term paper of globalization

Globalization and Economic Growth

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Ishak Demir 7 , 10 ,
Mehmet Canakci 8 &
Taha Egri 9

Part of the book series: Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals ((ENUNSDG))

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Economic Growth , Integration and growth , Economic development.

Definitions

Globalization, or the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples, companies, institutions and countries. It is generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the opening of international borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, investment, people, information, ideas and technology; and the changes in institutions and policies at national and international levels that facilitate or promote such flows (WHO 2020 ). Globalization process has impacts on economies, prosperity, development of societies, political systems, environment, and cultures around the world.

Economic globalization can be defined as the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital and wide and rapid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual...

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Ishak Demir

Inonu University, Battalgazi/Malatya, Turkey

Mehmet Canakci

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Demir, I., Canakci, M., Egri, T. (2021). Globalization and Economic Growth. In: Leal Filho, W., Azul, A.M., Brandli, L., Lange Salvia, A., Wall, T. (eds) Decent Work and Economic Growth. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71058-7_90-1

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Introduction

Definition of globalization, political governance and globalization, pros and cons of globalization.

Globalization, in the contemporary era, is often regarded as revolutionary to political, social and economic structures globally. It has caused a “power shift” from the traditional nation-states to global institutions, a trend, which, according to some researchers, has created “virtual states” (Rosecrance, 1996).

Nation-states are slowly losing their political power to supranational organizations, regional non-governmental organizations (NGOs), devolved units and multinational companies. In this regard, globalization shifts political authority to different international institutions causing state institutions to converge under uniform international policies. Despite the power shift, political devolution can enhance the democratization process by facilitating the convergence of governance institutions.

Critics of globalization urge national governments not to relinquish governance functions such as immigration, national security and criminal justice to supranational agencies (O’Brien et al., 2000). They argue that if nation states lose these crucial governance functions, they become ineffectual and unpopular among its publics. Also, the power shift or deregulation enhances the power of non-governmental actors in public intervention areas, including environmental issues and humanitarian aid.

In major cities, such as Washington D.C. and Seattle, emerging political movements oppose the deregulation of international market and instead agitate for the protection of the local market (O’Brien et al., 2000). To understand the effects of globalization, this paper defines globalization, surveys its range and dimensions, and analyzes its pros and cons in the contemporary world.

Keohane and Nye (2000) define globalization as “the expansive networks that span intercontinental distances (p. 105). Thus, globalization covers many aspects of global politics, from the diminishing political power of nation-states (political globalization) to the homogenization of culture, trade policies, consumption and living standards (economic globalization).

Analysts attribute these changes to the elaborate transportation and communication networks. In this view, globalization encompasses linkages that lead to political and economic interdependence globally.

One important element of globalization is global economic integration. Economic integration, though not yet complete, has led to reduced trade barriers among nations, increased labor mobility and led to a more interconnected global economy. It is on this basis that Friedman (1999) defines globalization as “the inexorable integration of markets, technologies and nation-states, enabling corporations, people and nation-states to reach the rest of the world” (p. 7).

Friedman implies that globalization, though largely economic, also has a political dimension. It is the political decisions of nation-states to remove trade barriers in order to promote international trade and facilitate transportation and communication, which leads to globalization. Therefore, to understand the pros and cons of economic globalization in the U.S., understanding the role of political governance is important, as the two are intertwined.

Nation-states often exercise sovereignty and have legitimate authority within a country’s borders. They are controlled by one central governance unit, which has sovereign authority in the nation-state. In contrast, international trade corporations, supranational agencies and NGOs are part of the larger global governance system, i.e. international governance.

This shows that globalization has links with political governance of nation-states. Within nation-states, these links have three dimensions (Rosecrance, 1996): the centralization vs. the devolution of governance; political accountability; and the divergence or convergence of policies.

Typically, governance can be devolved or concentrated in a central authority. In a centralized governance structure, power is vested in one unit, which has exclusive authority to rule. In contrast, in dispersed governance, many devolved units exercise limited power within the nation-states. An example is the United States’ government; the state government has some level of jurisdiction within the specific state. In a multi-level governance structure, authority is transferred or delegated to other units (Rosecrance, 1996).

Globalization affects governance with regard to international disputes. In resolution of disputes, nation-states often delegate their sovereign power to a third entity to serve as an arbiter, with a pledge to comply with its determination. Therefore, globalization affects governance in nation-states through delegation of power.

The second dimension, political accountability, is related to the delegation of power. Accountability requires political actors to govern transparently and responsibly. Democracy within nation-states entails political accountability, whereby the elected leaders are mandated to act on behalf of the citizenry.

Keohane and Nye (2000) note that democracy, unlike accountability, does not extend beyond the borders of a nation-state. Although, democratic accountability is applicable to financial institutions such as the IMF, most NGOs associated with globalization lack internal democracy. Therefore, globalization affects governance through political accountability and democracy.

Globalization also affects governance through convergence or divergence of policies. Although globalization may not completely erode the roles of the state government, it may create countries that have more or less similar policies and governance structures.

Opponents of globalization argue that a globalized economy will force nation-states to adopt homogeneous policies and establish similar institutions (O’Brien et al., 2000). Also, globalization may lead to reduced government intervention in matters affecting its people. This may affect democratic accountability within nation-states.

Economic Effects

The effect of globalization on the economies of nation-states can be explained using the efficiency-based approach. The common economic policies of many countries are geared towards creating wealth; they entail opening up the markets to international investors.

Thus, according to Friedman (1999), internationalization of markets influences countries to adopt “neoliberal policies that promote international openness, reduced government participation and increased private investments” (p. 8). Therefore, one disadvantage of globalization is its larger control of the economic benefits, through reduced government role in nation-states’ economy. The international organizations dominate the local economic spheres limiting the societal issues the government can act on.

Globalization also causes a shift in power from the government to supranational and regional bodies. When this happens, resolution of transnational problems provides an avenue for the supranational authorities to expand their authority; an example is the EU and the North American Union. Also, regional institutions can position themselves strategically to protect their interests through transnational cooperation.

Such economic integrations influence the policy preferences of the nation-state political actors. According to Rosecrance (1996), economic globalization may cause trading countries to adopt similar trade policies; a phenomenon that has far-reaching implications on bilateral relations between states. Nevertheless, globalization expands opens up national and regional markets by disintegrating local monopolies in favor of international competitiveness.

Political Preferences

Rosecrance (1996) argues that economic integration facilitates free flow of labor and capital across the borders and fosters specialization and division of labor in the global arena. In a free economy, some countries may lose or gain in the wake of economic globalization. However, the aggregate benefits in the long run would compensate for the costs associated with globalization. Rosecrance (1996) further shows that free trade policies affect many factors of production.

For instance, labor and capital flow in the tourism industry will tend to favor certain trade policies in a trading bloc. Globalization also increases the number of players in favor of particular policies including activists and environmentalists, which ensures quality goods or services. However, marginalization of certain groups may arise and spillover into national politics leading to a struggle whereby the losing parties will attempt to derail integration while the winners will press for greater integration.

Proponents of globalization have a preference for particular policies and models that encourage economic openness. Also, some integration players prefer certain forms of governance more than others.

For example, in the United States, most NGOs prefer some level of regulation (consumer protection and labor regulation) at the national level rather than at the state level (Frieden, 1999). Integration critics argue that actor preferences for institutions such as the International Labor Organization tend to favor more stringent regulation of firms, which may affect their performance.

Besides policy preferences, convergence of cultures often leads to a homogenization of cultures, values and lifestyles. Critics argue that globalization erodes national cultures and creates new societal norms (Frieden, 1999). Thus, due to globalization, the consumption culture, market competition, education and public goods may become homogenous across nation-states. Such a scenario may ultimately influence policy preferences whereby policymakers prefer decentralized policies to centralized and localized policies.

Global Institutions

Most global institutions advocate for policies that favor particular interest groups. As Frieden (1999) notes, international institutions such as the UN influence the interactions at the international level, which affect economic and political outcomes. One way in which institutions affect globalization is through policy preferences. Influential political entities that favor a particular economic model would establish institutions to promote their ideals.

For instance, before 1914, the gold standard agitated for an open economy by removing barriers to international trade in the 19 th century; it, however, faced much domestic opposition from the American populists (Frieden, 1999). Thus, decentralized institutions can foster economic openness if they have political support.

The stability of a country’s governance also influences policy choices and investment decisions by international organizations. For example, countries with unstable governments will have fewer external investors willing to invest there as political instability is often associated with ineffective economic policies. Thus, under conditions of political instability, perceptions held by global and regional organizations such as the NAU, WTO or the EU will influence investment decisions of international corporations.

However, policy credibility can be enhanced if such governments sign bilateral treaties with stable governments. For instance, Mexico’s ratification of the NAFTA treaty reinforced its policy credibility at the international level (Frieden, 1999). Thus, regional and global institutions influence the local economic policies in a way that sustains a market economy and competitiveness.

Globalization has two dimensions; economic and political dimensions. Governance has links with globalization with regard to political institutions, cultural values and societal norms. From a cultural perspective, globalization erodes cultural values and norms through the convergence of cultures. Also, due to the interconnectedness of the different economies, financial crises in one part of the world affect the economies of other countries.

However, globalization promotes cultural tourism through the convergence of cultures and promotes competitiveness and democracy. Also, globalization, through supranational governance influences financial and monetary policies of nations and regional trading blocs resulting in greater economic benefits to member states. Overall, the phenomenon of globalization has far greater benefits for nation-states than disadvantages.

Frieden, J. (1999). Actors and Preferences in International Relations . Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Keohane, O., & Nye, S. (2000). Globalization: What’s New? What’s Not? (And So What?). Foreign Policy, 118 (4), 104-109

O’Brien, R., Goetz, A., Scholte, J., & Williams, M. (2000). Contesting Global

Governance: Multilateral Economic Institutions and Global Social Movements . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Rosecrance, R. (1996). The Rise of the Virtual State. Foreign Affairs, 75 (4), 45-61.

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Term Paper: Globalization – Definition & Types | Processes | Economics

After reading this term paper you will learn about:- 1. Definition of Globalization 2. Phases of Globalization 3. Types 4. Measurement 5. Factors 6. Effects 7. Advantages 8. Disadvantages.

Term Paper on Globalization

Term Paper Contents:

Term Paper on the Disadvantages of Globalization

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1. Term Paper on Globalization (Definition):

Globalization is the process of organizing the whole world into a single integrated marketing unit. It is also defined as the process of trans border free flow of products, services, people, culture, technology, and finance.

It leads to the integration of economic, cultural, political, and social systems across national borders Globalization is also referred to as internationalization by some persons. Both these terms are used as synonyms. However, some people use these terms separately.

With various globalization such as phases of globalization, types (kinds) of globalization, global connectivity, measurement of globalization, factors affecting globalization, advantages of globalization and disadvantages of globalization.

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 2. Term Paper on Globalization (Phases):

Globalization is not a new phenomenon. It started with human civilization.

In the past 130 years, modern historians have identified three stages or phases of globalization, viz.:

(i) First phase,

(ii) Second phase, and

(iii) Third phase.

i. First Phase of Globalization:

This phase of globalization started from 1870 and ended in 1913 with outbreak of the First World War.

The main features of first phase are given below:

(i) There was marked mobility of capital.

(ii) The labour mobility was high.

(iii) The magnitude of free trade was limited.

(iv) The global institutions were non-existent.

(v) The National Institutions were heterogeneous and were not well organized.

The First World War had adverse effects on the process of globalization i.e. flow of products, services, labour, and technology across the countries. It started resuming since 1930 gain and got setback from 1940 to 1944 due to Second World War.

ii. Second Phase of Globalization:

The second phase of globalization started from 1945 and culminated in 1973.

The main features of this phase are given below:

(i) The mobility of capital was low than first phase.

(ii) The labour mobility was low.

(iii) The magnitude of free trade was low.

(iv) The global Institutions were getting created during this period.

(v) The National Institutions were heterogeneous and were not standardizes.

iii. Third Phase of Globalization:

The third phase of globalization started from 1974 and is still in progress. It is also known as the current phase of globalization.

Main features of this phase are given below:

(i) The mobility of the capital is high.

(ii) The labour mobility is low.

(iii) The magnitude of free trade is extreme.

(iv) The International Institutes started functioning.

(v) The National Institutions have been standardized.

(vi) The on line global transactions are possible.

(vii) Information technology is being used extensively.

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 3. Term Paper on Globalization (Types):

There are five main types of globalization, viz.:

i. Economic Globalization:

It refers to trans-country flow of capital/finance or money.

Main effects of economic globalization are:

(a) Enhancement in world-wide economic relationships.

(b) Increase in international trade at a faster rate than the growth in the world economy..

(d) Creation, of international agreements leading to organizations like the WTO and OPEC.

(e) Development of global financial systems.

(f) Increased role of international organizations such as WTO, WIPO, and IMF that deal with international transactions.

(g) Increase of economic practices like outsourcing, by multinational corporations.

ii. Production Globalization:

It refers to trans-country flow of goods or products. It leads to transnational production of various goods or products. In such system, a product can be manufactured in several countries of the world with same quality.

iii. Cultural Globalization:

It refers to trans-country flow of culture.

The main effects of cultural globalization are:

(a) Greater international cultural exchange,

(b) Spreading of multiculturalism, and better individual access to cultural diversity,

(d) Greater immigration, including illegal immigration

(e) Spread of local foods such as pizza and Indian food to other countries

(f) Development of a global telecommunications infrastructure and greater trans-border data flow, using such technologies as the Internet, communication satellites and telephones.

(g) Increase in the number of standards applied globally; e.g. copyright laws and patents.

(h) Formation or development of a set of universal values.

(i) Spread of local goods, dresses and language to other countries.

iv. Information Globalization:

It refers to trans-border flow of knowledge, ideas and information. It is also known as communication globalization or technological globalization. It makes use of information technology and permits on line global transactions.

v. Ecological Globalization:

It refers to global protection of ecosystem from degradation and pollution.

Main features of ecological globalization are given below:

(a) It prevents ecosystem from various types of risks.

(b) It requires global collective action.

(d) It leads to protection of environment globalization.

4. Term Paper on Globalization (Measurement):

The rate or extent of globalization is measured on yearly basis.

Different types of globalizations are measured separately as follows:

The data transfer border flow of capital or finance or money and direct foreign investment.

The data of trans country mobility of goods and products.

The mobility of tourist, travellers, and traders across the countries.

The data of information flow across the borders.

The work done for the protection of global ecosystem.

5. Term Paper on Globalization (Factors):

The rate of globalization is affected by several factors such as:

(i) Global Atmosphere:

The peaceful global atmosphere promotes globalization, whereas the war situation restricts globalization. The globalization was adversely affected during First and Second World war period.

(ii) Natural Calamities:

Natural calamities such as earth quake, tornadoes, floods and disease epidemic have adverse effects on the rate of globalization.

(iii) International Relationships:

Harmonious relationships among countries enhance the rate of globalization, whereas disharmonious relationships restrict the process of globalization.

(iv) Means of Transportation:

Better means of transportation among countries promotes globalization, whereas poor transportation system restricts the globalization.

(v) Means of Communication:

Better means of communication promotes globalization, whereas poor means of communication restricts the globalization.

(vi) Tourist Places:

Good and large number of tourist places in a country will attract tourists and travelers and vice versa.

(vii) Demand:

The demand of goods, services and information in other countries will enhance the international trade and the globalization.

6. Term Paper on Globalization (Effects):

The globalization has effects on movement of goods, services, information, finance, people, spread of cultures and ideas, markets, export and intellectual properties etc.

These are briefly discussed below:

i. Flow of Goods, Services Information etc.:

There is enhancement in the information flow between geographically remote locations and more trans-border data flow using communication satellites, the Internet, wireless telephones etc.

ii. Markets:

The global common market has a freedom of exchange of goods and capital. The worldwide production and financial markets emerge. The free trade zones are formed having less or no tariffs.

iii. Access to Goods and Finance:

There is a broad access to a range of goods for consumers and companies. Corporate, national and sub-national borrowers have a better access to external finance.

iv. Solution of Global Problems:

Global environmental problems like cross- boundary pollution, over fishing on oceans, climate changes are solved by discussions International criminal courts and international justice movements are launched.

v. Uniform Standards:

The standards applied globally like patents, copyright laws and world trade agreements increase.

vi. Spread of Culture:

Globalization leads to spread of cultures as there is individual access to cultural diversity. This diversity decreases due to hybridization or assimilation. There is enhancement in worldwide fads and pop culture. The cross-cultural contacts grow and cultural diffusion takes place.

vii. Movement of People:

The international travel and tourism increases and immigration between countries increases. The worldwide sporting events like the Olympic Games and the FIFA World Cup are held. The free circulation of people of different nations leads to social benefits.

viii. Export:

The local consumer products are exported to other countries. There is an increase in the desire to use foreign ideas and products, adopt new practices and technologies and be a part of world culture.

ix. Reduction in Transport Cost and Subsidies:

Due to development of containerization for ocean shipping, the transportation costs are reduced. The subsidies for local businesses decrease and there is reduction in capital controls.

x. Recognition of Intellectual Property:

There is supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions i.e. patents authorized by one country are recognized in another.

7. Term Paper on Globalization (Advantages):

Some important advantages of globalization are listed below:

i. Connectivity:

People around the world are more connected to each other than ever before. Global mass media connects all the people in the world.

ii. Relationships:

The relationships between counties improve and the possibility of war between the developed countries decreases. The interdependence among Nations increases.

iii. Freedom of Trade:

It increases free trade between countries and reduces the international barriers.

iv. Investment Opportunity:

As the liquidity of capital increases, developed countries can invest in developing ones. The flexibility of corporations to operate across borders increases.

v. Integration:

It leads to integration or consolidation of global markets. In other words the markets are interlinked. It is much easier for people to travel, communicate and do business internationally.

vi. Quality and Price:

There is improvement in quality and reduction in price due to competition among different companies.

vii. Flow of Goods and Services:

Information, money, technology and products flow across the border quicker than ever before. Products produced in one part of a country are available to the rest of the world. There is increase flow of communication between the individuals and corporations in the world. The movement of goods and people across the border is faster than ever before.

viii. Standard of Living:

Globalization offers a higher standard of living for people in rich countries and is the only realistic route out of poverty for the world’s poor. It is claimed that globalization increases the economic prosperity and opportunity in the developing world. All the countries involved in the free trade are at a profit. As a result, there are lower prices, more employment and a better standard of life in these developing nations.

ix. Efficient use of Resources:

The civil liberties are enhanced and there is a more efficient use of resources. The environmental protection in developed countries increases.

x. Spread of Culture:

Globalization leads to better cultural understanding and tolerance. Due to improved transport facilities, more and more people are traveling to different countries, thereby spreading their culture to other parts of the world. Reduction of cultural barriers increases the global village effect. There is spread of democratic ideals.

8. Term Paper on Globalization (Disadvantages):

There are some disadvantages of globalization which are listed below:

i. Increase in Population:

Trans country flow of people will lead to increase in the population of certain countries especially in developed countries due to better facilities.

ii. Small Industries:

It will have adverse effects on small scale industries which cannot compete in global market in terms of quality and price, Thus there will be hold of big industries.

iii. Employment:

There will be adverse effect on employment due to close down of small industries.

iv. Monetary Gain:

This will lead to tough competition among companies leading to loss in monetary gain.

v. Terrorism:

Trans border flow of people may lead to increase in criminal activities and terrorism.

vi. Spread of Diseases:

There is greater risk of unintentional transmission of diseases between nations,

vii. This may lead to widening of gap between rich and poor countries.

viii. This may lead to exploitation of workers specially labours.

Globalization: Definition, Brighter and Darker Sides
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A Term Paper on GLOBALIZATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA By UMAR AHMAD ABDULLAHI (20124091

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The effects of trade openness on Nigerian economic growth were investigated in this study. From 1987 to 2018, data was gathered. The magnitude of the relationship between the variables was investigated using a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM). The study found that trade openness has a significant positive effect on Nigerian economic growth, and that there is a significant positive long-run relationship between trade openness and economic growth in Nigeria at a significant rate of 5%.The study Recommends, among other things, that the government achieve an optimum degree of economic transparency. The government should improve market performance, reduce price distortions in the market, and boost the economy’s competitiveness. This would improve access to global markets, promoting capital inflow and trade expansion.

Ebere Ume Kalu PhD(Nig)

This study examined whether trade openness engineers economic growth in Nigeria. The motivation stems from evaluating whether there is a significant contribution from trade openness proxied by net export (NEXP) to economic growth in Nigeria (GDP). The study employed the Classical Linear Regression Model (CLRM) using secondary data from 1991 to 2013. The ordinary Least Square Regression method represents the principal method of estimation combined with an array of other general/standard and diagnostic tests. The R2 explains that 97.7% of variation in GDP in the model is explained by the principal regressors. Export was found to be a positive and significant function of GDP but Import was positive and non-significant. This is consistent with theory as economies grow from exporting more than they import all things being equal. Abstract-This study examined whether trade openness engineers economic growth in Nigeria. The motivation stems from evaluating whether there is a significant contribution from trade openness proxied by net export (NEXP) to economic growth in Nigeria (GDP). The study employed the Classical Linear Regression Model (CLRM) using secondary data from 1991 to 2013. The ordinary Least Square Regression method represents the principal method of estimation combined with an array of other general/standard and diagnostic tests. The R2 explains that 97.7% of variation in GDP in the model is explained by the principal regressors. Export was found to be a positive and significant function of GDP but Import was positive and non-significant. This is consistent with theory as economies grow from exporting more than they import all things being equal. This is truer in Nigerian context where the monocultural nature of the economy has mostly made it over-reliant on imported goods.

Jasdeep dhami

Globally, the tempo of openness had gained increasing momentum over the past decades. The idea that openness is one of the most important determinants of economic growth is becoming increasingly popular among governments of less developed countries (LDCS) and Nigeria in particular. Conventional wisdom suggests that openness promotes economic growth. However, while various theoretical models predict that openness to international trade accelerates economic growth, the empirical evidence has been mixed or imprecise. This paper empirically tests whether openness leads to economic growth in Nigeria. The paper employed time series secondary data from WDI, CBN and NBS for GDP (proxy for economic growth) and Export, Import, Trade and Foreign Direct Investment as respectively proxies for trade openness in Nigeria. ADF Unit root test, Johansen Cointegration, Error Correction Model and Causality test were simultaneously employed to test for stationarity properties of the variables, existence ...

International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology

Ahmed Balarabe Musa

In theory, it was conforming to the accepted standard the open economies grow faster than the closed economies, and respectable economic development level could be achieved. This paper investigates the dynamic impact of trade openness on the economic growth in Nigerian economy between 1980 - 2016 empirically. Secondary data were sourced, from the 2016 Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin’. The tests of diagnostic conducted are: cointegration test, unit root test and error correction model. The analysis result revealed the trade openness was found to have negatively impacted on the economic growth in both the short run and long run. Based on study findings, it is recommended that since the imports of the country are more than its export; the government needs to have the present efforts to sustain the diversification of the economy to achieve economic growth led by exports. Furthermore, the collaborative effort of government with private sectors should encourage the export sub...

SUNDAY ELIJAH

Theoretically, it was established that outward oriented economies grow faster than closed economies and could achieve a respectable level of economic development. This study is set out to examine empirically the impact of trade openness on economic growth in Nigeria between 1980 and 2016. Data were sourced from publications of the central bank of Nigeria (CBN) statistical bulletin 2016. The econometric techniques used in the analysis were: unit root test, Johansen cointegration test, and error correction models (ECM). From the analysis, results revealed that openness was found to have impacted negatively on economic growth in both the long-run and the short-run. Based on this finding it is recommended that since the country’s imports are greater than exports; there is the need for the government to sustain its current efforts in diversifying the economy in order to achieve exports led economic growth. Furthermore, the government through collaborative effort with the private sector s...

South South Journal of Humanities and International Studies

Ndubuisi Uchechukwu

Over the past decades, the economies of the world have become greatly connected through globalization and international trade remains a dimension of this. Nigeria is not an exception, thus the trade relations between Nigeria and other countries have grown in recent years. Trade openness promoted by the globalization process has emasculated the Nigeria economy considering the consumption outlook of Nigerian economy. Despite the opportunities inherent in the globalization process, especially as it pertains to international trade; most policy makers and analysts in the developing countries of the world have continuously argued that international trade within the arrangement of the globalised system has remained beneficial to the Capitalist West and emerging economic powers while the developing countries of the world have been on the losing side. There is still lacking tangible benefits to most developing countries like Nigeria from opening their economies even within the euphoria of claims of export and income gains. Utilizing the secondary sources of data, content analysis and the Marxist Political Economy Approach, the paper examines globalization and Nigeria's trade development, its prospects and problems. The paper concluded that international trade within the arrangement of the globalised system has remained to the benefit of the Capitalist West and emerging economic powers while the developing countries of the world like Nigeria have been on the losing side, thus there is need industrialization and production driven economy rather than raw material cum crude centred economy.

Olubukola J A C O B OLADIPO

This study evaluated the impacts of trade openness on economic growth in Nigeria using relevant data from publications of the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Statistical Bulletins and National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). The data covered a 40-year period between 1971 and 2010. Multiple regression analysis technique (Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method) was used to analyze the relationship between the dependent variable (Gross Domestic Product) and independent variables (FDI, external debt, degree of openness, export and import). The coefficient of determination (R 2) to the tune of 86.3% (approximately 86%) was supported by high value of adjusted R 2 which stood at 0.8381 (83.8%) connoting that the independent variables incorporated into this model have been able to determine variation of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to the tune 83.8%. Also, F probability statistics also confirmed the significance of the model. Likewise, findings to establish a long run association between dependent and independent variables indicated that trade openness had positive impact on Gross Domestic Products in the long run where the coefficient of multiple determinations (R 2) of 0.9290 or 93 percent variation in the observed behaviour in the GDP is jointly explained by the independent variables. In view of these, all the components of international trade forming independent variables of the study should be accurately managed so that their importance could be continually felt in the Nigerian Gross Domestic Product positively.

Maimuna Y Muhammad

There has been a long held belief that there is a positive relationship between economic growth and increased levels of international trade. Therefore, this paper has empirically examined the impact of international trade on economic growth in Nigeria for the period 1981 to 2012. Using degree of openness to proxy international trade, the ordinary least squares technique was employed to estimate the impact of international trade on Gross Domestic Product. The broad objective of this paper is to analyze the impact of international trade on economic growth in Nigeria based on time series data on variables considered relevant indicators of economic growth and international trade. The analysis was based on data extracted from World Bank data and Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin. The result of the analysis shows that all the variables except interest rate were statistically significant. Therefore, the study recommends that policy makers should adopt policies on trade liberalization such as reduction of non-tariff barriers, reducing tariffs, reducing or eliminating quotas that will enable the economy to grow at spectacular rates. And thus this study supports the proposition that degree of openness has direct robust relationship with economic growth since the proxy variable is positive and statistically significant in the model.

VICTORIA ISERE , Obasanmi Jude

This study examined the impact intra-African trade openness has had on Nigeria's economic growth over the period 1990 to 2018 prior to implementing the AfCFTA agreement in Nigeria so as to reveal the benefits if any from intra-African trade. Real GDP is used as a proxy for economic growth and it is regressed against intra-African imports, intra-African exports, unemployment and openness by VECM technique. Intra-African imports and exports had a significant but negative impact on Nigeria's economic growth in the long run. For instance, a 1% increase in imports and exports resulted in 31.4% and 51.02% decrease in GDP respectively in the long run. However, a 1% change in openness caused a 72.6% increase in GDP. The study recommended an increase in Nigeria's intra-African trade if at all and to practice openness especially to help conserve foreign exchange. The Nigeria first mindset (meaning openness which hurts Nigeria must be avoided) must be adopted.

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Globalization, Term Paper Example

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“Social change is now proceeding so rapidly that if a social scientist had proposed as recent as 15 years ago to write a book about globalization they would have had to overcome a wall of stony and bemused comprehension.”(Globalization, 2001) Although the word ‘global’ is over 400 years old,the common usage of such words as ‘globalization’, ‘globalize’ and ‘globalizing’ didn`t begin until the early 1960 th . The definition of globalization has changed with the years including more and more specific features, starting from the general dictionaries and ending up with the WWW, where more than two or three hundred definitions from more than 101 thousand websites can be found. “Globalization is a process of interacting and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology.”(Globalization, 2008)

The discussion of economic aspectalong with multidimensional set of social processes is one of the significant parts of any integral account of globalization. In fact, the transformative powers of globalization affect deeply the economic, political, cultural, technological, and ecological dimensions of contemporary social life.

The economic sense of globalization can be studied on the example of multinational companies and brands which influence all aspects of our lives. It is a common knowledge that the process itself refers to all of the competitors, who are involved, and today the global trade seems to widen greatly as the pragmatic calculations broaden the national economies.

As far as I`m concerned, Wal-Mart is one the most competitive and intense partakersall over the world. Launched on July 2, 1962 as the Discount city store, Wal-Mart sky rocked up to over two million employees, more than 6200 stores and the record $408.21 revenue. Figures are phenomenal, so is the influence Wal-Mart has on the whole economy of the United States. The “Save Money Live Better” slogan is of extreme benefit to the customer, but when it comes to the vendors, they always face extreme challenge when operating with the giant. Over the years Wal-Mart has become so powerful that there is hardly any supplier, who didn`t think of mutually beneficial cooperation. There are lots of examples when it had become a desperate need and the only redemption for the companies to sign up a contract even if it was far from what they were expecting. Companies just have to obey the rules set up by Wal-Mart, if not the shelves of the supermarket will be used in another way. In my opinion the passage is a bright example of how the ‘globalization’ influences the development modern business. Wal-Mart has reached a point when it makes own rules, outsources the manufacturers, implements environmental measures, makes companies change their policies and for sure the vast boost of the ‘global’ business development.

Having the economic backbone ‘globalization’ meets no borders and eventually moves to the most economically profitable places. I was taken aback by the article about the Galesbourg Maytag plant closure and the fact that from the economic point of view it was an unavoidable measure. Companies like Maytag outsource the production out of country and from the first view the case of the Galesbourg Maytag plant is local in its size,however over 2.7 manufacturing jobs are lost for last decade. Shifts out of the country benefit Mexico and China and as a result the record $600 billion trade deficit and as a consequence the fallen value of dollar is definitely to be considered as a drawback. Despite the fact that the union made an effort to increase productivity and the Maytag was still profitable, the position has dropped. The laid-off workers have to make both ends meet by working as a welder or compete with their kids for Wal-Mart jobs for example. Overall, the article depicts us the severe truth of today`s business realities.

Medical tourism is nothing new and it is likely for the most sophisticated folks to visit specific professionals from another country or their choice depends on the unique specialties the place offers. But when talking about the medical tourism to Bangkok or New Dehli, personally I find it absolutely amusing. The medical system of the United States is doubtless cutting edge and for sure if it was the question of service most of the Americans wouldn`t even try to find alternatives, but when it comes to the actual price, the situation changes a lot. It turns out that some people would rather fly thousands of miles away to spend less money for the surgeries that couldn`t afford here in the United States. For most of the Americans the benefits of the medical tourism cannot be denied as they have an opportunity to save money, get acquainted with new culture and for most of them it is a chance of a lifetime. Becoming more and more popular, the hospitals pay attention to their reputation as they apply for the accreditation, contribute a lot in the overall impression of the visitors and there is no wonder why the trend accelerates a lot. What is more, medical outsourcing is becoming one of the popular forms of business as the executives report the increasing figures as the time frame reduced significantly and there is no longer a probability to wait for a year or more. It seems to me if pointing out the definite advantages of globalization, medical tourism is one of the blessings the modern world offers us. Personally I think that health is the most important god given gifts and the fact that we have an opportunity to choose makes me feel proud.

All in all the prime goal of my term paper is to decide whether globalization is a force for good or bad and that’s a tricky question, for sure “the globalization has transformed the nature of economic activity.” (Globalization: a critical introduction,2000) Working on the paper I realized that it is rather hard to figure out all pros and cons of globalization just by learning the theory, as the real life examples show us how rich the meaning of globalization is. From my point of view, if taking into consideration the challenge that is forcing the global development and increases our life standards, I`d say that pluses overweigh minuses. Unfortunately, it is next to impossible to avoid drawbacks as some of the cases seem not to be that positive and show us the reverse side of the medal. Still we have to admit the fact that globalization is taking over and having own opinion about this process is an indispensible part of building a successful future.

Donald J. Boudreaux (2008). Globalization (1 st Ed.). Westport, CT.

Jan Aart Scholte (2000). Globalization (1 st Ed.). London

Malcolm Waters (2001). Globalization (2 nd Ed.). New York, NY

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272 Globalization Essay Topics & Globalization Research Topics

Welcome to our list of globalization topics and essay ideas! Here, you will find plenty of current topics about globalization trends, benefits, and challenges. But that’s not all of it! In addition to topic ideas, you will also find examples of research papers and globalization essays. Check them out below!

🔝 Top 7 Globalization Topics for Research

🏆 best essay topics on globalization, ❓ globalization research questions, 👍 good globalization research topics & essay examples, 🌶️ hot globalization ideas to write about, 🎓 most interesting globalization research titles, 💡 simple globalization essay ideas, ✍️ globalization essay topics for college.

Contemporary Globalization and Its Impact
Globalization’ Positive and Negative Effects
Globalization and Its Impact on Society
The Effects of Globalization to Employment and International Trade
The Impact of Technology on Globalization
Impacts of Globalization on the Developing Countries
Apple Inc. Affected by Globalization and Technology
Is Globalization a Threat or an Opportunity to Developing Countries? The topic on the effects of globalization has generated a lot of debate in trying to analyze its contribution to either the success or failure of some aspects of economies.
Evaluating Cultural Dimensions of Globalization The objective of the current paper is to explore the cultural dimensions of globalization from the perspective of its relation to countries and nations.
Communication Technology and Globalization Growth in communication networks brought out by information technology witnessed a stream of expansion of products and ideas breaking geographic boundaries.
Globalization and Human Resource Policies and Practices The current paper aims to discuss the concept of globalizing HR policies and the potential positive and negative outcomes of this process.
Peru – Globalization, Environment, Crime and Disease The paper synthesizes a number of legitimate sources to focus on globalization and its effects on Peru with special relation to environmental issues, crime, and diseases.
Globalization and Health A planned urban society has access to safe and clean drinking water with appropriate sanitation and waste removal mechanisms.
The Effects of Globalization on Sports For many people in the world, globalization is the revolution of the future. Conversely, this is not true as globalization exists in the present day.
How Globalization Affects Governance? The process of globalization inevitably affects governance all over the world. In this paper, the peculiarities of the process of affecting governance by globalization will be addressed in detail.
Globalization Impacts on Trade and Employment Globalization refers to the integration of the world markets. It facilitates smooth movement of goods and people from one country to another.
Pros and Cons of Globalization The advantages of globalization outweigh the disadvantages. The concept has enhanced the rapid developments of impoverished nations.
The Impact of Globalization on World Politics Globalization as the process that creates preconditions for the eventual emergence of World Government, which will exercise an authority over planet’s natural and human resources.
Globalization Affecting the Role of Leaders in Organizations Globalization is influencing leadership because of the way it affects society through its processes. It has caused changes in the political, social, and economical aspects.
Apple Inc.’s Globalization Strategy and International Trade This paper will discuss Apple’s globalization strategy, global actions advocated for by this company, and how it facilitates international trade.
Globalization in Anthropological Perspective The anthropological perspective is a powerful model that guides scholars to analyze human diversity and empower individuals from different backgrounds.
Ford Motor Company’s Globalization Strategy This paper assesses Bangladesh and Rwanda as the two potential countries for Ford to globalize its operations. They are among the best fast-growing economies.
Globalization and Cultural Hybridization Globalization affects all spheres of human activity starting from education, policy, management, and ending with art, culture, etc.
The Advantages of Globalization Globalization is the process of growth and interconnection of world economies and cultures, which are aided by transport and trade.
Globalization’s Impact on International Marketing Strategies International marketing strategies are influenced by globalization. The operations of multinational firms are shaped by the confrontation between standardization and adaptation.
Leadership in the Context of Globalization This paper aims to outline the issue of leadership in the context of globalization, conduct a GAP analysis, offer recommendations for developing necessary leadership competencies.
The Globalization of Walmart Back in the 1990s, Walmart planned to conquer nations with large populations and growing purchasing power: Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil, and China.
Globalization’s Impact on Education Globalization will likely diversify educational opportunities while diminishing the competitive advantages of weaker educational systems.
Globalization and Corporate Social Responsibility The topic chosen for this research is globalization and corporate social responsibility because it is a unique and novel concept for transnational businesses.
Globalization’s Role for Developing Countries: Zambia In this paper, the results of globalization and its positive and negative consequences are discussed through the case of Zambia and the condition of its economy.
Ethics and Globalization in Business A business will only manage to keep up its reputation if it recognizes the established business ethics in its environment. Every firm must follow to the letter the code of conduct.
Dell Business Model: Globalization & Corporate Strategy The Dell Computer company research and development department is mandated with the task of advising the company on the nature of products it should manufacture.
Netflix’s Globalization in Brazil The modern world has become more connected due to globalization and multinational dependence on areas that support socioeconomic development.
Impact of Globalization on Netflix Company Netflix made two significant strategic moves that led to its success. The company did not explore all the available markets at once but in phases.
Americanization Is Not a Synonym for Globalization Globalization is the process of international integration, whereas Americanization means the influence of American culture on other countries’ cultural development.
Coca-Cola Company’s Strategy & Globalization Issues Multinational corporations are increasing day by day and they are usually criticized because of issues like environmental stability, sustainability etc.
Globalization and Diversity in TEDx Talk Shows This paper examines TEDx talk shows that discuss diversity and globalization issues and how globalization can reduce poverty levels in developing economies.
Globalization in Media: Pros and Cons Globalization in the media sphere is influenced by changes in political and cultural spheres bringing new economic opportunities and financial capitals to media giants.
Globalization Theories in the Business Environment The paper elaborates on the neo-classical, Marxist and structuralist perspectives on globalization before closing with the most concurrent theorem out of the three perspectives.
Effects of Globalization: The Case of LuLu Group Int To summarize this paper, globalization is an unstoppable interstate integration process, leading to the erasure of national boundaries and the formation of a single cultural layer
Globalization of the SK-II Brand SK-II Brand has been said to concentrate on its core business through innovation, expanding penetration in developing countries and restructuring its existing business.
Bauman’s Concept of Globalization in Understanding the Rise in Human Displacement This paper discusses the concept of globalization as viewed by Bauman, assesses the concept of increasing numbers of refugees, asylum seekers, and economic migrants in the world.
Globalization Impact on Sustainable Agriculture The emphasis on globalization has continued to undermine the pursuit of sustainable agriculture due to the many environmental, social, and economic consequences.
Social Media Impact on Globalization Among the many drivers of globalization, the advancement of digital social media platforms has been one of the most influential.
The Historical Context of Globalization The goal is to answer the study question, “What is the most important historical event that may have given rise to present globalization?”
Ways of Eating Around the World: Impact of Globalization Globalization is essentially to blame for the rapid rise in obesity and foodborne illness resulting from improved access to a diverse range of healthy foods.
Globalization of Video Games and Its Influence in the Society The research paper describes the positive impact of gaming, such as reducing flashbacks from posttraumatic stress defects and chronic pain reduction.
Why Youth and Community Workers Should Understand Globalization?
What Has Been the Effect of Globalization on Terrorism?
Who Are the Main Losers in the Process of Globalization?
Why Is Customer Service Needed in the Globalization of Logistics?
Why Resisting Globalization Can Be Reasonable?
Why Are the Critics So Convinced That Globalization Is Bad for the Poor?
What Would Our Nation Do Without Globalization and International Trade?
What Are the Costs and Benefits of Globalization?
Why Globalization Manufacturing Since the 1980s Has Changed Labor Relations?
Why Did General Motors fail to Compete With Globalization?
What Are the Challenges of International Development in the Age of Globalization?
What Impact Does Globalization Have On E-commerce?
Does Globalization Benefit Both Developed and Developing Countries?
What the Public Should Know About Globalization and the World Trade Organization?
What Are the Positive and Negative Effects of Globalization?
Why Did Germany’s Hidden Champions Succeed in Globalization?
Who Benefits From Globalization of Labor?
Does Economic Globalization Affect Interstate Military?
What Does the Globalization of Drug Trade Benefit?
Why Does Globalization Generate Winners and Losers?
Globalization as a Phenomenon and Its Impacts Globalization is a phenomenon, which has been made possible due to the development of communication technologies and multifaceted relationships among countries.
Importance of Globalization on International Business Globalization is very important in that it promotes worldwide growth as well as promotes peaceful coexistence globally through understanding.
Impact of New Technologies and Globalization on Literature The issue of globalization’s effect on the development of different countries has always been rather controversial.
Issues in the International Politics: Globalization Globalization in the international political system is considered to be centralized due to its impact on external links and close connection with political structures and mechanisms
Globalization and the Social Interest of Workers The paper sets out to demonstrate that globalization is not in the social interest of low-wage workers in developing nations and factory workers in the developed countries.
Globalization and Its Ethical Implications The paper states that the negative implications of globalization result in ethical dilemmas as people with diverse backgrounds participate in world development.
Relationship Between Urbanization, Globalization, and People The relationship between urbanization, globalization, and people is one of the most interesting and provocative topics in many discussions.
“The Globalization of Eating Disorders” by Susan Bordo This paper analyzes the text of an article written in 2002 by Susan Bordo, an American professor, and philosopher, whose works are marked by several prestigious awards.
Globalization: More Positive Effects Than Negative Ones Globalization refers to the “increasing interconnectedness of people and places through the converging process of economic, political and cultural change.”
The Impact of Globalization on Labor Market and Trade Globalization is the process that refers to the coming together of the international markets. This report examines the impacts of globalization on trade and employment.
The Impact of Globalization Discussing globalization objectively in its entirety is a challenging endeavor, since it touches upon almost every aspect of the modern world, and its influences differ from one region to the other.
Globalization: Challenges and Opportunities for Culture This paper explores the impact of globalization on cultural identity, highlighting both its challenges and positive aspects, and suggests solutions.
Effects of Colonialism and Globalization During the era of colonialism, colonies were perceived to be a major source of raw materials for the industries of the developed nations.
Pop Culture as a Potent Globalization Tool Pop culture popularizes different ideas and makes them familiar to people from various countries, which helps to minimize the number of misunderstandings.
Economic Globalization and Daily Life The stated factors belong to the concept of economic globalization, which implies the process through which states and corporations expand to the global scale.
The Impact of Racism on Globalization Racism is a great impediment to globalization, the bad blood between the said people of color and those of no color has dealt a big blow to development.
Regional Integration Inconsistency with Globalization With the term of Globalization being in vogue and regional integration agreements being signed across the globe, the coalition of the concepts has been questioned.
Impact of Globalization on Australia Globalization has enhanced the quality of life in Australia due to the fact that foreign investors are allowed to open up ventures in the country.
TNCs Contribution to Globalization of Retail Industry Transnational corporations make a great contribution to globalization issues and development of the global industry structure.
International Economy. Oakley’s Globalization Theory In “International Political Economy,” Thomas Oakley discusses globalization, its drivers, and its effects on various actors in the international scene.
Three Areas of Concern for Committee on Globalization This report aims to explore the three major problems that are a result of globalization, and that can have a negative impact on the nations in the Global North.
Globalization and Knowledge Management This paper outlines the knowledge management in the context of globalization and using personal experience with virtual learning.
Globalization and Democratization Relationship This paper explores the existing relationship between democracy and globalization. It focuses on democratization, globalization and their imperativeness.
Globalization Advantages and Negative Cultural Impact This paper focuses on globalization. Drivers of the globalization agenda are multinationals corporations, international financial markets, and transnational agencies.
Globalization and Cultural Diversity in the Workplace Cultural diversity should be incorporated into the company’s policies combined with teaching workers this fundamental issue in the business environment.
Globalization and Technology Impacts on Ethics The evaluation will center on analyzing how technology and globalization have contributed to the spread of poverty in third-world nations, violated individuals’ rights to privacy.
John Deere Company in View of Globalization John Deere is one of the most successful agricultural machinery companies in the world today. In 1963, the company became the world’s largest manufacturer.
How Residents of Georgia Understand and React to Globalization In the case of the state of Georgia, the understanding and reaction to globalization focus on economic integration and social well-being.
Globalization and Its Effects on World Economies The interconnectivity of the global community has had its fair share of both positive and negative impacts with either of them producing different outcomes.
Economic Globalization: The Role of Geography Globalization is by no means a modern phenomenon closely connected with the geographical structure of the world and location of a particular country.
Human Resources Management and How It Is Affected by Globalization and Technology? HRM functions have been widely affected by the changing trends around the world: various parts of the world are integrating, newer technologies and better concepts are evolving.
Coca – Cola: Business Strategy and Globalization The presence of the globalization phenomenon in the Company’s strategy can be proven by its effective presence in more then two hundred countries around the world.
Globalization Influence on Product Development This essay presents a critical analysis of the marketing strategies as they apply to the international marketing efforts of firms in the context of globalization.
Globalization Essence by M. Steger and N. Bisley Globalization: A very short introduction by Manfred Steger and Rethinking globalization by Nick Bisley define the necessity to treat the globalization and consider its complexity.
Impact of Globalization on Norms and Experiences around Gender Inequality is one of the most prolonged global debates that have refused to go away despite the great strides made through globalization
China’s Aviation Industry: Impact of Globalization This paper investigates the impact of globalization on China’s aviation industry. The report covers a wide range of topics, including history, global treaties, and critical forces.
Globalization and Its Pros and Cons It is hard to disagree that there is probably nothing universally positive or negative in this world. Everything has a price.
The Social Media Impact on Globalization This paper explains the impact of media on globalization and how it has affected businesses. Many people are currently using social media to run business organizations.
Globalization and Christian Mission Globalization has changed the landscape of industrial and business environments, and religion was inevitably affected by it, as well.
Globalization: Impact on Modern Society Globalization contributes to establishing relationships between individuals, independent social objects, and phenomena, embracing all spheres of people’s lives.
Globalization Opportunities and Challenges for Companies A company that adheres to the market development strategy should analyze the opportunities and challenges of globalization.
Reflection of “Globalization of Missions” Article The “Globalization of Missions: An Exegesis on the Great Commission” article is the author’s call for making proselytizing more aware of non-Western cultures.
Evaluation of the Meaning and Impact of Globalization in Relation to Criminal Justice The globalization process has a significant impact on criminal justice. Globalization has led to increased interdependence among various economies.
Globalization and Health Systems in India This research paper examines the effects of globalization on India’s healthcare system. It explores various areas such as healthcare delivery, acquisition, financing, and ethics.
Motivation and Globalization in Multinational Companies Motivation in the case of globalization becomes a burning issue of multinational companies as they should establish the most appropriate way to motivate their employees.
Globalization and Immigration: Globalization Policies Leaders and citizens in such nations feel threatened by the influx of both legal and illegal immigrants into their nations.
Qualitative Threshold: Globalization and Communication Technologies Globalization is a long-term phenomenon involving a gradual change of events. This process has occurred in distinct phases with each having unique characteristics.
“The Globalization of Markets” by Theodore Levitt In his article “The Globalization of Markets,” Theodore Levitt anticipated the effects of globalization and advancement in technology to international business.
Globalization: Managing Across Cultures Managing across culture is a product of globalization, that expatriate from a foreign culture moves to a totally new culture and is required to manage people from diverse cultures and backgrounds.
The Effect of Globalization in Economic Development Globalization has influenced modern life in many ways. Economists support the argument that individual economies are facing growth in respect to the prevailing globalization.
Child Labor Role in Westernization and Globalization Child labor is one of the many ways in which monetization of necessities due to globalization has led to an obsession with money and disregard for human rights in different parts of the world.
The Effect of Globalization on Healthcare Globalization is the phenomenon describing tight relationships between global cultures and economies. It increases the interdependence of the countries.
Costa Rica and Education Globalization The report will illustrate the background of the trend of remote learning as well as elements correlating with its implementation in the context of Costa Rica.
How Globalization Influences Citizenship Concept The one force that drives modernity most inescapably is globalization. Globalization led to a reimagining of the concept of citizenship in the context of modern developments.
Globalization in Education: The Impact of Lockdown on the Learning Gap Using the humanities approach could transform the main focus of the work on how people perceive their own culture and practices.
Religion, Globalization, and Language in China This research paper examines the problems of religion, globalization, and language from the Chinese perspective.
Globalization and Use of Fossil Fuel as Environmental Threats Both the process of globalization and the burning of fossil fuels have been significant contributors to the deterioration of the environment’s health on a worldwide scale.
Reshaping Globalization and Digital Media Over the decades, distinctive events and activities have contributed to the construction of the current global spectrum.
Education Under Impact of Globalization The negative impact of globalization was the widening gap in access to education. Globalization has made English the main language of education, which can lead to discrimination.
Globalization and Technological Development Technological development continues to facilitate globalization, with individuals from third-world countries coming to the forefront of the modern workforce.
The Globalization Impact on Cultural Production Human culture is evolving in the context of globalization, as many states are no longer in colonial relationships. It leads to global hegemony and diminishing diversity.
Addressing Global Inequality in the Era of Globalization While globalization has led to social, political, and economic increase, it has also given rise to global inequality, particularly through the exploitation of developing countries.
Globalization and Indigenous Communities in Canada In Canada, indigenous people feel both the austerities of environmental and cultural destruction and the potential for development.
Netflix: Globalization and Information Research In a three-stage expansion process, Netflix could make strategic decisions and establish effective policies in those markets
Globalization: Impact on International Business With higher levels of globalization, the overall international business will be safer as there will be more suppliers and manufacturers on the market.
Response to Globalization Pressure This paper aims to introduce a plan of action to ensure my continued employability as a professional in the sphere of international affairs.
Globalization and its Impact on the World A phenomenon that gathered speed after World War II, globalization has tremendously impacted the international economy, society, and culture by enabling greater interconnectedness and cross-border exchange of people and ideas. Globalization is a complex phenomenon that has benefited developed countries economically while unfairly distributing wealth to underdeveloped nations and disenfranchising…
The Globalization Impact on the US Foreign Policy The ability of the US to use its influence to alter international events is limited by globalization. America cannot deal with the issues brought on by globalization on its own.
Globalization Challenges in Developing Countries and Japan The participation of nations in global trade has several benefits, even though various problems impede countries from accessing global markets.
The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Globalization The fourth industrial revolution has made it possible for countries and manufacturing companies to produce and stabilize their economies.
Globalization and Geographic Information System Globalization is the process by which the globe becomes increasingly interconnected due to the exchange of commodities and services, information, knowledge, and cultural values.
Globalization and Democratic Peace Theory In the context of globalization, it is necessary to consider the theory of democratic peace, which recognizes democracy as the best form of government for society.
Globalization: Climate Crisis and Capitalist Ideology One of the main features of the development of the world community in recent decades has been globalization as part of integration processes that are changing the world structure.
Project Management Analysis and Globalization Technological supply chain management strategies and the development of dependable distribution systems in globalization are crucial components.
The Phenomenon of Terrorism and Its Relation to Globalization This paper states that the phenomenon of terrorism is tightly connected to the concept of inequality of globalization.
Interconnection of Globalization and Culture Despite serious issues, globalization has encouraged the funding of various initiatives in contemporary acts, contributing to the development of the market.
Globalization and Its Scale in the World Regardless of all opportunities provided by technological progress, the world remains less globalized than the majority of people expect.
Globalization and Poverty: Trade Openness and Poverty Reduction in Nigeria Globalization can be defined as the process of interdependence on the global culture, economy, and population. It is brought about by cross-border trade.
The Impact of Globalization on Business in India and the USA Since globalization started to affect the economy of the USA and India, it has had various positive and negative impacts on business.
Impact of Progressive Globalization One of the key processes in the development of the world economy on the verge of the XX-XXI centuries is the progressive globalization.
Globalization After World War I The emergence of the global economy corresponds to the aftermath of World War I, and the battle of governments and markets for control over the field brought unexpected results.
Researching the Concept of Globalization The paper aims to analyze the global playing field and support it with arguments why it is considered to be level.
Globalization: Beauty Sculpt for You Today society is filled with the obsession with promoting a self-image of beauty and perfection. Individuals take extreme measures to reach the goal of a flawless body.
Ethnic Violence in the Era of Economic Globalization Economic globalization refers to the interdependence of the world’s financial giants due to increased technology and trade across the borders.
Globalization Impact on Socioeconomic Inequality This paper analyzes the link between globalization and socioeconomic inequality, and how the inequality problem can be mitigated.
Food and Water Security as Globalization Issues Globalization has several implications for the business environment, among which are the expanded access to resources, and the interdependence of international companies.
Globalization in Modern Business Along with the development of technology, communication, and transportation, it becomes easier for companies to expand the scope of their operations and enter new markets.
Solving Problems Through Globalization The paper discusses the importance of uniting to create a global world. Globalization makes it easier to solve universal challenges that affect populations.
Globalization and Personal Identity Intersection The conditions dictated by globalization actualize the problem of cultural uniqueness and cultural self-determination, including identity.
Negative Sentiments Against Trade and Globalization Although the authors’ views are robust and applicable to developed economies, rising negative sentiments against trade and globalization remain relevant in developing countries.
Anthropocene and Its Role in Globalization The role of the Anthropocene in globalization can hardly be overestimated since, due to human activities, the world is becoming more and more interconnected.
Globalization Strategies for Multinational Enterprises This report will aim to understand the different approaches to regional and global expansion through strategy, and how they can be implemented by multinational enterprises (MNEs).
Human Sense of Place in the Context of Globalization In this study, complex questions about rethinking the human sense of place in the context of globalization are posed.
History of Globalization and World Integration The process of globalization is often viewed as an exclusively modern phenomenon that has arisen due to the development of multinational corporations.
American Dominant Minority Relations and Impact of Globalization To understand globalization’s effects on American dominant minority relations, it is necessary to turn to the global perspective and look beyond the US.
Hip Hop’s Globalization and Influence of Hip-Hop Music in Japan This paper reviews the Southern Rap Songs era’s influence on hip-hop music development in Japan during the 20th century.
The Effects of Globalization on the Environment The consequences of globalization can be very obscure. Globalization contributes to civilization as a whole but also inconveniences others.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Globalization The paper explains why the FDA has created a global strategy for fulfilling its mission and what are the costs and benefits to society of a more globalized food market.
Wireless Industry and Globalization for US Economy Various aspects can be analyzed to show that the wireless industry, America’s population growth, and globalization have significantly changed the United States’ economy.
Globalization: Arguments For and Against The process of globalization continues today, and arguments both in support and against this phenomenon are expressed regularly.
Global Poverty and Economic Globalization Relations Globalization is a necessary change in our history, as it has endowed us with abundant and fruitful life and various facilities and possibilities.
“Globalization” by Peter Temin: Article Analysis The current essay is a report on the given article “Globalization,” written by Peter Temin and published in Oxford Review of Economic Policy in 1999.
Globalization Effect on Social Movements Adapting to communication trends is a common theme in successful movements, which is only a small part of the process known as globalization.
Globalization and Technology in Health Care The critical change that has to be implemented to improve the process and quality of health care is further reliance on globalization and technology.
Globalization, Its Defenders and Critics Globalization is an ambiguous process with its advantages and disadvantages. It is impossible without significant changes in the ordinary life of people.
Economics: The Impact of Globalization As the borders between countries erode and different economies and cultures start to interweave, the world begins to be more and more defined by globalization.
Globalization of Nursing: Infant Mortality Rate in the US and Other States Among the health care issues, infant birth and death indices are of considerable importance. The paper is concerned with highlighting the infant mortality rate.
Foreign Direct Investment: Globalization of Production The report advises on the attractiveness of the USA and China for Australian companies interested in developing their international markets.
Globalization: On the Importance of ICT & Transnational Corporations Globalization is the process of increasing cooperation between different nations, and ICT is one of the factors that allows people from different nations to share their culture.
Geographical Diversification and Globalization With current terms of business operations between countries, it has been possible for businesses to diversify their market by venturing into other local and international markets.
Economic Globalization and Labour Rights The comprehensive study investigates the impact of economic globalization on labour rights in developing countries.
The Facets of Globalization in Internet Security This paper aims to outline and define interconnections between Internet security and the process of worldwide integration.
Process of Globalization and Nationalist Movements The transition between globalism and nationalism is frequently perceived as a threat to the government and its people.
Cultural Globalization as the Americanization of the World’s Cultures Americanization as a significant part of globalization may still be possible major industries vow it as a source of financial rewards.
International Finance and Globalization The monetary authorities of a country can use monetary tools to keep the value of their currencies lower than the value which would have been set by the market forces.
Globalization and American Productivity Economic globalization is reflected in such trends as foreign sourcing, global markets, and multinational corporations. It has positively shaped many countries.
Globalization and Economic Inequality The debate on the issue of economic inequality mitigation has been one of the central aspects of global discussion for decades.
Globalization and Competition: The USA, Western Europe, Japan The leading tendency of globalization is its presence even in those countries where other trends of the current world economy are weakly and hardly noticeable.
Tangible & Inevitable: Globalization as a Worldwide Phenomenon Globalization may be defined as the process of integration and interaction among countries worldwide and the growing interdependence of their economies, populations, and cultures.
The Financial Crisis and Its Connection With Globalization This essay examines two audio interviews that raise the issue of globalization and its impact on the economic security and policies of international banks.
The Effects of Globalization on Trade
Capitalism, Climate Change, and Globalization
Why Globalization Causes Turbulence and Disruption
Globalization of Healthcare in the US and Haiti
The Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization and Related Environmental Issues
Globalization and the Formation of New Claims
Overcoming CSR Challenges in the Age of Globalization
The Dark Side of Globalization
Outsourcing and Globalization as Driving Force
Present Day Resistance Historical Roots to the Trade Globalization
Energy Crisis: The Processes of Globalization and the Unification
Long-Term Impacts of the Chinese-American Trade War and Globalization of the World Economy
Free Trade as a Fundamental Principle of Modern Globalization
Chinese Companies and Globalization Issues
Global Governance Institutions in Context of Globalization
Leadership and Organizational Change: Diversity and Globalization
Globalization and Career of University of East London’s Students
Globalization: Impact and Consequences
Role of Globalization in Asian Market
“Globalization, Lifelong Learning and the Learning Society: Sociological Perspectives: 2” by Peter Jarvis
Globalization and Education – Economic, Political and Cultural Dimensions
Globalization and Transformative Process Drivers
“The Globalization of American Law” by R. D. Kelemen and E. C. Sibbitt
Globalization Negative Effects on Canadian Labour Union
Globalization in a Global Economy
Education With Regard to Globalization Issues
Whether Globalization Makes Consumer Powerless?
World Is Flat: Globalization Effect
Globalization and Its Impact on Firms
Environment: Rapid Increasing in Industrialization and Globalization
Ethics In The Business Globalization
Total Quality Management: Impact of Globalization on Quality
International Organizations Role in Globalization Process
Contemporary Globalization Since 1914
Asian Film Industry Globalization
Survival of Minority Ethnic Groups in Globalization
International Marketing – Impact of Globalization
“Globalization, Poverty and Inequality” by Kaplinsky
Globalization’s Impact on Banks in Canada
Global Politics: Women’s Rights, Economy, Globalization
Globalization and Cultural Difference of Societies
Globalization, the Sex Trade and HIV-AIDS
Media Production and Connections in Globalization
China’s Impact on Globalization and International Security
Geographical Conditions’ Affect of Globalization
Moving Away From Globalization: Consequences
Globalization and Russian Influence
Market Globalization and Global Marketing Pitfalls
“The Globalization of Markets” Book by Levitt
American Popular Culture and Globalization Effects
Globalization’s Role in Improving Women’s Rights
Supply Chain Management in Globalization Era
Chapters 2 and 9 of “Sociology of Globalization” by Smith
Air Transport and Its Benefits for Globalization
Human Rights, Globalization and Economic Development
Globalization Influences Discussed in TED Talks
Education History and Globalization
Globalization and Its Consequences: Economic Crossroads
Globalization and National Security Issues
Germany’ Sovereignty in the Age of Globalization
Globalization Concept and Its Impact on the State
Globalization vs. Traditions in Eastern Culture
Ethics in Reporting: Globalization and Media
Globalization Effect on Small and Medium Size Business
Globalization Effect on Developing Countries’ Business
Hard Rock Café: E-Commerce and Globalization
Globalization Impact on Trade and Employment
Leadership and Globalization in the US and Japan
Identity Politics as a Response to Globalization
Globalization and Cultural Knowledge of China
Millenium Development Goals and Globalization
The Pitfalls of Globalization
Aspects of Globalization: Positive and Negative Effects
The Impact of Globalization on Immigration Control
Spiritual Perspectives on Globalization by Ira Rifkin
Globalization and Its Benefits for the United States
Globalization and Businesses in New Economies
The Globalization Index and Singapore as the Leading State
Evaluating the Effects: Advantages of Globalization
Modern Imperialism and Economic Globalization
Singapore Globalization: Criterias and Ranks
Globalization Impacts on the United Nations Institution
Globalization and Citizenship in EU

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Term Paper on Globalization

Globalization term paper:.

The concept of globalization is essential to understand the patterns of economic, political and cultural change in the contemporary world. Introduction Globalization is known as the name of the social, economic and political processes taking place in our world. During the last years, globalization has become an important subject for various popular and academic debates. Today the concept of globalization is implemented to describe different aspects of contemporary life. It includes such aspects as complexity of contemporary capitalism, the difficulties of the nation-state system and the increasing quantity of transnational corporations and organizations as well as essential competitiveness between global culture to local cultures, the rise of the communications revolution due to introducing of new technologies in the world (Szeman 2001). In other words, globalization is a concept that has both positive and negative sides of the contemporary existence. This paper discusses the concept of globalization and its perspective on the changing patterns of the economic, political and cultural life in the contemporary world. Additionally, it focuses special attention on the discourse of fordism, post fordism, post modernity and postcolonial theory as well as the development of the networked society in the time of globalization.

The concept of globalization and its development The concept of globalization appeared at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century (1850 –1914) (Rourke and Williamson 1999, p. 5).

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At that time, the concept of globalization paid its main attention to the money aspect mainly characterized by the rise of international trade and the increasing flow of migrants. People have been migrating and travelling having different aims. For example, European migrants went the New World – America – in the hope to become rich, while Asian migrants showed their negative relation to America negatively as a colonial country. In addition, the intensive development of industry and the global industrial division of labour in America resulted in large female migration. (Sassen 1998, pp. 41-45)

Today many social theorists are stating that modern world characterized by rising globalization with the dominant economic system of world capitalism. It gives priority for transnational corporations and organizations in contrast to the nations, and destroys local traditions and cultures developing a global culture.

There is a great diversity of theorists’ views on the concept of globalization. Some of them believe that globalization may cause the Westernization of the world (Latouche 1996), but others (Ferguson 1992) consider that it entails the ascendancy of capitalism (Kellner). Some theorists state that globalization increases homogeneity, while others believe that it produces heterogeneity and diversity because of increased hybridization. For many theorists globalization and modernity are similar (e.g. Giddens 1990; Beck 1992), but others state that the “global age” and “modern age” are different (Albrow 1996) (Kellner).

In contrast, postmodernists support diversity, the local, difference, and heterogeneity, and sometimes they note that globalization itself produces multiplicity and hybridity. They argue that with the help of global culture special appropriations and developments are possible in the entire world. Globalization will create new types of hybrid syntheses of the global and the local, helping to widespread heterogeneity and difference. Postmodernists also argue that, “every local context involves its own appropriation and reworking of global products and signifiers, thus producing more variety and diversity” (Kellner).

In turn, Axtmann suggests that global citizenship and accordingly the impact of globalization could lead to a real acceptance of heterogeneity, diversity, and otherness contrasting with globalization that just promotes sameness and homogeneity (Kellner).

Globalization is able to produce new forms of imperialist domination in accordance with globality and universality. There is a danger that globalization just disguises a indefatigable Westernization, or Americanization, of the world. However, restoration of ethno-nationalism, tradition, religious fundamentalisms, and other types of resistance to globalization are active to certain degree by a deviation of the homogenization and probably Westernization connected with some globalization forms.

Coming back to Westernization, it is worth to note that globalization is frequently characterized by the rising dominance of western or American forms of economic, political, and cultural life (“westernization” or “Americanization”) (Westernisation). Westernization had a great and a pervasive influence on the world during the past decades. The collapse of imperialism and colonialism over the decades was noticed by the two World Wars of the 20th century, after which many smaller countries, which were created by former colonial authorities (primarily European), obtained independence and involved different aspects and features of Western culture and tradition. After a downfall of the former Soviet Union at the end of the 20th century, many of its component states became the subject for Westernization. It also included privatization of hitherto state-controlled industry.

Special attention must paid to the fordism and post fordism movement. Fordism is known as the system of mass production and consumption characteristic of highly developed economies and it existed in the 1940s-1960s. According to Fordism theory, the combination of mass consumption with mass production is necessary to achieve material advancement and economic growth. The period of 1970s-1990s is characterized by slower growth and rising inequality of income. At that time, the system of production and consumption organization has transformed. That was a second transformation – post fordism – which led to the second rise of economic growth. This new system is called the “flexible system of production” (FSP) or the “Japanese management system.” On the production side, the main features of FSP are high reductions in information expenditures and overheads, Total Quality Management (TQM), leaderless work groups and just-in-time inventory control (Fordism, Post-Fordism and the flexible system of production). On the consumption side, the main features of FSP are the globalization of consumer goods markets, quicker product life cycles, and far bigger product/market differentiation and segmentation (Fordism, Post-Fordism and the flexible system of production).

Along with process engineering, the second transformation is making transformations not only how we produce things, but also how we live and what we consume accordingly. It illustrates the decreasing essentiality of scale and scope and is made with the help of costs reductions in logistics, communications, and information processing – these reductions occur in result of the computers’ introduction and rising ability of people to use them. (Reschenthaler and Thompson 1996, pp. 125-144).

So, globalization must be illustrated as a difficult and multidimensional phenomenon that includes various levels, flows, and conflicts as well as its possible future.

A critical theory of globalization deals with the reality of globalization, its authority and influence. However, it also studies different forces of resistance and fight that try to resist to the most destructive sides of globalization or global forces.

For example, the constant issue of local and political fight with complex causes is race, ethnicity, class and nationalist problem. It is well-known that the period from the end of 1980s to the present time is characterized by a rise of traditionalism, nationalism, and religious fundamentalism along with increasing globalization.

It is also worth to admit that the resurgence of regional, cultural, and religious differences in the former USSR and Yugoslavia along with intensive tribal conflicts in Africa and in other places allows us to make a suggestion that globalization and homogenization were not so much connected and deep as it was considered by its supporters and critics. In result, culture has become a new source of conflict and an essential indicator of fight between the local and the global. National cultures caused many conflicts between Muslims, Serbs, and Croats, Azarbaijanis and Armenians, Mohawk First Nation peoples and Quebecois. In South Africa, these are the fight between the Umkatha tribe and the African National Congress.

The other important reason of resistance and struggle is the gender inequality and difference. At the level of policy, the influence of globalization on women and gender relations is still ignored on the national and international levels.

Due to gender inequalities and discrimination in many countries worldwide, globalization processes may render their negative influence on women in greater degree than on men.

Nevertheless, many advocates of women admit that globalization influences various groups of women differently. It even creates new treatment standards for women, and assists some groups of women to mobilize. Thus, the role of globalization for many women is still in debate and it is evidently different.

Consequently, globalization is very complex concept and it stimulates to occurrence of different theories, economical, political and cultural studies. There are a lot of reasons due to which globalization has been perceived as mainly an economic phenomenon that additionally has had an evident impact on political, social, and cultural life. Economic globalization means, that it is a long-run upward tendency. Thus, it will be useful to measure globalization. There is a lot of various indicators of economic globalization and they may or may not illustrate familiar patterns in regards to change over time. Trade globalization can be distinguished as the certain share of the production all over the world. Investment globalization would be the share of all world capital invested that belongs to non-nationals capital in the world that belongs to non-nationals (i.e. “foreigners”) (Chase-Dunn, Kawano and Nikitin). Also it is possible to investigate the degree of economic integration of countries by defining the extent to which national economic growth rates correspond to each other in the world countries.

From the economic point of view, globalization is connected with the transnationalization and deterritorialization of industry and capital, which has permitted companies to cross national borders and to travel over the world to succeed from cheaper labor and to open, develop and promote new markets for different services and goods. In addition, economic globalization has been connected with the occurrence of international free trade agreements as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades (GATT), and the foundation of an around-the-clock global financial market (Szeman 2001, p. 212).

Contemporary patterns of economic globalization have been much connected with a new development of the relationship between markets and states.

Together with financial integration, the operations of multinational corporations also played the important role. They integrated national and local economies into global and regional production networks. Due to such conditions, national economies are no longer autonomous systems of wealth creation since national boundaries no longer function as essential barriers to the organization of economic activity and its conduct (Held and McGrew).

As it was above-mentioned, the multinational corporation (further – MNCs) was significant to the establishment of a new global capitalist order. In 1999 their number accounted for more than 60,000 MNCs worldwide with 500,000 foreign subsidiaries, selling $9.5 trillion of services and goods globally (Held and McGrew). Modern transnational production essentially exceeds the level of global exports and has become the main means for exporting services and goods. According to some estimates, multinational corporations now make for at least 20 per cent of world production and 70 per cent of world trade (Held and McGrew).

Economic globalization has also been characterized by an evident internationalization of political power connected with a relevant globalization of political activity. Thus, it is worth to deal with the political meaning of globalization.

A special attention has been paid to the threats caused by globalization in regards of the sovereignty and power of nation-states and accordingly, on the occurrence of new sites of transnational politics placed in global cities, international organizations (such as NGOs and the United Nations) and transnational corporations (Szeman 2001, pp. 209-217).

At that time global cities were the spaces where labor, capital, infrastructure, and information are concentrated (Irvine 1999). From this point of view, globalization is considered to be a networked urbanization, a reconcentration of production, capital, and labor in cities as “the nodes of the networked economy” (Irvine 1999). It means that global cities are the nodes of cyberspace, the space of flows including the simultaneous concentration and decentralization of people, economic activity, communications, technical infrastructure, and information (Irvine 1999). From the point of the diffusion of cultural productions on the Net, cultural globalization follows the logic of urban concentration in the global information economy. In turn, cyberpace is a segmented and segregated space that is similar to global cities where IT infrastructure, firms, capital, labor, and services are concentrated, as it was already above mentioned.

Research of the politics of globalization consists of estimation of the growing militarization of global relations, the occurrence of new nationalisms and ethnic confrontations, and the intensive migrations of peoples across regions or even across the world. This process concerns essential problems on notions of cultural belonging and citizenship in almost all countries in the West (Szeman 2001).

The concept of globalization has also been researched in regards of the development of new communication technologies that are significant in destroying our world spatially. With the help of these global communication technologies, it has become possible to perceive our globe as a single space shared by all human beings. It does not only mean that with the help of computer and communication technologies we can instantaneously transmit and transfer information each other all over the world. It mainly means that by circulating of information, images and ideas, people (and especially global elites) around the globe can find similar cultural referents. The emergence of a “global culture,” has been possible only due to the invention of new technologies. Today people in different countries can see the same news events or TV-show programs. Now it is evidently clear for all interesting hybrid cultural forms of global culture that the global distribution of cultural forms and ideas hardly equal. Many cultural critics in globalization has focused their special interest on the influence of the global distribution of a capitalist culture “anchored in the United States” and on its evident threat to the continued existence of local traditions and cultures (Szeman 2001). Probably, it is just here the study of globalization and postcolonial studies is most clearly imposed. The relationship between globalization and the specific issues of postcolonial studies is too difficult and complex. This can be partially explained by distinctions in emphasis and that these two concepts have the disciplinary origins. In usual, globalization is still a term used mainly in the social sciences, where it is employed to depict contemporary Western experience, but postcolonial studies are introduced in the humanities and pay their main attention on the practices and experiences of non-Western countries, especially in the case if they are related to Western economic, cultural and political priority.

The primary issues of postcolonial studies have been determined in accordance with the complex consequences of 19th and 20th-centuries – imperialism and colonialism. Along with the fact that globalization is originated from the European ideas of colonialism and imperialism, it defines some contemporary transformations that have directly changed some of the strong concepts of postcolonial studies, such as identity, place, the nation, and ways of the resistance connected to these concepts.

In the 20th-century, the current implementation of the term globalization is used according to Marshall McLuhan’s vision of a “global village” made by the world-wide spread of communication technologies, and in “world-systems theory” of Immanuel Wallerstein (Szeman 2001). The central point of Wallerstein’s theory, as first developed in The Modern World System (1974) is that the world economic system has been only capitalist one from its first occurrence in the 16th century. The postcolonial studies revealed a big insistence on the cultural changes of colonialism and imperialism. Postcolonial criticism has asserted that must be noticed as a basis to creation, production and maintenance of colonial relationship.

From this vision, and particularly due to the diffusion of a global mass culture, globalization may be perceived as “the continuation and strengthening of Western imperialist relations in the period after decolonization and postcolonial nationalist movements” (Szeman 2001).

Conclusion A critical theory of globalization determines the interdependencies and interconnections between various levels such as the political, economic, psychological and cultural as well as between various flows of people, products, ideas, information and technology. The speed of globalization development with its space-time compression, its instant financial transactions, its simultaneous forms of mass communication, and a highly incorporated world market is certainly a novelty in our world. New technologies make significant changes in the nature of work and create new leisure forms. The hyperreality of cyberspace, new virtual realities, and new information and entertainment modes are the other main characteristic features of globalization.

Present-day globalization explains the matrix of global and local forces as well as of forces of resistance and domination, of a condition of quick change and a “great transformation” caused by the global restructuring of capital and multivariate effects of new technologies. Therefore, globalization is evidently a force of homogenization. The influence of globalization much depends from a position of country in global political, economic and military hierarchies as well as from its domestic political and economic structures, the institutional pattern of inner politics of the state, certain government and societal strategies for contesting, ameliorating and managing imperatives of globalization (Held and McGrew). The future will show what visions, perspectives and concepts best characterize globalization in present.

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Globalization – Term Paper

Summary statements

Globalization is an initiative that has focused on empowering people from different nationalities to engage in regional economics. Automated responses during business to business (B2B) agreements are an example of globalization initiative. The organization creates a culture of competition via geographically shared economic activities. businesses from different countries are enabled to participate in value chain through the shared network and bridging of the cultural differences. The major company objective is to raise a platform where relationship framework across borders can be enhanced leading to regional development.

Globalization in business

The system created by the company relies heavily on the input-output approach of product creation. International negotiation during B2B mostly focuses on the production of firms output from input through a series of interconnected steps in the production process. Organization culture is very important in enhancing the interconnected process since the organization has a cross-border connection that allows easier negotiation in a democratic manner. That means that there must be a voting right during international negotiations.

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Cultural diversity plays a big role in international negotiations. For instance organization culture in the USA might be very different from the organization culture in Jamaica. Therefore people from different culture must find common ground during decision making. Negotiations should be purely based on the competition and collaborative nature of the people involved in the negotiations.

Pay attention: variety of table or figures usually companying with their own summary statements and highlighting statements, though you may discuss them aggregate. Just make what you write on paper as fluently as you want to pursue your readers, don’t treat it just as homework to deal with the teacher.

Framework of international busisiness diagrams;

	Is a constant factor during B2B and also during democratic negotiations	Value in business to business interaction is measured via current digital devices
	Creates a peaceful business environment	Should be democratic
	Need to explore complex network (globalization and liberalization)	Has low rate of coverage under the current literature
	;	;

Tea production and integration into market diagram (liberalized Market)

Highlighting statements

1) Globalization and liberalization provides a context where businesses adopt similar strategies and purse them to attain success; this is despite the difference in cultural practices.

2) Negotiations at international level often must often reach a mutual consent that might be negative to one party that is why meditation should be encouraged.;

negotiation capabilities and strategies, despite all that they tend to agree on profits and settle on common strategy of operation. Cultural diversity play a significant role on actors negotiation skills, and thus one must try to understand the diversity before engaging in negotiations

3. Liberalization of world market ensures that value of the commodity being handled is maintained despite the cultural diversity within the liberalized regions.;

4. The contemporary world has adopted automated agreement electronically during business to business negotiations that gives power to the people involved.

Trade liberalization

Discussions on what your findings mean;

(especially on what sides they have varified your ideas, besides, on what sides this make your idea different from the literature your have analyzed in your homework one.)

Liberalized market that ensures that value is maintained through the entire connection. Sufficient quality and meeting the set standards of goods or services in the global network has remained to be a major objective of the system. For instance tea Network has developed a weightless system which allows digital recording of data and verifying when the product reaches various destinations. In some countries such as Kenyan and Rwandan market is an example of liberalized market. The market has a weighing method that integrates the initial weight from the firm into the system. Such a system removes the effect of an extraneous variable that may affect the payment of farmers. Farmers found such a system reliable and easy to work with. Additionally, other factors such as corruption and taking advantage of tea farmer;s ignorance are not possible with such a system. The liberalized provides a total connection between the chains that enables everyone to be awarded for their effort. Therefore, cultural diversity is negated at each point of service delivery and tea transportation. Globalization enhances value through the revolutions digital system that is beneficial to all the actors in the network as each earns their contribution in the network.;

Power, with the current technology in liberalized market system, power to the actors has the effect on cultural. The current globalised market are shaped using the wireless system thus all the databases in the system can be connected securely. For example tea weighing is digital in Rwanda, coffee weighing is digital in Brazil, and the weighed product can be paid through mobile money services. Such payment method and network connectivity eliminates possible corruption and gives the farmers power. Therefore, liberalization of the global market, aims at making international trade network to be fully commercialized and have enhanced service delivery. Such organization of network in African tea network is a clear indication that market liberalization can surpass the common cultural belief of negotiations cross borders. Organized network provides a wireless system where product and service flow is not hindered by the locality or position of an actor participating in the network.;;

Example of globalization

Negotiation is a situation where local firms agree to do business in the main international market so as to enhance trade. A good example is in the diagram where the tea industry Rwanda has agreed to work with Kenyan market to join the International Tea Market. It involves linkages that are at specific levels thus farmers will not be pressured by the complexity of the system, yet they benefit from its advantages. For instance, in the diagram tea from the factory can either be directly sold to the retailer or it can be auctioned in the international market. Factory prices will not change, but the final consumer will bear the cost of steps that tea has passed. The farmer and the factory are not liable for the extra cost in the interconnected network. Technology is vital in creating a reliable network with a negotiated network in the international trade. Firms are incorporated into the network and their produce bough digitally and transported to the destination of the buyer’s choices through the same network. International negotiations thus expands the network coverage reducing the need for one to understand the cultural background of another company or individual since technology creates an easier way of negotiations via the digital platform.

All in all liberalization of the market leads to more trade and corporation among the countries involved. In Asia road and rail network have been built to enhance connectivity among trading countries, Africa is also striving to gain an inch in Globalization by working on its network connectivity in communication and transports of goods and services form one part to the other, technology has played a great role in enhancing liberalization and production as demonstrated by the diagram and explanation of tea processing and transport between Kenya and Rwanda.

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Globalization Research Paper

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Introduction

Earlier attempts to grasp globalization, contemporary approaches to globalization, the global political economy, the global cultural economy, questioning “globalization”, globalization and development, governance, sovereignty, and citizenship.

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Globalization is an inconsistent concept, and definitions of it abound. However, most anthropologists agree that, experientially, globalization refers to a reorganization of time and space in which many movements of peoples, things, and ideas throughout much of the world have become increasingly faster and effortless. Spatially and temporally, cities and towns, individuals and groups, institutions and governments have become linked in ways that are fundamentally new in many regards, especially in terms of the potential speed of interactions among them. Examples of these interactions are myriad: The click of a mouse button on a Wall Street computer can have immediate financial effects thousands of miles away on another continent, and events like the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 or footage of the 2005 tsunami in southern Asia can be televised internationally, whereby millions of viewers interpret the same images concurrently.

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Beyond these shared perspectives on and approaches to globalization, anthropologists disagree with one another in important regards. The first concerns the “what”: Does globalization name a more-or-less singular and radical transformation that encompasses the globe, in which technoeconomic advancements have fundamentally reorganized time-space, bringing people, places, things, and ideas from all corners of the world into closer contact with one another? Or, is globalization a misnomer, even a fad, a term too general to describe a vast array of situated processes and projects that are inconsistent and never entirely “global”?

A second discussion concerns the “when”: Is globalization new—do we currently live in the “global era”? Or, has the world long been shaped by human interaction spanning great distances?

These debates are not limited to two opposing sides. Some scholars feel that these very questions blunt meaningful analysis of the contemporary world and all of its nuances. By focusing largely on absolutes—that is, what is entirely singular versus wholly chaotic, what is radically new versus something predicated largely on the past— important questions are passed over. For example, what are the specific mechanisms of human interconnection and the particular histories in which they are embedded?

Anthropologists do agree, however, on how to best go about investigating globalization: through long-term, intensive fieldwork, either in a single locality or in several linked analytically together. This fieldwork is ethnographic; that is, it seeks an intimate understanding of the social and cultural dynamics of specific communities, as well as the broader social and political systems they negotiate. In a world of intensifying social relations, ethnography requires engagement in both empirical research and critical theory.

Anthropological attention to ethnographic detail is an important rejoinder to a vast globalization literature centered on macro phenomena, such as the relations between large-scale political and economic bodies like nationstates, political unions, trade organizations, and transnational corporations. Undoubtedly, these “translocal” entities are of great anthropological interest as well. Yet the discipline has taken as its goal the understanding of how specific subjects respond to and act within these large-scale processes, institutions, and discourses through culturally specific lenses. Thus, anthropology’s contribution to this literature lies in its assertion that social change, viewed in both distance-defying connections and inequitable disconnections within the world, can be compellingly grasped in the daily practices of individuals and the groups, institutions, and belief systems they inhabit.

It bears emphasis that a researcher cannot simply board a plane to “the global.” The empirical aspects of human social interaction—while facilitated by the “placelessness” of systems and structures like international finance networks, religious chat rooms, or television broadcasts—are produced, interpreted, and negotiated by people in particular places. It is for this reason that the ethnographic method has continued to define anthropological research, even as it pertains to globalization. The ethnographic emphasis has long been to follow the question, the person, the commodity, or the idea—all things that are continually mobilized or constrained by human activity. As will be argued in further detail below, anthropologists have tended to warn against the erasure of human agency in depictions of such interaction, and the discipline’s commitment to research continues to inform this warning. Some anthropologists have gone so far as to argue that empirically thin accounts of globalization, especially those that embrace it as a natural and ultimately unavoidable force in the world, actually obscure the means by which unequal relations of power are forged. The argument is significant, as anthropologists generally agree that the ability to define globalization and steer discussions pertaining to it greatly informs the decisions of wealthy and influential policymakers.

While often understated in current anthropological scholarship on globalization, early anthropological attempts to grasp translocal phenomena greatly influenced the discipline’s development. Indeed, anthropology has a history of engagement with translocal phenomena and has long argued that exchange across sometimes vast distances has been and is common to human social interaction. Arguably the first incarnation of such a notion is seen in the works of late 19th- and early 20th-century diffusionists, who held that cultural change was a product of initially distinct cultural traits being appropriated and dispersed among individuals and groups over great geographic distances. Franz Boas, often called the father of American anthropology, saw diffusionism as a corrective to unilineal evolutionary conceptions of culture change, which articulated the development of cultural traits as a product of independent and isolated trial and error rather than as a product of permeable social worlds facilitating cultural exchange. Boas argued as follows:

It would be an error to assume that a cultural trait had its original home in the area in which it is now most strongly developed. Christianity did not originate in Europe or America. The manufacture of iron did not originate in America or northern Europe. It was the same in early times. (Boas, 1932, p. 609)

A fellow critic of cultural evolution perspectives during Boas’s time, Bronislaw Malinowski spent over two years in the Trobriand Islands examining the kula ring, a regional system of exchange that Malinowski (1922) claimed functioned to maintain social solidarity and enhance status among males bestowing necklaces and armbands upon one another. Malinowski is most widely renowned as an early practitioner of participant observation, but Malinowski’s study also required him to practice multi-sited research, which is now seen as a sometimes necessary mode of fieldwork to “follow” translocal phenomena.

Two other anthropologists informed by functionalism and influenced by Malinowski’s study of nonmonetary exchange were Mauss and Ortiz, both of whom produced works that challenged readers to think beyond the local. Mauss’s The Gift (first published in 1923) explored the historical beginnings of translocal systems of exchange that often brought about social cohesion through gift giving and reciprocity. Mauss cited examples of this exchange among groups in the South Pacific region, as well as in North America. Originally published in 1940, Ortiz’s Cuban Counterpoint developed the concept of “transculturation” to describe the different phases of cultural hybridization between ethnically diverse groups (many of whom were arriving from foreign lands) in Cuba under colonialism. Ortiz further argued that the production and export of Cuban commodities like sugar and tobacco came to be deeply entangled with European and U.S. interests.

While the above works demonstrate early insights into the relationships between relatively small populations and an outside world, it is common to read of early 20th-century anthropology’s insular emphasis on closed, internally coherent cultural systems. Leach’s Political Systems of Highland Burma, first published in 1954, was a powerful response to the “bounded” conceptions of cultural change, as he took a regional scale as his point of entry into the indeterminate dynamics of identity formation in Burma. Leach also emphasized the power and creativity of individual actors to shape culture beyond local contexts.

The 1960s and the two decades that followed were formative in the history of anthropology’s engagement with large-scale processes. The political turmoil of the “libratory,” anticolonial wars, and rising nationalism in the global South during the 1960s are commonly cited as the greatest impetuses of this engagement. In addition, a principled dissatisfaction with the trajectory of anthropology and social science disciplines in general informed the reanimation of the Marxist approach known as political economy. Much of this dissatisfaction stemmed from a lack of engagement with political economy’s most central concerns: the nature of material production, class, and power.

Broadly conceived, the political economic approach within anthropology was utilized to understand the relations between large-scale processes of economic and political change and specific (usually subaltern) communities. The anthropological approach was heavily influenced by the “world-systems” theory of sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein and “underdevelopment” perspective of economist Andre Gunder Frank. Both of these thinkers emphasized the imposing gravity of the European- and American-dominated world economy. Concisely, this world economy provided a framework by which Western, or “core,” economies could systematically exploit the non-Western, or “peripheral” nations of the world through the appropriation of their economic surpluses and labor. This perspective laid out a significant critique of economic modernization theory, for both Wallerstein and Frank stressed the causal relationship between worldwide capitalist expansion and subaltern subjugation, or development and underdevelopment.

A common perception among anthropologists sympathetic to political economy was that the “periphery” category was too generalized and unnuanced. Anthropologists believed that their disciplinary proclivities could bring the diverse reactions of “micropopulations” to capitalist penetration into clearer focus and thus provide a more detailed, if not more realistic, explanation of unequal relations of power. Eric Wolf and Sydney Mintz were exemplary in their efforts to conjoin the broad focus of world systems theory with anthropology’s long-established object of study, the social dynamics of the subaltern.

Wolf demonstrated his materialist approach in his influential and ironically titled Europe and the People Without History (1982). The book sought ambitiously to trace the history of capitalism’s expansion and eventual penetration into precapitalist societies, and thus account for the means by which particular non-Western localities were transformed into production sites of primary goods— gold and diamonds in South Africa, coffee in Mexico, and rubber in the Amazon, to name only a few of Wolf’s examples—for Western consumption and profiteering. Wolf’s analytic brush was decidedly broad, as he sought to outline patterns of this expansion and penetration on a massive geographic scale.

Mintz’s Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (1985), while geographically narrower in its focus, was nevertheless an ambitious anthropological investigation of the politics of production and consumption between a metropole and colony during the 17th through 19th centuries. Mintz argued that slave labor in the Caribbean was a means for sugar to become a highly valued and common commodity in England. His work is important because it demonstrated that the Caribbean producers of sugar were crucial actors in the shaping of the lifeworlds of metropolitan centers of global capitalism.

Much the same as intellectual forebears like Boas, Malinowski, and Mintz, anthropologists today are apt to favor specificity and variation over generalization and central tendency. Anthropology has, subsequently, tended to shy away from grand theories that can essentialize peoples and characterize histories as predetermined. Indeed, a continued interest of anthropologists is to investigate how individuals and groups negotiate their social worlds in creative and unexpected ways. However, this has not prevented anthropologists from using macro theories as frameworks for inquiry nor from intimating how ethnographic detail is indicative of broader social configurations. The main point is that empirically supported arguments are paramount. This is where long-term, immersed fieldwork has been and remains a central element of anthropological contributions to the scholarship on globalization.

Yet the disciplinary interest in globalization has sparked debate about the future of fieldwork methodology. Indeed, while the ethos of anthropology continues to privilege singlesited fieldwork (as this has long been considered the best means to become versed in the social processes of a given community), many argue that a world of intensifying human relations has left traditional fieldwork approaches outmoded. In an effort to address this challenge, George Marcus (1995) outlined two strategies. The first argues for the use of archival data, as well as macro theory, to situate specific communities or individuals in larger socioeconomic processes. Ann Stoler’s Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (2002), as well as Fernando Coronil’s The Magical State: Nature, Money, and Modernity in Venezuela (1997) are prominent examples of this approach.

The second method involves moving out from single sites to conduct “multisited” ethnography in order to examine movements of ideas, peoples, and things. Carolyn Nordstrom’s Shadows of War: Violence, Power, and International Profiteering in the Twenty-First Century (2004) takes this as its task, using ethnographic methods to track the mobility of goods and money throughout largescale extralegal exchange systems fueling conflict, marginalization, and profiteering.

While definitions of globalization abound, the greatest differences in such definitions are typically a matter of emphasis. Modern-day political economic anthropologists, for example, clearly emphasize political and economic processes that structure and are structured by landscapes of human interaction. Like Wolf and Mintz, these anthropologists view the political economic approach as a necessary corrective to scholarship that historically turned interconnected people and places into distinctive and disconnected phenomena. A great number of medical anthropologists, for example, call for anthropologists to cast light on the historical and contemporary connections and disconnections within the capitalist world system that bring about human affliction. Both Paul Farmer and Nancy Scheper-Hughes are archetypes of this contemporary political economy of health approach. Paul Farmer’s “An Anthropology of Structural Violence” (2004) outlines the historically deep and geographically broad exploitive relations between Haiti and the United States that have predestined the deaths of Haiti’s impoverished to AIDS and tuberculosis. Nancy Scheper-Hughes’s “The Global Traffic in Human Organs” (2000) argues that economic globalization has facilitated the creation of an extensive market for the illicit harvest and trade of human body parts. Within this market, impoverished populations are targeted by brokers who, with the help of surgeons, turn high profits by selling these human organs and tissues to wealthier consumers in the global North.

Phenomena like these, political economists assert, are associated with the advent of late-modern capitalism— now commonly called “neoliberal globalization.” Neoliberal globalization refers to the predominate theory of free market capitalism, which these analysts argue continues to be the primary engine of globalization. The term neoliberalism itself underscores an important element of the political economic argument—that globalization is a human-made and ideologically driven set of processes.

The focus on neoliberalism is also one manner in which scholars have come to conceptualize how the contemporary moment is fundamentally different from the past. The most clearly articulated and influential starting point for many scholars of this school of thought is David Harvey, a Marxist geographer who in his significant work The Condition of Postmodernity (1989) argued that economic restructuring and associated social and political changes in Western economies in the early 1970s sparked a fundamental reorganization of global commerce that sped up the turnover times of capital. These changes were characterized, according to Harvey, by an increasing sense of spatial attenuation and temporal acceleration in human economic and social relations. Harvey refered to this sensation as time-space compression , which was brought on by the collapse of significant geographic and temporal barriers to commerce. This collapse was a byproduct of an economic experiment promoted during a crisis of capital accumulation and subsequent recession that existing Keynesian fiscal and monetary policies could do little to stop. The experiment involved the transition from the Fordist model of standardized commodity production and its related system of political and social regulation (the dominant mode of capitalism since the end of World War II) to the post-Fordist model of flexible accumulation. The increased velocity and reach of market transactions this new regime of accumulation prompted were realized through substantial innovations in transport and information technologies. Harvey’s 2005 book, A Brief History of Neoliberalism, traces the neoliberal influence behind this shift, arguing that the transition was a political project intended to reinvigorate elite class power and capital accumulation mechanisms.

Perhaps the most recent and representative anthropological effort to further develop this perspective is Jean and John Comaroff’s “Millenial Capitalism: First Thoughts on a Second Coming” (2000). The Comaroffs argue that neoliberal globalization at the turn of the millennium is a process that alienates capital from labor and marshals consumption as the primary shaper of social and economic phenomena like popular civil society discourses, occult economies and religious movements, and global youth cultures.

Much of the anthropological literature on neoliberalism thus far has focused less on the logic and mechanisms of its production and administration (though this is increasingly a field of study, as some anthropologists turn their eyes to understanding the inner workings of institutions like the WTO, IMF, and World Bank), and more on the impact of, and resistances to, neoliberal globalization. June Nash’s Mayan Visions: The Quest for Autonomy in an Age of Globalization (2001) is a representative ethnography of this focus, as is Jeffrey Juris’s Networking Futures: The Movements Against Corporate Globalization (2008).

A second approach to globalization, coming to prominence in the early 1990s, places greater emphasis on anthropology’s most common focus of attention: culture. (See Kearney, 1995, for an excellent summary of perspectives during the early 1990s.) Many proponents of this cultural approach, while acknowledging the world’s deep history of social interaction, tend to stress the fundamental newness of the present, going so far as to describe a new global era. One of these proponents, Arjun Appadurai, writes a radical reply to center-periphery models of political economy and proposes that any framework emphasizing order in the present globalizing world is deluded. Appadurai’s Modernity at Large (1996) understands the new global era as having been brought about by a complex and rapidly changing global cultural economy of exchange. The birth of this new era was facilitated by phenomena like media and migration, and both of these have served to reorganize nationstates and mobility on a global scale. Appadurai proposes that this chaotic world be grasped through five dimensions he calls scapes, or the landscapes across which cultural flows travel: ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, financescapes, and ideoscapes. These scapes overlap to constitute the particular lifeworlds of individuals across the world—each lifeworld being wholly individualized. In short, Appadurai posits a disorganized, centerless world in which no single view yields any grasp of larger processes—the ubiquitous flows of ideas, technologies, objects, and images constituting the global cultural economy are nonisomorphic and indeterminate.

A perspective similar to Appadurai’s, and borrowing from Ernesto Laclau, is that of Inda and Rosaldo (2008), who describe the contemporary world as “dislocated.” The use of this term is intended to emphasize that a plurality of centers serve as the hubs of cultural traffic across the globe. This perspective, as well as Appadurai’s, draws on ethnographic examinations of movements of commodities, people, and images and how these movements are perceived, translated, or appropriated by specific groups with whom they come into contact. At first glance, such movements suggest a significant imbalance in international exchange between the global North and South. Indeed, many Western, and indeed American, products like CocaCola, McDonald’s, and films are promptly visible in a variety of contexts far from Europe and North America. It is from these and other observations that analysts have often come to consider cultural imperialism as a force of homogenization that levels cultural difference throughout the world (see Tomlinson, 1991).

Yet cultural homogenization assumes that the essential meaning of a commodity or idea is consistent and universally legible—meaning that, for example, a Sri Lankan teenager will interpret an Indiana Jones film the same way a German teenager might. Subsequently, it could be inferred that the circulation of Western commodities or ideas will have predictable local effects. Anthropologists argue that there is little inevitability in such exchanges. Rather, a consumer applies her or his own cultural perspectives to the interpretation of objects and ideas, culturally tailoring them in the process. Laura Bohannan (1966) discovered as much in the 1960s when she observed a West African production, and subsequent interpretation, of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Liebes and Katz’s The Export of Meaning: Cross-Cultural Readings of Dallas (1990) is a modern retelling of Bohannan’s experience, demonstrating how the popular American television program Dallas was quite variously received among Moroccan Jews, Russian Jews, and Arabs.

The cultural tailoring described above has, in many instances, become a rather common element of cultural interaction across the world, especially in light of myriad technological advances and their ability to radically compress time and space (see Harvey, 1989). Due to this, many researchers have come to see culture as less stabilized and more diffuse, going so far as to claim that globalization has “deterritorialized” culture.

As argued earlier, many anthropologists have historically mapped culture onto territorially demarcated places, understanding distinctiveness as a product of social structures within supposedly locally bounded spheres. Said differently, place was the container of culture. (For example, the nation-state of China contained “Chinese culture.”) Gupta and Ferguson rebuke these analyses and call for anthropologists to examine how such conceptions produce difference and reinforce unequal relations of power. They further argue that cultural forms cannot be conceptualized as being fastened to specific geographic locations. Rather, the contemporary world is characterized by the freeing of culture from specific localities, and the notion of deterritorialization captures this process.

Deterritorialization also stresses the tension central to the commonly articulated local/global dichotomy. Indeed, as individuals and groups engage with and are shaped by processes that connect their local worlds with others, cultural forms can come to have an impact regardless of whether they originate in the global North or South. Thus, the significance of non-Western cultural forms circulating in contexts outside of their origins should not be underestimated. Examples of this are everywhere visible, from the ethnic cuisine consumed in the global North, to popularly imported and exported religious beliefs like Buddhism, to non-Western modes of dress like headscarves that have engendered much debate in some European countries. This is due to the fact that while cultural forms become unfastened from one locality, they simultaneously fasten themselves to new contexts and can become highly relevant. Anthropologists cite examples like these to suggest that cultural and even political-economic exchange between the North and South can be mutually significant, or “relational” in its character. Hannerz (1996), borrowing from linguistics, referred to this relationality as the “creolization” of the core and periphery.

Further examples of this exchange are human migration and trafficking, which have left many culturally uprooted peoples “reterritorialized” in foreign lands where they navigate new ways of living with aspects of their cultural identity they have carried with them. Analysts often refer to such individuals and groups as transnational, as they move across and between national boundaries. At times, the connections between these “old” and “new” communities are so strong that anthropologists have argued they should be understood as single communities scattered in multiple localities.

Ultimately, the arguments and examples outlined above suggest that the world be viewed as a complex global society composed of interweaving cultural, political, and economic processes and forms. This is not to suggest that globalization engenders a homogenous global population, but rather to recognize the untethered nature and intensified potential of interactions between populations. Anthropologists argue that only continued heterogeneity within this global society can be assumed.

Of course, the discipline has been careful not to assume that movements are experienced by all peoples, things, and ideas or that all experience movements in the same way.

Indeed, many have argued that such processes have left areas and peoples excluded and marginalized. David Graeber (2002) made the point that processes of economic globalization like the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have in fact tightened many national borders, and he cited numbers suggesting that since NAFTA’s inception in 1992, the number of guards along the border between the United States and Mexico has more than tripled. Moreover, anthropologists like Escobar (2001) have argued that too great a focus on the deterritorialization of culture can obscure processes of place making, as well as the fact that people continue to imagine and build cultural forms that are situated in specific localities.

As intimated earlier, the anthropological commitment to fieldwork has led many researchers to avoid nonempirical assumptions as to what globalization might be or what effects it might engender. Subsequently, the concept of globalization has been disputed by some anthropologists frustrated with its imprecise and assumptive nature. This view is summarized by Cooper (2005), who separates “global” from its affix “ization” to call attention to the term’s problematic insinuations.

The first of these pertains to the scale of globalization— namely, that it is singular and worldwide, that it is something that encompasses the earth. Cooper argues that empirical truths about the world do not reflect the notion of global interconnection. Indeed, vast stretches of the planet, most notably in sub-Saharan Africa, remain largely disconnected from the wider world. As Ferguson (2006) has noted, movements of commodities, images, and ideas tend to hop over these geographic expanses, rather than smoothly envelop them. Equally problematic, according to Cooper, is the fact that a process that is global is everywhere and immeasurable, and therefore of little analytic value.

Second, the affix suggests the “when” of globalization— that it is currently happening, that this is the “global era.” Cooper contends that one must be cautious in asserting that such mobilizations and exchanges are historically novel—or an original product of a contemporary global framework. Such an assertion ignores the fact that massive labor migrations (forced or otherwise) in the past engendered the diverse cultures with which we currently identify. In fact, Cooper has argued that movements of laborers in the 19th century were in fact more substantial than those of the present day. It is therefore more accurately stated that human mobility and interaction have been processes long defining cultures across the globe, though contemporary movements of people continue to create novel cultural dynamics and milieus. Similarly, Tsing (2000) has asserted that theories contending the absolute newness of a global era tend to obscure historical happenings that offer insight into both the past and present.

These analysts call attention to the fact that, due to its magnitude, globalization is a concept that must be imagined rather than directly experienced. Yet this is not to suggest that a singular system is out there—that it is simply a matter of lacking the proper tools to see it in its entirety. A metaphor commonly invoked to describe globalization imagines several blind men examining the extremities of an elephant. One man touches the trunk, another a tusk. Several stroke the elephant’s legs. Each man will argue that he knows what the elephant is, or how the elephant in its entirety appears. Yet due to the size of the elephant and the sensory limitations of the men, none has the ability to know it fully. The problem with this metaphor is that it assumes a singular entity—the elephant—or a coherent framework that one claims to know is there but cannot fully experience. The consensus among critical anthropologists like Cooper and Tsing disputes this, arguing that globalization is an analytic construct, not a coherent world-making system. Moreover, they argue that collecting the variety of exchanges shaping relationships in the world under a single moniker makes for an inadequate analytic category, for it fails to capture the specific mechanisms of interconnection and the histories in which they are embedded. This is a view that rejects a singular world-making system in favor of a pluralization and inconsistency of agendas, projects, and processes. These international projects may be grand in scale, but they are not uniformly consistent or all encompassing. They vary according to the terms of their creation as well as their sites of origin.

These anthropologists call for examining globalization from a critical distance, paying attention to the arguments and mechanisms by which theories of globalization are mobilized. One example of this would be to challenge the exclusively celebratory espousals of globalization—what is often referred to as the “globalist” perspective—that, through popular media information, attempt to influence ideas of wealth and mobility. The power in this information lies in its ability to reproduce a specific logic that many globalist pundits advance—that of globalization’s huge potentiality. This can be misleading, however, as the life of a farmer or laborer in the global South may be so socially and economically constrained as to prevent her from traveling to the closest major city, much less jet-set about the world.

Moreover, the critical distance approach is especially important in light of the fact that influential discourses defining globalization inform the decisions of the world’s powerbrokers, especially transnational governing bodies like the World Bank, IMF, and WTO, as well as powerful nations whose leaders read popular political pundits. It is important to emphasize here that talk about difference can move quickly about the world, mobilizing individuals and institutions to act upon it for the purposes of security, economic profit, stability, and other aspirations. In this sense, talk about globalization, when wielded by actors embedded in complex relations of power, can have very real effects in people’s everyday lives.

By way of example, a number of recent dialogues in North American academic and public circles have focused less on the homogenization of culture (or cultural imperialism) and more on cultural difference, while maintaining that a more or less singular global framework brings about foreseeable effects. This talk articulates a gray zone between globalization’s positive and negative consequences, sketching a context in which cultural heterogeneity and increasing global mobility create both opportunity and threat. These claims to know a singular global system can have powerful effects. On the one hand, recent national best sellers by popular political pundits hail globalization as a force that flattens the world, creating an even playing field for those “willing” to participate. They inform international policy at the World Economic Forum and chastise governments resisting privatization and deregulation of large industries. On the other hand, these works instill a sense of fear in the post–9/11 world, as many nations and groups are depicted as foils to global connection—their own development complicated by dated cultural beliefs and traditions that ultimately threaten to violently derail the future. Thus, while globalization has brought us closer to allies, it has also compressed the world in such a way as to make it more vulnerable to conflict and resistance. Ultimately, these are fears of difference in which cultural heterogeneity, rather than the worldwide “McDonaldization” of societies, is emphasized.

A number of anthropologists have felt compelled to respond to these conceptions of globalization. Besteman and Gusterson’s Why America’s Top Pundits Are Wrong: Anthropologists Talk Back (2005), for example, takes its inspiration from public anthropologists like Boas and Mead and wields an anthropological sensibility with ethnographic evidence to challenge the destructive myths of America’s most popular pundits writing about globalization. The volume’s chapters are written in clear and compelling language, and are thus geared toward a general audience.

Finally, some anthropologists have cast a critical eye on the theoretical underpinnings of anthropological approaches to globalization, calling attention to the problematic gendering of epistemologies attempting to capture large-scale social change. Freeman’s “Is Local: Global as Feminine: Masculine?” (2001) provocatively examines the implications of the partition of masculine macro theories of globalization (which largely ignore gender) and ethnographic approaches to globalization emphasizing locality and gender.

Globalization is a term that has, in many instances, come to replace the older and no less complex notion of “development.” In fact, Edelman and Haugerud (2005) have argued that globalization has replaced the term development as the new action word of contemporary international governance discourse. Not simply a term that describes an inevitable process that is shaping the modern world, globalization, when conflated with development, is a metapolicy guiding the way to social and economic well-being in the global South.

The replacement of development by globalization is also evident in South American contexts like Venezuela and Bolivia, where supposed antiglobalization social movements and nationalization policies have been viewed by many Northern countries and transnational organizations as detrimental to international peace and global economic stability. In contrast, these Northern governing bodies espouse state-led implementation of globalizationfriendly principles for the sake of individual nations’ prosperity, as well as prosperity for the world. Thus, it is by ultimately opening up borders and financially connecting to the wider world that nations soar themselves out of poverty and into the global marketplace, developing in the process.

The two most influential anthropological works on development, Ferguson’s The Anti-Politics Machine (1994) and Escobar’s Encountering Development (1994), challenge this widespread thinking. Ferguson argued that in fact such development schemes usually fail and in the process further embed countries in the exploitative systems that were intended to help them. Ferguson also faulted these schemes for overlooking the social and historical specificities of countries and favoring techomanagerial solutions that are generally applicable to all “developing” countries.

In his influential book, Escobar attempted to denaturalize “development” by situating it in the political aftermath of World War II, when, in 1949, President Harry Truman argued for “developed” nations of the world to systematically restructure the global South, reconfiguring the world in the image of “advanced” nations. Following

Walt Whitman Rostow and his work The Stages of Economic Growth (1960), many policymakers and social scientists in the years following Truman’s speech came to view development as the establishment of preconditions for the “take off ” from traditionality to modernity. Escobar examined how this language and categorization of development problems becomes the official knowledge of international development experts and how this expertise subsequently becomes unanchored to any political, cultural, or historical context. He ultimately argued that this categorization, or naming, of peoples and places as objects of development interventions has devastating material effects: Targeted “underdeveloped” communities are often left worse off than they were prior to the intervention, and in addition, increasingly reliant of foreign aid.

To what extent can it be said that recent transformations have changed how states govern and with what efficacy? Globalist claims have often declared the demise of the state with the dissolving of national borders and the rise of international governing institutions like the WTO, World Bank, and IMF. Yet, as Tsing (2000) noted, this idea assumes that nationstates have been historically consistent and omnipresent.

There is little doubt that the development of international law and institutions upholding it have changed the means by which many states govern their populations. However, proclamations of the global dissolving of nationstates are exaggerated, according to anthropologists. This does not mean that states have not changed at all. Indeed, contrary to the traditional doctrine of sovereignty, many states are now held accountable by international authorities and in many instances are forced to comply with their policies. The degree to which such states are actually constrained and reshaped by international institutions varies, of course, from context to context. (Merry’s 2006 overview of anthropology’s engagement with international law is instructive on the above points.) Thus, one could argue that the sovereignty of states in the present has been to a large degree reorganized, if not in many instances greatly circumscribed. Sharma and Gupta (2005), in their important volume The Anthropology of the State, argued that “sovereignty can no longer be seen as the sole purview or ‘right’ of the modern state but is, instead, partially disentangled from the nation-state and mapped onto supra-national and non-governmental organizations” (p. 7).

The shifting nature of governance and states at present comes to heavily bear on conceptions of citizenship within countries. Many anthropologists argue that globalization has reformulated many notions of and policies pertaining to citizenship. Ong (1999), for example, used the term flexible citizenship to grasp how individuals and groups deploy various strategies to evade, as well as profit from, various national regimes of citizenship. Ong argues that the elite, flexible Chinese citizens have discarded traditional notions of nationalism in favor of a “postnational ethos” that transcends national boundaries for the sake of participation in the global capitalist market.

When considering the various viewpoints outlined above, it is important to remember that anthropologists’ commitment to fieldwork and the empirical evidence it produces significantly informs their perception of the global. Said succinctly, where anthropologists work shapes their perspective on globalization. It is not surprising to find, then, that the most influential anthropologists working in sub-Saharan Africa talk of global disconnection, while many working in the metropolitan cities of India stress the interconnection brought about by a global cultural economy. Due to this, it should equally be stressed that every view of the global is always a view from somewhere. There is no perch from which an analyst can ascertain the world from an objective, comprehensive position.

Yet the contrasts in the above perspectives are highly positive in that they produce a creative tension that thwarts stagnation in favor of fresh approaches and directions for the study of globalization. One product of this tension has been an active emphasis on “studying up,” or turning a critical eye to national and international institutions and actors whose projects aim to influence social and economic change. The recent anthropological concentration on the predominate economic philosophy of the present—neoliberalism—is laudable in this regard. Important recent works—like Ong and Collier’s Global Assemblages (2005); Petryna, Lakoff, and Kleinman’s Global Pharmaceuticals (2006); and Fisher and Downey’s Frontiers of Capital (2006)—take states, transnational governing bodies like the World Bank and WTO, human rights NGOs, corporations, and even powerful individuals like the U.S. chairman of the Federal Reserve as objects of ethnographic analysis.

Furthermore, the means by which anthropologists go about examining these objects, as well as the way they write about them, is changing. The fact that anthropologists are increasingly turning their focus to the world’s powerbrokers means that they take the discourses and policies of these powerbrokers very seriously. This is all the more important because anthropologists tend to disagree with these discourses and policies and subsequently wish to dispute them. Yet in order to successfully dispute them, anthropologists must write for audiences outside of the discipline. Two works already mentioned, Why America’s Top Pundits Are Wrong and Global Shadows: Africa in the Neoliberal World Order, are prominent examples of this endeavor.

All told, the above discussion signals a much more general development in which anthropologists are increasingly seeking to bring their disciplinary perspective to bear on public discussions of globalization. Anthropology is one among many disciplines that can greatly contribute to this ongoing discussion.

Bibliography:

Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at large: Cultural dimensions of globalization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Besteman, C., & Gusterson, H. (2005). Why America’s top pundits are wrong: Anthropologists talk back. Berkeley: University of California Press.
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Cooper, F. (2005). Colonialism in question: Theory, knowledge, history. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Coronil, F. (1997). The magical state: Nature, money, and modernity in Venezuela. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Edelman, M., & Haugerud, A. (2005). The anthropology of development and globalization: From classical political economy to contemporary neoliberalism. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Escobar, A. (1994). Encountering development: The making and unmaking of the third world. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Escobar, A. (2001). Culture sits in places: Reflections on globalism and subaltern strategies of localization. Political Geography, 20 (2), 139–174.
Farmer, P. (2004). An anthropology of structural violence. Current Anthropology, 45 (3), 305–325.
Ferguson, J. (1994). The anti-politics machine: “Development,” depoliticization, and bureaucratic power in Lesotho. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Ferguson, J. (2006). Global shadows: Africa in the neoliberal world order. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Fisher, M., & Downey, G. (2006). Frontiers of capital: Ethnographic reflections on the new economy. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Frank, A. G. (1998). ReORIENT: Global economy in the Asian age. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Freeman, C. (2001). Is local : global as feminine : masculine? Rethinking the gender of globalization. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 26 (4), 1007–1037.
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Gupta, A., & Ferguson, J. (1992). Beyond “culture”: Space, identity, and the politics of difference. Cultural Anthropology, 7 (1), 6–23.
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Harvey, D. (2005). A brief history of neoliberalism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Inda, J. X., & Rosaldo, R. (Eds.). (2008). Introduction to the anthropology of globalization: A reader. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Juris, J. (2008). Networking futures: The movements against corporate globalization. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Kearney, M. (1995). The local and the global: the anthropology of globalization and transnationalism. Annual Review of Anthropology, 24, 547–565.
Laclau, E. (1990). New reflections on the revolution of our time. London: Verso.
Leach, E. (1954 ). Political systems of highland Burma: A study of Kachin social structure. London: Athlone Press.
Liebes, T., & Katz, E. (1990). The export of meaning: Crosscultural readings of Dallas. New York: Oxford University Press.
Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the western Pacific. London: Routledge.
Marcus, G. (1995). Ethnography in/of the world system: The emergence of multi-sited ethnography. Annual Review of Anthropology, 24, 95–117.
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Merry, S. E. (2006). Anthropology and international law. Annual Review of Anthropology, 36, 99–116.
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Term Paper on Globalization

Globalization is the process of the global political, cultural and economical integration. Today processes of globalization are very active, because the whole world is involved into the international trade and a country can not exist separately from the rest of the world, because the economics and politics of the world spread upon every country. The process of globalization has already begun in the 12th century, when the countries of Europe started trading and build political relations between one another. With the run of time more and more countries became involved in the process and now the whole world is the one global community. There are international corporations which open their branches all over the world conquering new and new markets, international banks which serve in every country crediting people all over the world and in such a way connect them.

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It is obvious that globalization is provoked by the development of the capitalism. When a country starts economical relations with other countries, it becomes involved into capitalism and as a result in the process of globalization. On one hand there are many advantages of this process, because a country can receive the resources and goods it does not possess, it can find politically friendly countries and form unions which can protect the country from any threat. On the other hand, globalization is a negative phenomenon which threats to deprive countries of independence: political, financial and cultural. The world can become a single grey mass without any diversity that is why the process of globalization should be carried out wisely.

Globalization is the urgent topic which is worth attention. If a student has chosen to investigate this problem, he should be careful and attentive to collect enough data for the research. It is important to research this topic from all possible side, from the point of view of history, economics, politics, culture, etc. A student should explain the term globalization professionally, point out its advantages and disadvantages and support his point of view with the reliable evidence. A student should summarize the topic reasonably providing the reader with the predictions concerning the process of globalization.

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The Morning

A 2024 vulnerability.

The Democrats are out of step with public opinion when it comes to immigration.

Three National Guard members stand next to a border fence at sunset. In the middle of the image are two light poles.

By David Leonhardt

I keep a running list of issues on which either the Republican Party or the Democratic Party is out of step with public opinion.

For Republicans, abortion now tops my list , followed by Donald Trump’s attitudes toward democracy . For Democrats, I think immigration policy has moved to the top of the list.

In a newsletter last week, I described the shift in the Democratic Party’s immigration policy over the past decade. Before Trump ran for president, Democrats tended to combine passionate support for many forms of immigration with a belief in strong border security. But Trump’s harsh anti-immigration stance pushed the party toward the opposite end of the spectrum.

Today, many Democratic politicians are willing to accept high levels of undocumented immigration and oppose enforcement measures that the party once favored. Some Democrats, especially on the left, argue that the government doesn’t even have the power to reduce migration much.

This shift has created political vulnerabilities for Democrats — because most Americans are closer to the party’s old position than to its new one. Today, I’ll walk through public opinion on the issue.

‘A serious problem’

The first thing to know is that views on immigration aren’t static. During Trump’s presidency, Americans became more favorable to immigration, evidently in reaction to Trump’s opposition to it. Consider this: By the end of his presidency, the number of Americans who favored increasing immigration exceeded the number who favored decreasing it for the first time in six decades of Gallup polling.

Should immigration be kept at its present level, increased or decreased?

60% of U.S. adults

present level

How serious a problem is illegal immigration in the U.S.?

75% of U.S. adults

Support for various border policies

More border agents

79% of registered voters

Deport immigrants who are here illegally

Fines for knowingly hiring unauthorized workers

Let employed immigrants without legal status apply for it

Use military to stop illegal immigration

Build a border wall

Fines for knowingly hiring

unauthorized workers

Let employed immigrants

without legal status apply for it

Who do you trust to do a better job on immigration?

All registered voters

BY RACE AND EDUCATION

college degree

no college degree

White, college degree

White, no college degree

Non-white, college degree

Non-white, no college degree

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Download 5-page Term Paper on "Impact of Globalization" (2024) … evaluate how economic globalization is affecting and influencing local cultures while also exploring why urban geographers are increasingly analyzing the world's cities for influences of…
A Term Paper on GLOBALIZATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA By
The term globalization has become a central issue in international economics since the second half of the 1980's. It can be defined as a historical process driven by; Technological factors such as the development of computers and the internet which reduces the distance between people in terms of both space and time.
Term Paper
This document is a term paper presented to a professor on the topic of globalization of education. It contains an introduction that discusses issues with the Philippine education system such as inadequate facilities, large class sizes, and graduates not having necessary employability skills. The statement of the problem notes that while the Department of Education is implementing a K-12 ...
Globalisation Term Paper
Globalisation term paper - Free download as Word Doc (.doc), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. This document discusses globalization and the role of trade unions in globalized countries. It defines globalization as the increasing integration of economies around the world through cross-border trade of goods and services, financial capital flows, and international ...
Term Paper Impact of Globalization
Writing a term paper has become more challenging in the era of globalization for three main reasons: 1) Globalization has increased expectations for term papers to incorporate global perspectives and diverse cultural views through more in-depth research. 2) Increased access to online information has led to greater competition among students but also higher expectations from professors for ...
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TERM Paper 1 globalization: its impact to philippine education table of contents introduction body globalization in the philippines 13 education in the
Globalization (Term Paper)
Globalization (Term Paper) Decent Essays 3644 Words 15 Pages Open Document Introduction and stand point Globalization means the worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, communications and ideas in one global marketplace. It refers to economic globalization.
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Term Paper on Globalization
Term Paper on Globalization December 24, 2012 0 Comments Globalization Term Paper: The concept of globalization is essential to understand the patterns of economic, political and cultural change in the contemporary world. Introduction Globalization is known as the name of the social, economic and political processes taking place in our world.
Globalization Term Paper
Globalization Term Paper - Free download as Word Doc (.doc / .docx), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. This document discusses the effects of globalization on business management in developed countries. It outlines some of the positive effects, including increased opportunities for international trade, foreign investment, technology transfer, competition, and cultural ...
Globalization
Globalization - Term Paper. Summary statements. Globalization is an initiative that has focused on empowering people from different nationalities to engage in regional economics. Automated responses during business to business (B2B) agreements are an example of globalization initiative. The organization creates a culture of competition via ...
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Term Paper of Introduction to International Relations Theory. This term paper is going to deal with the concept of globalization and inequality. The terms 'globalization' and 'inequality' are going to be well defined and their minor relation identified. After that, the relation of the two terms with capitalism in the liberation theory ...
Globalization Research Paper
Globalization Research Paper. This sample globalization research paper features: 6400 words (approx. 20 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 45 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced ...
Term Paper Globalization
Term Paper Globalization - Free download as PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. Writing a thesis on globalization presents several challenges. It requires extensive research on the vast and evolving topic of globalization from various disciplinary perspectives. It is also difficult to choose a specific topic of focus and to integrate different perspectives into a ...
Term Paper on Globalization
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Where Democrats and Voters Differ on Immigration
The charges of genocide against Israel are a moral obscenity that dilute the term's power, Bret Stephens writes. Popular support for Taiwanese democracy in both the U.S. and Taiwan is risking a ...
Term Paper
This document discusses various aspects of globalization including economic, social, cultural, and technological dynamics that connect people and societies worldwide. It describes how globalization has increased interdependence between economies and cultures through technology, trade, capital flows, labor mobility, and information sharing. Specific topics covered include the integration of ...

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Globalization’ Economic and Political Dimensions Term Paper

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A Term Paper on GLOBALIZATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA By UMAR AHMAD ABDULLAHI (20124091

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