic literacy: 781 million illiterate adults and 262 million young people out of schools.

How can we merge the world of basic literacy with that of Media and Information Literacy (MIL)? Many educators around the world are championing this cause.

In Nigeria, one of these champions is Mr. Martin Akpan. Martin Akpan is an educator and the founder of Teen Resources Center in Nigeria. He is also a practitioner of MIL. His main work is to empower youth with the capacity of critical thinking and to provide quality information on traditional and social media platforms.

Mr. Akpan’s journey with MIL started in 2002, while working as a producer of children and educational programmes for two television stations (MITV and MCTV) in Lagos, Nigeria. In these eighteen years, he has witnessed the growth of MIL worldwide and its mainstreaming into Nigerian society.

His expertise was further enhanced through UNESCO’s MIL Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) launched in partnership with the Athabasca University, Canada. The MOOC enabled him to acquire a holistic approach to MIL and also brought him closer to UNESCO’s actions in the field of MIL.

According to Mr. Akpan, empowering people through MIL is becoming an essential prerequisite for fostering equitable access to information and knowledge and promoting free, independent and pluralistic media and information systems. “The adapted UNESCO MIL curriculum has supported
my engagement with the children and the society at larger
on MIL. It is a great tool to impart critical thinking and democratic discourse for the benefit of the society.”

Mr. Akpan believes that the MIL Coalition of Nigeria (MILCON) founded in 2017 with UNESCO’s support can play a vital role to address some of these challenges. UNESCO has continued to support the Coalition, in facilitating the coordination of interventions on MIL
in Nigeria. MILCON promotes synergy amongst stakeholders towards advocating on national policies, integrating the MIL curriculum into schools and promoting a media and information literate society.

Acting as an MIL educator, Mr. Akpan works directly with pupils, students and teachers. He points out the difficulty in educating them about ‘critical thinking’, especially when it comes to appropriate resources for children. The MIL games and non-formal guide produced by UNESCO have played an important role in helping educators, like Mr. Akpan, to interact better with the users. In his words, “We are happy to hear that children are showing great excitement for these materials, and they discuss specific topics around the games and the genre of films in classrooms.” As one of the students expressed: “MIL is exciting. I have been watching cartoons as a kid but today I learn critical thinking through MIL games produced by UNESCO.”

To reach a larger percentage of the population of Nigeria, MIL clubs have been established in all regions of the country. This enables an increasing number of students to be creatively involved in MIL trainings. Mr. Akpan believes that MIL clubs serve as viable means and platforms for expanding civic education movement and non-formal MIL learning in primary and secondary schools.

The development and mainstreaming of MIL programmes in Nigeria could not be realized without the efforts from various organizations and individual enthusiasts like Mr. Akpan.
The development in media, technology, and communication has brought significant changes, shaping individual lives and the society as a whole. Building a media and information literate society is under the shroud of collective responsibility and efforts to construct a strong bulwark of peace. “There is still a long way to go”, said Mr. Akpan.

About the Multi-Donor Programme for Freedom of Expression and Safety of Journalists (MDP)

The multi-Donor programme on freedom of expression and Safety of Journalists (MDP) serves to further strengthen UNESCO’s work at a global, regional, and national levels, by channeling funds towards emerging priorities and the most pressing needs to achieve its mandate on freedom of expression. It enables UNESCO’s communication and information Sector to address complex issues through the design and implementation of holistic medium and long-term interventions at national, regional and global levels. The clear advantage of this mechanism is that it allows UNESCO and its partners to achieve greater impact and sustainability, whilst reducing fragmentation of activities in the same field.

Protect journalists and freedom of expression, visit :

• Multi-Donor Programme on Freedom of Expression and Safety of Journalists

For UNESCO’s media and information literacy programme, visit :

• Media and Information Literacy

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