multi store model of memory essay

Multi-Store Memory Model: Atkinson and Shiffrin

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What is the Multi-Store Model?

• The multi-store model is an explanation of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which assumes there are three unitary (separate) memory stores, and that information is transferred between these stores in a linear sequence.
• The three main stores are the sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
• Each of the memory stores differs in the way information is processed (encoding), how much information can be stored (capacity), and for how long (duration).
• Information passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been described as an information processing model (like a computer) with an input, process and output.
• Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory , which stores a fleeting impression of sensory stimuli. If attended to this information enters the STM and if the information is given meaning (elaborative rehearsal) it is passed on to the LTM

The multi-store model of memory (also known as the modal model) was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) and is a structural model. They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

The Memory Stores

Each store is a unitary structure and has its own characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity and duration.

Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory. There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed):

1. visual (picture),

2. acoustic (sound),

3. semantic (meaning).

Capacity concerns how much information can be stored.

Duration refers to the period of time information can last in the memory stores.

Sensory Memory

• Duration: ¼ to ½ second

• Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity)

• Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense)

The sensory stores are constantly receiving information but most of this receives no attention and remains in the sensory register for a very brief period.

In the sensory memory store , information arrives from the 5 senses such as sight (visual information), sounds and touch. The sensory memory store has a large capacity but a very brief duration, it can encode information from any of the senses and most of the information is lost through decay.

Attention is the first step in remembering something, if a person’s attention is focused on one of the sensory stores then the data is transferred to STM.

Short Term Memory

• Duration: 0-18 seconds

• Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items

• Encoding: mainly auditory

The short-term memory store has a duration of up to 30 seconds, has a capacity of 7+/-2 chunks and mainly encodes information acoustically. Information is lost through displacement or decay.

Maintenance rehearsal is the process of verbally or mentally repeating information, which allows the duration of short-term memory to be extended beyond 30 seconds. An example of maintenance rehearsal would be remembering a phone number only long enough to make the phone call.

This type of rehearsal usually involves repeating information without thinking about its meaning or connecting it to other information.

Continual rehearsal “regenerates” or “renews” the information in the memory trace, thus making it a stronger memory when transferred to the Long Term store.

If maintenance rehearsal (repetition) does not occur, then information is forgotten, and lost from short term memory through the processes of displacement or decay.

Long Term Memory

• Duration: Unlimited

• Capacity: Unlimited

• Encoding: Mainly Semantic (but can be visual and auditory)

Long-term memory store has unlimited capacity and duration and encodes information semantically. Information can be recalled from LTM back into the STM when it is needed.

If the information is given meaning (elaborative rehearsal) it is passed on to the LTM.

Elaborative rehearsal involves the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in long-term memory. For example,

you could learn the lines in a play by relating the dialogue and behavior of your character to similar personal experiences you remember.

Elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance rehearsal for remembering new information as it helps to ensure that information is encoded well. It is a deeper level of information-processing.

Key Studies

Glanzer and Cunitz showed that when participants are presented with a list of words, they tend to remember the first few and last few words and are more likely to forget those in the middle of the list, i.e. the serial position effect.

This supports the existence of separate LTM and STM stores because they observed a primacy and recency effect.

Words early on in the list were put into long term memory (primacy effect) because the person has time to rehearse the word, and words from the end went into short term memory (recency effect).

Other compelling evidence to support this distinction between STM and LTM is the case of KF (Shallice & Warrington, 1977) who had been in a motorcycle crash where he had sustained brain damage.

His LTM seemed to be unaffected but he was only able to recall the last bit of information he had heard in his STM.

Critical Evaluation

One strength of the multistore model is that is gives us a good understanding of the structure and process of the STM. This is good because this allows researchers to expand on this model.

This means researchers can do experiments to improve on this model and make it more valid and they can prove what the stores actually do. Therefore, the model is influential as it has generated a lot of research into memory.

Many memory studies provide evidence to support the distinction between STM and LTM (in terms of encoding, duration and capacity). The model can account for primacy & recency effects .

The case of HM also supports the MSM as he was unable to encode new long-term memories after surgery during which his hippocampus was removed but his STM was unaffected.

He has remembered little of personal (death of mother and father) or public events (Watergate, Vietnam War) that have occurred over the last 45 years. However his short-term memory remains intact.This supports the view that the LTM and the STM are two separate stores.

The model is oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that both short-term and long-term memory each operate in a single, uniform fashion.  We now know is this not the case.

It has now become apparent that both short-term and long-term memory are more complicated that previously thought.  For example, the Working Model of Memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) showed that short term memory is more than just one simple unitary store and comprises different components (e.g. central executive, Visuospatial etc.).

In the case of long-term memory, it is unlikely that different kinds of knowledge, such as remembering how to play a computer game, the rules of subtraction and remembering what we did yesterday are all stored within a single, long-term memory store.

Indeed different types of long-term memory have been identified, namely episodic (memories of events), procedural (knowledge of how to do things) and semantic (general knowledge).

Rehearsal is considered a too simple explanation to account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM. For instance, the model ignores factors such as motivation, effect and strategy (e.g. mnemonics) which underpin learning.

Also, rehearsal is not essential to transfer information into LTM. For example, why are we able to recall information which we did not rehearse (e.g. swimming) yet unable to recall information which we have rehearsed (e.g. reading your notes while revising).

Therefore, the role of rehearsal as a means of transferring from STM to LTM is much less important than Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) claimed in their model.

The models main emphasis was on structure and tends to neglect the process elements of memory (e.g. it only focuses on attention and maintenance rehearsal). For example, elaboration rehearsal leads to recall of information than just maintenance rehearsal.

Elaboration rehearsal involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall. For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge. These limitations are dealt with by the levels of processing model (Craik, & Lockhart, 1972).

Note: although rehearsal was initially described by Atkinson and Shiffrin as maintenance rehearsal (repetition of information), Shiffrin later suggested that rehearsal could be elaborative (Raaijmakers, & Shiffrin, 2003).

The multi store model has been criticized for being a passive/one way/linear model.

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Chapter: Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In Spence, K. W., & Spence, J. T. The psychology of learning and motivation (Volume 2). New York: Academic Press. pp. 89–195.

Baddeley, A .D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). New York: Academic Press.

Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal behavior, 11, 671-684.

Raaijmakers, J.G.W. & Shiffrin, R.M. (2003). Models versus descriptions: Real differences and langiage differences . behavioral and Brain Sciences , 26, 753.

Shallice, T., & Warrington, E. K. (1977). Auditory-verbal short-term memory impairment and conduction aphasia. Brain and Language, 4(4) , 479-491.

The Multi-Store Model Of Memory

March 5, 2021 - paper 1 introductory topics in psychology | memory.

Before we focus on the key characteristics of the Multi-Store Model of Memory it is important to develop an understanding of the definition of ‘memory.’

AO1, Definition of ‘Memory’: The process by which we retain information about events that have happened in the past. This includes fleeting (short term) memories as well as memories that last for longer (long term). Research has identified a number of key differences between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) in terms of the way these types of memory work.

A model of memory is a theory of how the memory system operates, the various parts that make up the memory system and how the parts work together. The Multi-Store Model of Memory as developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin describes the key characteristics of memory including; the sensory store, short term memory store and long term memory store.

The most well-known and influential model of memory was put forward by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. They proposed that human memory involved:

(1)  Coding:  The way that information is represented in the memory store (e.g., by sound [auditory], meaning [semantic] or image [visual]).

(3)  Capacity:  The amount of information that can be held in the memory store at any one time.

(1) Point:  Further research from brain scanning techniques has supported the Multi-Store Memory model and the idea of separate memory stores (i.e. a short term memory store and a long term memory store.  Evidence: Squire et al (1992)  used brain-scanning techniques and found that STM can be associated with activity in the prefrontal cortex and that LTM can be associated with activity in the hippocampus.  Evaluation: This is a strength because  it provides biological evidence that the different types of memory are processed by different parts of the brain and that the memory stores are distinct as the multi-store model suggests.

Weaknesses:

(3) Point:  Case studies of brain damaged patients criticise the MSM.  Evidence:  The case of KF demonstrated that his deficit in STM was for verbal information and that the STM for visual material was normal.  Evaluation: This is a weakness because  it demonstrated that it is possible to damage only part of the STM going against the MSM idea that STM is unitary (suggesting that there may be more than one type of STM).

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Multi-Store Model of Memory

Last updated 22 Mar 2021

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Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) developed the Multi-Store Model of memory (MSM), which describes flow between three permanent storage systems of memory: the sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

The SR is where information from the senses is stored, but only for a duration of approximately half a second before it is forgotten. It is modality-specific, i.e. whichever sense is registered will match the way it is consequently held (for instance, a taste held as a taste).

However, if attended to, sensory information moves into the STM for temporary storage, which will be encoded visually (as an image), acoustically (as a sound) or, less often, semantically (through its meaning). STM is thought to have a capacity of 5-9 items and duration of approximately 30 seconds. This capacity can be increased through ‘chunking’ (converting a string of items into a number of larger ‘chunks’, e.g. number 343565787 to 343 565 787).

Rehearsing information via the rehearsal loop helps to retain information in the STM, and consolidate it to LTM, which is predominantly encoded semantically. Information can be stored and retrieved for up to any duration, and equally has a seemingly unlimited capacity.

Evaluation of the MSM

• There is a large base of research that supports the idea of distinct STM and LTM systems (e.g. brain-damaged case study patient KF’s STM was impaired following a motorcycle accident, but his LTM remained intact).
• It makes sense that memories in the LTM are encoded semantically – i.e. you might recall the general message put across in a political speech, rather than all of the words as they were heard.
• The MSM was a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research and consequently other influential models, such as the Working Memory Model.

Weaknesses:

• Some research into STM duration has low ecological validity, as the stimuli participants were asked to remember bear little resemblance to items learned in real life, e.g. Peterson and Peterson (1959) used nonsense trigrams such as ‘XQF’ to investigate STM duration.
• The model is arguably over-simplified, as evidence suggests that there are multiple short and long-term memory stores, e.g. ‘LTM’ can be split into Episodic, Procedural and Semantic memory.
• It does not make much sense to think of procedural memory (a type of LTM) as being encoded semantically, i.e. knowing how to ride a bike through its meaning.
• It is only assumed that LTM has an unlimited capacity, as research has been unable to measure this accurately.
• Multi-Store Model
• Short-Term Memory
• Long-Term Memory
• Sensory Register
• Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of Memory (Multi-Store Model)

Are you a psychology student wanting help putting the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory into your long-term memory? You've came to the right place! In this article, my goal is to provide you with everything there is to know about the Multi-Store model of memory.

What Is the Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of Memory? 

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Model of Memory consists of three locations where we store memories: our sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Learning about this memory model will help you understand how your brain works to create memories and how you can ensure that the things you need to remember to end up in your long-term memory.

Curious Cases of Short-Term and Long-Term Memory

Memory is tricky. It's something that we don't always think about until our memory starts to fail or we interact with someone who has a poor memory. Did you ever watch the romantic comedy 50 First Dates? In the movie, Drew Barrymore plays a woman who has lost her short-term memory loss due to a car accident that caused a TBI. Every morning, Barrymore's character “resets” and thinks that she is waking up to the day of the accident. This is a case of anterograde amnesia, and it does reflect the lives of people living with this condition. 

(Interested in learning about people with significant cases of amnesia? Read about Clive Wearing and others here .) 

For many people, characters like this first teach you about short-term vs. long-term memory. But are these actual parts of your brain? Can you lose short-term memory loss and end up stuck like Drew Barrymore’s character in 50 First Dates? 

These are some of the questions that Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin were asking as they conducted experiments in memory storage. (Although they were in the field at least 30 years before 50 First Dates came out.)

Who Are Atkinson and Shiffrin? 

Each of these psychologists has a prestigious background in psychology and other sciences. Richard Atkinson, for example, received his Ph.D. in experimental psychology and mathematics at Indiana University Bloomington. Shortly after, he joined the staff at Stanford University, where he met Richard Shriffin. In 1968, Shiffrin was just finishing up his Ph.D. in Mathematical Psychology. The two created the Multi-Store Model of Memory that year. (You can really see their math backgrounds in the model!) 

After creating this model of memory, both men went on to have outstanding careers. Richard Atkinson went on to serve as the President of the National Science Foundation. Shiffrin continued to teach at Stanford and Indiana University Bloomington. He extended the multi-share model of memory to the Search of Associative Memory (SAM) model and later the Retrieving Effectively From Memory (REM) model. 

Their model of memory has undergone scrutiny but remains a significant theory of memory storage and retrieval. 

About the Three Elements in Atkinson and Shiffrin's Multi-Store Model of Memory 

1) Sensory Memory

Duration : Up to 4 seconds

Capacity : Limited to the information from sensory organs

Encoding : Different stores for each sense

Take a moment to look at what is around you. Listen to the sound of the birds chirping outside or any other background noises. Smell and taste whatever is present. Feel your hands on your desk or your feet on the floor. This is a lot of information to take in! To the brain, every smell, taste, sight, etc. is like a single data point. 

All of the data you just collected is sensory input.

Sensory input travels through the auditory system, visual system, etc. into our sensory memory. Everything we hear, touch, feel, see, smell, taste - it may all end up in our long-term memory at some point. But most of it will be released and forgotten here. Our sensory memories can hold a lot of information, but only for a very short period of time. How short? It depends on which sense we used to gather that information.

Most information, including sight information, stays in sensory memory  for up to half a second .

Further studies on echoic memory, or the collection of things that we hear, can last for up to four seconds .

Once that time has passed, the most important data (and the data you gave your attention to) has moved to short-term memory storage.

When we attend to information, then our brain knows to pop it into short-term memory storage. This is where attention is important.

I told you to take into account your sight, the sounds you heard, etc. You have told yourself that the information in this video is important enough to remember. That’s all it takes for the memory to head farther along into your memory.

2) Short-Term Memory Storage (STM)

Duration: Up to 18 seconds, can be longer with rehearsal

Capacity: The magic number of 7 plus or minus 2.

Encoding: Mostly auditory memory (You remember by repeating in your head)

Now we’ve started to narrow down the information to what is important. But short-term memory storage isn’t as large as sensory memory storage. Our short-term memory can only handle seven items of information at once. (Give or take one or two things.)

If you are given a list of things to remember, maybe a list of names or items to buy at the store, the first and the last items on the list are going to stick out the strongest in your short-term memory. After you read the list to yourself, you are most likely to recall those last few items first.

The primacy effect is the idea that the first things on a list are more likely to be remembered than the middle items.

The idea that the last items on a list are easily remembered is called the ​ recency effect .

The serial position effect is a theory that serves as an umbrella theory for both of these effects.

Repetition and Coding Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory

But items only stay in short-term memory for up to around 18 seconds. The stuff that is important makes its way to long-term storage. The stuff that isn’t important is dropped. You might be asking, how can I guarantee that the items in my short-term memory make it to my long-term memory?

The answer is simple: repetition . At least, that's what Atkinson and Shiffrin believed. Repeat the items you need to remember over and over again. If you are trying to remember a list of things in no particular order, switch up the order and repeat them to yourself again and again. Say things out loud as you write them down if you have to.

Atkinson and Shiffrin called this a "rehearsal loop". Studying is a great form of this and allows students to move short-term memory into long-term memory.

They also note that repetition is one of two ways to store memories, but repetition is mentioned more in criticisms of their work. Atkinson and Shiffrin also mention "coding" as a way to convert short-term to long-term memories.

3) Long-Term Memory

Duration: Unlimited

Capacity: Unlimited

Encoding: Semantic (We remember the meaning of information)

The things that our brain has considered to be most important, most likely things we have repeated to ourselves over and over again, head to our long-term memory storage.

We can store an unlimited amount of information in long-term memory, for an unlimited amount of time. Think back to your earliest memory. It certainly stayed in your memory for longer than 18 seconds!

There are many different ways to increase the likelihood of remembering something, as well as testing long term memory, but cognitive psychologists still don't really understand how the entire process takes place. All we can do is guess and make models with hypotheses right now.

This Is a Simplistic Model

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model is an easy one to remember, but it doesn’t tell the entire story of how people remember things. 

Not all information, whether it appears important at the time or not, ends up in short-term memory and stays in the long-term memory. Of course, this model also fails to address how we lose some of our memories.

Here’s the biggest takeaway from this lesson: our short-term and sensory memories don’t last long. Our short-term memory storage isn’t unlimited. If you are determined to remember something, give it a priority. Repeat it. Write it down and audibly repeat it again.

Keep this model stored in your long-term memory, but don’t neglect the findings that other studies have revealed since Atkinson and Shiffrin.

Criticisms and Responses to Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of Memory 

Working memory .

One criticism about Atkinson and Shiffrin's three-part model has to do with the space between sensory memory and short-term memory. In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch came up with a Working Model of Memory that expands upon the simplistic short-term memory storage process and explains how we hold smaller pieces of information in our brain. 

Take the idea of memorizing a phone number. We take in the sound or sight of 7-10 digits, sing it to ourselves a few times, and then write it down or type it out or do what we need to do with that phone number. Once that process is done, we focus our attention on other things. The memory of the phone number may be gone once we shift our focus. How do we explain that? Short-term memory? Sensory memory? Where does that phone number go while we're working with it? 

Baddeley and Hitch say "working memory." 

Levels of Processing Model 

There are people who can remember things without a need for repetition. Have you ever remembered something that happened to you years ago, that appears totally random? Or do you experience something once and know you'll remember it forever, without intentionally trying to store it in your long-term memory? These questions encouraged many psychologists to look beyond Atkinson and Shiffrin's idea of repetition as a memory storage tool. 

Additional studies show how you take a more active role in storing information long term aside from general repetition. If you are interested in learning more about this, look up Craik and Tulving’s work on the Levels of Processing Model from the 1970s. The levels-of-processing model suggests that memories "encoded" in a more semantic process are more likely to make their way into long-term memory.

Tulving went further to categorize different types of long-term memories. Episodic, procedural, and semantic memories are all stored differently. Various cases of memory loss, in which people can remember how to brush their teeth but not their father's birthday, show how possible it is that these memories are stored in different places. 

Theories of Memory Continue to Evolve 

The Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of Memory is a significant, but just one theory that attempts to explain the weird and wacky processes of storing and recalling memories. Their model isn't the end-all, be-all of memory models, but it provides some great groundwork for more complicated theories that follow.

Related posts:

• Memory (Types + Models + Overview)
• Sensory Memory (Definition + Examples)

Short Term Memory

• Declarative Memory (Definition + Examples)

Long Term Memory

Reference this article:

About The Author

Memory Topics:

Free Memory Test

Serial Position Effect

Primacy Effect

Recency Effect

Sensory Memory

Working Memory

Episodic Memory

Semantic Memory

False Memories

Photographic Memory

Memory Tricks

Memory Palace

Rote Memorization

Atkinson and Shiffrin Model

Proactive Interference

Retroactive Interference

State Dependent Memory

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Multi-Store Model of Memory

The multi-store model of memory.

The multi-store model of memory (also known as the modal model) was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and was one of the first models of memory.

Memory stages

• For a memory to go into storage (i.e. long-term memory), it has to pass through three distinct stages: the sensory register, short-term memory, and finally long-term memory.
• These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.
• Their model of human memory is called Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S). It is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information.

Memory variables

• Coding is the process of changing information from the environment to store it in memory.
• Capacity is the amount of information that can be stored.
• Duration is the time period that information is held in the memory stores.

Sensory Register

The sensory register store is constantly getting information from all of our senses about the world around us. The information is quickly discarded or transferred to short-term memory.

Sensory register storage

• In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory register - storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes.

• It is very brief storage - up to a couple of seconds.
• We are constantly bombarded with sensory information.
• We cannot absorb all of it, or even most of it. Most of it has no impact on our lives.

What is stored?

• Sensory information can be sights, sounds, smells, and even textures.
• If we do not view the information as valuable information, we discard it, and its duration will be very short.
• If we view something as valuable, the information will move into our short-term memory system.

• Duration: very quick (0.5 seconds).
• Capacity: large (all sensory experience that we encounter in our day to day life).
• Coding: specific to each sense.

Example study

• One study of the sensory register researched the significance of valuable information on short-term memory storage.
• J. R. Stroop discovered a memory phenomenon in the 1930s: you will name a colour more easily if it appears printed in that colour, which is called the Stroop effect.
• In other words, the word “red” that is coloured red will be named more quickly, than any other word that is coloured red.

1 Social Influence

1.1 Social Influence

1.1.1 Conformity

1.1.2 Asch (1951)

1.1.3 Sherif (1935)

1.1.4 Conformity to Social Roles

1.1.5 BBC Prison Study

1.1.6 End of Topic Test - Conformity

1.1.7 Obedience

1.1.8 Analysing Milgram's Experiment

1.1.9 Agentic State & Legitimate Authority

1.1.10 Variables of Obedience

1.1.11 Resistance to Social Influence

1.1.12 Minority Influence & Social Change

1.1.13 Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory

1.1.14 End of Topic Test - Social Influences

1.1.15 Exam-Style Question - Conformity

1.1.16 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence

2.1.1 Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.2 Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory

2.1.3 Long-Term Memory

2.1.4 Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.5 Duration Studies

2.1.6 Capacity Studies

2.1.7 Coding Studies

2.1.8 The Working Memory Model

2.1.9 The Working Memory Model 2

2.1.10 Support for the Working Memory Model

2.1.11 Explanations for Forgetting

2.1.12 Studies on Interference

2.1.13 Cue-Dependent Forgetting

2.1.14 Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer

2.1.15 Eye Witness Testimony Loftus

2.1.16 Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion

2.1.17 Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions

2.1.18 Cognitive Interview

2.1.19 Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher

2.1.20 End of Topic Test - Memory

2.1.21 Exam-Style Question - Memory

2.1.22 A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory

3 Attachment

3.1 Attachment

3.1.1 Caregiver-Infant Interaction

3.1.2 Condon & Sander (1974)

3.1.3 Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

3.1.4 Multiple Attachments

3.1.5 Studies on the Role of the Father

3.1.6 Animal Studies of Attachment

3.1.7 Explanations of Attachment

3.1.8 Attachment Types - Strange Situation

3.1.9 Cultural Differences in Attachment

3.1.10 Disruption of Attachment

3.1.11 Disruption of Attachment - Privation

3.1.12 Overcoming the Effects of Disruption

3.1.13 The Effects of Institutionalisation

3.1.14 Early Attachment

3.1.15 Critical Period of Attachment

3.1.16 End of Topic Test - Attachment

3.1.17 Exam-Style Question - Attachment

3.1.18 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment

4 Psychopathology

4.1 Psychopathology

4.1.1 Definitions of Abnormality

4.1.2 Definitions of Abnormality 2

4.1.3 Phobias, Depression & OCD

4.1.4 Phobias: Behavioural Approach

4.1.5 Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias

4.1.6 Depression: Cognitive Approach

4.1.7 OCD: Biological Approach

4.1.8 Evidence for the Biological Approach

4.1.9 End of Topic Test - Psychopathy

4.1.10 Exam-Style Question - Phobias

4.1.11 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology

5 Approaches in Psychology

5.1 Approaches in Psychology

5.1.1 Psychology as a Science

5.1.2 Origins of Psychology

5.1.3 Reductionism & Problems with Introspection

5.1.4 The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning

5.1.5 Pavlov's Experiment

5.1.6 Little Albert Study

5.1.7 The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning

5.1.8 Social Learning Theory

5.1.9 The Cognitive Approach 1

5.1.10 The Cognitive Approach 2

5.1.11 The Biological Approach

5.1.12 Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies

5.1.13 Brain Scanning

5.1.14 Structure of Personality & Little Hans

5.1.15 The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)

5.1.16 Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)

5.1.17 Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)

5.1.18 Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)

5.1.19 End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology

5.1.20 Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology

5.2 Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)

5.2.1 Psychodynamic Approach

5.2.2 Cognitive Approach

5.2.3 Biological Approach

5.2.4 Behavioural Approach

5.2.5 End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches

6 Biopsychology

6.1 Biopsychology

6.1.1 Nervous System Divisions

6.1.2 Neuron Structure & Function

6.1.3 Neurotransmitters

6.1.4 Endocrine System Function

6.1.5 Fight or Flight Response

6.1.6 The Brain (A2 only)

6.1.7 Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)

6.1.8 Studying the Brain (A2 only)

6.1.9 CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations

6.1.10 Biological Rhythms (A2 only)

6.1.11 Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)

6.1.12 End of Topic Test - Biopsychology

6.1.13 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology

7 Research Methods

7.1 Research Methods

7.1.1 Experimental Method

7.1.2 Observational Techniques

7.1.3 Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation

7.1.4 Self-Report Techniques

7.1.5 Correlations

7.1.6 Exam-Style Question - Research Methods

7.1.7 End of Topic Test - Research Methods

7.2 Scientific Processes

7.2.1 Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling

7.2.2 Pilot Studies & Design

7.2.3 Questionnaires

7.2.4 Variables & Control

7.2.5 Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects

7.2.6 Ethics

7.2.7 Limitations of Ethical Guidelines

7.2.8 Consent & Protection from Harm Studies

7.2.9 Peer Review & The Economy

7.2.10 Validity (A2 only)

7.2.11 Reliability (A2 only)

7.2.12 Features of Science (A2 only)

7.2.13 Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)

7.2.14 Scientific Report (A2 only)

7.2.15 Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)

7.2.16 End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes

7.3 Data Handling & Analysis

7.3.1 Types of Data

7.3.2 Descriptive Statistics

7.3.3 Correlation

7.3.4 Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics

7.3.5 Presentation & Display of Data

7.3.6 Levels of Measurement (A2 only)

7.3.7 Content Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.8 Case Studies (A2 only)

7.3.9 Thematic Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.10 End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis

7.4 Inferential Testing

7.4.1 Introduction to Inferential Testing

7.4.2 Sign Test

7.4.3 Piaget Conservation Experiment

7.4.4 Non-Parametric Tests

8 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1.1 Culture Bias

8.1.2 Sub-Culture Bias

8.1.3 Gender Bias

8.1.4 Ethnocentrism

8.1.5 Cross Cultural Research

8.1.6 Free Will & Determinism

8.1.7 Comparison of Free Will & Determinism

8.1.8 Reductionism & Holism

8.1.9 Reductionist & Holistic Approaches

8.1.10 Nature-Nurture Debate

8.1.11 Interactionist Approach

8.1.12 Nature-Nurture Methods

8.1.13 Nature-Nurture Approaches

8.1.14 Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

8.1.15 Socially Sensitive Research

8.1.16 End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates

9 Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)

9.1 Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)

9.1.1 Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour

9.1.2 Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection

9.1.3 Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour

9.1.4 Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure

9.1.5 Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory

9.1.6 Self Disclosure in Computer Communication

9.1.7 Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes

9.1.8 Matching Hypothesis Studies

9.1.9 Factors Affecting Physical Attraction

9.1.10 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1

9.1.11 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2

9.1.12 Evaluation of Filter Theory

9.1.13 End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships

9.2 Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)

9.2.1 Social Exchange Theory

9.2.2 Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory

9.2.3 Equity Theory

9.2.4 Evaluation of Equity Theory

9.2.5 Rusbult’s Investment Model

9.2.6 Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model

9.2.7 Relationship Breakdown

9.2.8 Studies on Relationship Breakdown

9.2.9 Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown

9.2.10 End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships

9.3 Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)

9.3.1 Virtual Relationships in Social Media

9.3.2 Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal

9.3.3 Parasocial Relationships

9.3.4 Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships

9.3.5 Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories

9.3.6 End of Topic Test - Virtual & Parasocial Realtions

10 Option 1: Gender (A2 only)

10.1 Gender (A2 only)

10.1.1 Sex, Gender & Androgyny

10.1.2 Gender Identity Disorder

10.1.3 Biological & Social Explanations of GID

10.1.4 Biological Influences on Gender

10.1.5 Effects of Hormones on Gender

10.1.6 End of Topic Test - Gender 1

10.1.7 Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy

10.1.8 Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory

10.1.9 Gender Schema Theory

10.1.10 Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1

10.1.11 Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2

10.1.12 Social Approach to Gender Development

10.1.13 Criticisms of Social Theory

10.1.14 End of Topic Test - Gender 2

10.1.15 Media Influence on Gender Development

10.1.16 Cross Cultural Research

10.1.17 Childcare & Gender Roles

10.1.18 End of Topic Test - Gender 3

11 Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1 Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1

11.1.2 Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2

11.1.3 Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration

11.1.4 Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)

11.1.5 Conservation & Class Inclusion

11.1.6 Evaluation of Piaget

11.1.7 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1

11.1.8 Vygotsky

11.1.9 Evaluation of Vygotsky

11.1.10 Baillargeon

11.1.11 Baillargeon's studies

11.1.12 Evaluation of Baillargeon

11.1.13 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2

11.1.14 Sense of Self & Theory of Mind

11.1.15 Baron-Cohen Studies

11.1.16 Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking

11.1.17 Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.18 Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.19 Important Issues in Social Neuroscience

11.1.20 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3

11.1.21 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development

12 Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)

12.1 Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)

12.1.1 Classification & Diagnosis

12.1.2 Reliability & Validity of Diagnosis

12.1.3 Gender & Cultural Bias

12.1.4 Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)

12.1.5 End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Diagnosis

12.2 Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)

12.2.1 Family-Based Psychological Explanations

12.2.2 Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations

12.2.3 Cognitive Explanations

12.2.4 Drug Therapies

12.2.5 Evaluation of Drug Therapies

12.2.6 Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia

12.2.7 Dopamine Hypothesis

12.2.8 End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1

12.2.9 Psychological Therapies 1

12.2.10 Psychological Therapies 2

12.2.11 Evaluation of Psychological Therapies

12.2.12 Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model

12.2.13 Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment

12.2.14 Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach

12.2.15 End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2

13 Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1 Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1.1 Explanations for Food Preferences

13.1.2 Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)

13.1.3 Control of Eating Behaviours

13.1.4 Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin

13.1.5 Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa

13.1.6 Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory

13.1.7 Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory

13.1.8 Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory

13.1.9 Biological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.10 Biological Explanations: Studies

13.1.11 Psychological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.12 Psychological Explanations: Studies

13.1.13 End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour

14 Option 2: Stress (A2 only)

14.1 Stress (A2 only)

14.1.1 Physiology of Stress

14.1.2 Role of Stress in Illness

14.1.3 Role of Stress in Illness: Studies

14.1.4 Social Readjustment Rating Scales

14.1.5 Hassles & Uplifts Scales

14.1.6 Stress, Workload & Control

14.1.7 Stress Level Studies

14.1.8 End of Topic Test - Stress 1

14.1.9 Physiological Measures of Stress

14.1.10 Individual Differences

14.1.11 Stress & Gender

14.1.12 Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress

14.1.13 Stress Inoculation Therapy

14.1.14 Social Support & Stress

14.1.15 End of Topic Test - Stress 2

15 Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)

15.1 Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)

15.1.1 Neural Mechanisms

15.1.2 Serotonin

15.1.3 Hormonal Mechanisms

15.1.4 Genetic Factors

15.1.5 Genetic Factors 2

15.1.6 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1

15.1.7 Ethological Explanation

15.1.8 Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern

15.1.9 Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.10 Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy

15.1.11 Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.12 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2

15.2 Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)

15.2.1 Social Psychological Explanation

15.2.2 Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression

15.2.3 Social Psychological Explanation 2

15.2.4 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1

15.2.5 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2

15.2.6 Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)

15.2.7 Deindividuation

15.2.8 Deindividuation 2

15.2.9 Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)

15.2.10 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

15.2.11 Institutional Aggression: Prisons

15.2.12 Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational

15.2.13 Influence of Computer Games

15.2.14 Influence of Television

15.2.15 Evaluation of Studies on Media

15.2.16 Desensitisation & Disinhibition

15.2.17 Cognitive Priming

15.2.18 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

16 Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1 Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1.1 Defining Crime

16.1.2 Measuring Crime

16.1.3 Offender Profiling

16.1.4 Evaluation of Offender Profiling

16.1.5 John Duffy Case Study

16.1.6 Biological Explanations 1

16.1.7 Biological Explanations 2

16.1.8 Evaluation of the Biological Explanation

16.1.9 Cognitive Explanations

16.1.10 Moral Reasoning

16.1.11 Psychodynamic Explanation 1

16.1.12 Psychodynamic Explanation 2

16.1.13 End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1

16.1.14 Differential Association Theory

16.1.15 Custodial Sentencing

16.1.16 Effects of Prison

16.1.17 Evaluation of the Effects of Prison

16.1.18 Recidivism

16.1.19 Behavioural Treatments & Therapies

16.1.20 Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments

16.1.21 Restorative Justice

16.1.22 End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2

17 Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)

17.1 Addiction (A2 only)

17.1.1 Definition

17.1.2 Brain Neurochemistry Explanation

17.1.3 Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.4 Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.5 Cognitive Bias

17.1.6 Griffiths on Cognitive Bias

17.1.7 Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)

17.1.8 End of Topic Test - Addiction 1

17.1.9 Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory

17.1.10 Social Influences on Addiction 1

17.1.11 Social Influences on Addiction 2

17.1.12 Personal Influences on Addiction

17.1.13 Genetic Explanations of Addiction

17.1.14 End of Topic Test - Addiction 2

17.2 Treating Addiction (A2 only)

17.2.1 Drug Therapy

17.2.2 Behavioural Interventions

17.2.3 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

17.2.4 Theory of Reasoned Action

17.2.5 Theory of Planned Behaviour

17.2.6 Six Stage Model of Behaviour Change

17.2.7 End of Topic Test - Treating Addiction

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Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence

Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory

• Abnormal Psychology
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• Revision and Exam Preparation
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Example essay: Contrast two models of memory

Travis Dixon November 9, 2021 Cognitive Psychology , Revision and Exam Preparation

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Of the command terms for IB Psychology essays, “contrast” is the hardest to write. Here is an example essay that contrasts two models of memory. Please note – this essay is not written with the intention that you will memorize it. That is a highly inefficient way to study. It’s written so you can get ideas on how to  structure  a contrast essay.

Travis Dixon is an IB Psychology teacher, author, workshop leader, examiner and IA moderator.

The Multi-Store Model of Memory ( AQA GCSE Psychology )

Revision note.

Psychology Content Creator

What is the multi-store model of memory?

• The multi-store model of memory (MSM) explains how memory is processed via a series of storage components (Atkinson & Shiffrin , 1968)
• The MSM is a cognitive model of memory , similar to information processing models in computing
• from environmental stimuli
• to sensory memory (SM)
• to short-term memory (STM)
• to long-term memory (LTM)
• with the final output being the retrieved information

Sensory memory

• The feeling of warm sun on the skin
• The sound of birds chirping
• The scent of a barbecue
• The taste of tangy burger relish
• The sight of sunburnt skin (note to self: don’t forget SPF…)
• The mind has to process all of the above information - and more - on a second-by-second basis so not all of the information entering SM will be attended to
• Duration of SM is around 0.5 seconds, up to several seconds at the very most
• Capacity of SM is huge, given the sheer volume of information that it has to deal with
• Coding in SM uses all five senses

Short-term memory

• Short-term memory (STM) can hold onto a limited amount of information for a relatively short period of time
• Information is kept active until it is either forgotten/lost or transferred to LTM
• Due to new information constantly entering STM it is a ‘first-in-first-out’ system, where new items push out old items 
• Items in STM are thus displaced by new information entering it
• If items are rehearsed they can be kept in STM for longer than 30 seconds
• Items which are rehearsed for a longer period of time can be transferred to LTM
• Capacity of STM is 7 items + or - 2, i.e. 5-9 items
• Coding in STM is acoustic i.e. sound/word-based

Long term memory

• People tend to forget or re-frame memories over time
• There is no way for a researcher to check the validity   of someone’s LTM (how can they know if a memory from 35 years ago is correct?)
• They can only really be investigated using qualitative  methods which do not lend themselves to large samples or accurate data
• Duration of LTM is potentially the duration of a person’s full lifespan
• Capacity of LTM is huge, possibly limitless, due to the brain’s ability to get rid of old, unused information and connections
• Coding in LTM is semantic i.e. based on meaning

Evaluation of the MSM as a higher-value question has been popular over the past few years so it is a good idea to revise not only the features of the MSM but the key evaluation points too.

Evaluation of different types of the multi-store model of memory

• Glanzer & Cunitz (1966) - a lab experiment that demonstrated that STM and LTM may be separate memory stores
• The case of Clive Wearing , who could form no new memories but had some intact LTM
• The model is clear and straightforward, highlighting how memories go from environmental stimuli to retrieved information
• The model is overly simplistic with its linear design and lack of detail per memory type
• Lab experiments lack ecological validity  and case studies of single participants cannot be generalised so research into the MSM has only limited usefulness

Worked example

Here is an example of a question you might be asked on this topic - for AO3.

AO3: You need to analyse and evaluate key concepts, ideas, theories and research.

Question: Evaluate the multi-store model of memory.  [5]

Model answer:

• The MSM has been supported by both lab experiments and single case studies of brain-damaged patients, the results of which have pointed to there being two separate storage facilities for STM and LTM.
• The MSM does not explain how it is possible to remember some information without rehearsing it or why rehearsed information can be forgotten.
• Research shows that SM, STM and LTM are usually encoded in different forms and also differ in their duration and capacity.
• The MSM is an oversimplified account of memory, which does not provide detail as to the nature of each memory type. 

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Author: Claire Neeson

Claire has been teaching for 34 years, in the UK and overseas. She has taught GCSE, A-level and IB Psychology which has been a lot of fun and extremely exhausting! Claire is now a freelance Psychology teacher and content creator, producing textbooks, revision notes and (hopefully) exciting and interactive teaching materials for use in the classroom and for exam prep. Her passion (apart from Psychology of course) is roller skating and when she is not working (or watching 'Coronation Street') she can be found busting some impressive moves on her local roller rink.

The Multi-Store Memory Model vs. The Working Memory Model; How does Memory Work?

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Introduction Multi-Store Memory Model      Sensory Memory      Short-Term Memory      Long Term Memory Working Memory Model      Central Executive      Articulatory-Phonological Loop      Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad References

Memory has been studied since the birth of cognitive science. While there are several explanations of memory, there is a broad consensus that it functions similarly to computerized processes. It sorts information, processing it effectively along the way.

As Psychology mostly lacks paradigms, understanding how memory works varies somewhat depending on the relevant theory or school of thought. Some common theories include the Multi-Store Memory Model and the Working Memory Model.

Image Credit: Kittyfly/Shutterstock.com

Multi-Store Memory Model

One of the earliest models of memory is the Multi-Store Memory Model. This model effectively views memory as being moved between the Sensory Register, the Short-Term Store, and the Long-Term Store.

Each store has its own set of characteristics, including the encoding of memory, the store’s capacity, and the time the information is held. The stores are joined together using different processes.

The Multi-Store Memory Model provides a fairly simplistic perspective of how memory works. For example, the theory doesn’t provide a depth of information about each individual memory store. However, as the theory is relatively old, this is perhaps to be expected. Furthermore, the theory provided the basis for a great deal of further research.

Sensory Memory

The first store in the Multi-Store Memory Model is the Sensory Register (S.R.). This handles sensory inputs from the environment, such as sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste.

All information that becomes memory enters this store first. This is because any external stimuli that are cognitively processed are engaged with through a sensory modality. Consequently, all information in this store uses sensory encoding.

The S.R. has the shortest duration of all memory stores and can hold information for approximately 250 milliseconds. On the other hand, its capacity may be immensely large, meaning that a large amount of information can be held in the store simultaneously. The precise capacity of the S.R. remains unknown.

Short-Term Memory

The next store in the Multi-Store Memory Model is the Short-Term Store (STS). This is the section of the model that handles short-term memory. When information is successfully transferred from the S.R. into the STS, it is encoded acoustically. This means that the information held in short-term memory is present as sound.

Information can be held in this store for approximately twenty seconds. This information is held there using a ‘rehearsal loop’, which repeats the information to hold it in that store.

The capacity of the STS is complicated. It falls between five and nine items depending on how the information is “chunked” together, with the figure being known as ‘7+-2’. Chunking is information strung together to make it manageable for the STS.

Long Term Memory

The final store in the Multi-Store Memory Model is the Long-Term Store (LTS), where long-term memory is held. Infinite information can be transferred from the STS to the LTS and held indefinitely.

When memories are recalled, memory isn’t recalled directly from the LTS. Instead, it is retrieved from the LTS into the STS. From there, the information is held in the rehearsal loop for as long as the information is required.

Long-term memory is encoded semantically, although it may also be visually or acoustically. For the memory to be encoded semantically, it means that the information has a meaning associated with it.

This is achieved through ‘elaborative rehearsal,’ a process leading to the information being meaningfully allocated. This occurs when the information in the STS is transferred to the LTS.

Image Credit: VectorMine/Shutterstock.com

Working Memory Model

The Working Memory Model provides a more detailed understanding of short-term memory. The model was proposed in 1974, although it was also updated numerous times since then.

The Working Memory Model splits short-term memory into three stores: the Central Executive, the Articulatory-Phonological Loop, and the visuo-spatial Sketchpad. Subsequently, another figure was added to the model, acting as a point of communication between short-term and long-term memory.

This is known as the Episodic Buffer, and less is understood in the literature.

Central Executive

The Central Executive sorts information into the correct store. It achieves this by regulating cognitive processes, such as guiding focus. It also helps to coordinate short-term and long-term memory, along with the Episodic Buffer.

The original understanding of the Central Executive was that it sat in the center of the memory, passing information to the correct stores. As of 2000, research suggested that there may be separate Central Executives for the different parts of short-term memory. However, the literature remains divided.

Articulatory-Phonological Loop

The Articulatory-Phonological Loop (APL) is the model section most similar to the preceding Multi-Store Memory Model. This handles auditory information on a short-term basis.

The APL is made up of two subsections known as the Articulatory Rehearsal Processes (ARP) and the Phonological Loop (P.L.).

The ARP is often referred to as the “inner voice.” This means internal monologues and linguistic information, such as speech, are processed here. This includes written language converted to acoustic information while reading or writing.

The P.L. is part of the APL that holds or stores the information the ARP converts. Because of the way it holds auditory information, it is often referred to as the “inner ear.”

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

The visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSSP) is part of the short-term memory that handles non-linguistic visual information and spatial data. This is effectively the “inner eye.”

An elaborated form of the VSSP was proposed in 1995, consisting of the Inner Scribe (I.S.) and the Visual Cache (V.C.). The I.S. handles spatial information, such as movement, while the V.C. stores visual information, like form or color.

References:

• Atkinson, R.C. and Shiffrin, R.M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In Spence, K.W.; Spence, J.T. (eds.). The psychology of learning and motivation. Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press . pp. 89–195.
• Baddeley, A. D., and Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In Psychology of learning and motivation , 8, 47-89.
• Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?. Trends in cognitive sciences , 4(11), 417-423.
• Chai, W. J., et al. (2018). Working memory from the psychological and neurosciences perspectives: a review. Frontiers in psychology , 9, 401.
• Miyake, A., et al. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology , 41(1), 49-100.
• Logie, R. H. (1995). Visuo-Spatial Working Memory. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
• Thalmann, M. et al. (2019). How does chunking help working memory?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 45(1), 37.

Last Updated: May 10, 2023

Anthoni Oisin

Anthoni Oisin is a writer and content creator. In 2021, he graduated with first-class honours in psychology, where he focused on neuroscience, biological, cognitive, and developmental psychology. During his degree, he developed an interest in psychoacoustics and psycholinguistics due to his work at the local radio station. His thesis investigated the linguistic and cognitive differences in processing human and robotic speech through digital experiments and quantitative analysis. He has continued his research with a Master’s degree in Sound Innovation, where he is researching biological and psychological immersion. Currently, his research interests include psychophysiology, embodiment, neurodiversity, acoustics, and the autonomic nervous system.

Please use one of the following formats to cite this article in your essay, paper or report:

Oisin, Anthoni. (2023, May 10). The Multi-Store Memory Model vs. The Working Memory Model; How does Memory Work?. News-Medical. Retrieved on August 30, 2024 from https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Multi-Store-Memory-Model-vs-The-Working-Memory-Model3b-How-does-Memory-Work.aspx.

Oisin, Anthoni. "The Multi-Store Memory Model vs. The Working Memory Model; How does Memory Work?". News-Medical . 30 August 2024. <https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Multi-Store-Memory-Model-vs-The-Working-Memory-Model3b-How-does-Memory-Work.aspx>.

Oisin, Anthoni. "The Multi-Store Memory Model vs. The Working Memory Model; How does Memory Work?". News-Medical. https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Multi-Store-Memory-Model-vs-The-Working-Memory-Model3b-How-does-Memory-Work.aspx. (accessed August 30, 2024).

Oisin, Anthoni. 2023. The Multi-Store Memory Model vs. The Working Memory Model; How does Memory Work? . News-Medical, viewed 30 August 2024, https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Multi-Store-Memory-Model-vs-The-Working-Memory-Model3b-How-does-Memory-Work.aspx.

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Multi-store Model of Memory Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA Psychology New Spec

Subject: Psychology

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Assessment and revision

Last updated

6 April 2023

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A grade answer written in line with AQA mark schemes, specification and approved textbooks.

AO1 = Outline of the multi-store model

AO3: Balance of strengths and limitations including case study, counterpoint, the role of rehearsal and testability

Approximately one page long to reflect the amount a student can write under exam conditions.

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A bundle is a package of resources grouped together to teach a particular topic, or a series of lessons, in one place.

Memory Essays AQA Psychology A-Level Bundle

16 mark answers for the entire unit. All answers are based on the AQA specification, mark schemes and textbooks. Answers include AO1 (description of theories and studies) and AO3 (evaluation). References to methodological criticisms, issues and debates and practical applications are made where appropriate. All answers are A grade and can be differentiated to meet different abilities. Answers are approximately one page long to reflect the amount a student can write under exam conditions

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