key success factors for expatriate assignments include

Enhancing expatriates’ assignments success: the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation and performance

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• Published: 20 July 2020
• Volume 41 , pages 4291–4311, ( 2022 )

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• Ilaria Setti 1 ,
• Valentina Sommovigo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9273-5706 1 &
• Piergiorgio Argentero 1  

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Today’s increasingly global marketplace is resulting in more organizations sending employees to work outside their home countries as expatriates. Consequently, identifying factors influencing expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment at work and performance has become an increasingly important issue for both researchers and firms. Drawing on Kim et al. ( 2008 ), this study examines the critical elements to expatriate success, which are the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adjustment at work, and assignment-specific performance. One-hundred and fifty-one expatriates working within the energy sector, who were mainly located in the Middle East completed questionnaires, investigating: cultural intelligence ( Cultural Intelligence Scale ), cross-cultural adjustment ( Expatriate Adjustment Scale ), performance (Expatriate Contextual/Managerial Performance Skills ), cultural distance (Kogut and Singh’ index), length of staying in the host country and international work experience. Findings indicated that the four cultural intelligence components were directly and indirectly (through cross-cultural adjustment at work) associated with performance. The positive relationship between motivational cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adjustment at work was stronger when cultural distance was low, when expatriates were at the beginning of a new international assignment, and when they had lower experience. Organizations can greatly benefit from hiring cross-culturally intelligent expatriates for international assignments, providing their employees with pre-departure training programs aimed at increasing cultural intelligence, and giving them organizational resources and logistical help to support them.

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Introduction

As globalization of trade encourages multinational corporations (MNCs) to operate in different geographic environments (Sambasivan et al. 2013 ), talent mobility has become one of the key channels through which to develop global organizations’ competitive advantages (Tarique and Schuler 2010 ). This requires the presence of a cross-culturally competent workforce that can manage overseas subsidiaries and liaise with foreign affiliates (Froese and Peltokorpi 2011 ). In this context, expatriates are considered as invaluable assets by MNCs (Wu and Ang 2011 ). Consequently, there have been numerous calls in psychology (e.g., Mol et al. 2005 ) for more research aimed at identifying the psychological factors driving expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment and performance.

In this context, cultural intelligence (CQ) represents an interesting variable since it is a malleable capability which can be developed through cross-cultural experiences (Chao et al. 2017 ) and specific trainings (Leung et al. 2014 ). CQ is defined as “an individual’s competence to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings” (Ang and Van Dyne 2008 , p. 3). CQ is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct which includes four main components: metacognitive CQ (i.e., cultural awareness), cognitive CQ (i.e., cultural knowledge), motivational CQ (i.e., motivation and self-efficacy in functioning in diverse cultural settings), and behavioural CQ (i.e., adoption of appropriate behaviours during cross-cultural interactions). Scholars have called for more research on the CQ dimensions (Ang et al. 2011 ) as the four CQ components have been differently associated with specific intercultural effectiveness outcomes (see Rockstuhl and Van Dyne 2018 for a review).

This study responds to this call by analysing the relationships between specific CQ dimensions, cross-cultural adjustment (CCA; i.e., psychological comfort in a foreign country; Black and Gregersen 1999 ) at work and assignment-specific performance. This latter construct, which refers to the ability to accomplish certain assignment specific tasks (e.g., replacement planning; Caligiuri 1997 ), was chosen in this paper as main dependent variable because successfully executing assignment-specific duties is frequently the main constituent of success, which is evaluated by the home office (Earley and Ang 2003 ). Aside from performance, this study focused on work CCA, namely the extent to which expatriates become psychologically comfortable handling assignment duties and meeting performance expectations (Chen et al. 2010 ; Shaffer et al. 2006 ). Work CCA is one of the three dimensions of CCA, together with general (i.e., general living conditions) and interaction (i.e., interactions with locals) components (Black et al. 1991 ). This paper concentrated on work CCA as it is more predictive of performance than the other CCA dimensions (Chew et al. 2019 ).

The role of overall CQ as a meaningful antecedent of overall CCA (e.g., Chen et al. 2014 ; Rockstuhl and Van Dyne 2018 ) and job performance (e.g., Malek and Budhwar 2013 ; Ramalu et al. 2012 ) has been identified, whereas the literature on the role of the four CQ facets in facilitating work CCA is less consistent (e.g., Ott and Michailova 2018a , 2018b ). The literature on the effect of CQ on performance indicates an intricate association between the variables, the relevance of the specific CQ dimensions, and the role of work CCA in this association (ibidem). Thus, while some researchers found a direct positive CQ-performance association (e.g., Chen et al. 2011 ; Lee et al. 2013 ), there is also evidence that the impact of CQ on performance may be mediated by work CCA (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ; Lee et al. 2013 ).

Additionally, a closer look to the literature on the boundary conditions under which specific CQ dimensions may enhance work CCA and, in turn, assignment-specific performance reveal numerous gaps. To fil this gap, this study aimed to analyse how and when specific CQ facets were more - or less - likely to facilitate assignment-specific performance. To this end, this paper concentrated on cultural distance (CD, i.e., the extent to which the culture of destination differs from expatriates’ home country on various values; Shenkar 2001 ), length of stay in the host country and work international experience. Indeed, although some studies analysed the moderating role of CD in the relationships between various individual features and outcomes in the expatriation area (e.g., Chen et al. 2010 ; Zhang 2013 ), the research on the effect of CD on the association between CQ dimensions and work CCA remains limited. Moreover, even though some studies demonstrated that the length of residence in the local country influenced both CQ (e.g., Li et al. 2013 ) and CCA (e.g., Ramalu et al. 2010 ), no previous research, to the best of our knowledge, has investigated the enhancing effect of length of stay on the association between specific CQ assets and work CCA. Furthermore, though some investigations showed that work experience played a moderating role in the CQ-CCA relationship (e.g., Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ), no study, to our knowledge, has considered the moderated mediated effect of the four CQ dimensions and work experience - through work CCA - on assignment-specific performance.

Therefore, our research questions are as follows: do the four CQ dimensions directly and indirectly, through work CCA, impact on assignment-specific performance? And what are the effects of CD, length of stay in the host country and previous international experience with regard to this? In answering these questions, this paper drew on Kim et al. ( 2008 ) which presented, for the first time, propositions that delineated the relationships between CQ, CCA and performance analysing them together, so that scholars and practitioners could reach a better understanding of each of these. The authors proposed that overall CQ – conceptualized as the result of its four components – would be directly and indirectly, through each of the three dimensions of CCA, associated with overall performance. Additionally, the authors suggested that the CQ-CCA relationship would be positively moderated by CD, so that such relationship would be stronger when CD would be greater.

The main contribution of the present work is to extend this model by analysing whether specific dimensions of CQ – rather than overall CQ - were related to assignment-specific performance – rather than overall performance. Moreover, this research moves an important step forward in the expatriate literature as it identifies, beyond CD – as proposed by the model - other understudied boundary conditions for CQ effects (i.e., work experience and length of stay in the host country).

In doing so, the study was undertaken on the relatively under-investigated population of expatriates working within the energy sector in the Middle East for several reasons. First, some Middle East countries, such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE), have experienced unprecedented growth over the past years (Bealer and Bhanugopan 2014 ). Second, such nations remain relevant economic hubs in the Middle Eastern region, that attract numerous expatriates from Western countries (ibidem), especially within the energy sector (Finaccord 2018 ). For instance, in 2017 Saudi Arabia hosted the largest number of expatriates, whereas in the UAE expatriates constituted the 87.8% of the total population (ibidem). Nevertheless, only a few studies have concentrated on this population. Third, since most of our research respondents were from Latin America, the subsequent national cultural dissimilarities were likely to result in significant CCA difficulties. Thereby, we contribute to literature surrounding organizational behaviour and psychology as well as international human resource management.

In the next section, we provide theoretical arguments for the reasons why each of the four CQ dimensions might be uniquely posited to contribute to expatriates’ assignment-specific performance and work CCA. We describe each component in more detail, and we give rationale for the mediating role of work CCA. Subsequently, we present conceptual logic for our proposed effects of CD, length of stay in the host country and international work experience in the association between specific CQ components and work CCA. After that, we present the sample investigated and the methodology adopted. Then, we report the results and discuss our findings. Finally, we present theoretical and managerial implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research as well as conclusion.

The Relationship between CQ Dimensions and Expatriates’ Assignment-Specific Performance

The construct of CQ attracted ever-increasing attention since other existing formulations of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence (EQ) or social intelligence (SI), do not provide a comprehensive explanation in culturally diverse situations (Groves and Feyerherm 2011 ). Indeed, both EQ and SI are culture bound, such that although these two forms of intelligence may enable individuals to better understand social situations, this does not turn automatically into successful CCA (Caputo et al. 2018 ). Thus, individuals who have high EQ and SI in one culture may not easily adapt to cross-cultural interactions due to misinterpretations of culture-specific situational cues. Conversely, CQ is culture free and regards a general array of abilities particularly relevant on settings characterized by cultural diversity.

Drawing on Kim et al. ( 2008 ), CQ is related to expatriates’ performance, such that culturally intelligent expatriates may successfully function across cultural settings. We present below conceptual logic for our proposed relationships for each of the CQ dimensions with performance, describing each component in more detail.

Meta-cognitive CQ refers to an individual’s level of conscious cultural awareness of - and control over - cognitions during cross-cultural interactions. Self-awareness and cognitive flexibility can promote expatriates’ performance by facilitating their understanding of culturally appropriate role expectations (Ang et al. 2007 ). Indeed, individuals high in meta-cognitive CQ are better at adjusting their existing knowledge to meet changing environmental demands (ibidem). Thus, they can compensate for cognitive capability when previously acquired knowledge is unreliable, avoiding potential problems. Additionally, in unpredictable situations, their meta-cognitive skills provide them with a means by which supplement the lack of overt cues (Fernandez-Duque et al. 2000 ). This may stimulate the adoption of effective solutions to perform well (Tobias and Everson 2002 ). Meta-cognitive CQ may also facilitate expatriates’ performance by enhancing intercultural creative collaboration (Chua et al. 2012 ), conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ), decision-making and task performance (Ang et al. 2007 ) as well as knowledge transfer from headquarters to subsidiaries (Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 1a: meta-cognitive CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

Cognitive CQ refers to an individual’s general knowledge of norms, practices, and conventions in foreign countries gained from personal experiences and education (Ang et al. 2007 ). Expatriates high in cognitive CQ possess sophisticated mental maps of culture, which allow them to anticipate similarities and differences across cultures (Brislin et al. 2006 ). As a result, they may perform well in foreign workplaces because their in-depth knowledge about diverse cultures enables them to reach a greater understanding of cultural expectations. Additionally, such knowledge leads them to adopt culturally appropriate behaviours by facilitating decision-making, cultural judgment (Ang et al. 2007 ), intercultural negotiation (Groves et al. 2015 ), conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ) and knowledge transfer from headquarters to subsidiaries (Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). Thereby, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 1b: cognitive CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

Motivational CQ refers to individual’s ability to direct attention to understand cultural diversity and maintain energy concentrated on learning about - and operating in - new cultural settings, even when situations are challenging (Ang et al. 2007 ). Expatriates high in motivational CQ are motivated intrinsically and by their efficient beliefs of adaptive capabilities to interact with colleagues from different backgrounds (Templer et al. 2006 ). As a result, they may direct their energy toward learning role expectations, positively coping with problems, and striving to address challenges. Motivational CQ may also facilitate expatriates’ performance by easing intercultural collaboration and negotiation (Chua et al. 2012 ), communication effectiveness (Presbitero and Quita 2017 ), integrative information behaviours (Imai and Gelfand 2010 ), and conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ). Therefore, we formulated the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1c: motivational CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

Behavioural CQ reflects the individual’s ability to communicate in a culturally sensitive way and exhibit culturally appropriate (verbal and non-verbal) behaviours when interacting with people from other cultures (Ang et al. 2007 ). This involves having a wide repertoire of overt behavioural responses which fits to a variety of cross-cultural situations, in addition to using culturally appropriate words, body language and conversation style (ibidem). Expatriates high in behavioural CQ can choose appropriate verbal and physical actions when interacting with locals (Ang and Van Dyne 2008 ). This behavioural flexibility may help them to enact culturally appropriate role-related behaviours and meet assignment-specific expectations (ibidem). This may reduce miscommunications and enhance performance (Ng et al. 2012 ; Rose et al. 2010 ). Accordingly, behavioural flexibility was positively related to task performance within intercultural environments (e.g., Chen et al. 2011 ), conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ), and intercultural negotiation effectiveness (Groves et al. 2015 ). Then, we hypothesized the following:

Hypothesis 1d: behavioural CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

The Relationship between CQ Dimensions and Expatriate Adjustment at Work

In line with Kim et al. ( 2008 ), culturally intelligent individuals are better able to adjust to the host country because they are more likely to gain appropriate emotional and informational support through interactions with locals. Then, CQ represents an important factor driving expatriate CCA which may explain individual dissimilarities in adapting to foreign contexts. We provide below theoretical arguments for the reasons why each of the CQ facets might be uniquely positioned to contribute to work CCA.

To date, relatively little research has been conducted to analyse the relationship between meta-cognitive CQ and work CCA, producing mixed results. Indeed, whereas some investigations have found that meta-cognitive CQ exerts a positive influence on work CCA (e.g., Lin et al. 2012 ; Guðmundsdóttir 2015 ), other studies have revealed a nonsignificant effect (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2015 ; Jyoti et al. 2015 ). Expatriates high in meta-cognitive CQ tend to reflect on cultural dissimilarities before a cross-cultural interaction and develop action plans for how they will interact with locals. This planning prompts cultural learning, problem-solving and interactions with host colleagues, which may reduce uncertainties related to expatriation and, then, facilitate work CCA (Earley and Ang 2003 ; Earley et al. 2006 ). Thus, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2a: metacognitive CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

Whereas some studies have identified a positive influence of cognitive CQ on work CCA (e.g., Konanahalli et al. 2014 ), other investigations revealed a non-significant association between the two constructs (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2015 ). Expatriates high in cognitive CQ have a greater understanding of cross-cultural differences (Brislin et al. 2006 ): they are better able to use their cultural knowledge in making decisions and thinking strategically to overcome transition problems. This, in turn, may improve their ability to adjust to the new workplace (Van Dyne et al. 2012 ). Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 2b: cognitive CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

Expatriates high in motivational CQ are more psychologically prepared to adjust to the work demands expected in culturally diverse workplaces (Chen et al. 2010 ). Thus, they have confidence in their capabilities and intrinsic motivation to adjust to new workplaces (Palthe 2004 ) and display newly learn behaviours (Black et al. 1991 ). This may stimulate their involvement in culturally different modes of working and the accomplishment of their assignment objectives (Lin et al. 2012 ). Accordingly, empirical evidence supported that motivational CQ is positively associated with expatriates’ work CCA (Jyoti and Kour 2015 ; Jyoti et al. 2015 ). Thus, we predicted the following:

Hypothesis 2c: motivational CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

Whereas some studies have revealed that behavioural CQ was non-significantly (e.g., Huff et al. 2014 ; Konanahalli et al. 2014 ) or negatively (e.g., Guðmundsdóttir 2015 ; Malek and Budhwar 2013 ) related to work CCA, other investigations have found a positive association between the two constructs (e.g., Ng et al. 2012 ; Ramalu et al. 2011 ). Expatriates with greater behavioural CQ can use culturally appropriate expressions in communication, in addition to flexibly adapting their behaviour to create comfort zones for the other individual(s) involved in cross-cultural encounters (Earley and Peterson 2004 ). The ability to make such adaptations is likely to result in better work CCA because it facilitates communication with host colleagues, reducing the risk of cross-cultural misunderstandings (Ang et al. 2007 ). Therefore, we hypothesized the following:

Hypothesis 2d: behavioural CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

The Relationship between Expatriates’ Work CCA and Assignment-Specific Performance

When expatriates can successfully adjust to the work domain, they are less stressed and, then, have more personal resources to invest in job duties. In this case, they are likely to feel themselves as culturally competent and build closer relationships with local colleagues (Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Chen et al. 2010 ). As a result, expatriates who are culturally adjusted to their new workplaces are more likely to perform well on their international assignments than those who are unable to adjust well (Lee and Kartika 2014 ; Wu and Ang 2011 ). Therefore, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 3: work CCA will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

The Mediating Role of Work CCA

Prior research suggested that CCA might mediate the association between CQ and performance (Kim and Slocum 2008 ; Wang and Takeuchi 2007 ). Despite this development, the empirical evidence on the role played by work CCA in mediating the relationship between specific CQ dimensions and assignment-related tasks has been relatively limited in the expatriate literature, requiring further research (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2015 ; Lee et al. 2014 ). Kim et al. ( 2008 ) proposed that CQ may work through work CCA to affect expatriate performance as the extent to which expatriates are able to successfully adapt to a new work setting may impact on individual work outcomes. They argued that “a smooth transition across work assignments is critical to an expatriate’s success because the work-role that is executed in the host country may be quite unfamiliar, even though the task is the same as it was in their home country, due to different cultural contexts” (ibidem, p. 76). Therefore, expatriates who have greater CQ are more likely to successfully adjust to their new work setting which, in turn, will enable them to reach high levels of performance. Overall, relevant intercultural skills, such as abilities to revise cultural assumptions (meta-cognitive CQ), elaborate sophisticated metal maps about cultures (cognitive CQ), channel one’s own energies toward functioning (motivational CQ) and exhibit appropriate actions (behavioural CQ) in culturally diverse settings, are all factors which are expected to decrease the misunderstandings in role expectations and facilitate interactions with local colleagues (Ramalu et al. 2012 ). As a result, culturally intelligent expatriates, who are better able to cope with stress related to uncertainties (Sambasivan et al. 2017 ), may more easily feel comfortable in any cultural setting they are working in. Then, work CCA holds the potential to be a proximal intercultural effectiveness outcome which may partially mediate the effects of the four CQ dimensions on more distal effectiveness outcomes, such as assignment specific performance. Hence:

Hypothesis 4: work CCA will mediate the relationship between specific dimensions of CQ (Hp4a: meta-cognitive CQ, Hp4b: cognitive CQ, Hp4c: motivational CQ, Hp4d: behavioural CQ) and assignment-specific performance.

The Moderating Role of Cultural Distance

The individual’s capability to successfully adjust abroad is related to the novelty of the foreign culture. A large difference between the country of origin and the destination requires more transitions, which results in more adjustment difficulties than in a country with a similar culture (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ). Said differently, adjustment is more challenging when the host country is more culturally distant (Wang and Varma 2019 ). In this context, individual differences may become particularly salient. Indeed, prior investigations revealed that CD moderates the relationship between individual characteristics and various outcomes in the expatriation field, such as effectiveness (Chen et al. 2010 ), adjustment (Zhang 2013 ), and intention to work abroad (Remhof et al. 2013 ). Among individual characteristics, CQ seems to be a variable highly likely to interact with CD on work CCA because of its relevance on settings characterized by cultural diversity. In line with Kim et al. ( 2008 ), “as CD increases, it is expected that CQ would become more, rather than less, critical to expatriates’ adjustment and success” (Kim et al. 2008 , p. 78). Accordingly, CD strengthens the CQ-CCA association since the greater cultural challenges inherent in more culturally distant settings demand more cross-cultural competencies. In this context, those with greater CQ may be better equipped to overcome such challenges and, then, better able to adjust and perform well than those with lower CQ. Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 5: CD will strength the relationship between CQ, in all its dimensions (Hp5a: metacognitive CQ, Hp5b: cognitive CQ, Hp5c: motivational CQ, Hp5d: behavioural CQ), and work CCA, such that the positive effect of CQ dimensions through work CCA on assignment-specific performance will be stronger when the home-host CD will be greater.

The Moderating Role of Length of Residence in the Host Country

Previous investigations on CCA have showed that length of residence in the host country influences CCA (e.g., Li et al. 2013 ; Ramalu et al. 2010 ). According to the U-Curve of CCA framework (Black and Mendenhall 1991 ), the first twelve months in a foreign country are characterized by frustration as the newcomer must deal with living in the host country on a daily basis, overcoming the so-called “cultural shock stage”. CQ may become critical to overcome such highly challenging period because culturally intelligent expatriates can more easily use their cultural knowledge and develop action plans to solve transition problems (meta-cognitive and cognitive CQ; Earley et al. 2006 ). In addition, CQ may be salient because it drives expatriates to establish relationships with local colleagues and vicariously learn about appropriate behaviours (motivational CQ; Mendenhall and Oddou 1985 ). This may lead them to make appropriate behavioural adaptations (behavioural CQ). Thereby, expatriates high in CQ are more likely to learn quickly appropriate behaviours, which may decrease the anxiety related to not knowing how to behave in an unfamiliar environment. As a result, the time required to reach the adjustment stage may be shortened. Additionally, the longer the time spent in the host country, the greater the opportunities to build support systems, reach greater cultural knowledge, and become more efficacious in interacting with locals. This suggests that motivational CQ might be more critical in the initial stages of the adjustment process when individuals have to deal with daily challenges. Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 6: the length of residence in the host country will moderate the relationship between CQ, in all its dimensions (Hp6a: metacognitive CQ, Hp6b: cognitive CQ, Hp6c: motivational CQ, Hp6d: behavioural CQ) and work CCA, such that the positive effect of CQ dimensions through work CCA on assignment-specific performance will be stronger when the length of residence will be lower.

The Moderating Role of International Work Experience

Culturally intelligent expatriates having longer experience of working abroad through vicarious learning can more easily make anticipatory adjustments to the new work setting before they ever experience it (Black et al. 1991 ). In this sense, they may benefit from prior international work experience because they can utilize it as an important source of information which facilitates the formation of realistic work expectations and accurate anticipatory work behavioural adaptations (Church 1982 ). Indeed, expatriates with greater CQ will be more likely to acquire more accurate information from their previous experience as, for instance, they will think critically about cultural knowledge and monitor the quality of that knowledge (Ang et al. 2007 ). This may increase attention and retention processes, leading them to make anticipatory adjustments in behaviours, which would turn out to be appropriate in the host workplace. This means that they will learn lessons from their prior experience and form comprehensive cognitive schemata, which will be useful to predict consequences across a variety of future situations (Takeuchi et al. 2005 ). As a result, prior experience will help expatriates with greater CQ to effectively handle future cross-cultural situations (Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Shannon and Begley 2008 ). This will decrease the uncertainty and, therefore facilitate, the adjustment process (Black et al. 1991 ), leading to a better performance (Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ). Conversely, expatriates with lower CQ will be less likely to take advantage from their prior experience as the content of the information will be inaccurate and, then, their actual reproduction of the anticipatorily determined behaviours will prove to be inappropriate in the new workplace (Black et al. 1991 ). Furthermore, although some studies showed that prior experience had an enhancing effect on the CQ-CCA relationship (Lee 2010 ; Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ), the research has not been consistently supportive (Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). Further to this, research analysing whether prior experience might exert an enhancing effect on the association between the four CQ dimensions and specific domains, such as work CCA, is still limited (Kusumoto 2014 ). Thus, we examined whether prior experience would strengthen the CQ- work CCA relationship, expecting the following:

Hypothesis 7: international work experience will moderate the relationship between CQ, in its dimensions (Hp7a: metacognitive, Hp7b: cognitive, Hp7c: motivational, Hp7d: behavioural), and work CCA, such that the culturally intelligent expatriates with greater experience will adapt more easily to the host workplace and, then, perform more effectively than those with lower experience.

As a conceptual framework, Fig.  1 illustrates our proposed model, incorporating our hypothesized relationships.

Proposed model regarding the relationships between the four components of cultural intelligence (CQ) and assignment-specific performance as well as the moderating role of cultural distance (CD), length of stay in the host country (LoS) and previous international work experience (WEX) in the association between CQ components and cross-cultural adaptation at work (work CCA)

Participants and Procedure

Our research sample consists of employees who were working in a company in the oil and gas industry with an extensive portfolio of projects around the world. Expatriates’ contacts details were gathered from organizational databases. Questionnaires were administrated in English (see Appendix 1 ), the official working language in the company, through a Web-based solution (i.e., mails and online questionnaires). Once respondents voluntarily agreed to participate, we obtained informed consent from them and ensured them the anonymity and confidentiality of their responses. Data were collected in the period between March and May 2018. In total, we contacted four hundred ninety-four expatriates. Of them, one hundred sixty-eight employees completed the survey (34% response rate). We excluded eight participants working in their home country and nine participants because they did not complete at least the 60 % of the survey. The descriptive statistics of the remaining participants ( N  = 151) are reported in Table 1 .

Most of research participants were Latin American expatriates assigned to Middle East countries. The Middle East, especially the Muslim and Arab countries of Sud Arabia, Oman and the UAE, represents a hot spot for international assignments (Raghu and Sartawi 2012 ). For instance, according to the data provided by the World Bank, the UAE’s population in 2020 is 9.89 million of whose the 88.52% is constituted by expatriates and immigrants (GMI 2020 ). Arab countries have practices and habits that contrast with those of the Latin American nations. Since the UAE’s culture is masculine in nature, a Latin American expatriate might have difficulties to adjust to a 100% male environment where there is a dress code for men as well (Konanahalli et al. 2012 ). Additionally, during the holy month of Ramadan the Muslim colleagues observe Ramadan fasting rules, which will require Latin Americans to be respectful of such religious observances (ibidem). According to GLOBE Project’s studies on cultural dimensions (House et al. 2004 ), the Middle East cultural cluster is characterized by high scores on collectivism, average scores on assertiveness, human orientation, institutional collectivism, performance orientation and power distance, while for future-orientation, gender egalitarianism and uncertainty avoidance the scores are low (for a detailed description of each cultural dimension see at the following link: https://globeproject.com/study_2004_2007 ). Although similar for some dimensions, the Middle East cluster differs from the Latin American cluster most significantly on the values of institutional collectivism, performance orientation and gender egalitarianism. These differences might translate in striking contrasts in terms of decision making, negotiation, conflict management, leadership styles and so on (e.g., Caputo et al. 2018 ; Caputo et al. 2019 ). In sum, it is likely that Latin American expatriates working in an Arab country will experience significant national cultural dissimilarities, which might lead them to adjustment difficulties.

CQ was assessed by The Cultural Intelligence Scale (Ang et al. 2007 ) which comprises four sub-scales: meta-cognitive CQ (four items, e.g. “I check the accuracy of my cultural knowledge as I interact with people from different cultures”, α =  .81 ) ; cognitive CQ (six items, e.g., “ I know the rules for expressing non-verbal behaviour in other cultures”, α =  .83); motivational CQ (five items, e.g., “ I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures”, α =  .89 ) ; behavioural CQ (five items, e.g., “ I change my verbal behaviour when a cross-cultural interaction requires it”, α =  .84 ) . This robust and reliable scale has been utilized by previous studies (e.g., Gozzoli and Gazzaroli 2018 ), confirming the existence of four specific CQ dimensions. Participants indicated how much they agreed with each statement concerning their cultural abilities on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 =  strongly disagree 7 =  strongly agree ), where higher scores indicated higher CQ levels.

Work CCA was measured using three items from the Expatriate Adjustment Scale (Black and Stephens 1989 ). Participants rated their adjustment (e.g., “ How adjusted are you to performance standards and expectations in your job? ”, α =  .89) on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 =  very unadjusted 7 =  very adjusted ), where greater scores indicated greater work CCA. This measure has been consistently validated by previous studies on expatriates (e.g., Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ) confirming its construct validity among culturally different samples.

Assignment-specific performance was evaluated through five items from the Expatriate Contextual/Managerial Performance Skills (Caligiuri 1997 ). Participants were asked to rate their perceived ability in each of the job performance items (e.g., “ Your effectiveness at transferring information across strategic units (e.g., from the host country to headquarters) ”, α =  .73) on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 =  poor 5 =  outstanding ) , where greater scores indicated greater performance.

CD between expatriates’ home country and host country was computed through the index of Kogut and Singh ( 1988 ) in combination with Hofstede’s ( 2001 ) country-specific scores (i.e., power distance, individualism, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance), consistent with prior studies (e.g., Ng et al. 2019 ).

Length of residence in the host country was measured in months in line with previous researchers (e.g., Chen et al. 2014 ). Participants indicated the period in the current country of destination in months (i.e., How long have you been working in your current country of residence? ).

International work experience was assessed in years, according to previous studies (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2017a , b ). Respondents indicated how many years they had been working internationally (i.e., How many years had you spent working abroad before this assignment? ).

Control variables . We controlled for marital status (1 = single, 2 = engaged) and education level (1 = high-school, 2 = degree) because previous studies showed that work-family conflict - that is more likely to occur for married expatriates; Kupka and Cathro 2007 - and education level (e.g., Moon et al. 2012 ) may influence CCA; thereby, potentially affecting performance. Furthermore, we controlled for gender (1 = male, 2 = female) and age since prior investigations (e.g., Li et al. 2016 ; Vlajčić et al. 2019 ) have revealed contrasting results about the impact of age and gender on CQ and CCA. Additionally, we recognized that pre-departure cross-cultural training (i.e., Did you have any cross-cultural training before departure? 1 = yes, 2 = no) might be associated with CCA as some studies showed that expatriates who received cross-cultural pre-departure training were more likely to successfully adjust to the host environment (e.g., Evans 2012 ). Since previous studies found that length of stay in the host country and international work experience could affect both CQ (e.g., Wang et al. 2017 ; Moon et al. 2012 ) and CCA (e.g., Ramalu et al. 2010 ; Lee and Kartika 2014 ), we considered the role of these constructs as control variables. Moreover, we acknowledged that CD might impact on CCA, such that the greater the CD, the greater the adjustment difficulties (e.g., Wang and Varma 2019 ). None of the control variables significantly correlated with - or had any significant impact on - the variables of interest within our models, which is why we decided to exclude them from all subsequent analyses and present models without these controls. This is in line with recommended practices (Aguinis and Vandenberg 2014 ).

Descriptive Analyses

We conducted descriptive statistics and correlations among the study variables using SPSS version 20 (Morgan et al. 2012 ). The four CQ dimensions were significantly and positively correlated with each other and with both work CCA and performance (see Table 2 ). The average inter-item correlations between CQ and outcomes was .24, suggesting that items did contain sufficiently unique variance to not be isomorphic with each other (Piedmont 2014 ).

Confirmatory Factor Analyses and Assessment of Common Method Bias

Firstly, using Mplus Version 7 (Muthén and Muthén 1998-2012 ), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with the maximum likelihood method was carried out to examine the factor structure of the study variables. Results from CFA revealed that the six-factor model (i.e., four CQ dimensions, work CCA, performance) outperformed all the alternative models (χ 2 [335] = 782.70, CFI = .78, TLI = .76, RMSEA = .09, SRMR = .10). However, to obtain a satisfactory fit (χ 2 [330] = 221.59, CFI = .90, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .07), it was necessary to take into account the high correlation existing among some items (see Table   3 ). The resulting models were built considering the modification indices which were used in this satisfactory model. Moreover, to control for common method bias, an unmeasured latent method factor was added to the hypothesized CFA model and allowed manifest indicators to load on their respective latent constructs as well as on the method factor (Podsakoff et al. 2012 ). Results indicated that the hypothesized six-factor model yielded a better fit to the data after inclusion of the method factor (Δ χ 2 [302] = 480.28, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .06, CFI = .91, TLI = .90). The method factor explained only 24% of the variance in the items, which is below the average amount of method variance (25%) reported in self-reported research (Podsakoff et al. 2012 ). Accordingly, common method bias does not appear to have a substantial impact on the present study. Finally, a second order CFA was tested, confirming that CQ loaded into its respective four sub-dimensions (χ 2 [327] = 505.460, CFI = .91, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .07).

Hypotheses Testing

Given our relatively small sample size, the Partial Least Squares (PLS) method, which is a variance-based structural equation modelling, was considered as particularly appropriate to simultaneously test whether each of the four CQ dimensions were related to performance directly and indirectly, as mediated by work CCA. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) represents a multivariate modelling technique suitable for the analysis of multiple dependent and independent latent constructs (Mathwick et al. 2008 ). This technique computes relationships between all variables simultaneously and does not necessitate multivariate normality (Zhou et al. 2012 ). Since CQ includes four components, a hierarchical component model (HCM) was created to assess the mediation model (Lohmoller 1989 ). This allowed us to reduce the number of associations in the model, making the model more parsimonious and resistant to collinearity problems (Hair et al. 2017 ). PLS-SEM methodology, utilizing a HCM, enables to examine each component of CQ independently through a higher-order construct that, by theoretical classification of HCM modelling, is a full mediator (Hair et al. 2017 ) in the process of direct and indirect associations between each component of CQ and performance. Using PLS-SEM, it is possible to evaluate each dimension separately, in addition to providing a diverse theoretical explanation for each dimension (Ott and Michailova 2018a , 2018b ). The repeated indicator approach was utilized in a reflective-formative type of HCM using SmartPLS v. 3.2.6. (Ringle et al. 2017 ) to further confirm the measurement model which was previously tested. This model comprises six reflective constructs and one second-order construct which contains latent variable scores for the four dimensions of CQ (a similar methodological approach was also taken by Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). All the items showed statistically significant and satisfactory loadings values (> 0.7; de Pablo González et al. 2014 ). The composite reliabilities of all seven constructs were acceptable as values were above 0.80 and below 0.95 (Nunnally and Bernstein 1994 ; see Table 2 ). The convergence validity was acceptable as all the average variance extracted (AVE) values were above the recommended value of 0.5 (Hair et al. 2010 ). Discriminant validity of our constructs was further confirmed as correlations between each pair of latent constructs do not exceed the square root of each construct’s AVE (Fornell and Larcker 1981 ), apart from the second-order formative construct (CQ-HCM) and the latent constructs it includes, as anticipated by Hair et al. ( 2017 ). These results further confirmed the discriminant validity of our constructs of interest.

Subsequently, the structural model was evaluated using a bootstrapping procedure (10,000 sub-samples; Hernández-Perlines et al. 2016 ). Structural coefficients presented in the PLS model (see Table 4 ) indicated that the dimensions of meta-cognitive ( β  = .10, t  = 4.13, p  < .001), cognitive ( β  = .12, t  = 3.58, p  < .001), motivational ( β  = .15, t  = 4.12, p  < .001), and behavioural ( β  = .12, t  = 3.68, p  < .001) CQ were directly and positively associated with performance. Thereby, Hypotheses 1a , 1b , 1c and 1d were confirmed. Additionally, the dimensions of meta-cognitive ( β  = .11, t  = 3.39, p  < .001), cognitive ( β  = .13, t  = 4.79, p  < .001), motivational ( β  = .17, t  = 4.30, p  < .001), and behavioural ( β  = .13, t  = 4.18, p  < .001) CQ were directly and positively related to work CCA. Thereby, Hypotheses 2a , 2b , 2c and 2d were confirmed. Work CCA ( β  = .19, t  = 1.96, p  < .05) was positively related to performance (see Fig.  2 ). Thereby, Hypothesis 3 was supported. Results from mediation models indicated that work CCA partially mediated the associations between meta-cognitive ( β  = .02, t  = 1.65, p  < .05), cognitive ( β  = .03, t  = 1.83, p  < .05), motivational ( β  = .03, t  = 1.84, p  < .05), and behavioural ( β  = .02, t  = 1.85, p  < .05) CQ and assignment specific performance. Therefore, Hypotheses 4a , 4b , 4c and 4d were confirmed. Moreover, our analysis of the structural model also includes the R 2 and Q 2 as indexes of model consistency and predictive relevance. The indicators of consistency were appropriate, even if CQ and its dimensions explained a weak amount of variation in the constructs of interest (R 2 (CCA) = .26; R 2 (performance) = .25). The predictive relevance of the indicators (Q 2 (CCA) = .70; Q 2 (performance) = .35) were in the large effect size range (Neter et al. 1990 ).

Results from models analysing the mediating effect of work CCA in the relationships between each of CQ dimension and assignment-specific performance

Further, we tested whether the strength of the relationship between CQ and performance through work CCA was conditional on the value of our expected moderators. To this end, we conducted moderated mediation models for each of the CQ dimensions using Mplus Version 7. CD weakened the relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA (β = −.06, p  < .05), but no significant interaction terms were revealed for the other CQ dimensions. Then, Hypotheses 5a , 5b and 5d were not supported. The moderated mediation effect of the interaction of motivational CQ and CD through work CCA on performance was significant (see Table 5 ). However, contrary to what expected based on Hypothesis 5c , results indicated that CD weakened the positive relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA, such that the relationship was stronger when CD was low and weaker when CD was high (β = .14, p  < .05 for low CD, β = .12, p < .05 for moderate CD, β = .11, p < .05 for high CD).

Length of residence in the host country weakened the positive association between motivational CQ and work CCA (β = −.19, p  < .01). The moderated mediation effect of motivational CQ and time of residence in the host country through work CCA on performance was particularly significant for expatriates who had been working in the host country for a shorter time (β = .44, p  < .05), but, even if it was still significant, the enhancing effect of length of residence in the host region on the motivational CQ-work CCA relationship decreased with the passage of time (β = .37, p < .05 and β = .31, p < .05; for those working in the foreign country for an average and a longer period of time, respectively; see Table 5 ). Thereby, Hypothesis 6c was supported, whereas Hypotheses 6a , 6b and 6d were rejected.

Experience moderated the relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA (β = −.35, p  < .01), but not the associations between the other CQ dimensions. However, contrary to what expected based on Hypothesis 7c , the moderated mediation effect of motivational CQ and experience through work CCA on performance was stronger for expatriates who had lower international work experience (β = .47, p  < .05) than for those who had moderate (β = .36, p < .05) or longer (β = .24, p < .05) experience (see Table 5 ). Therefore, Hypotheses 7a , 7b and 7d were rejected and Hypothesis 7c was not confirmed given that the direction was opposed to what expected.

The validity of the hypothesized models was assessed by comparing each of them (i.e., in terms of BIC and AIC comparative indices) with three competing models, as described in detail in Table 6 . The models with motivational CQ were the better-fitting models compared to those which included other CQ dimensions as antecedents.

Several findings emerged from this research which make a meaningful contribution to the existing literature on expatriates (see Fig.  3 for an overview of the confirmed hypotheses).

Model representing the hypotheses which were confirmed

First, each of the four CQ components were related to assignment-specific performance, both directly and indirectly, as partially mediated by work CCA. Then, culturally intelligent expatriates are likely to minimize cultural blunders and meet role expectations which, in turn, reduces the likelihood of misunderstandings, increasing performance (Moynihan et al. 2006 ). Moreover, they can successfully adjust to the host workplace, which enables them to channel their energies to improve their performance in assignment-specific tasks (Malek and Budhwar 2013 ; Shaffer et al. 2006 ).

Second, contrary to what expected based on Kim et al. ( 2008 ), CD is more likely to attenuate, rather than amplify, the positive effect of motivational CQ on work CCA in less culturally distant settings, such that the culturally intelligent expatriates are more likely to adjust to the host workplace and, then, perform well when CD is low. A plausible explanation is that when expatriates are confronted with more culturally different workplaces, their motivational CQ might not be sufficient to overcome the challenges posed by more complex assignments due to the greater cultural unfamiliarity (Chen et al. 2010 ; Vlajčić et al. 2018 ; Wang and Varma 2019 ).

Third, the length of residence in the host country weakens the positive relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA, such that motivational CQ is particularly salient when expatriates are in the initial stages of the adjustment process. Said differently, the greater the initial level of motivational CQ, the shorter the time required to adjust to the host country. Therefore, even if motivational CQ facilitates work CCA at any time, expatriates who are at the beginning of their assignment are likely to benefit more from motivational CQ than those who are in the host region from a longer time (Firth et al. 2014 ). Even if they were confronted with failures in their attempts of reproducing the new behaviours, cross-culturally motivated expatriates would be likely to persist at trying to imitate such behaviours longer than those with lower motivational CQ (Bandura 2002 ). This will increase the chances of receiving feedbacks, which will result in displaying appropriate behaviours; thereby, facilitating their adjustment to the new workplace and, then, their performance.

Fourth, motivational CQ is more salient for expatriates who are on their first assignment than for those who have longer experience in international assignments. Even if they have limited experience, the cross-culturally motivated expatriates tend to be more self-confident about their ability to interact with culturally diverse colleagues. They are also more willing to learn about unfamiliar cultures and experiment themselves in imitating culturally appropriate behaviours. Said differently, motivational CQ may counterbalance expatriates’ lack of experience, enabling them to adjust to the host workplace and, then, perform well.

Theoretical Implications

This research has several key contributions to expatriate literature. Firstly, this study extends Kim et al. ( 2008 ) by investigating whether specific CQ dimensions were associated with performance directly and indirectly, as mediated by work CCA. Additionally, by identifying, beyond CD, length of stay in the host country and work experience as boundary conditions for CQ effects, this research helps explain the mixed findings obtained in prior investigations on CQ.

Secondly, this study provides further evidence for the differential role of CQ dimensions (e.g., Rockstuhl and Van Dyne 2018 ) by testing mediating and moderating mechanisms which explain how and when each CQ facet is more - or less - likely to facilitate work CCA and performance.

Thirdly, our findings add to a growing body of literature on expatriate adjustment (e.g., Chew et al. 2019 ; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ) by confirming the key role of work CCA, which represents a primary factor of interest to MNCs as it is crucial for assignment-specific performance.

Fourthly, this study deepens our understanding of boundary conditions for CQ effects by showing that, of the four CQ factors, only motivational CQ was qualified by CD, length of stay and experience. On the one hand, this suggests that cognitive, metacognitive, and behavioural CQ dimensions had a positive influence on work CCA and, then, assignment-specific performance, regardless of CD, length of stay and experience. In the absence of moderation from such factors, we can confirm that, even if expatriates are on their first assignment, at the beginning of their assignment or assigned to a highly culturally diverse country, a prediction of their success can be based on cognitive, metacognitive and behavioural CQ dimensions. Such dimensions can be particularly useful in promoting performance, since the demanding work setting entails high degrees of culture-related cognitive processing, cultural awareness, and behavioural flexibility to enable for efficient problem solving (Stahl et al. 2009 ). On the other hand, this allows to consider the boundary conditions that provide insights into when motivational CQ has a stronger influence on work CCA and, then, assignment-specific performance. Even motivational CQ is a relevant skill for expatriates at any time of their assignment, expatriates benefited more from motivational CQ when they were working in the host country for a shorter period or when they had lower experience. Motivational CQ plays a peculiar role which differentiates this dimension from the others. Indeed, culturally motivated expatriates are driven to prove themselves in a large quantity of intercultural work situations (Ng et al. 2019 ), despite the challenges experienced at the beginning of a novel assignment. Furthermore, motivational CQ may compensate the lack of work experience by strengthening use of skills and resilience in the face of cultural difficulties (Bandura 2002 ). However, the positive effect of motivational CQ on CCA is necessary yet not sufficient for overcoming the challenges posed by more culturally distant workplaces, as such environments demand less familiar task requirements from expatriates. This makes the effort arouse by motivational CQ less relevant (Chen et al. 2010 ). Overall, this study adds substantially to our understanding of how motivation-related processes may contribute uniquely to expatriate effectiveness.

Practical Implications

The current study has practical implications for MNCs and international human resource management. Firstly, the finding that all CQ dimensions are related to expatriates’ performance suggests that recruiters should select and hire culturally intelligent candidates for international assignments. By evaluating applicants’ CQ and by emphasizing CQ as a critical credential that candidates – especially those with lower international experience - should have, HR representatives can select the most suitable candidates, assigning more cross-culturally motivated expatriates to foreign assignments, if possible, in less culturally distant countries.

Secondly, organizations should provide expatriates with pre-departure training programs aimed at increasing their CQ. For instance, training can offer several scenarios for work so that expatriates may be adequately prepared to comprehend and master different situations (e.g., cultural habits) when facing problems in the host country (Lin et al. 2012 ). Since our findings suggest that motivational CQ is particularly relevant to work CCA, training programs could include a module on motivational CQ (Earley and Peterson 2004 ). For example, training based on dramaturgical exercises, including role plays and simulations about intercultural interactions could be useful tools to build efficacy regarding cross-cultural challenges (ibidem). Furthermore, managers should consider fostering expatriates’ motivation prior to their assignments by emphasizing benefits related to international assignments (e.g., opportunity to develop global career competencies or monetary incentives; Hajro et al. 2017 ) and by stimulating their curiosity about diverse cultures.

Thirdly, considering the mediating role of work CCA in the relationship between CQ and performance, interventions should be implemented to enable expatriates – especially those who are on their first assignment or at the beginning of a new assignment – to receive organizational social support (i.e., from both home and host-country managers and peers) and logistical help (e.g., housing, schooling) to facilitate reaching the adjustment stage (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ). For instance, companies could consider arranging informal gatherings to help workers build strong bonds with local colleagues and assigning newcomers to experienced mentors (Chen et al. 2010 ). Moreover, MNCs should develop appropriate performance management systems for expatriates and expatriate-host country nationals interaction mechanisms to facilitate work CCA (Wang and Varma 2019 ).

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

This research suffers from some limitations which may give venues for future research.

Some concerns regard the cross-sectional design of our study and the exclusive use of self-reported measures. To decrease the risk of common method bias, we followed Podsakoff et al.’ ( 2012 ) recommendations regarding questionnaire design. Additionally, we used the unmeasured method factor technique, showing that common method variance was not a major issue. Future studies should focus on non-same-source outcomes, collect data from multiple sources (e.g., interviews, observations of actual behaviours, performance ratings from supervisors), adopt a longitudinal design and analyse CQ at the team level (Ott and Michailova 2018a , 2018b ).

Since most of research participants were men, and gender has been previously found to affect the levels of performance among expatriates (e.g., Ramalu et al. 2012 ), this might have partially influenced our findings. However, the gender distribution in our sample is highly representative of expatriate workforce in the analysed sector. Future studies should control for other variables (e.g., openness to experience, having family accompanying in the host country).

A further limitation is related to the fact that possible selection bias due to the voluntary participation into the research cannot be ruled out. It is possible that those who experienced successful CCA experiences were more motivated to respond and, as such, are overrepresented.

Since majority of respondents were from Latin America, and cultural orientation has been revealed to impact differing coping styles, such as conflict management and negotiation styles (e.g., Caputo et al. 2018 ; Caputo et al. 2019 ), this might have partially affected our results. Therefore, more research on larger sample sizes is needed to investigate how the effect of CQ on expatriate performance might vary as a function of individual’s cultural values.

As the nature of global work assignment is expanding beyond the traditional expatriation (e.g., frequent international business travel; Shaffer et al. 2012 ), future studies should investigate the relationships between specific CQ dimensions, work CCA and performance by comparing expatriates employed in different international work arrangements and by collecting data also on international skilled migrants (Hajro et al. 2019 ).

Since CQ, EQ and SI are distinct but overlapping constructs which have been found to positively interact with each other (Crowne 2013 ), future investigations should analyse associations at the subcomponent level of CQ, EQ and SI to identify how specific dimensions of each may affect expatriate performance when the three forms of intelligence are examined together.

Future studies should also analyse conditions under which higher motivational CQ levels might undermine expatriate effectiveness (e.g., through complacency; Chen et al. 2010 ), including situations characterized by ambiguous tasks (e.g., Schmidt and DeShon 2010 ).

Finally, it would be especially important to detect further contextual variables (e.g., group climate, performance management practices; Chen et al. 2010 ; Wang and Varma 2019 ) that may facilitate expatriate performance, either directly or through interactions with specific CQ dimensions.

Even though the current cross-sectional study relied only on self-report measures, it was conducted on the relatively under-investigated population of expatriates working within the energy sector in the Middle East and it addressed some gaps in the literature by disentangling the complex relationship between CQ, CCA and performance. To this end, we tested mediating and moderating mechanisms which explain how and when specific CQ facets were more - or less - likely to facilitate assignment-specific performance. Each CQ dimension had a differential role in contributing to assignment-specific performance, directly and through work CCA. Conversely, of the four CQ factors, only motivational CQ was qualified by CD, length of stay and international work experience. Our findings indicated that motivational CQ was particularly salient in overcoming work CCA difficulties for expatriates who were at the beginning of their international assignment and who had lower experience. Moreover, motivational CQ related more positively to expatriate work CCA in less culturally distant countries. We conclude with the hope that our theoretical contributions will stimulate additional multilevel and longitudinal research on factors influencing work CCA and performance to gather further knowledge about cross-cultural management.

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Appendix 1: Measurements

Demographic items.

Thank you for participating in this study. Please pay close attention to each question provided and answer each question as honestly as possible by placing a mark in the provided space. Please take care in filling out this form.

1. Gender (Please Check One): [] Male [] Female.

2. Age (in years): ______.

3. Marital status (Please Check One): [] Single [] Married.

4. Education status (Please Check One): [] High school [] Degree.

5. Role (Please Check One):

[] 1. Administrative.

[] 2. Technical.

[] 3. Executive.

[] 4. Other.

6. How many years have you spent working abroad before this assignment: ______.

7. How many months have you been working in your current country of assignment? ______.

8. Did you have any cross-cultural training (any training that prepared you for relocation) before departure? (Please Check One): [] Yes [] No.

9. What is your country of origin? ______.

10. In which country are you currently living? ______

Cultural intelligence

Read each statement and select the response that best describes your capabilities.

Select the answer that BEST describes you AS YOU REALLY ARE .

1: Strongly disagree 2: Disagree 3: Somewhat disagree 4: Neither agree nor disagree 5: Somewhat disagree 6: Agree 7: Strongly Agree.

Cross-cultural adjustment at work

Please indicate how well adjusted (how comfortable) you are with each of the following aspects of living in your current city of residence. Use the following scale:

1: Very unadjusted 2: Unadjusted 3: Somewhat unadjusted 4: Neutral 5: Somewhat adjusted 6: Adjusted 7: Very adjusted.

• Assignment-specific performance

Please rate your level of work performance to the factors listed below using the following scale:

1: Poor 2: Below Average 3: Average 4: Above Average 5: Outstanding.

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Setti, I., Sommovigo, V. & Argentero, P. Enhancing expatriates’ assignments success: the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation and performance. Curr Psychol 41 , 4291–4311 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00931-w

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Expatriate Management (Best Practice Tips)

Anne morris.

• 11 April 2020

IN THIS SECTION

Managing expatriates is a multi-stage process, where each stage can be crucial to the overall success of an overseas assignment for your business, as well as the individual assignee, on both a personal and professional basis.

The following guide looks at best practice for employers when deploying individuals overseas, including some important practical tips for expatriate management, from preparation through to repatriation.

Preparing expatriates for an overseas assignment

The management of overseas assignments can be a complex process for employers and HR personnel to get right, especially when trying to balance the cost of an assignment within the shifting demands of the global business environment against the individual needs of the expatriate.

By thoroughly preparing in advance of the assignment, and by properly investing in the necessary processes from the outset, you can help to minimise wasted expenditure and unnecessary costs at a later date. This can also help to avoid any loss of revenue, and even the potential loss of top global talent from within your organisation, resulting from a failed assignment.

The level of preparation required in the expatriate management process can vary depending on the nature and length of the overseas assignment, the location of the assignment, the number of assignees involved and the individual personal circumstances of each assignee.

In broad terms, however, your pre-assignment expatriate management process should include the following.

A comprehensive assessment of the nature and length of the overseas assignment needed to meet your business objectives, having regard to the flexibility offered by various different types of assignment, from business trips to permanent relocation. This process should also be carried out in the context of any prospective candidates, their level of experience and their personal circumstances. For the novice expatriate, the option of commuter and short-term assignments may be a sensible starting point.

The provision of an adequate compensation package to adequately incentivise prospective overseas assignees, attracting the best available candidates. This should include a suitable salary that matches or exceeds the typical salary that an employee would get paid in their home country for doing the same job, together with relocation costs and a cost of living allowance to reflect any additional daily expenditure in the host location.

Implement a thorough selection and vetting procedure for prospective assignees, ensuring they are suitably qualified and capable of undertaking the assignment in question. Each assignment will present its own unique challenges and demands, so you will need to match the right person to the job, having regard to the individual needs of the assignee in the context of the specific assignment and host location. This could include formal and informal assessments of their capabilities, career aspirations, physical and mental wellbeing, and whether they are emotionally equipped to withstand any cultural adjustment.

A full assessment of any travel and legal risks prior to deployment tailored to the specific assignment, the host destination and the individual assignee(s), ensuring that you fully research the country and region in which the assignee will be working. You should also keep abreast of any imminent changes that may affect the assignment or assignee prior to their deployment.

A pre-deployment programme of training and education for overseas assignees and their families, where applicable, about the host destination. This could include cross-cultural training and language classes, as well practical information about the region or city in terms of transport, education, recreation, healthcare services, and any safety and security issues. For those travelling to high-risk destinations this should also include security briefings and training on hostile environment awareness.

Supporting expatriates during an overseas assignment

Even with thorough preparation prior to the start of an overseas assignment and through to deployment, the provision of ongoing support for an expatriate during the lifecycle of their assignment can be key to its’ overall success.

A human-centric approach should be taken to expatriate management, where absent the right personal and professional support for your overseas assignees and their families whilst abroad, this could seriously affect the outcome.

The level of support required can again vary depending on the nature and length of the overseas assignment, its’ location t, the number of assignees involved and the personal circumstances of each assignee.

In broad terms, however, your active-assignment expatriate management process should include the following:

The provision of an ongoing benefit and support program to help assignees and their families integrate into their host destination. This could include local support, where you could consider outsourcing this role to a specialist who can help novice expats to settle into their new surroundings and signpost them to different services. You should also provide key HR contacts back home to address any personal or professional problems, or in the event of an emergency.

Ensure a positive employee experience, where psychological wellbeing and happiness while on an overseas assignment is strongly linked to expatriate success. This could include the use of informal introductions, employee-centric activities and social networking events on the assignee’s arrival in the host destination to help them integrate with their new work colleagues and other ex-pat families within your organisation.

Maintaining regular contact with your overseas assignees, ensuring effective coordination between management and HR, as well as any local support team in the host destination. Through clear communication you can help to pre-empt any problems that may lead to job dissatisfaction or difficulties with cultural integration. This can also help assignees to keep abreast of any workplace changes and not feel disconnected or isolated.

The provision of quality healthcare for maintaining the physical and mental health of your employees and their families. You should ensure that you opt for an international health insurance plan that offers the assistance and protection your assignee’s may need, including access to a 24-hour helpline that can be used to answer any medical or security questions, or facilitate the provision of emergency assistance, at a time when an assignee’s usual points of contact would not be available.

Remain fully informed of any risk factors that may impact on the assignment, where even relatively safe destinations can quickly become high-risk regions due to health, safety, security, political or social reasons. You should also be able to effectively communicate any such changes and important information to assignees working remotely, especially in relation to health and safety.

The effective use of technology, including data and analytics tools to make informed management decisions in respect of overseas assignments, from cost control to key performance indicators. Further, by providing overseas assignees with the right equipment and devices to do their job can help to maximise productivity, monitor their progress and even measure the assignee experience. This should include the provision of secure wireless networks, good connectivity and up-to-date software.

Making provision for expatriates following an overseas assignment

Having successfully completed an overseas assignment, this is not the end of the process for either you or the expatriate. The repatriation process, even though this is the last step in the expatriation lifecycle, can be just as challenging as the deployment process. In many cases this will involve a process of practical, mental and emotional readjustment for the assignee, as well as their families.

The level of support required for expatriates following an overseas assignment can vary depending on how long an assignee has spent abroad, the extent of any family ties back home and the nature of any role that they will be returning to.

In broad terms, however, your post-assignment expatriate management process should include the following:

The provision of an adequate repatriation package to adequately incentivise overseas assignees to return home to work for your organisation. This should include the potential for career progression or a suitably senior role to return to home to, ensuring that you retain your top talent and benefit from their overseas experience.

The provision of other initiatives to alleviate the risk of losing key employees, including a suitable relocation package following a long-term overseas assignment to enable an employee to easily move back to the UK. The issue of costs must always be balanced against the need to retain talent to ensure the continuity and success of your business for the future. Given their international experience, expatriates are open to being headhunted by your competitors, so the cost of financial incentives must be weighed against the risk of losing them altogether.

The use of debriefing interviews to capture lessons learned from the overseas assignment, making the most of any invaluable insight and new industry knowledge the assignee has gained from their experience abroad. This will help you to develop your business back in the UK and stay ahead of your competitors. This will also give you the opportunity to explore any career aspirations and potential options available to your assignee, as well as the possibility of any future overseas assignments.

Practical tips for effective expatriate management

Although statistically there can be a high failure rate for overseas assignments, the risk of an unsuccessful assignment can be minimised by applying the following practical tips to the expatriate management process:

• Carefully consider the assignment in the context of your business goals, including the nature of the assignment and number of assignees needed Offer adequate compensation packages to attract the best available candidates, including relocation and costs of living allowances.
• Implement a thorough selection and vetting procedure for prospective assignees, ensuring they are suitably qualified and capable of undertaking the assignment in question in the host destination.
• Thoroughly research the host destination for any travel and security risks, keeping abreast of any imminent changes that may affect the assignment or assignee.
• Thoroughly prepare your assignee for deployment through a programme of pre-deployment training, including their families where applicable Invest in an ongoing benefit and support program to help assignees and their families integrate into their host destination.
• Encourage a positive employee experience through the use of informal introductions with ex-pat families, employee-centric activities and social networking events on the assignee’s arrival in the host destination.
• Maintain regular contact with your overseas assignee to help pre-empt any problems and avoid any feelings of isolation.
• Remain up-to-date with any changes in the host destination that may affect the assignment or assignee.
• Provide adequate healthcare, including access to a 24-hour helpline and the provision of emergency assistance where needed.
• Provide adequate equipment and up-to-date ways of increasing productivity, monitoring performance and staying connected.
• Provide adequate repatriation packages to incentivise assignees to return to work for you, including the potential for career progression or a suitably senior role, as well as any necessary relocation package.
• Utilise debriefing interviews to capture lessons learned from the overseas assignment and explore potential career options available to the expatriate, including the possibility of further overseas assignments.

Need assistance?

Seeking expert advice in expatriate management is often money well spent. The cost of sending employees abroad can already be significant, but the risk of losing that investment through either a failed assignment or loss of the assignee altogether from within your organisation should be weighed in the balance.

Getting it right can result in an increase in revenue, the retention of talent and the ability to repeat the process successfully time and time again.

DavidsonMorris are employer solutions lawyers with specialist experience in global mobility and supporting businesses with their international workforce needs. For advice and help with your expat management, speak to us .

Expatriate  management  FAQs

What is expatriate in hrm.

Expatriate in Human Resource Management (HRM), commonly shortened to expat, is someone living in a country different to their own for the purposes of undertaking a short or long-term overseas work assignment. This can include employees sent to manage a new office or set up a new location.

How do you manage an expatriate employee?

Managing an expatriate employee is a multi-stage process, where each stage can be crucial to the overall success of an overseas assignment for both your business and the individual assignee. Effective expatriate management should run throughout the lifecycle of an assignment, from pre-deployment preparation through to repatriation when the employee returns back home.

How do you manage expatriate failure?

In instances where an expatriate is inadequately prepared for a short or long-term overseas assignment, or where the language and cultural differences cannot be overcome, this can often lead to early repatriation. By providing support on a personal and professional level both prior to, during and after the assignment, the risk of expatriate failure can be minimised.

Last updated: 11 April 2020

Founder and Managing Director Anne Morris is a fully qualified solicitor and trusted adviser to large corporates through to SMEs, providing strategic immigration and global mobility advice to support employers with UK operations to meet their workforce needs through corporate immigration.

She is a recognised by Legal 500 and Chambers as a legal expert and delivers Board-level advice on business migration and compliance risk management as well as overseeing the firm’s development of new client propositions and delivery of cost and time efficient processing of applications.

Anne is an active public speaker, immigration commentator , and immigration policy contributor and regularly hosts training sessions for employers and HR professionals

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About DavidsonMorris

As employer solutions lawyers, DavidsonMorris offers a complete and cost-effective capability to meet employers’ needs across UK immigration and employment law, HR and global mobility .

Led by Anne Morris, one of the UK’s preeminent immigration lawyers, and with rankings in The Legal 500 and Chambers & Partners , we’re a multi-disciplinary team helping organisations to meet their people objectives, while reducing legal risk and nurturing workforce relations.

Read more about DavidsonMorris here . 

Legal Disclaimer

The matters contained in this article are intended to be for general information purposes only. This article does not constitute legal advice, nor is it a complete or authoritative statement of the law, and should not be treated as such. Whilst every effort is made to ensure that the information is correct at the time of writing, no warranty, express or implied, is given as to its accuracy and no liability is accepted for any error or omission. Before acting on any of the information contained herein, expert legal advice should be sought.

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A Successful International Assignment Depends on These Factors

• Boris Groysberg
• Robin Abrahams

Your marriage, your family, and your career will all benefit from advance planning.

The prospect of an international assignment can be equal parts thrilling and alarming: Will it make or break your career? What will it do to your life at home and the people you love? When you’re thinking about relocating, you start viewing questions of work and family — difficult enough under ordinary circumstances — through a kind of high-contrast, maximum-drama filter.

• BG Boris Groysberg is a professor of business administration in the Organizational Behavior unit at Harvard Business School and a faculty affiliate at the school’s Race, Gender & Equity Initiative. He is the coauthor, with Colleen Ammerman, of Glass Half-Broken: Shattering the Barriers That Still Hold Women Back at Work (Harvard Business Review Press, 2021). bgroysberg
• Robin Abrahams is a research associate at Harvard Business School.

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HR Best Practices Can Lead to a Better Expat Experience

Mentoring employees before and during an expat assignment is among the effective preparation strategies for adjusting to a new country

Employees who have accepted international assignments adjust and perform better in the host country when effective HR management practices are implemented, according to a report included in a compilation of research that the SHRM Foundation recently released.

The findings in Crossing Cultures: Unpacking the Expatriate Learning and Adjustment Process over Time are based on responses from 171 expatriates surveyed 30 days before leaving for their assignments and then nine more times over the first nine months of their international assignment. The respondents—nearly three-fourths of whom were men, and most of whom had a spouse and children moving with them—were from three multinational organizations. Their assignments spanned 38 countries in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australia and Europe.

The study found that the expat’s psychological well-being, language fluency and training before relocation had a positive overall effect on adjusting in the first nine months of the international experience. The findings, the researchers wrote, underscore the importance of HR practitioners understanding the expat’s adjustment process. HR professionals must make sure their organization:

• Addresses the employee's need to develop language fluency in the international assignment.
• Offers psychological screening to assess readiness for an international assignment, including an individual’s openness to having an international experience.
• Provides strong support before and during the assignment, including setting clear expectations about the employee’s role and performance and giving feedback and assistance.
• Provides the employee with a self-assessment tool prior to the international assignment to help set realistic expectations for adjusting to the host country.
• Provides a mentor in the host country. A former, current or more experienced expatriate to offer an insider’s perspective can be especially helpful; a host-country national who is a distinguished organizational leader also would be a good choice.
• Maintains a connection between the expatriate and the home-based organization.

Mentors, Support Team

Cynthia Biro, global co-head of Skills Village at PeopleTicker, an information provider based in the New York City area, found that mentors in the host country helped her when she opened offices in various international locations. In preparation, her employer arranged for expatriates in those countries to contact her about a month before she left the U.S. Once she was in the host country, each expat spent several hours, on different days, introducing Biro to the area, including showing her where to shop for food and taking her on tours of the city to expose her to various areas and to learn the city’s history, she noted in a Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) discussion on LinkedIn.

“I cannot tell you how much it helped me in my management and expansion efforts whilst [I was] onsite. Everyone was much more approachable in the office, because we had ‘off time’ and ‘warm introductions’ beforehand. I highly suggest this strategy for others. I also had language classes, and they helped, but the introducing of expats prepared me best.”

At defense technology company Raytheon, a support team is assigned to an employee who accepts an international assignment, said Randa G. Newsome, vice president of HR and based in Waltham, Mass. The team includes a sponsor, an in-country supervisor and an HR point of contact and it remains active throughout the employee’s preparation, deployment and repatriation.

“The support team is responsible for understanding the employee’s assignment and career aspirations, and for engaging in regular communication and activities to help the employee fulfill development goals throughout their assignment,” she said in an e-mail to SHRM Online. “Most important, the support team works to place the employee in a meaningful company role upon their return—one that aligns with their career aspirations and benefits from their international experience and acumen.”

Pre-Selection Criteria, Screening

Spell out pre-selection criteria for expat assignments, said Suzanne Garber, CEO of Gauze, a Philadelphia-based global database of hospitals, in an e-mail to SHRM Online. She has been an expat and has managed and helped other expats prepare for their assignments.

“The onus is on the hiring manager to ensure that cultural compatibility is one of the determining factors to awarding an expat assignment. Without fully understanding this component of the expat assignment, it may be doomed to fail,” she noted. “Many rising executives know that obtaining an expat position is one way to propel one’s career into super-stardom. ... However, all who are chosen are not best suited. Why not? Because while the job specs were carefully crafted, the cultural aspects were not. Culture, in an expat position, trumps credentials.”

Not everyone will adapt well to a new country or culture, wrote Vancouver, Canada-based HR consultant Debra Walker in an e-mail to SHRM Online.

“Tests that show adaptability, resourcefulness, problem-solving, thinking on one’s feet, ability to work in grey [areas]—and even introversion vs. extroversion review—are good to incorporate, so that individuals that will not adapt well will have a clearer picture before they even leave home soil.”

Most multinational firms do not have a standard screening process to identify traits—such as resourcefulness and a high tolerance for ambiguity—that make for a successful expat, said James P. Johnson, Ph.D., professor of international business at Rollins College Crummer Graduate School of Business in Orlando, Fla.

“These qualities cannot be taught in a brief pre-departure cross-cultural training program. Instead, efforts should be made to identify candidates that have these traits, and to train them in the technical aspects of the international assignment, rather than select the person who has the technical skills and assume that he or she can acquire the necessary soft skills that are essential to international success,” he said in an e-mail to SHRM Online.

Language, Cross-Cultural Training

Learning the host country’s language is important, said Johnson, who has worked in Finland, Great Britain, Mexico, Spain and the former Yugoslavia.

“It can go a long way in developing relations with employees, colleagues, customers and neighbors,” he said, but advised being realistic in one’s expectations. “Traditional language training is time-intensive and crash courses can be expensive. In addition, many firms that offer language training require the employee to do it in his or her free time or take vacation days to attend a crash course.”

He also thinks cross-cultural training should be a mandatory component of an international assignment.

“Less than 50 percent of firms require it, although many are getting better in realizing that training is not only essential for the employee, but for spouses [or significant others] and family members” accompanying the employee, he noted in an e-mail. Family members should have access to training as well for help securing a driver’s license, for example, and locating babysitters, schools and English-speaking medical providers.

And Gauze’s Garber stressed that additional cultural training is a must, even if the assignee has visited, worked in or previously lived in the host country.

“It is imperative to get a briefing on what’s going on in the country now. This includes an update from a political, gastronomical, religious and security perspective.”

Richard Phillips, managing director at Britam, a risk management and training consultancy in London, has employed more than 1,000 staff members in expatriate roles over the last 11 years—most commonly in "quite challenging environments," he said in an e-mail to SHRM Online.

“The single most important part of their preparation is making absolutely sure they understand the living and working environment they are about to enter—warts and all! To avoid wasting time and money, do this first and check as part of your quality process. It is human nature to look at the positives of a role and skip the bits you don’t know much about.

“Make sure your candidates are fully appraised of the challenges, issues and differences to their previous experience to avoid them wanting to return five minutes after arrival.”

Kathy Gurchiek is the associate editor at HR News. Follow her @SHRMwriter. Join the SHRM LinkedIn discussion on preparing expats for their assignments.

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What Are The Critical Success Factors In Expatriate Assignments?

Bachelor Thesis , 2004 , 59 Pages , Grade: A

Autor:in: Thilo Weber (Author)

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Over the past decades organisations have increased their global activities. As a consequence, the role of expatriates has also grown in significance. But, as particularly American researchers claim, expatriate failure rates are still very high. So, what needs to be done to reduce these failure rates? It is the aim of this dissertation to identify the critical success factors in expatriate assignments. In order to fulfil this aim, the various stages of the so called expatriate cycle will be examined in turn. What are the success factors in the selection, the preparation, and the adaptation phase? How important are an attractive compensation package and the career outcome? All these questions will be answered by current and former expatriates who were interviewed and asked to complete a questionnaire. [...]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to Dissertation Topic 1.2 Relevant Definitions 1.3 Professional and Academic Significance of the Study 1.4 Research Objectives and Research Question 1.5 Research Design and Sample Selection 1.6 Structure of the Dissertation

2. CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Expatriation in Context 2.1.1 Motives for Expatriation 2.1.2 Problems of Expatriation 2.2 Success Factors in the Individual Phases of the Expatriate Cycle 2.2.1 Selecting Expatriates 2.2.2 Preparing and Orienting Expatriates 2.2.3 The Adjustment Process 2.2.4 Expatriate Compensation 2.2.5 Repatriation 2.3 Concluding Remarks

3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Approach and Strategy 3.2 Sample Selection and Data Collection 3.3 Ethical Issues 3.4 Generalisability, Validity and Reliability of the Findings

4. ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF FINDINGS 4.1 Success Factors in the Selection Process 4.2 Integration as Potential Success Factor 4.3 An Appropriate Leadership-Style as Success Factor 4.4 Compensation as Success Factor 4.5 Success Factors in Repatriation

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Success Factors in the Selection Process 5.2 Integration as Potential Success Factor 5.3 An Appropriate Leadership-Style as Success Factor 5.4 Compensation as Success Factor 5.5 Success Factors in Repatriation 5.6 Closing Remarks

APPENDIX A: Ethical Review Form

APPENDIX B: Questionnaire

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 2-1 The Purpose of Expatriation

Figure 4-1 Proportion of Respondents Agreeing and Disagreeing

Table 2-1 Selection Criteria

Table 2-2 Expatriates’ Advice to New Expatriates

Table 2-3 Expatriate Compensation Systems

Table 2-4 The Process of Re-Integration

Table 4-1 Selection Criteria Employed by the Companies

Table 4-2 Selection Criteria Expatriates Recommend

Table 4-3 Number of Expatriates Provided with Training

Table 4-4 Factors Contributing to a Successful Repatriation

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 background to dissertation topic.

An understanding of the management of expatriates is of growing importance because of the recent rapid increases in global activity and global competition (Young and Hamill, 1992; cited by Brewster and Harris, 1999). As multinational enterprises (MNEs) increase in number and influence so the role of expatriates in those MNEs grows in significance (Dowling et al ., 1994). According to the 1996 survey carried out by the consulting firm Organization Resources Counselors, from a sample of 546 MNEs (87 Asian, 108 European, 351 North American) the most common pattern among the majority of these companies is an increasing use of expatriates (Bonache and Fernández, 1999). The effectiveness of these expatriates and, therefore, the management of this group of employees are recognised as major determinants of success or failure in international business (Tung, 1984; cited by Brewster and Harris, 1999). According to Deresky (2003), most MNEs underestimate the importance of the human resource planning function in the selection, training and acculturation of managers assigned abroad. So, what needs to be taken into consideration when managing expatriates? What do current and former expatriates think are the critical success factors in the selection, preparation, adjustment and repatriation phases? It is the aim of this dissertation to answer that question by exploring a number of ‘cases’.

1.2 Relevant Definitions

Before going into detail, the term ‘expatriate’ should be defined. According to Mendenhall et al. (1995), an expatriate is anyone living or working in a country of which he or she is not a citizen and who can be classified as possessing skills critical to the success of the performance of foreign subsidiaries.

As Evans et al. (2002) stated, expatriation allows the firm to avoid the pathologies of excessive centralisation. Business decisions can be made locally but with the global perspective in mind. Moreover, the standards of the parent firm are transferred abroad via expatriates.

1.3 Professional and Academic Significance of the Study

The importance of expatriate success for professionals is clear. As will be seen later, expatriates are among the most expensive employees. Moreover, according to many academics, expatriate failure rates are still relatively high (see Section 2.1.2). So, in order to avoid costly mistakes, it is essential for companies to be aware of the critical success factors in expatriate assignments.

The academic significance of the study results from the fact that it represents a European contribution to the debate on expatriate failure and success. As Brewster and Harris (1999:6) put it, ‘not only is the vast mass of research into the topic conducted in the USA and focused on US companies, but the US texts have tended to set the agenda’. Furthermore, in contrast to the predominantly descriptive literature in the area of expatriation, the aim of this dissertation is to present new evidence and develop theories and frameworks from a European/German perspective.

1.4 Research Objectives and Research Question

As the above already suggests, the overall aim of this dissertation is to identify the critical success factors in expatriate assignments. This aim is achieved by:

- critically reviewing the existing literature; - developing five hypotheses to be tested; - drawing conclusions from the case study.

The five hypotheses are the research objectives that are aimed to answer in order to answer the research question. The following hypotheses were posited for this study:

- Expatriates will support the view of academics that family situation (adaptability of spouse and family, stable marriage, willingness of spouse to live abroad) and flexibility/adaptability (tolerance of ambiguity, listening skills, ability to deal with stress) are the most important success factors in the selection process. - Expatriates will support the view that integration is a key success factor and that adjustment to interaction with local nationals is more challenging than adjustment to work or to the general environment, thus stressing the need for language and cross-cultural training. - Expatriates will not support Lanier’s (1979) view that a good manager in one country will be a good manager in any country, thus stressing the need for cross-cultural training, a development of a leadership-style appropriate to the specific country, and a selection considering soft skills such as flexibility and adaptability. - Expatriates will agree that they would not have decided to move abroad, if it had not been beneficial to them financially, thus stressing the importance of appropriate compensation and benefit packages. - Expatriates will support the view that a successful repatriation strongly depends on the career outcome.

1.5 Research Design and Sample Selection

As research strategy, a multi-method approach, combining survey and case study methods, was adopted. The survey and case study involves expatriates from Germany living and working in several countries all over the world. So, in contrast to most previous studies on expatriation that are of American origin, this dissertation illustrates the topic from a European/German perspective. The author decided to interview expatriates (rather than HR-managers) because of the personal experiences they have made abroad. As sample selection method, snowball sampling is used.

1.6 Structure of the Dissertation

Including this introduction, the dissertation consists of five chapters. In the following paragraph, the issues each chapter will cover are briefly described.

The following chapter will provide a critical review of existing literature in the field of expatriation. It begins by looking at the motives for and the problems of expatriation and continues with an examination of the success factors in the various phases of the expatriate cycle. Chapter 3 will then discuss the methodological approach undertaken, covering issues such as the research approach and the research strategy chosen, a sample discussion, ethical issues and issues dealing with generalisability, validity and reliability of the research findings. In Chapter 4, using the results obtained from the survey and the interviews, the validity of the above hypotheses will be examined in turn. This examination will help to find out what the critical success factors in expatriate assignments are and, thus to answer the research question. In the last chapter, the research findings will be summarised and subsequently, it will be recommended what companies and expatriates should do in order to be effective and successful abroad.

2. CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter will provide a critical review of previous research in the field of expatriation. It begins by looking at expatriation in context (Section 2.1). In this section, the motives for and the problems of expatriation will be discussed. In Section 2.2, the critical success factors in expatriate assignments will be examined.

2.1 Expatriation in Context

2.1.1 motives for expatriation.

In their early internationalisation stages, companies usually rely on an ethnocentric staffing approach, that is, parent-country nationals (PCNs) from headquarters are sent abroad in order to maintain tight control over international operations. According to Deresky (2003), most MNEs tend to start out their operations in a particular region by selecting primarily from their own pool of managers. Over time, and with increasing internationalisation, they tend to move to a predominantly polycentric policy (key managerial positions are filled with host-country nationals [HCNs]). Reasons for this are an often increasing pressure from local governments to hire locals and the greater costs of expatriate staffing (Deresky, 2003).

Besides control and co-ordination, research on international staffing has identified a number of other principal reasons for employing PCNs from headquarters (Brewster and Harris, 1999): a perceived lack of availability of management and technical skills in some [developing] countries; to maintain trust in key foreign businesses following large international acquisitions; for representation; and for management development purposes. Further it is argued that the larger the cultural distance, the higher the proportion of PCNs in top management positions in foreign subsidiaries (Harzing, 1994).

Pucik (cited by Evans et al. , 2002) differentiates between demand-driven and learning-driven international assignments. Traditional expatriate jobs fit mainly into the former category: employees who were dispatched abroad to fix a problem or for reasons of control. Today, more and more companies recognise that cross-border mobility is a potential learning tool, thus increasing the number of assignments in which the primary driver is individual or organisational learning (Brewster and Harris, 1999; Deresky, 2003; Evans et al. , 2002).

In addition, expatriates differ in the time they spend in an assignment abroad. According to Evans et al. (2002), many assignments are long term, lasting two to four years or more whereas others are short term, less than one year, linked to a specific task or need. Figure 2-1 combines the length and purpose of the assignment together into a framework for understanding the purpose of expatriation:

Figure 2-1: The Purpose of Expatriation

illustration not visible in this excerpt

[ Source: Adapted from Evans et al. , 2002:119]

Evans et al. (2002) explain, that traditionally, most expatriates were assigned abroad for a relatively long period of time as agents of the parent firm in order to accomplish a variety of tasks related to operations and the oversight of the subsidiary. Here the demand is driven primarily by control or knowledge transfer requirements, and therefore the expatriates serve a corporate agency role. In other cases, the demand for expatriates is driven by short-term problem solving needs. Historically, most expatriate assignments were of these two types. In both cases, the expatriate has knowledge that is not available locally. Evans et al. (2002) further state that with the development of local managerial and professional capabilities, there is less demand for expatriate assignments to fill a local skill gap. This view is shared by Deresky (2003), who observed that in recent years, many MNEs have noted an improvement in the level of managerial and technical competence in many countries. At the same time, companies face an increasing need to develop global co-ordination capabilities, fostered in part by mobility across borders. The focus of these competence development assignments is on learning rather than teaching (Evans et al ., 2002). Finally, a rapidly growing type of expatriation today is short-term learning assignments of young high potential professionals who move across borders for personal and career enhancement (Evans et al. , 2002). In a number of global firms, such as BASF (Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik) or Bosch, for example, such assignments are becoming an integral part of career development planning for young professionals and managers (BASF-Daten und Fakten, 2004; Bosch heute-Informationen, 2004).

2.1.2 Problems of Expatriation

The above indicates that the use of expatriates can resolve a number of problems for an international enterprise. However, the use of expatriates also creates areas of problems. First, expatriates are very expensive. It has been estimated that an expatriate costs three or four times as much as the employment of the same individual at home (Brewster, 1988; Copeland and Griggs, 1985; Hiltrop and Janssens, 1990; cited by Brewster and Harris, 1999). In general, expatriates receive their base salary, which is supplemented with relocation allowances, cost of living differential, travel expenses and education costs (Harvey, 1996; Hiltrop and Janssens 1990; cited by Morley et al. , 1999). Second, expatriates are commonly reported to face significant adaptation problems in their new environment which make it difficult to operate effectively (Brewster and Harris, 1999). Culture shock, differences in work-related norms, isolation, homesickness, differences in healthcare, housing, schooling, cuisine, language, customs, gender roles and the cost of living are just some of the elements that have contributed to making expatriate failure one of the most significant problems facing today’s MNEs (Mendenhall et al. , 1987; cited by Morley et al ., 1999). Other major issues cited by Morley et al . (1999) include: inadequate selection criteria (Harvey, 1996; Scullion, 1991; Tung, 1981); poor pre-departure training (Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985; Philips, 1993; Scullion, 1991); poorly designed compensation packages (Hamill, 1989; Toyne and Kuhne, 1983) and the expatriate’s and/or his/her partner and family’s inability to adjust to the new culture (Black et al ., 1991; Hamill, 1989; Harvey, 1997; McEnery and Des Harnais, 1990; Scullion, 1991; Torbiörn, 1982). The latter is, according to Morley et al. (1999), the most commonly identified cause of failure in the expatriate literature.

The extent of expatriate failure and the question of defining what ‘failure’ means are controversial issues. Dowling, Welch and Schuler (1999; cited by Edmond, 2002) state that the term expatriate failure has been defined as the premature return of an expatriate. According to Evans et al. (2002), there is no shortage of references to high expatriate failure rates, with claims that as many as 40 percent of expatriations are aborted (see, for example, Deresky [2003] with reference to a study of American expatriate managers in Japan by Black [1998]). However, Harzing (1995) argues that a persistent myth of high failure rates seems to have been created by ‘massive misquotations’ of a handful of articles on U.S. multinationals, some dating back to the 1960s. Tung (1982; cited by Morley et al ., 1999) notes that recall rates among US MNEs are two to three times above those of European MNEs. The idea that European MNEs have lower recall rates than MNEs of other nationalities is reinforced by the findings of Brewster (1988), Hamill (1989) and Scullion (1991), who each found that the majority of European MNEs had failure rates of less than 5 percent (Morley et al ., 1999).

It has been questioned whether ‘premature return’ is an adequate reflection of expatriate failure. Harzing (1995), for example, concludes that expatriate failure should continue to be examined, but using the measure of underperformance. When underperformance in the new job as a result of poor cultural adaptation is included, failure rates are typically higher (Forster, 1997; PriceWaterhouse, 1997; cited by Evans et al ., 2002). According to Evans et al . (2002), a third of expatriates who stay in their position do not perform up to the expectations of their superiors. Deresky (2003) argues that half of those who do remain function at a low level of effectiveness.

Given the high risk of failure/underperformance and the fact that expatriates are among the most expensive employees, it is now more than justified to review the academic literature with regard to critical success factors. What needs to be done to avoid underperformance and premature return of expatriates?

2.2 Success Factors in the Individual Phases of the Expatriate Cycle

From a Human Resource Management (HRM) perspective, the process of expatriation can be broken down into a set of phases (Brewster and Harris, 1999; Evans et al ., 2002):

- Selecting expatriates. - Preparing and orienting expatriates. - Adjustment process. - Expatriate compensation. - Repatriation.

These activities in the ‘expatriate cycle’ will be discussed separately in the following subsections, although they are closely linked. As Evans et al. (2002) state, the problems of later phases have to be anticipated earlier – for example, repatriation has to be taken into account at the selection phase, while the purpose of preparation is to facilitate the adjustment process.

2.2.1 Selecting Expatriates

Research into selection criteria for international assignments shows a split between theory and practice, with the theory stressing the need for interpersonal skills and the practice stressing technical competence.

In a 1997 survey by Organization Resources Counselors (cited by Bonache and Fernández, 1999) technical and other professional qualifications were by far the most frequently cited criteria employed when selecting a person for an international assignment. Companies ranked seven selection criteria from most important (1) to least important (7). The percentage of companies ranking each factor as first, second, or third most important are shown in Table 2-1:

Table 2-1: Selection Criteria (n=528)

[ Source: Organization Resources Counselors, 1997; adapted from Brewster and Harris, 1999:176]

As Bonache and Fernández (1999) state, this finding is consistent with other surveys on expatriate selection criteria (Mendenhall et al ., 1987; Tung 1981, 1982; Björkman and Gersten, 1993; Brewster, 1988). Selection processes often fail to consider factors such as the candidate’s cross-cultural ability or the family’s disposition to live abroad, although there is abundant evidence that these factors also play a critical role in the success of international assignees (Bonache and Fernández, 1999). A survey by Copeland (2002), for example, revealed that only 6.2 percent of the spouses were contacted by the employer before the decision to move abroad was made.

What do academics who argue that stronger efforts should be deployed by organisations to assess ‘softer’ factors say about the characteristics of successful expatriates?

Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) identified three sets of individual cross-cultural skills: self-efficacy skills – including reinforcement substitution, stress reduction and technical competence; relational skills – including relationship development, willingness to communicate and language; perceptual skills – including understanding why host nationals behave and think in the way they do.

Ronen (1989; cited by Deresky, 2003) identified five categories of success for expatriate managers: job factors, relational dimensions such as cultural empathy and flexibility, motivational state, family situation, and language skills.

Oddou (1986; cited by Evans et al ., 2002) stated that while there are never any guarantees in identifying the ‘right’ person for the international assignment, a few indicators enhance a firm’s chances of picking a successful candidate: the capacity to adapt to change (new structures, new rules, and new faces), the open-mindedness of the candidate, sociability, self-confidence, having a supportive family, and the capacity to deal with stress.

In a more recent study on the relative importance of factors that contribute to the success of expatriates, as perceived by 338 international assignees, Arthur and Bennet (1995; cited by Bonache and Fernández, 1999) classified them into five categories: job knowledge and motivation; relational skills; flexibility and adaptability; extra-cultural openness; family situation. The authors found that family situation (adaptability of spouse and family, stable marriage, willingness of spouse to live abroad) and flexibility/ adaptability (tolerance of ambiguity, listening skills, ability to deal with stress) were perceived as the most important factors in the success of expatriates.

An interesting question then becomes: why does expatriate selection tend to focus on technical competence and domestic track record as shown in Table 2-1 above? According to Tung (1981; cited by Bonache and Fernández, 1999), the emphasis on technical competence is due to the fact that this is more easily identified than other factors such as cultural adaptability. Moreover, it is often argued (see for example Bonache and Fernández, 1999; Evans et al ., 2002) that relevant selection criteria should always depend on the strategic role of the assignment. For agency-type assignments where expatriates are used to transfer skills and knowledge (see Figure 2-1 in Section 2.1.1 above), clear managerial qualifications together with the relevant professional skills are the essential foundation. In contrast, for learning-oriented assignments, relationship abilities and cultural awareness may become more important since they are the keys that open access to new knowledge.

How do MNEs respond to these recommendations? According to Evans et al . (2002), so far, only a minority of multinationals rely on standardised tests and evaluations such as psychological profiling, cultural proficiency tests, or family readiness evaluations, although some of the desirable expatriate traits such as intercultural adaptability, conflict-resolution style, and willingness to communicate can be assessed. Evans et al. (2002) further argue that when formal assessment is used, this should not be applied to screen out unsuitable candidates. The results should instead guide objective feedback to the employee. This would then allow the potential expatriate (and the family) to carefully consider all the factors that may influence success on the assignment, to consult with experts on how to deal with problematic areas - or to decline the assignment.

Another kind of assessment tool is the ‘pre-assignment orientation visit’ for the potential expatriate and his/her family. According to a survey of Finnish MNEs by Suutari and Brewster (1998), two-thirds of the larger MNEs seem to be using this approach. It helps the local hosts to evaluate the candidate’s fit with the new environment, and the candidate can review the job and location before agreeing.

2.2.2 Preparing and Orienting Expatriates

Selecting suitable managers ( better: suitable families) is a logical first step but does not alone ensure success. A large percentage of expatriate failures can be attributed to poor preparation and planning for entry and re-entry transitions (Deresky, 2003).

Two problems make preparation and training for international assignments more complex than for domestic assignments. First, the expatriate not only has to adjust to a new job and a new role, but also to a new culture (Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985; cited by Brewster and Harris, 1999). Second, since the stress associated with a foreign assignment falls on all family members the issue of training programmes for the spouse and family need to be addressed (Harris and Moran, 1979; Harvey, 1985; cited by Brewster and Harris, 1999). According to Evans et al. (2002), preparation and training for the family, or at least the spouse, deserves the same attention and material support as for the expatriate since the spouse is typically more exposed to the local culture than the expatriate on the job.

Expatriate training programmes can include topics such as language, cultural awareness, country-specific information, cultural assimilation, flexibility, and local business norms (Romero, 2002). Although many studies indicate that expatriate training can reduce failure rates (Deshpande and Viswesvaran, 1992; Tung, 1982; cited by Romero, 2002), Tung (1982; cited by Adler and Ghadar, 1990) found that only 32 percent of US companies conducted formal international training programmes, as compared with 57 percent of Japanese companies and 69 percent of European companies. Other research shows two-thirds of American firms providing language training (Tung, 1982; cited by Brewster and Harris, 1999) and a third of organisations providing training for the entire family (Global Relocation Trends Survey Report, 2002). The belief that expatriates could be effective without preparation for their assignment is built upon the assumption of ‘universalism’: a manager who has proved to be successful in one country will be successful in any other (Lanier, 1979; cited by Brewster and Harris, 1999). This assumption is widespread in organisations and accounts for the fact that most studies of selection criteria for expatriates find that the main focus is on current competence (Suutari and Brewster, 1998). However, despite the importance of technical competence, it is also clear from the literature that applying those skills in a different cultural environment is not problem free (Suutari and Brewster, 1998).

Mendenhall et al. (1995) suggest that there are three key variables involved in the decision as to whether to provide training and the relative degree of rigour required in each case: job novelty , meaning the degree to which a new job is different from the current one; degree of interaction with host nationals ; culture novelty , meaning the degree of difference between the home country and host country in terms of value systems, behavioural norms, etc.. Mendenhall et al. (1995) further argue that differing degrees of cross-cultural training will need to be provided depending on the extent to which each of these variables is present in the expatriate assignment.

So, the requirements for preparation will vary considerably. Some basic issues, such as the job that the person is going to, the country involved and whether the family is going as well, have a significant impact on the need for preparation and the kind of preparation that is necessary (Brewster and Harris, 1999).

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What does expatriate success mean? Developing a comprehensive definition through a systematic literature review

Career Development International

ISSN : 1362-0436

Article publication date: 7 September 2023

Issue publication date: 23 January 2024

Despite being one of the most used dependent variables in expatriate management research, no clear-cut understanding exists of what expatriate success means. Thus, this study aims to propose an integrative definition of expatriate success by providing an overview of expatriate success's dimensions, antecedents, and their interplay.

Design/methodology/approach

A systematic literature review (SLR) was conducted to achieve the purpose. A total of 249 empirical studies (quantitative 111, qualitative 50, mixed-methods 17), literature reviews (67) and meta-analyses (4) on expatriate success were reviewed from Web of Science and Scopus databases published from 1990 until December 2021. The study selection criteria followed the PRISMA flowchart steps, and then descriptive and network analyses were performed to identify expatriates' success dimensions, antecedents and their interplay.

The findings show the interplay among antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success across three levels (individual, interpersonal and organisational) to clarify the concept of expatriate success. Also, the study offers a comprehensive definition of expatriate success based on the dimensions identified.

Research limitations/implications

The suggested definition of expatriate success elucidates the “atheoretical”, multidimensional and socially constructed nature of the construct and hence, calls for more “theoretical”, multidimensional and subjective considerations of the term to ground human resource management practices addressed to attain expatriates' success.

Originality/value

This paper provides an integrative definition of expatriate success, giving greater insight into the construct, in addition to critically reflecting on it.

• Expatriate success
• PRISMA approach
• Cross-cultural adjustment
• Performance
• Career development

El Amine, N.R. and Cascón-Pereira, R. (2024), "What does expatriate success mean? Developing a comprehensive definition through a systematic literature review", Career Development International , Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 3-79. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-12-2022-0326

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2023, Nour R. El Amine and Rosalía Cascón-Pereira

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

Despite the worldwide crises and current global turmoil ( PWC Global Crisis Survey, 2021 ), organisations largely remain dependent on expatriates for business success and expansion. They rely on them to establish business relations, transfer knowledge, control the subsidiary, or achieve goals set before the assignment ( DeNisi and Sonesh, 2016 ). Accordingly, expatriate success demonstrates a prominent position in the literature on expatriate management as the primary dependent variable (e.g. Kraimer and Wayne, 2004 ; Reiche and Harzing, 2011 ).

Nevertheless, this literature presents no consensus on what expatriate success means or how it is measured ( Hemmasi et al ., 2010 ). Expatriate success has been conceptualised in various ways, from individual and organisational perspectives and through objective and objectivist measures. Traditionally success depended on whether the expatriate stayed or left the mission ( Caliguiri and Cascio, 1998 ) which is a direct, objective and observable fact from the organisational perspective. Next, the second and most extended conception of expatriate success has been an adjustment-defined as the extent to which expatriates are comfortable living abroad (e.g. Black, 1990 ; Black and Gregersen, 1991 )– to the new assignment and environmental context. However, this is an “objectivist measure” of career success since respondents rate their level of adjustment with researcher-imposed expatriate success criteria without considering the concept's subjective nature ( Briscoe et al ., 2021 ). A third and more contemporary conception of expatriate success is based on achieving the organisational goals for the assignment ( Harzing and Christensen, 2004 ). Even though this measure of success is not standard but adapts to the nature of each organisation and international mission, it still leaves out the phenomenological and subjective nature of the construct. The lack of consensus on expatriate success measures and definitions extends to the studies investigating their antecedents. For instance, they associated expatriate success with one or more of the following: adjustment ( Black et al ., 1991 ), withdrawal cognitions ( Shaffer and Harrison, 1998 ), job performance ( Caligiuri, 1997 ), organisational commitment ( Florkowski and Fogel, 1999 ) and assignment completion ( Reiche and Harzing, 2011 ). The most widely used dimension as a proxy measure of expatriate success is cross-cultural adjustment (CCA), performance, satisfaction and organisational commitment, respectively ( Hemmasi et al ., 2010 ). Also, this disagreement is evident in how studies used one concept (e.g. adjustment) as either a measure (e.g. DeNisi and Sonesh, 2016 ) or antecedent of success (e.g. Benson and Pattie, 2009 ; Templer, 2010 ; van Bakel et al ., 2011 ). Regarding this, a more comprehensive understanding of expatriate success that considers its multidimensionality is needed.

On another note, according to the dictionary, success is “the fact that an individual has achieved something they want and have been trying to do or get” ( Oxford University, 2022 ). Also, contemporary careers literature suggests that career success is “the experience of achieving goals that are personally meaningful to the individual, rather than those set by parents, peers, organisation, or society” ( Mirvis and Hall, 1994 , p. 366). Both definitions are synonymous with individual achievement and depend on objectives, which are subjective and differ from one individual to another. Hence, being “successful” holds different meanings for different people ( Nugin and Onken, 2010 . Furthermore, success is a socially constructed phenomenon ( Dries, 2011 ). However, this socially constructed, phenomenological and subjective nature has been overlooked in the extant definitions of expatriate success often disregarding various aspects of expatriate success depending on whether it's explored from an individual or organisational perspective (e.g. Kraimer and Wayne, 2004 ; Van der Laken et al ., 2016 ). For instance, defining expatriate success as the completion of the assignment ( Tung, 1981 ) overlooks the expatriate performance throughout, the repatriate turnover from the organisational perspective (e.g. Mezias and Scandura, 2005 ), expatriate subjective perceptions of success (e.g. Mello et al ., 2020 ) or their perceived career expectations from the individual's perspective ( Haski–Leventhal et al ., 2020 ; Sokro et al ., 2021 ). Thus, this “objective” conception is insufficient to capture the multidimensionality of the construct of expatriate success particularly when recently the subjective dimension of expatriate success expressed as forms of work satisfaction, life satisfaction, or well-being related to career ( Canhilal et al ., 2015 ) has gained importance. Therefore, a broader conception of expatriate success that considers its subjective nature is needed.

Therefore, this study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of expatriate success by conducting a systematic literature review (SLR) guided by the following objectives: (1) identify the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success, (2) determine the interplay among them and (3) identify previous definitions of expatriate success in the literature and provide an integrative definition of it. By achieving these objectives, the contribution of this SLR to the expatriate literature is twofold. First, it provides greater insight into the different dimensions of expatriate success and their interplay, highlighting the construct's multidimensional and socially constructed nature. Second, it provides an integrative definition, combining individual and organisational perspectives with subjective and objective measures of success.

In what follows, we describe in detail how we proceeded with the SLR following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) steps (selection process, article risk of bias assessment, methods of analysis) and, then discuss the findings. Finally, we conclude and reflect on the possibilities for future research that this new integrative understanding of the construct provides.

Methods and methodology

Study selection process.

We conducted a SLR ( Tranfield et al ., 2003 ) to elucidate the concept of expatriate success further and critically analyse what has been missed from this concept. Compared to narrative literature reviews, SLR minimises the bias involved in identifying, selecting and analysing studies, as it is based on replicable methods ( Needleman, 2002 ). Our SLR documents were selected, and the findings reported according to the PRISMA approach ( Moher et al. , 2009 ). This approach is most suitable for SLR because it eliminates bias in the above tri-phasic (article selection, analysis and reporting) workflow ( Petticrew and Roberts, 2006 ; Priyashantha et al ., 2021a , b ).

Following the 3-step PRISMA flow diagram ( Figure 1 : Page et al ., 2021 ) for study selection, the first step involved determining search terms, selection criteria and electronic databases. Preliminary results show that “expatriate success' was commonly associated with keywords like adjustment, performance, productivity, satisfaction, turnover and withdrawal. Our inclusion criteria ( Table 1 ) were document types (book chapters, conference proceedings, journal articles), English language, and published between 1990 and 2021. Next, we searched Scopus and Web of Science separately using the combined terms (“expatriate success”) AND each keyword in the topic, title and abstract.

Searches on Scopus and WOS yielded 895 studies. After eliminating duplicates, we reviewed the titles and abstracts of 650 studies for relevance. We excluded 388 unrelated documents (e.g. seasonal marine life expatriation, novels). After which, we conducted a second round of inspection, resulting in 262 studies. Out of these, 13 studies were excluded because of inaccessibility. Then, we screened the remaining 249 eligible studies, recording the journal name, year, author, information on the nature of the study, theory(ies) adopted, variables used as either antecedents and/or dimensions, methods, themes and whether an explicit definition of expatriate success is provided ( Table A1 in appendix ).

Study risk of bias assessment

Study selection and subsequent analysis may be significantly influenced by the researcher's subjectivity, negatively affecting the review's quality ( Kitchenham and Charters, 2007 ). However, the empirical evidence in support of quality assessment is so little that no consensus exists on the basis of such assessments ( Thomas and Harden, 2008 ). As such, the selected studies were subjected to an assessment that is based on the relation with our focus on the research, and the inclusion and exclusion criteria only, and coupled with the fact that only WOS- and Scopus-retrieved publications were considered on the basis that such documents have already been peer-reviewed ( Xiao and Watson's, 2019 ). That was done independently and in parallel by the two authors of this article ( Brereton et al ., 2007 ) who formed a consensus regarding the 249 included studies.

Methods of analysis

We performed a ‘descriptive analysis (see Findings) by identifying the frequency that expatriate success-related variables were treated as dimensions and/or antecedents of success, authors, dates, journals, research methodologies, data collection techniques, unit of analysis (individual, interpersonal and organisational levels) and theories. This allowed us to satisfy objectives to (1) identify the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success ( Table A1 in the appendix ) and (3) clarify the definition of expatriate success in the previous literature ( Table A2 in the appendix ). Hence, antecedents, dimensions and definitions were the overarching themes or analytical codes extracted deductively from the research objectives.

Through inductive thematic analysis of the articles ( Thomas and Hardens, 2008 ), we were able to identify different dimensions (e.g, CCA, Performance, Satisfaction) and antecedents (e.g. CCA, Motivation to migrate, Interaction with HCNs) of success as first-order codes and classify them into three levels (individual, interpersonal and organisational). Subsequently, we used these first-order and second-order codes to analyse expatriate success definitions and trends based on the frequencies of these codes (see findings). Next, we conducted this analysis manually by tabulating the information in chronological order for a better understanding ( Table A1 in the appendix ) and to highlight the contrast and trend of expatriate success definition across the years ( Table A2 in the appendix ). Drawing on Rousseau et al. 's classification ( 2008 ), we used integration and interpretation methods to analyse and synthesise our data. Integration is a process of triangulation across different studies and methods to answer specific questions and examine the approaches taken to the topic. This enabled us to answer the following questions: What variables did the studies consider and how? How did the studies define expatriate success? And what theoretical framework did they adopt? Interpretation involves collecting descriptive data, pinpointing its common concepts and transferring them to new classifications to develop new constructs. Although, we didn't explicitly develop a new construct, however in systematically classifying its dimensions and critically indicating what is missed from the extant definitions we extended and developed the construct further.

We used VOSviewer version 1.6.11 ( Van Eck and Waltman, 2010 ) to generate a perceptual map of the final sample to satisfy objective (2), that is to determine the interplay between antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success. VOSviewer is a software tool that helps create and visualise maps based on network data using objects of interest (e.g. keywords). The relationship between these items is shown by the way they link together. All of the links and items constitute the network. After running our sample, the final list contained 29 terms ( Figure 2 ). These terms are connected by lines and are labelled with coloured nodes. The node's size is positively correlated with the occurrence of terms in the titles and abstracts. The more co-occurrences between two terms is evident in their closer proximity on the map, colour similarity and the stronger the link between them ( Van Eck and Waltman, 2010 ). Finally, we obtained a complex visualisation of clusters and networks ( Figures 3 and 4 ). The five clusters demonstrate how the antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success are interrelated, thus helping us to attain objective 2. For example, in the blue cluster-the biggest node- (CCA) is linked to HCNs, attitude, satisfaction and turnover intentions. This linkage helps answer our objective to determine the interplay between antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success.

Profile of included studies

This section explains the characteristics of the final 249 studies we included ( Table 2 ). The 249 studies were published between 1990 and 2021 across 104 journals, 14 books and 15 of which were conference proceedings. These studies involve 482 authors from 41 countries, indicating broad coverage. The average citation rate for each article during this period was 34. In total, 531 author keywords were determined. 111studies adopted quantitative methods (44.6%), 64 were conceptual (25.7%), 50 qualitative (20%), 17 mixed-methods (6.8%), four meta-analyses (1.7%) and three conducted SLRs (1.2%).

Identifying the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success

This section addresses our first objective: identifying the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success. Across 249 studies, relationships between factors considered antecedents or dimensions of expatriate success were investigated ( Table A1 ). Noticeably, 167 studies (67.1%) were atheoretical in contrast to, 82 (32.9%) which were theory-informed (the 10th column in Table A1 ). Although in this analysis, we do not distinguish between Oes (organisational expatriates) and SIEs (self-initiated expatriates), and our findings confirm Pinto et al .'s (2020) criticism of SIE's studies as atheoretical or theoretically fragmented without further understanding underlying motives and drivers of success. However, in the last 4 years, theory-based explanations of expatriate success increased ( Figure A1 in the appendix ).

Two dimensions received the most attention in expatriate studies, namely the individual (62.6%) and the organisational (45%). Recently, the interpersonal dimension gained further attention (6.8%). Various studies investigated the individual dimensions: subjective and self-reported such as CCA ( Webb and Wright, 1996 ; Cao et al. , 2013 ), satisfaction, whether life, self, career, or job ( Gabel et al. , 2005 ; Canhilal et al. , 2015 ), success, whether in the career, job or in self-development ( Cerdin and Le Pargneux, 2009 ; Bashir et al. , 2021 ), the expatriate's perspective on work-family balance ( Valk et al. , 2014 ), job security, personal growth, authenticity and ability to live contentedly ( Valk, 2021 ). Other dimensions investigated were knowledge gain ( Bonache and Zárraga-Oberty, 2008 ), financial gains (earnings, salaries) and promotions and the duration to obtain the latter after the assignment ( Bolino, 2007 ).

The organisational dimensions considered are expatriate performance (e.g. Hiltrop and Janssens, 1990 ; Caliguiri and Phillips, 2003 ), intention to complete the international assignment (IA) ( Kraimer and Wayne, 2004 ), completing the IA ( Caliguiri, 1997 ), effectiveness during the IA ( Lee and Donohue, 2012 ), achieving organisational goals ( Porter and Tansky, 1999 ), job withdrawal intentions ( Harcar and Harcar, 2004 ), turnover intentions ( Bozionelos, 2009 ), commitment to the organisation ( Hemmasi et al. , 2010 ), tenure after repatriation ( Varner and Palmer, 2005 ), expatriate return on investment ( McNulty and Cieri, 2013 ), ability to work effectively ( Lee and Donohue, 2012 ) and the organisation's use of knowledge gain ( Toh et al. , 2012 ).

Lastly, the interpersonal dimensions are concerned with relationship building and identification with the team abroad ( Harrison and Shaffer, 2005 ), knowledge transfer among host-country nationals and their career capital gain ( Toh et al. , 2012 ), contribution to society and family ( Valk et al. , 2014 ) and work-family balance (from the family's perspective) ( Kempen et al. , 2015 ).

Despite the many studies covering the different dimensions, we rarely found studies that addressed those antecedents and dimensions across all three levels jointly except for Porter and Tansky (1999) and Toh et al. (2012) further clouding the meaning of expatriate success. This was evident in the 3 SLRs, which each address expatriate success's dimensions and antecedents differently. Van der Laken et al . (2016) focused on perceived organisational support's impact on expatriate success. Weisheit (2018) studied expatriate success from an individual standpoint, emphasizing the importance of an employee's readiness to relocate. Lastly, Faeth and Kittler (2020) explored expatriate management in hostile environments from a multi-stakeholder perspective. Despite the fragmented studies, our findings confirm that expatriate success is multidimensional, as indicated by previous literature ( Toh et al. , 2012 ) ( Table A1 ).

The interplay between individual, interpersonal and organisational antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success

This section addresses our second objective showing the intertwined relationships between the antecedents and dimensions. In what follows, we discuss the most frequently studied dimensions and show how some antecedents are related.

Depending on the study, adjustment was designated as an individual dimension or antecedent of success. The most widely studied dimension was CCA in its different forms (psychological, socio-cultural and work). Then, 111 studies (44.6%) considered CCA a dimension of expatriate success. In contrast, 33 articles (13.3%) considered it an antecedent of expatriate success, good performance, intention to complete the IA and expatriate well-being. Thus, adjustment has been mostly equated to success rather than an antecedent of it despite several individual antecedents shaping expatriates' CCA. For example, the Big Five personality characteristics explicitly related to expatriates' CCA ( Ones and Viswesvaran, 1997 ). Also, other antecedents of expatriate adjustment were also investigated: cultural intelligence (CQ, e.g. Huff, 2013 ) 12 studies (4.8%), (emotional intelligence (EQ; e.g. Cray et al. , 2018 ) six studies (2.4%); motivation to migrate ( Van den Bergh and Du Plessis, 2012 ) and willingness to go on IAs (e.g.  Wan, 2019 ) six studies (2.4%)). Other explored factors were language proficiency (e.g.  Caliguiri et al. , 2009 ; Huff, 2013 ), management and leadership skills ( Harjo, 2016 ).

Also, interpersonal antecedents played a significant role in expatriates' CCA: the family's (and spouse's) adjustment and their willingness to go on IAs (e.g. Van Vianen et al. , 2008 ) and interaction with HCNs (e.g. Varma et al. , 2012 ; Van Bakel, 2019 ). Several organisational antecedents also affected expatriates' CCA such as selection criteria. Organisations whose primary selection criteria were the expatriate's mental ability, Big Five personality characteristics and EQ facilitated the expatriate's CCA ( Gabel et al. , 2005 ). Selecting the right candidate, providing them and their accompanying families with adequate cross-cultural training (CCT) and preparation (e.g. Hiltrop and Janssens, 1990 ; McCabe, 1993 ) were crucial to adjustment. Organisational support also contributed to CCA ( Hiltrop and Janssens, 1990 ; Webber and Vögel, 2019 ). Kraimer and Wayne (2004) believe that this perceived organisational support and efforts is crucial for expatriates' CCA and well-being. David et al. (2021) showed that POS and family-supportive work perceptions could enhance the odds of an expatriate's success as it alleviates the burdens they potentially face when accompanied by their family. If expatriates perceive the company's support positively, they will adjust more readily.

Performance is the second most frequent dimension involved in expatriate success. Although only one study (0.4%) considers it an antecedent of success, 80 (32.1%) consider it one of the critical dimensions of success from the organisational perspective. Similarly, various individual antecedents shaped CCA and satisfaction and impacted expatriates' performance. For instance, in addition to Big Five personality characteristics, CQ ( Huff, 2013 ), EQ ( Cray et al. , 2018 ), motivation to migrate ( van den Bergh and Du Plessis, 2012 ), willingness to go on IAs (e.g. Wan, 2019 ), language proficiency (e.g. Caliguiri et al. , 2009 ; Huff, 2013 ), management and personal leadership skills ( Harjo, 2016 ) have also been correlated with expatriate performance as a dimension of success.

Furthermore, to ensure optimal performance, organisations must also consider the expatriate candidate's technical abilities, stress tolerance, flexibility, communication skills, cultural empathy, spouse adaptability and subsidiary-parent company relations ( Hiltrop and Janssens, 1990 ). Harvey et al. (2001) showed the impact of a candidate's level of motivation on their performance. Lee and Kartika (2014) suggest that both CCA and expatriate performance and knowledge transfer are influenced by interpersonal factors, for example. Similarly, performance is primarily shaped by the same interpersonal and organisational antecedents.

The third most frequent dimension of expatriate success was expatriate satisfaction. Satisfaction appeared as a dimension of success in 35 studies (14.1%) but as an antecedent in only three (1.2%), which indicates that satisfaction was mainly considered an essential dimension of success but not a contributing factor, and various antecedents shaped it. Although satisfaction is one of the critical dimensions of expatriate success, unlike CCA, it is not considered a dimension of success on its own. Instead, satisfaction complements other dimensions of success, such as CCA ( Supangco and Mayrhofer, 2014 ), intention to complete the IA ( Mezias and Scandura, 2005 ), turnover intention ( Bozionelos, 2009 ) and withdrawal cognition ( Canhilal et al. , 2015 ). Further, several factors contribute to expatriate satisfaction. Interaction with HCNs relates to expatriate job satisfaction and intention to complete the IA ( Konanahalli et al. , 2011 ; Templer, 2010 ). Organisational support and the extent to which expatriates and HCN support perceive it contributes to their satisfaction with their career and intention to complete the assignment ( Cao et al. , 2014 ). Similarly, this perceived organisational support affects their life and family satisfaction ( David et al. , 2021 ).

Other dimensions of expatriate success from the organisational perspective were the completion of the IA (e.g. Lazarova et al. , 2015 ) and willingness to remain (e.g. Braga and Kubo, 2010 ), both with 20 studies (8%); intention to stay with 13 studies (5.2%) (e.g. Cao et al. , 2014 ); premature returns with four studies (1.6%) (e.g. Canhilal et al. , 2015 ); and withdrawal cognition with four studies (1.6%) (e.g. Davis et al. , 2018 ). Ten studies (4%) address commitment to the organisation as another dimension of success ( Chen, 2015 ; Gallego-Toledo, 2015 ; Van Der Laken et al. , 2016 ). To a lesser extent, other organisational dimensions of expatriate success that were considered sporadically were knowledge transfer (2%), tenure after repatriation (0.4%) and effectiveness (2%). As for achieving organisational goals like financial targets and market shares (0.2%), Porter and Tansky (1999) showed that specific individual antecedents (e.g. assimilation, endurance, psychological factors and career expectations) play a significant role in increasing expatriate chances of achieving such goals, adjusting better and completing the IA.

Finally, knowledge transfer was considered one of the interpersonal dimensions in only three articles (1.2%). While Toh et al. (2012) investigated the role played by organisations in providing adequate CCT to expatriates to ensure this transfer, Wang and Varma (2018) highlighted the critical role of HCNs. Bonache and Zárraga-Oberty (2008) echoed this and added the need for the right abilities and motivation. Contribution to home country society and family, work-family balance and satisfaction were other dimensions of expatriate success at this level ( Valk et al. , 2014 ). Moreover, as one key interpersonal dimension of expatriate success, CCA affects relationship building and identification with the team abroad ( Harrison and Shaffer, 2005 ; Denisi and Sonesh, 2016 ). Hence, the interplay of individual, interpersonal and organisational antecedents shapes these interpersonal dimensions.

To complement these findings, we used VOS viewer to generate several maps highlighting our sample's networks of the keywords co-occurrence. These maps represented five clusters, namely the following: International career success (Cluster 1 in red); Success determined by selection based on personal characteristics (Cluster 2 in green); Success as adjustment and satisfaction influenced by interpersonal factors (Cluster 3 in blue); Success as the lack of expatriate failure facilitated by spouse's organisational support and training (Cluster 4 in yellow); and finally, success linked to commitment and performance enabled by social support (Cluster 5 in purple).

Figure 3 represents the network of co-occurrences of all 29 terms in the five clusters. Figures 2 and 3 show that the “Expatriate success' node is the largest in our sample. It occurred 233 times and is linked to the other terms. This is expected as the studies in our sample specifically relate to expatriate success, the main keyword. The “Expatriate adjustment” node has the highest total strength link (1,364). This node has 27 links (out of 28), reflecting that expatriate adjustment was highly researched and considered the most frequent dimension or antecedent of success. “Performance” has 26 links, the third strongest links (920) and occurred 139 times.

The five clusters show that expatriate success is not a uni- or bi-dimensional concept. Instead, it is multidimensional and affected by diverse factors at differing levels. The main dimensions considered were adjustment, performance, satisfaction, commitment, effectiveness, turnover intentions, career success and repatriation success, therefore, taking the individuals' and the organisation's perspectives into account.

This map ( Figure 4 ) echoes our previous finding about expatriate success, shifting to focus on global career success and involving the whole career, not only the IA. For instance, none of the terms is shaded in blue (oldest), and most are in light orange (more recent). Although authors explored adjustment, performance and expatriate success since the 1990s, these terms appear to be emphasised more recently (light orange) as the research intensity increased as of 2009. Our findings show that research on these dimensions tripled from 67 articles between 1990 and 2006 to 182 articles from 2007 to 2021. The dimensions considered from 2009 onward are career success, repatriation, satisfaction and turnover intention.

Definitions of expatriate success

In this section we satisfy the third objective, by reviewing the existing definitions of expatriate success and suggesting an integrative one. Although researchers studied expatriate success in many ways and from various lenses, no consensus on one definition exists. As mentioned, different dimensions have been considered for the same concept making comparing them difficult. Our findings reveal that very few studies explicitly define expatriate success: only 31 (12.4%) studies, from which only half, 16 (51.6%), were grounded in some theory ( Table A2 in the appendix ). In 5 out of 16 studies, authors adopted Human Capital Theory ( Becker, 1964 ) thus reflecting the predominance of the organisational perspective when defining expatriate success. Conversely, the importance of the interaction and exchange between the organisation and the individual to define expatriate success also seems relevant, with 5articles out of 16 using either Person-Environment Fit Theory ( Kristof, 1996 ), Social Exchange Theory ( Blau, 1964 ) or relational models of procedural justice ( Tyler and Lind, 1992 ), thus highlighting the organisational perspective in the definition of expatriate success. The use of psychological theories focussing on the subjective dimension of expatriate success at the individual level, such as Anxiety and Uncertainty Management Theory ( Gudykunst and Nishida, 2001 ), Conservation of Resources Theory ( Hobfoll, 1989 ) and Regulatory Focus Theory ( Higgins, 1997 ) are less used to define success, with only three articles out of 16.

Of these 31 articles that define success, 12 (38.8%) considered either individual (e.g. CCA) or organisational (e.g. performance) dimensions, 17 (54.8%) took both dimensions into account, 1 (3.2%) considered the individual and interpersonal dimensions (e.g. knowledge transfer) and 1 (3.2%) highlights all three.

Also, these studies differed in how they refer to success: 12 (38.8%) used the term “expatriate success”, eight (25.8%) used “career success”, eight (25.8%) used “success in the IA”, 2 (6.4%) contrasted “expatriate success” and “failure” and one (3.2%) combined “expatriate success” with “success in the IA”. More than half, 16 (51.6%), focused on the success of OEs. The rest either investigated SIEs (five studies, 16.2%), did not specify the type of expatriate of interest (eight studies; 25.8%), or investigated both OEs and SIEs (two studies, 6.4%). So, comparably, fewer studies defining expatriate success were referred to as SIEs. It is also worth noting that when referring to success in the IA, which is bound to the assignment's corporate goals, authors studied OEs solely, whereas both OEs and SIEs were the subjects of the studies on career success with a broader focus going beyond the attainment of the corporate goals.

The first to suggest a definition of expatriate success was Zeynep Aycan in 1997. She considered both individual and organisational perspectives and proposed that success can be defined by expatriates' levels of adjustment and performance. Also, Caligiuri (1997) explored these two dimensions and suggested that the three most common criteria for evaluating expatriate success were the following: completion of the foreign assignment, CCA and performance on the foreign assignment in this order. Also, Porter and Tansky (1999) considered success "in terms of the expatriate achieving specific objectives but considered from the organisational perspective. These objectives often include some financial goals but might also be in the form of market share gain, introducing a new product or service, cycle time improvements, or quality objectives” (p. 47). Other researchers ( Caligiuri, 1997 ; Kraimer and Wayne, 2004 ) reported similar definitions of expatriate success and related it to adjustment, performance, completion of the IA, or even the organisation's return on investment on its expatriates ( McNulty, 2008 ). Hence, authors have been more interested in equating expatriate success to tangible and organisational dimensions rather than subjective and individual dimensions, showing a predominance of the organisational perspective in their definitions of expatriate success.

Another trend observed when analysing these definitions is that while previous studies mainly emphasised objective and factual measures of success, such as completing the IA or promotions, more recent definitions started incorporating more subjective measures. For instance, Gabel et al. (2005) introduced life satisfaction as an additional measure of success. Other subjective measures, such as expatriates' gain in knowledge from IAs, fulfilled psychological contracts reflecting the individuals' perspective ( Kumarika Perara et al. , 2017 ), and career and job satisfaction ( Traavik and Richardsen, 2010 ) have been considered. Hence, research attempted to provide greater insight into expatriate success by simultaneously focussing on subjective and objective measures that capture the individual's and the organisation's perspectives.

Finally, another consideration that can be drawn from the findings is that of a broader time scope that goes beyond success in the IA and encompasses long-term career success. Cerdin and Le Pargneux (2009) proposed this idea and incorporated both the IA and the long-term career. They added expertise, career, job and development success concepts. They also shed light on the importance of measuring all these during expatriation and after repatriation to define success. Traavik and Richardsen (2010) also explored career success and proposed subjective (e.g. career, job satisfaction) and objective outcomes (e.g. rewards, promotions) to measure it. Valk et al. (2014) considered new dimensions of expatriate success while relating it to career success. They found that the outcome of a successful international career is the work-family balance, self-satisfaction and contribution to the family and home-country society. Three other studies ( Blanco and Castillo, 2020 ; Hamori and Koyuncu, 2011 ; Schmid and Wurster, 2017 ) also related expatriate success to career success but considered the time required to get to the top as the measure of this success. Blanco and Castillo pointed out that the longer expatriates are away from the HQ, the longer they will take to get to the top and, therefore, the less successful they will be. Conversely, Ramaswami et al. (2016) considered that the more international experience expatriates exhibit, i.e. the more time spent on IAs, the more human capital they possess, the more rewards they obtain and, therefore, the more successful they are.

This perspective was recently updated. Harry et al. (2019) , Waxin and Brewster (2020) , Mello et al. (2020) and Lazarova et al. (2021) all provided more recent definitions of expatriate success and linked it to career success and its objective and subjective outcomes. Mello et al. (2020) defined expatriate success as including different subjective and objective measures at the individual level. They mainly focused on the accomplishment of desirable, positive psychological or work-related outcomes, on tangible, objective and measurable features such as promotions or salaries as objective outcomes, and career satisfaction, career success and finally, the multidimensional evaluation criteria of career facets, such as growth and development, personal life and authenticity as subjective outcomes. Then, we found that the definitions by Valk et al. (2014) and Mello et al. (2020) are the most integrative, comprehensive and inclusive. They tackle the individual, interpersonal and organisational aspects and use the subjective and objective measures of an expatriate's success to describe this complex and multi-faceted concept, even though their definitions apply to SIE.

In sum, over time, the definition of expatriate success evolved. First, it was associated with merely completing an assignment measured factually and objectively. Then, it incorporated the expatriates' ability to adjust, measured in a self-reported way, perform well and achieve organisational goals, measured by the organisation. Finally, it considered the efficient transfer of knowledge and expertise and several subjective dimensions of career success.

Research on expatriate success often overlooked the construct's multidimensionality and subjective and socially constructed nature failing to achieve a consensus on defining it. Our findings support this notion and show the various antecedents and dimensions to understand expatriate success. These antecedents and dimensions were not independent, as a visible interplay was found among them across individual, interpersonal and organisational levels. Considering the dimensions identified and discriminating them from antecedents, we suggested a comprehensive definition, complementing the extant ones (e.g. Aycan, 1997 ; Mello et al ., 2020 ). Next, we discuss each of our findings to their respective objectives next.

The first objective of identifying the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success has been thoroughly fulfilled through our findings, which comprehensively address individual, interpersonal and organisational ones. Specifically, our SLR clarifies the concept by systematically categorising and integrating the antecedents and dimensions that were previously primarily investigated separately and only rarely in combination. It also identifies which dimensions (CCA, performance and satisfaction in this order) have been most frequently studied as proxies of expatriate success, which level of analysis (individual and organisational mostly) and which perspective (primarily organisational). From these findings, we conclude that expatriate success is a multidimensional construct that needs to be analysed individually, interpersonally and organisationally from two perspectives, namely individual and organisational (e.g. Harry et al ., 2019 ; Lazarova et al ., 2021 ) jointly to be adequately measured. While each level is essential to understanding expatriate success, no single level can be considered the sole determiner. Thus, categorising these antecedents and dimensions ( Table A1 ) provides a much-needed boundary-clarification of the concept of expatriate success. This clarification calls for attention for future studies in expatriate management research to specify what they mean by success when analysing it as a variable. This specification is necessary to compare studies and create an integrated corpus of knowledge.

Our second objective of the SLR, the interplay among the factors across the different levels is evident in the five clusters that emerged from VOSviewer. Interestingly, four out of the five clusters evidenced the importance of interpersonal and organisational factors on the dimensions of success. The interplay between the antecedents and outcomes at the individual and interpersonal levels contributes to understanding expatriate success. Personality traits play a significant role in facilitating the expatriates' adjustment and, subsequently, success in their IA. Also, the HCNs' attitudes toward expatriates are equally important as emphasized by some studies that a good level of communication between the two parties often leads to a better CCA, performance, intention to complete the IA and overall satisfaction ( Templer, 2010 ; Konanahalli et al ., 2011 ; Cao et al. , 2014 ). All these factors increase expatriates' satisfaction with their job and career, which will likely be reflected in their decreased turnover and withdrawal intentions. Furthermore, the interplay is also evident across the three levels together. For instance, expatriates' commitment to the mission and organisation and their performance seems to be highly influenced by the level of social support provided at the interpersonal level. The social support from the expatriates' family, community, and new work surroundings can play either a positive or a negative role in an expatriate's commitment levels to the job, performance and CCA, all of which consequently reflect on their success ( Goby et al. , 2002 ). Undoubtedly, this success is also ensured by a positive performance which is also impacted by the level of social support ( Konanhalli et al. , 2011 ; Araci, 2015 ).

Finally, in line with our third objective, we propose an integrative, multidimensional and multi-level definition of expatriate success. Expatriate success is a socially and scholarly constructed term that comprehensively and integratively evolved and acquired new dimensions at the individual, interpersonal and organisational levels. The trend in this evolution has been divergent rather than convergent making the concept more broadly defined with new, previously unnoticed dimensions. The definition we put forward reflects this expansive trend and incorporates less-noticed dimensions and perspectives for a more holistic understanding of the construct. Hence, we propose the following definition: “expatriate success encompasses all dimensions: the individual (adjustment, satisfaction, career success and work-life balance), the interpersonal (HCNs and expatriate relationship, HCN career capital gain, knowledge transfer and work-family balance) and the organisational (performance, commitment, completion of IA, achieving organisational goals, repatriation success, turnover intention, knowledge transfer and effectiveness).” The interplay between these three dimensions shows that expatriate success can only happen when all the stakeholders across the three levels can capitalise on the expatriation process. Moreover, expatriate success is the outcome of pre-, during and post-assignment factors that ensure the appropriate candidate selection, transition into the assignment and environment through the various individual, interpersonal and organisational factors, and a post-assignment path forward. Our definition integrates all the dimensions previously addressed fragmentedly, to offer a broader conception of expatriate success. It also incorporates a new processual and more comprehensive focus on the long-term rather than short-term success. This long-term view shows that expatriate success is conceived as the overall career success that extends s beyond the termination of an assignment, as suggested in recent research addressing both subjective and objective measures and outcomes (e.g. Harry et al ., 2019 ; Lazarova et al ., 2021 ).

The attainment of these objectives has allowed for covering an extant gap in previous expatriate research where the concept of success had been differently and incongruently addressed ( Hemmasi et al ., 2010 ) leading to a lack of comparability among studies ( Black, 1990 ; Caliguiri and Cascio, 1998 ; Harzing and Christensen, 2004 ). Also, satisfying our objectives allowed the crafting of a broader conception of expatriate success that considers its subjective and socially constructed nature in line with the career's literature ( Briscoe et al ., 2021 ). As we indicate below, this new conception opens a range of avenues for future research.

Limitations and future research

This research is not without its limitations. The studies included do not investigate different kinds of expatriates, such as flex-patriates, short-term assignees, international commuters, business travellers and non-traditional and minority expatriates ( Mäkelä et al. , 2017 ; Hutchings, 2021 ). Instead, it focuses only on OEs and SIEs, which we distinguish between ( Table A2 ). However, understanding whether the measures and definitions of success differ among different groups of expatriates is critical to enriching the conception of expatriate success and should be further investigated by future studies. Specifically, a SLR can be conducted to explore the dimensions of success considered in the studies using these atypical samples of expatriates. Furthermore, delving into the subjective nature of success, it will be interesting to compare the key dimensions used by organisations and the different groups of expatriates to define success (i.e. the protean career of SIEs in contrast to other kinds of expatriates might emphasize individual dimensions such as work–life balance or satisfaction). In a similar line, comparing the dimensions used by expatriates to define success with those of migrants can be also a fruitful avenue for research to enrich the understanding of the socially constructed nature of this concept.

The suggested conception of expatriate success exhibits three important implications for further research in expatriate management. First, given that 15 out of the 31 articles (48.39%) defining expatriate success are not theoretically grounded, it might be time to abandon the concept of expatriate success altogether and instead focus on the overall career success of our international employees. HRM and occupational psychology theoretical models on career achievement and success ( Pinto et al ., 2020 ) such as the Theory of Work Adjustment ( Dawis and Lofquist, 1984 ) can be drawn upon to further enrich, ground and theorise the understanding of career success concerning international workers' work-life experience, and subsequently success. These theoretical models can enrich and complement the existing organisational perspective ( Kristof, 1996 ; Becker, 1964 ) in the definition of expatriate success by giving more prominence to the individual level and subjective nature of this construct.

Second, the suggested broader and multidimensional understanding of expatriate success highlights a necessary shift in the measurement criteria of it and for considering its subjective and socially constructed nature. Multiple indicators covering the highlighted dimensions should be employed to measure the complex nature of expatriate success, as it is neither limited to “objectivist” measures such as CCA, job, life or career satisfaction and organisational commitment, nor to observable measures such as financial compensation or promotions, assignment completion, knowledge transfer, or performance measures, but also expands to include the expatriates' subjective perceptions of their career success defined in their terms ( Spurk et al. , 2019 ). While subjective and objective career success measures were addressed in the career development literature ( Briscoe et al. , 2021 ), they have not been so in expatriate research, often ignoring the multidimensional, subjective and socially constructed nature of expatriate success. To further understand expatriate success, objective and subjective measures must be accounted for. Thus, to account for the subjective experience of success, we suggest that future studies include subjective measures of expatriates' success. We recommend incorporating the expatriates' perspective into studies on expatriate success by exploring their expectations before, during and after the assignment and how they define success through qualitative or mixed-methods designs.

A third research avenue on expatriate success is to develop and validate a questionnaire with the previously qualitatively identified meanings and idiosyncratic definitions of subjective expatriate success. Given that the meanings of success, like all personal meanings, are particularly sensitive to cultural differences, we recommend conducting this study cross-culturally to account for possible differences across cultures and to develop a culturally sensitive scale.

Implications for practice

Also, the evolution of the concept of expatriate success entails practical implications for organisations. In line with the new, more integrative conception of expatriate success, organisations should now not merely focus on selection and training but also incorporate career development support and career path planning in harmony with the expatriates' perceptions and expectations of their career success which contributes to expatriates' career success, their willingness to share their acquired knowledge and experience with others and ultimately contribute to the organisation's success.

But before deploying HR actions to facilitate expatriate success, organisations should ask expatriates to define what success means to them in their own words, to clarify expectations, help to satisfy them or understand some paradoxical situations that are assessed as expatriate success. Also, this knowledge should be translated into using multiple rather than single indicators (e.g. the completion of the IA) by HR professionals when evaluating expatriates' success. With these steps, organisations may also overcome the issue of expatriates disengaging after repatriation or abandoning the organisation despite completing the IA and outperforming during it, because their expectations and mental representations of success have not been considered by their organisations.

Further, capitalising on these considerations can foster a sense of loyalty and commitment among their expatriates particularly when they realise that their organisations are concerned with the expatriates' perceptions and expectations of success, not just the organisational goals, which align with the move toward protean and boundaryless career models ( McDonald and Hite, 2008 ).

This study (1) identified the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success, (2) determined the interplay among them and (3) clarified the definitions of expatriate success in the previous literature to provide an integrative definition of it. Following the PRISMA guidelines, 249 studies were included for the review from WOS and Scopus databases, These studies were thoroughly reviewed, coded and analysed manually and with VOSviewer.

In attaining these objectives, the review has made two important theoretical contributions: first, to highlight the construct's multidimensional, subjective and socially constructed nature, calling for this consideration in future research. Second, to suggest an integrative definition incorporating all the dimensions and combining individual and organisational perspectives with subjective and objective measures of success.

PRISMA article selection flow diagram

Links, total strength links and occurrences of the terms in the VOSviewer maps

Network visualisation of terms’ co-occurrences

Overlay visualisation of terms

Trend of theory's grounding over the years

Inclusion criteria