emotional intelligence nursing essay

• DOI: 10.33790/jcnrc1100152
• Corpus ID: 260532672

The Importance of Emotional Intelligence in Nursing Care

• D. White , Sharon Grason
• Published in Journal of Comprehensive… 2019
• Psychology, Education

22 Citations

Understanding emotional intelligence and its relationship to clinical reasoning in senior nursing students: a mixed methods study., the relationship between the emotional intelligence and clinical decision making among nursing students, are emotional intelligence and compassion associated with nursing safety and quality care a cross-sectional investigation in pediatric settings., emotional intelligence and professional boredom among nursing personnel in greece, a study of the relationship between ethical sensitivity and emotional intelligence in nursing, anesthesia, and operating room students, correlation between critical thinking and emotional intelligence: a national cross-sectional study on operating room nursing students in iran, emotional intelligence and burn out among nurses working in tertiary hospitals of kpk, academic performance, emotional intelligence, and academic burnout: a cross-sectional study of a mediational effect in nursing students., the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational commitment among nurses working in governmental hospitals in jordan, emotional intelligence and perceived health related to expressed compassion fatigue: a study in health sector at regional level, 20 references, the art of nursing: a concept analysis., academic nurse leaders' role in fostering a culture of civility in nursing education., incivility as bullying in nursing education, role of emotional intelligence in conflict management strategies of nurses., the relationship between nurse caring behavior and patient satisfaction level at inpatient wards of bayangkara hospital jayapura, effects of nurses’ emotional intelligence on their organizational citizenship behavior, with mediating effects of leader trust and value congruence, associations of trait emotional intelligence with social support, work engagement, and creativity in japanese eldercare nurses†, patients' outcomes related to person-centred nursing care in radiation oncology: a case study., strengths-based stress and burnout prevention for nurse leaders, stress within the academic workplace, related papers.

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What Is Emotional Intelligence in Nursing?

Emotional Intelligence is “a set of emotional and social skills that influence the way we perceive and express ourselves, develop and maintain social relationships, cope with challenges, and use emotional information in an effective and meaningful way,” according to Multi-Health Systems, Inc .

In other words, emotional intelligence is self-awareness of emotions and the ability to recognize and anticipate the emotions of others. This information is used to cultivate and maintain relationships in professional, personal, and social situations.

Emotional intelligence in nursing is a vital part of providing the care patients need. Find out about the significance of emotional intelligence in nursing and how to improve your skills.

Why Emotional Intelligence Is Important in Nursing

Emotional Intelligence in nursing practice is important because, more often than not, nurses interact with patients and families who have challenging situations and conditions. Nurses need to understand that they are encountering patients and families in a state of emotional distress. The nurse also needs to be aware of their own emotional state and how that can impact their interactions with patients, families, and other members of the care team.

How Nurses Can Improve Their Emotional Intelligence Skills

There are formal ways to assess your emotional intelligence by using a variety of different inventories and online exams. While these tools are helpful, they require payment to have the assessment administered and interpreted. However, there are some things you can start doing immediately to learn more about your own emotions and those of others in certain situations.

Start by Paying Attention to How You Are Feeling

Ask yourself:

• How are you reacting to situations at work, at home, or in school?
• What factors within these settings cause you to feel upset, nervous, sad, or happy?
• Why did you have these emotions?
• What influenced the emotion and was it ultimately justified?
• Did you go into the situation with a preconceived notion of what would be communicated?

Taking an inventory of your own emotions helps you understand how you are feeling in the current situation, as well as the possible effect your emotions could have on others.

Pay Attention to How Those Around You React

Listen and observe for cues that indicate emotions in others. Understand when you are entering a conversation that might be stressful for yourself or for the other participants.

By recognizing the potential for an emotional reaction either from yourself or from others, you can often regulate your own reaction and be understanding of the reactions of others. This sort of empathy is key when talking with patients and families in stressful situations.

Earn a Nursing Degree Online at Purdue Global

The successful nurse can synthesize emotional intelligence and nursing skills. It’s vital that nurses be caring people who love helping others and want to make a difference in the world. At the same time, nurses should be focused on safety and evidenced-based care.

Purdue Global offers several online nursing degree programs , ranging from RN-to-BSN and master’s degrees to postgraduate certificates and the Doctor of Nursing Practice. Contact us today for more information.

About the Author

Angela Owens, DNP

Angela Owens is the academic department chair for the DNP program in the School of Nursing at Purdue Global. She is an RN who is certified in EQ-i 2.0 and EQ 360 Conversational Intelligence ® and holds certifications as an Associate Certified Coach (ACC) and a Genos International Emotional Intelligence Practitioner. The views expressed in this article are solely those of the author and do not represent the views of Purdue Global.

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Emotional Intelligence in Nursing: The Heart of the Art – A Review

Emotional labour has long been recognized as a necessary part of nursing practice. Nurses often provide care for patients and families who are suffering and where emotions are heightened. Emotions play an important role in the relationship and communication between nurses, patients and families. Nowadays nursing is becoming more and more technical. The rational mind and the emotional mind need to be balanced partners for the nurse-patient relationship to be harmonious. Every nursing intervention is affected by the master aptitude of emotional intelligence. People who are emotionally intelligent see themselves as more optimistic, as they are better able to understand, manipulate, and regulate their emotions. This paper reflects on how emotional intelligence contributes immensely to the art and craft of nursing which is a practice discipline.

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This paper is part of a doctoral dissertation based on a 2017 phenomenological study that explored practical nursing (PN) students’ lived experiences with emotional self-management in clinical settings using van Manen’s orientation to hermeneutic phenomenology. A review of PN program curricula in Ontario, Canada, suggested that they do not specifically include emotional intelligence (EI) and the core concept of emotional self-management. Mayer’s and Salovey’s original four-branch ability model of EI was used as the theoretical framework. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with a purposive convenience sample of 10 PN students at a southern Ontario community college. Findings suggested that the participants perceived themselves to have basic EI knowledge. Participants expressed that their first knowing, in the phenomenological sense, of EI provided them with more confidence and awareness. An increased understanding of emotional self-management could enhance teaching and learning a...

Paula DIOGO

The problematic situation faced by clients, associated to the processes of health and disease, is expressed through emotions that nursing students have to deal with in the course of care and their formative experiences in clinical teaching. Students have learning needs not only to manage emotions in the context of customer care, but also in terms of their own internal world, emotional conflicts, emotional stress and burn-out. With the present literature review, we intend to explore existing evidence regarding the ways in which the nurse supervisor's support towards nursing students potentiates the development of their competences for the performance of emotional labour. These skills prove to be the key in the ability to manage the emotionally intense situations of care practice and the support function of the nursing supervisor contributes to the development of such competences.

GIOVANNA ARTIOLI

Background and aim of the work. In Burns Units, the long professional relationship with patients suffering from intense physical pain and psychological distress, which cannot be completely resolved or minimized, exposes nurses to very intense emotions and stressful experiences. Learning to care for patients with such medical conditions can arouse many emotions also in nursing students, that can be both positive and negative.The goal of this study was to describe the emotional impact experienced by nursing students in a Italian Burns Unit. Methods. A qualitative research was implemented among 16 undergraduate nursing students, before and after clinical practice in a Burns Unit, through a semi-structured interview. Results. Strong and conflicting emotions from nursing students were reported in the preliminary stage of the internship. Their enthusiasm and curiosity for a new opportunity countered their fear and anxiety of not feeling able to deal with the clinical situation. The intern...

International Journal of Caring Sciences

erdinc demirer

IOSR Journals

Emotional Intelligence involves the ability to monitor one's own and other's emotions. This skill is essential in the nurse patient relationship as it helps the nurse to build stronger bonds with her patients, and to achieve career and personal goals. Empathy is also an important in the nurse–patient relationship. It involves an understanding of the patient's inner experiences and perspectives. Student nurses need tounderstand the emotional nature of nursingprofession, andhave emotional skills in order to deliver competent nursing care.In Egypt, many student nurses may work full schedule in private hospitals. The credit hours studying system helps many students to be engaged more and more in work experience during study time.The present study aimed to investigate the Emotional Intelligence, emotional empathy and work experience among Faculty of Nursing Undergraduate Students. This study used a descriptive correlational design. It was conducted at the Faculty of Nursing, Alexandria University, Egypt. The data were collected using The Multi-dimensional Emotional Empathy scale for Adolescents and Adults (MEE), The Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT), in addition to awork experience and socio-demographic data questionnaire. Results revealed that a positive significant relation between Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Empathyamong Faculty of Nursing students. Furthermore, higher Empathy level was significantly related tonot having previous work experience. It can be concluded that emotional intelligence is related to emotional empathy.Additionally, level of Empathy decreases in students with work experience. so emotional intelligenceandempathic training must be conducted regularly for student nurses in theirclinical training.

British Journal of Nursing

Adele Banks van Zyl

Nurse Education Today

Kim Foster , Andrea McCloughen , Emily Harkness

Rosaria Di Lorenzo

BACKGROUND Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize and manage one's own and others' emotions, empathy is the ability to understand how others feel, whereas alexithymia represents the difficulty in feeling and verbally expressing emotions. Emotional competences are important requirements for positive outcomes in nursing profession. THE AIM OF THE STUDY To analyze EI, empathy and alexithymia in nursing students. METHODS We conducted a cross-sectional survey in a sample of 237 students (53 males, 184 females), attending both the 1st and 3rd year of the University Nursing Course in Modena. We administered three Italian validated scales: Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT), Jefferson Scale of Empathy - Health Professions Student (JSE-HPS), Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). Data were statistically analyzed. RESULTS Statistically significant differences were found between the 1st and 3rd year students at SSEIT (t=-0.6, p=0.52), JSE-HPS (t=-3.2...

International Journal of Nursing Studies

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Journal of Advances in Medical Education & Professionalism

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Introduction: Emotional intelligence is a social skill that controls stress and affects one's ability to cope with the demands and environmental pressures; it so can improve professional competence in health care providers such as nursing students. Training on emotional intelligence increases the mental health and influences the mutual relationships, stress, depression and aggression. This study aimed to determine the effect of emotional intelligence skills training program on the stress and academic success of nursing students in a higher education health complex. Methods: This study is a quasi-experimental study with an educational intervention. The participants included 100 students of nursing selected by stratified random sampling from both genders. They were randomly categorized into two intervention and control groups including 50 subjects, respectively. We used Meyer and Salvia model in Emotional Intelligence training in the intervention group. During the training session...

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Emotional Intelligence in Nursing Leadership: Clinical Update

• November 12, 2021
• / By: Jordyn Butler
• Category: Career & Practice

The current Australian healthcare system is rapidly evolving, with increased demand and expectations on leaders. Consequently, leaders can no longer implement outmoded methods to lead healthcare organisations and staff.

Nursing leaders are expected to provide increasingly efficient, individualised quality care, whilst simultaneously managing issues affecting the nursing industry globally. 1 Key challenges faced by healthcare organisations include nursing shortages and increased turnover. There is increasing emphasis in current literature on the importance of emotionally intelligent leaders in healthcare and is a strong predictor of low nursing turnover. 2 Leadership is central to creating change within healthcare organisations. 3 Therefore, leaders must have requisite leadership skills, as they have a direct impact on patients, families, nurses and the multidisciplinary team.

To be an effective nursing leader, EI is critically important. 4,5 An emotionally intelligent leader can stimulate and foster innovative behaviours among their team. It is imperative leaders can motivate and inspire their staff to increase efficiency and productivity. However, a study by Prufeta 3 identified 31% of leaders require further emotional intelligence (EI) development training.

Project Outline

To inform this discussion, a comprehensive review of the literature was undertaken. Electronic databases were searched for relevant, peer-reviewed journal articles, with the following keywords: emotional intelligence, EI, Goleman’s theory of EI, nursing leadership, interpersonal skills.

However, it should be acknowledged that only Goleman’s Model of EI was explored. In this article, the term ‘leader’ refers to different clinicians at all levels within healthcare organisations, not just those that hold hierarchical leadership or managerial positions. The purpose of this article is to discuss the importance of having emotionally intelligent nursing leaders and present recommendations for continuing to develop EI based on current literature.

Overview of the issue

EI is a self-development concept that is characterised as the ability to influence and motivate others by being attuned to their emotional needs, comprehending the reason for their emotions, ability to handle conflict effectively, and cultivating a supportive clinical environment. 6 Individuals with EI are critically aware of their emotions, strengths, weaknesses and their capabilities, enabling them to make informed decisions. 7

EI is strongly associated with both transformational and authentic leadership theories. EI is considered the cornerstone of transformational leadership. 8,9 Transformational leadership encompasses change as a central concept and influencing colleagues to excel. 4,10 Transformational leaders are able to develop positive relationships with their team and be aware of their emotional needs. 11 Whereas authentic leaders are increasingly self-aware, promote positive mentoring, collaboration and a shared vision with their followers. 4

Goleman’s Model of Emotional Intelligence

Goleman’s model of EI can be applied to leadership; the model is comprised of five domains, self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. 4,9,5 The model has three domains that relate to personal effectiveness (self-awareness, self-regulation and motivation) and two domains that relate to social competence (empathy and social skills), thus blending traits and abilities. 4 There are differing opinions regarding the importance of EI in leadership and predicting professional success. Goleman’s EI model has been criticised for over-reliance on personality traits, which arguably cannot be altered and difficult to accurately measure. 4

Self-awareness

Self-awareness is considered the most important attribute of EI, as individuals with a high degree of self-awareness can take personal responsibility for their actions and mistakes and acknowledge how their feelings affect themselves and others. 6 Emotionally intelligent leaders are reflective and contribute to cultivating a supportive work environment, subsequently increasing staff morale and coping with occupational stress. 12,13 Characteristics of a self-aware leader are transparency, resilience and accountability. 5

For leaders to increase their individual self-awareness, they need to be able to honestly and openly assess themselves and reflect on their strengths and weaknesses; seek regular constructive feedback, and be consciously aware of their emotional responses in stressful situations. 6 Nursing leaders are expected to build and sustain effective teams; thus, it is of paramount importance that they are honest with themselves and their limitations as they strive to develop or improve their self-awareness. 12

Self-regulation

Leaders who demonstrate self-regulation are passionate, thoughtful, motivated in seeking to make improvements, embracing change and in control of their emotions. 6 These behaviours help cultivate a therapeutic work environment, a culture of trust and integrity to ultimately improve patient outcomes. 9 A leader who exhibits self-regulation thinks before speaking, is measured in interactions, and is mindful of their emotional responses and, most importantly, other people. 14

Empathy is the ability to understand other people, their emotions, and thoughts and use that knowledge to influence their own actions. 6 Empathetic nursing leaders possess the ability to observe and interpret other’s body language, are willing to learn from others through active listening and asking questions. 6

Social skills

Advanced social skills enable leaders to effectively communicate with colleagues in differing roles and departments and build professional relationships. 6 Strong communication skills are imperative to all leaders; effective communication can ensure that all team members feel valued, relevant and safe. 9

Being emotionally intelligent can help remedy a conflict or dispute by appropriately addressing each individuals’ emotions and being able to redirect those emotions into positive action. 9 Nursing leaders need to learn to ascertain the degree of required assertiveness when managing conflicts, as certain conflicts, require a passive response. 15 Assertiveness is considered a ‘psychological muscle’ that can grow as it is exercised and practiced. 15

Importance of Emotional Intelligence in nursing leaders

EI is an important virtue for leaders as it enables them to successfully meet the growing demands placed on the healthcare system and expectations on nursing staff. 10 Leaders are required to attend to simultaneous clinical demands whilst attending to other managerial tasks and providing support to their team. EI is a vital skill for leaders to develop as it increases their effectiveness at managing themselves and others. 8,16

It is highly beneficial for the nursing team if the leaders have EI as it influences critical thinking and decision-making about delivering high quality patient care whilst considering the patient’s perspective. 7,17 Increased EI is correlated with decreased burnout, chronic stress, lower staff turnover, increased job performance, positive work-life balance and job satisfaction, ultimately enabling the provision of superior patient care. 18,12,19,17 Furthermore, leaders can use their enthusiasm to motivate nursing staff to provide high-quality patient care resulting in an increase in healthcare organisational performance. 6,12,10 To provide exceptional care to patients, nurses need to be emotionally intelligent to maintain physical and mental wellbeing. This is observed in a study by Fujino et al. 20 indicating a modestly strong positive correlation between nurses having increased EI and high clinical performance (r=0.45).

EI leaders can establish authentic relationships with colleagues, creating a positive work environment with high morale, thus increasing productivity. 6,10 Positive team culture is increasingly important amongst nurses due to growing demands in the healthcare industry. 2 A leader with high EI can act as a stimulus for creating and influencing a positive team culture and working environment. Culture can increase staff engagement and reduce intent to leave. Furthermore, EI leaders are able to create synergy between the team. 2 A research study conducted by Majeed and Jamshed 2 indicated a strong association between leader’s EI and turnover intentions, supporting their hypothesis. Poor professional relationships can lead to misunderstandings, an increase in medication errors and poorer patient outcomes. 19 A study conducted by Celik 21 found a positive and statistically significant relationship between emotional regulation of nurses and patients’ level of nursing care satisfaction (P=0.05).

Leaders with high EI are more likely to have advanced communication skills. 19 A cross-sectional analytical study conducted by Raeissi et al. 19 demonstrated a significant relationship between the level of EI and communication skills (r=0.775). Lastly, clinical ward environments with EI leaders have observed a reduction in horizontal violence amongst colleagues. 9

Increasing Emotional Intelligence

The need for emotionally intelligent leadership in nursing is widely acknowledged. 4 Current literature reflects that implementing a combination of strategies and approaches to increase EI will prove invaluable. 6 Developing EI competencies is a lifelong and cumulative process of reflecting on personal experiences. 7,22

The implementation of EI programs and seminars enables managers, leaders, and nurses to acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills required to manage emotions, conflicts, and achieve professional goals. 10 Formal EI training may cover various aspects of the concept and may explore different models. 6 There are online tools that measure individual emotional quotients that may assist leaders in considering their personal EI in differing areas. 14 However, it should be acknowledged that there is no consistent or standardised tool to measure EI. 16 The measure for EI is emotional quotient (EQ). 14 After engaging in EI development training EQ should be re-assessed using the same tool, to accurately measure improvements. 14 A study by del Carmen Perez-Fuentes 18 found significant practice implications for implementing skills training programs for nurses, including managing emotions. However, the sample used in this study was very specific. This study also discusses the limitations of online questionnaires as they may be subject to desirability bias.

Implementing strategies to improve EI will prove invaluable to all nurses, not just nursing leaders and can increase career longevity. 20 Courses that provide for the continued professional development of both EI and critical thinking should be offered to all nursing staff, including graduate nurses, as these vital skills are often overlooked in undergraduate nursing curricula. 4 It has been identified that undergraduate nursing students receive minimal support and training to develop EI. EI education may lead to improved interpersonal communication and quality of management skills amongst graduate nurses and future nursing leaders. 11 Thus, emphasising the importance of developing EI for not just current leaders but for all nurses. Nursing managers and educators must consider EI training and development for graduate nurses to work towards creating a culture of being emotionally intelligent, self-reflective nurses. 17

The workload and expectations of clinical leaders will inevitably remain fast-paced, multifaceted and unpredictable due to the nature of the healthcare system. Therefore, all nursing leaders, including those in formal leadership positions should be encouraged to partake in regular reflective practices to continue to improve their leadership skills and EI. 22

Reflective practice and journaling is integral to increasing EI. 22,11 For leaders to develop EI, they first need to complete an honest self-assessment and reflect on their individual current performance. 6

An additional strategy includes peer mentoring. It may prove beneficial for leaders with high EI to discuss and reflect confidentially with a mentor, as this exercise may promote wellbeing and increase self-awareness of their emotions and actions. 14

Nursing interventions

Healthcare systems are an ever-changing climate of care; therefore, leaders must use a contemporary leadership approach. 7 Nonetheless, it is evident there is a lack of literature related EI to nursing leadership. 3 This is a component of nursing that requires further high-quality evidence to inform future practices and leadership-development programs. 4 It is of paramount importance that EI is assessed and considered when recruiting new leaders by asking specific questions that measure EI skills to ensure nursing leaders can cultivate a supportive work environment for all staff. 3 Literature identifies that Clinical Education should promote EI development to all staff. 19

After undertaking an extensive literature review, the results illustrate that EI in nursing leaders is crucial. EI is not a new self-development concept, but it is a valuable skill that can be acquired and developed with persistence in conjunction with implementing strategies and adopting reflective practices. There must continue to be a focus and push to increase the emotional capabilities of nurses and clinical leaders. EI is invaluable for not only nursing managers and leaders but all nurses as it helps to provide the necessary insight and skills to manage conflict with patients, families and other staff, in addition to cultivating a supportive team environment. Thus, raising team morale and job satisfaction potentially increasing retention of nursing staff within ward environments, which is of paramount importance due to the current nursing shortage in Australia. The value of effective, emotionally intelligent nursing leadership on ensuring safe, quality patient care is unquestionable.

  References

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• Majeed N, Jamshed S. Nursing turnover intentions: The role of leader emotional intelligence and team culture. J Nursing Manag [Internet]. 2021 August; 29:229-239. Available from: DOI: 10.1111/jonm.13144
• Prufeta P. Emotional Intelligence of Nurse Managers. The Journal of Nursing Administration [Internet]. 2017 ; 47 (3):134-139. Available from: DOI: 10.1097/NNA.0000000000000455
• Carragher J, Gormley K. Leadership and emotional intelligence in nursing and midwifery education and practice: a discussion paper. Adv. Nurs . 2016 July; 73(1): 85-96.
• Ruiz Magoantay-Monroe E. Exploring the emotional intelligence of Florence Nightingale. Asia-Pacific Journal of Oncology Nursing . 2015 Jan ; 2(2): 107-111.
• Beydler KW. The role of emotional intelligence in perioperative nursing and leadership: developing skills for improved performance. AORN J [Internet]. 2017 Oct; 106: 317-323. Available from: https://dx.doi.org/10/1016/j.aorn.2017.08.002
• Kaya H, Senyuva E, Bodur G. The relationship between critical thinking and emotional intelligence in nursing students. Nurse Educ Today . 2017; 68: 26-32.
• Jambawo S. Transformational leadership and ethical leadership: their significance in the mental healthcare system. Br J Nurs . 2018; 27(17): 998-1001.
• Kemerer D, Cwiekala-Lewis K. Emotional Intelligence for leaders in nursing. Polish Nursing [Internet]. 2016; 4(62): 562-565. Available from: http://doi.org/10.20883/pielpol.2016.60
• Prezerakos PE. Nurse managers’ emotional intelligence and effective leadership: A review of the current evidence. The Open Nursing Journal . 2018 May; 12: 86-92.
• Tyczkowski B, Vandenhouten C, Reilly J, Kubscho SM. Emotional Intelligence (EI) and nursing leadership styles among nurse managers. Nurs Admin Q [Internet]. 2015; 39(2): 172-180. Available from: DOI: 10.1097/NAQ.0000000000000094
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• Ellis P. Learning emotional intelligence and what it can do for you. Wounds UK. 2017;13(4): 66-68.
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• Mazzella Ebstein AM, Eller LS, Tan KS, Cherniss, C, Ruggiero JS, Cimiotti, JP. The relationship between coping, occupational stress, and emotional intelligence in newly hired oncology nurses. Psycho-oncology [Internet]. 2019 Oct; 28: 278-283. Available from: DOI: 10.1002/pon.4937
• Wang L, Tao H, Bowers BJ, Brown R, Zhang Y. When nurse emotional intelligence matters: How transformational leadership influences intent to stay. Journal of Nursing Management . 2017; 26: 358-365.
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• Raeissi P, Zandian H, Mirzarahimy, et al. Relationship between communication skills and emotional intelligence among nurses. Nurs Manage [Internet]. 2019 Feb. Available from: DOI: 10.7748/nm.2019.e1820
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Author: Jordyn Butler, RN, Clinical Nurse Specialist – Neurosurgery, Vascular and ENT, Clinical Support Nurse – Cancer and Neurosciences, works at Austin Health Hospital, Melbourne

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EI application in the workplace is the difference between the old school and novel approach to nursing.

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Al-Hamdan ZM, Muhsen A, Alhamdan M, Rayan A, Banyhamdan K, Bawadi H. Emotional intelligence and intent to stay among nurses employed in Jordanian hospitals. J Nurs Manag. 2020; 28:(2)351-358 https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12932

Al-Ruzzieh MA, Ayaad O. Nursing professional practice model: development, implementation, and evaluation at an international specialized cancer center. J Nurs Adm. 2020; 50:(11)562-564 https://doi.org/10.1097/NNA.0000000000000937

2019 Magnet® application manual.Silver Spring (MD): American Nurses Credentialing Center; 2017

The effect of self-emotion appraisal and external locus of control on problem-focused coping with stress. 2014. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289504920 (accessed: 11 October 2021)

Ayaad O, Alloubani A, Thiab F, Yousef D, Banat B. Adopting a shared governance model to improve nurses' working environments. British Journal of Healthcare Management. 2018; 24:(12)594-602 https://doi.org/10.12968/bjhc.2018.24.12.594

Başoğul C, Özgür G. Role of emotional intelligence in conflict management strategies of nurses. Asian Nurs Res (Korean Soc Nurs Sci). 2016; 10:(3)228-233 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anr.2016.07.002

Basol R, Hilleren-Listerud A, Chmielewski L. Developing, implementing, and evaluating a professional practice model. J Nurs Adm. 2015; 45:(1)43-9 https://doi.org/10.1097/NNA.0000000000000153

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Cooper DR, Schindler PS. Business research methods.New York (NY): McGraw-Hill; 2014

Duffy J. Professional practice models in nursing: successful health system integration.New York (NY): Springer Publishing; 2016

Hogeveen J, Salvi C, Grafman J. ‘Emotional intelligence’: lessons from lesions. Trends Neurosci. 2016; 39:(10)694-705 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2016.08.007

Hong E, Lee YS. The mediating effect of emotional intelligence between emotional labour, job stress, burnout and nurses' turnover intention. Int J Nurs Pract. 2016; 22:(6)625-632 https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.12493

Huang H, Liu L, Yang S, Cui X, Zhang J, Wu H. Effects of job conditions, occupational stress, and emotional intelligence on chronic fatigue among Chinese nurses: a cross-sectional study. Psychol Res Behav Manag. 2019; 12:351-360 https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S207283

Ishii S, Horikawa E. The emotional intelligence of Japanese mental health nurses. Frontiers in Psychology. 2019; 10 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02004

Ives Erickson J, Duffy ME, Ditomassi M, Jones D. Development and psychometric evaluation of the professional practice work environment inventory. J Nurs Adm. 2017; 47:(5)259-265 https://doi.org/10.1097/NNA.0000000000000476

Jacobs LA, Shulman LN. Follow-up care of cancer survivors: challenges and solutions. Lancet Oncol. 2017; 18:(1)e19-e29 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(16)30386-2

Jain P, Duggal T. Transformational leadership, organizational commitment, emotional intelligence and job autonomy. Management Research Review. 2018; 41:(9)1033-1046 https://doi.org/10.1108/MRR-01-2018-0029

Kooker BM, Shoultz J, Codier EE. Identifying emotional intelligence in professional nursing practice. J Prof Nurs. 2007; 23:(1)30-36 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2006.12.004

Law KS, Wong CS, Song LJ. The construct and criterion validity of emotional intelligence and its potential utility for management studies. J Appl Psychol. 2004; 89:(3)483-496 https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.483

Lee C, Bristow M, Wong JC. Emotional intelligence and teamwork skills among undergraduate engineering and nursing students: a pilot study. Journal of Research in Interprofessional Practice and Education. 2018; 8:(1) https://doi.org/10.22230/jripe.2018v8n1a260

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Mazzella Ebstein AM, Sanzero Eller L, See Tan K, Cherniss C, Ruggiero JS, Cimiotti JP. The relationships between coping, occupational stress, and emotional intelligence in newly hired oncology nurses. Psycho-Oncology. 2019; 28:(2)278-283 https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.4937

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McTiernan K, McDonald N. Occupational stressors, burnout and coping strategies between hospital and community psychiatric nurses in a Dublin region. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2015; 22:(3)208-218 https://doi.org/10.1111/jpm.12170

Nespereira-Campuzano T, Vázquez-Campo M. Emotional intelligence and stress management in Nursing professionals in a hospital emergency department. Enferm Clin. 2017; 27:(3)172-178 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfcli.2017.02.007

Ng'ang'a N, Byrne MW. Professional practice models for nurses in low-income countries: an integrative review. BMC Nurs. 2015; 14:(1) https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-015-0095-5

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O'Hara MA, Burke D, Ditomassi M, Palan Lopez R. Assessment of millennial nurses' job satisfaction and professional practice environment. J Nurs Adm. 2019; 49:(9)411-417 https://doi.org/10.1097/NNA.0000000000000777

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Philip CC, Mathew A, John MJ. Cancer care: challenges in the developing world. Cancer Research, Statistics, and Treatment. 2018; 18:(1)58-62

Qu Y, Zhuang Y, Yang L, Zou Z, Hu X, Qian Y. The development and implementation of nursing professional practice model in a tertiary hospital in china. J Nurs Adm. 2019; 49:(12)583-585 https://doi.org/10.1097/NNA.0000000000000819

Raghubir AE. Emotional intelligence in professional nursing practice: a concept review using Rodgers's evolutionary analysis approach. Int J Nurs Sci. 2018; 5:(2)126-130 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnss.2018.03.004

Selby P, Popescu R, Lawler M, Butcher H, Costa A. The value and future developments of multidisciplinary team cancer care. American Society of Clinical Oncology Educational Book. 2019; 39:332-340 https://doi.org/10.1200/edbk_236857

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Slatyer S, Coventry LL, Twigg D, Davis S. Professional practice models for nursing: a review of the literature and synthesis of key components. J Nurs Manag. 2016; 24:(2)139-150 https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12309

Taylan S, Özkan I, Sahin G. Caring behaviors, moral sensitivity, and emotional intelligence in intensive care nurses: A descriptive study. Perspect Psychiatr Care. 2021; 57:(2)734-746 https://doi.org/10.1111/ppc.12608

White DE, Grason S. The importance of emotional intelligence in nursing care. Journal of Comprehensive Nursing Research and Care. 2019; 4 https://doi.org/10.33790/jcnrc1100152

Yan X, Yang K, Su J, Luo Z, Wen Z. Mediating role of emotional intelligence on the associations between core self-evaluations and job satisfaction, work engagement as indices of work-related well-being. Curr Psychol. 2018; 37:(3)552-558 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9531-2

Impact of nurses' emotional intelligence on the implementation of a professional practice model in cancer care

Majeda A Al-Ruzzieh

Chief Nursing Officer, King Hussein Cancer Center, Amman, Jordan

View articles · Email Majeda A

Specialist Nursing Evidence Based Practice, King Hussein Cancer Center, Amman, Jordan

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To examine the impact of emotional intelligence on the effective implementation of a professional practice model in a specialised cancer centre.

The study used a cross-sectional design with 580 frontline nurses at King Hussein Cancer Center, Jordan. The sample was selected using a convenience sampling technique. Data were collected using two self-administered questionnaires to measure emotional intelligence and professional practice.

The overall mean value of emotional intelligence was 5.60 out of 6 (SD=0.78), while the overall mean value for the implementation of the professional practice model was 4.76/5 (SD=0.59). The results showed that the overall mean value of emotional intelligence had a significant positive correlation with the effective implementation of the professional practice model (r=0.580, P<0.001), even after adjusting for the participants' demographics (P<0.001).

Conclusion:

Emotional intelligence can be considered a predictor for the effective implementation of a professional practice model.

Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability of people to recognise, understand and control their own emotions and recognise, understand and influence the emotions of others ( Hogeveen et al, 2016 ). It is an essential skill in leadership and includes four dimensions ( Law et al, 2004 ; Ishii and Horikawa, 2019 ; Al-Hamdan et al, 2020 ):

Many studies have indicated the positive impact of emotional intelligence on increasing nurses' wellbeing, job satisfaction, engagement, teamwork, conflict resolution and caring behaviours; and decreasing burnout and turnover, job stress and chronic fatigue ( Başoğul and Özgür, 2016 ; Hong and Lee, 2016 ; Lee et al, 2018 ; Nightingale et al, 2018 ; Yan et al, 2018 ; Al-Hamdan et al, 2020 ; Huang et al, 2019 ). These positive impacts of emotional intelligence result from its role in increasing nurses' ability to nurture relationships, recognise their limitations and strengths, display empathy, use personal influence, act as change agents, create a shared vision and work collaboratively ( Kooker et al, 2007 ; Carragher and Gormley, 2017 ; Ayaad et al, 2018 ; Raghubir, 2018 ; White and Grason, 2019 ). Thus emotional intelligence may be considered a key to enhancing nurses' ability to make a professional practice model (PPM) more effective.

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Emotional intelligence in professional nursing practice: A concept review using Rodgers's evolutionary analysis approach

Affiliation.

• 1 Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Nursing, University of Ottawa, Canada.
• PMID: 31497624
• PMCID: PMC6718873
• DOI: 10.1016/j.ijnss.2018.03.004
• Erratum regarding missing Declaration of Competing Interest statements in previously published articles. [No authors listed] [No authors listed] Int J Nurs Sci. 2020 Dec 5;8(1):IV. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnss.2020.12.002. eCollection 2021 Jan 10. Int J Nurs Sci. 2020. PMID: 33575457 Free PMC article.

Background: Knowledge around emotional intelligence originated in the 1990s from research regarding thoughts, emotions and abilities. The concept of emotional intelligence has evolved over the last 25 years; however, the understanding and use is still unclear. Despite this, emotional intelligence has been a widely-considered concept within professions such as business, management, education, and within the last 10 years has gained traction within nursing practice.

Aims and objectives: The aim of this concept review is to clarify the understanding of the concept emotional intelligence, what attributes signify emotional intelligence, what are its antecedents, consequences, related terms and implications to advance nursing practice.

Method: A computerized search was guided by Rodger's evolutional concept analysis. Data courses included: CINAHL, PyschINFO, Scopus, EMBASE and ProQuest, focusing on articles published in Canada and the United Stated during 1990-2017.

Results: A total of 23 articles from various bodies of disciplines were included in this integrative concept review. The analysis reveals that there are many inconsistencies regarding the description of emotional intelligence, however, four common attributes were discovered: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and social/relationship management. These attributes facilitate the emotional well-being among advance practice nurses and enhances the ability to practice in a way that will benefit patients, families, colleagues and advance practice nurses as working professionals and as individuals.

Conclusion: The integration of emotional intelligence is supported within several disciplines as there is consensus on the impact that emotional intelligence has on job satisfaction, stress level, burnout and helps to facilitate a positive environment. Explicit to advance practice nursing, emotional intelligence is a concept that may be central to nursing practice as it has the potential to impact the quality of patient care and outcomes, decision-making, critical thinking and overall the well-being of practicing nurses.

Keywords: Concept analysis; Emotional intelligence; Nursing.

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Emotional Intelligence Measures: A Systematic Review

Lluna maría bru-luna.

1 Department of Basic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Speech Therapy, Universitat de València, 46010 Valencia, Spain; [email protected]

Manuel Martí-Vilar

César merino-soto.

2 Psychology Research Institute, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Lima 15102, Peru

José L. Cervera-Santiago

3 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal, San Miguel 15088, Peru; ep.ude.vfnu@arevrecj

Associated Data

Not applicable.

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, express, understand, and manage emotions. Current research indicates that it may protect against the emotional burden experienced in certain professions. This article aims to provide an updated systematic review of existing instruments to assess EI in professionals, focusing on the description of their characteristics as well as their psychometric properties (reliability and validity). A literature search was conducted in Web of Science (WoS). A total of 2761 items met the eligibility criteria, from which a total of 40 different instruments were extracted and analysed. Most were based on three main models (i.e., skill-based, trait-based, and mixed), which differ in the way they conceptualize and measure EI. All have been shown to have advantages and disadvantages inherent to the type of tool. The instruments reported in the largest number of studies are Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), Schutte Self Report-Inventory (SSRI), Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test 2.0 (MSCEIT 2.0), Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS), Wong and Law’s Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS), and Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue). The main measure of the estimated reliability has been internal consistency, and the construction of EI measures was predominantly based on linear modelling or classical test theory. The study has limitations: we only searched a single database, the impossibility of estimating inter-rater reliability, and non-compliance with some items required by PRISMA.

1. Introduction

1.1. emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence (EI) was first described and conceptualized by Salovey and Mayer [ 1 ] as an ability-based construct analogous to general intelligence. They argued that individuals with a high level of EI had certain skills related to the evaluation and regulation of emotions and that consequently they were able to regulate emotions in themselves and in others in order to achieve a variety of adaptive outcomes. This construct has received increasing attention from both the scientific community and the general public due to its theoretical and practical implications for daily life. The same authors defined EI as “the ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to use emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought” [ 2 ] (p. 511). This definition suggests that EI is far from being conceptualized as a one-dimensional attribute and that a multidimensional operationalization would be theoretically coherent.

1.2. Conceptualizations of Emotional Intelligence

However, over the past three decades, different ways of conceptualizing EI have emerged, which are mainly summarized in three models: ability, trait, and mixed. These models have influenced the construction of measuring instruments. In the ability model, developed by Mayer and Salovey, EI is seen as a form of innate intelligence made up of several capacities that influence how people understand and manage their own emotions and those of others. These emotion processing skills are: (1) perception, evaluation and expression of emotions, (2) emotional facilitation of thought, (3) understanding and analysis of emotions, and (4) reflective regulation of emotions [ 3 , 4 ]. Consistent with this conceptualization, the measures were designed as performance tests. Subsequently, the model proposed by Petrides and Furnham [ 5 ], the trait model, was developed. This model defines EI as a trait; that is, as a persistent behaviour pattern over time (as opposed to skill, which increases with time and training), and it is associated with dispositional tendencies, personality traits or self-efficacy beliefs. It is composed of fifteen personality dimensions, grouped under four factors: well-being, self-control, emotionality and sociability [ 6 ]. The last of the three main models of conceptualization of EI is the mixed one. It is made up of two large branches that consider this construct a mixture of traits, competencies and abilities. According to the first one, developed by Bar-On [ 7 ], EI is a set of non-cognitive abilities and competences that influence the ability to be successful in coping with environmental demands and pressures, and it is composed of five key components: intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills, adaptation skills, stress management skills and general mood. The second one, proposed by Goleman [ 8 ], also conceptualizes EI as a mixed model that shares certain aspects with the Bar-On model. It is made up of the following elements: recognition of one’s own emotions, management of emotions, self-motivation, recognition of emotions in others, and management of relationships. These emotional and social competencies would contribute to managerial performance and leadership.

1.3. Importance of Emotional Intelligence

To date, the importance that academics attach to the study of EI has been recognized by the literature in many areas, such as the workplace. For example, in professions where working with people is needed, burnout syndrome is common. It is a syndrome that is expressed by an increase in emotional exhaustion and indifference, as well as by a decrease in professional effectiveness [ 9 ]. To date, numerous studies have shown that EI can help change employee attitudes and behaviours in jobs involving emotional demands by increasing job satisfaction and reducing job stress [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Likewise, on the one hand, it has been found that certain psychological variables, including EI and social competence, are related to less psychological distress. On the other hand, the acquisition of emotional and social skills can serve to develop resilience, which is a protective variable against psychological distress [ 14 ].

1.4. Types of Measures

With the challenge of choosing the conceptual model of EI also appears the challenge of choosing the appropriate measures to estimate it. For this reason, part of the work developed in the field of EI has focused on the creation of objective instruments to evaluate aspects associated with this construct. Most of them have been created around the main conceptualization models described in the previous paragraphs. Ability-based tools indicate people’s ability to understand emotions and how they work. These types of tests require participants to solve problems that are related to emotions and that contain answers deemed correct or incorrect (e.g., participants see several faces and respond by indicating the degree to which a specific emotion is present in the face). These instruments are maximal capacity tests and, unlike trait tests, they are not designed to predict typical behaviour. Ability EI instruments are usually employed in situations where a good theoretical understanding of emotions is required [ 15 ].

Trait-based instruments are generally composed of self-reported measures and are often developed as scales where there are no correct or incorrect answers, but the individual responds by choosing the item which relates more or less to their behaviour (e.g., “Understanding the needs and desires of others is not a problem for me”). They tend to measure typical behaviour, so they tend to provide a good prediction of actual behaviours in various situations [ 5 ]. Trait EI is a good predictor of effective coping styles when facing everyday stressors, both in adults and children, so these instruments are often used in situations characterized by stressors such as educational and employment contexts [ 15 ].

Questionnaires based on the EI mixed conceptualization often measure a combination of traits, social skills, competencies, and personality measures through self-reported modality (e.g., “When I am angry with others, I can tell them”). Some measures typically take 360-degree forms of assessment too (i.e., a self-report along with reports from supervisors, colleagues and subordinates). They are generally used in work environments, since they are often designed to predict and improve workplace performance and are often focused on emotional competencies that correlate with professional success. Despite the different ways of conceptualizing EI, there are some conceptual similarities between most instruments: they are hierarchical (i.e., they produce a total EI score along with scores on the different dimensions) and they have several conceptual overlaps that often include emotional perception, emotional regulation, and adaptive use of emotions [ 15 ].

1.5. Relevance of the Study

The proliferation of EI measures has received a lot of attention. However, this has not been the case in studies that synthesize their psychometric qualities, as well as those that describe their strengths and limitations. Therefore, there is a lack of studies that collect, with a wide review coverage, the instruments developed in recent years. The few reviews that can be found [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ] are limited to describing both the most popular measures (e.g., Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test [MSCEIT], Emotional Quotient Inventory [EQ-i], Trait Meta-Mood Scale [TMMS], Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire [TEIQue], or Schutte Self-Report Inventory [SSRI]) and those validated only in English, producing an apparent “Tower of Babel” effect (i.e., the over-representation of studies in one language and the under-representation in others) [ 20 ]. This is a problem that is not only more common than is believed, but it is also persistent [ 21 ]. This effect produces a barrier for the complete knowledge of current EI measures, the breadth of their uses in different contexts, and their incorporation into substantive studies relevant to multicultural understanding. In summary, it reduces the commonality of efforts made in different contexts to identify common and communicable objectives [ 22 ], specifically around the study of EI.

Therefore, a systematic review allows us to establish a knowledge base that contributes by (a) guiding and developing research efforts, (b) assisting in professional practice when choosing the most appropriate model in possible practical scenarios, and (c) facilitating the design of subsequent systematic evaluative reviews and meta-analysis of relevant psychometric parameters (e.g., factorial loads, reliability coefficients, correlations, etc.). For this reason, the aim of this article is to provide an updated systematic review of the existing instruments that allow the evaluation of EI in professionals, focusing on the description of its characteristics, as well as on its psychometric properties (reliability and validity). This systematic review is characterized by having a wide coverage (i.e., studies published in languages other than English) and having as a framework a consensus of description and taxonomy of valid evidence (i.e., “Standards”) [ 23 ].

2. Materials and Methods

This work contains a systematic review of the scientific literature published to date that includes measurements of EI. For its preparation, the guidelines proposed in the PRISMA statement [ 24 ] ( Table A1 ) carrying out systematic reviews have been followed. Regarding the evaluation of the quality of the articles, since our study does not analyse the studies that employ the EI instruments but the instruments themselves, the assessment of the internal or external validity of the studies is not applicable to this research. However, an internationally proposed guide to the study of the validity of instruments, called “Standards”, has also been used [ 23 ]. It presents guidelines for the study of the composition, use, and interpretation of what a test aims to measure and proposes five sources of validity of evidence: content, response processes, internal structure, relationship with other variables and the consequences of testing. Likewise, a recently proposed registration protocol [ 25 ] for carrying out systematic reviews has also been followed based on the five validity sources of the “Standards”.

2.1. Information Sources

The bibliographic search was carried out in three phases: an initial search to obtain an overview of the current situation, a system that applies inclusion–exclusion criteria, and a manual search to evaluate the results obtained. The search was conducted in February 2021 in the Web of Science (WoS) database, including all articles published from 1900 to 2020 (inclusive). This database was selected to perform the search because (a) it is among the databases that allows for a more efficient and adequate search coverage [ 26 ]; (b) it provides a better quality of indexing and of bibliographic records in terms of accuracy, control and granularity of information compared to other databases [ 27 ]; (c) the results are highly correlated with those of other search engines (e.g., Embase, MEDLINE and Google Scholar) [ 26 ]; (d) it is controlled by a human team specialising in the selection of its content (i.e., it is not fully automated) [ 28 ]; and (e) it has experienced a constant increase in scientific publications [ 29 ].

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

Although no protocol was written or registered prior to the research, the inclusion and exclusion criteria for articles and instruments were previously defined. The search was conducted according to these criteria.

2.2.1. Inclusion Criteria

The inclusion criteria for the studies are made up of the following points: (a) published in peer-reviewed journals, (b) presented as full articles or short communications, (c) containing empirical and quantifiable results on psychometric properties (i.e., not only narrative descriptions), (d) containing cross-sectional or longitudinal designs, (e) written in any language (in order to collect as many instruments as possible, as well as to reduce the “Tower of Babel” effect) [ 20 ], and (f) published from 1900 to 2020 (to maximize the identification of EI measures).

As for the inclusion criteria of the instruments, they are made up of the following points: (a) instruments that measure EI, (b) articles that are the first creation study of the instrument, (c) instruments aimed at people over 18 years, (d) instruments that can be applied in the workplace.

2.2.2. Exclusion Criteria

On the other hand, research that presented at least one of the following exclusion criteria was discarded: (a) contains synthesis studies (i.e., systematic reviews or meta-analyses), instrument manuals or narrative articles of instrument characteristics, (b) contains only qualitative research designs, (c) published after 2020.

Instruments that presented at least one of the following exclusion criteria were discarded: (a) instruments that were validations of the original one, (b) instruments aimed at people under 18, (c) instruments to be used in areas specifically different from the workplace.

2.3. Search Strategy

All available methods to obtain empirical answers have been included so as to maximize the coverage of the results. The following terms were included: test, measure, questionnaire, scale and instrument. The combinations of terms used were: “emotional intelligence AND test”, “emotional intelligence AND measure”, “emotional intelligence AND questionnaire”, “emotional intelligence AND scale”, and “emotional intelligence AND instrument”. Only those article-type studies were selected.

In the selection process, the title, abstract and keywords of the studies identified in the search were reviewed with the aforementioned criteria. This was carried out by only one of the authors.

2.4. Data Collection

The data to be extracted from each of the instruments were also defined in advance, ensuring that the information was extracted in a uniform manner. The selected documents were then recorded in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to check for duplicate records.

Thus, the name of the instrument and its acronym, the language and country in which it was created, and its structural characteristics (i.e., type of measurement, number of items, dimensions and items of which they were composed, and theoretical model) were extracted together with relevant psychometric information (i.e., reliability and validity). This procedure was also carried out by the same author. Articles that used different versions of the original EI instrument were accepted, but the analysis was made only on their originals. Instruments whose original manuscript were inaccessible were discarded ( n = 10), but they are presented at the end of the results. All those articles that were duplicated or that had used measures aimed at people under 18 or for contexts specifically different from the professional area (e.g., school contexts, sports contexts, etc.) were eliminated. The search process and the number of selected and excluded results can be seen in Figure 1 . Regarding the ethical standards, no ethical approval or participant consent is required for this type of research (i.e., systematic review).

Flowchart according to PRISMA.

A total of 40 instruments were found ( Table 1 shows a synthesis of all of them). Below, a brief description of each one is presented, following which a division according to the theoretical model they use (i.e., ability-based model, trait-based model, mixed approach model, and others that do not correspond to any of them), and the psychometric properties of each one are explained.

Main characteristics of the included instruments.

TMMS: Trait Meta-Mood Scale, LOT: Life Orientation Test, CES-D: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; SSRI: Schutte Self-Report Inventory, BFP: Big Five Personality, TAS: Toronto Alexithymia Scale, ZDS: Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale, BIS: Barratt Impulsiveness Scale; MEIS: Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale; MSCEIT: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, MSCEIT 2.0: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Revised Version, MSCEIT-YV: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Youth Version, MSCEIT-TC: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Chinese Version; PIEMO: Profile of Emotional Intelligence; WLEIS: Wong and Law’s Emotional Intelligence Scale, EQ-i: Emotional Quotient Inventory; WEIP-3: Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile-3, WEIP-S: Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile-Short Version, IRI: Interpersonal Reactivity Index, JABRI: Job Associate-Bisociate Review Index; MEIA: Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment, JPI-R: Jackson Personality Inventory-Revised, MEIA-W: Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment-Workplace, MEIA-W-R: Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment-Workplace-Revised; EmIn: Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire; IIESS-R: Sojo and Steinkopf Emotional Intelligence Inventory-Revised Version; SREIS: Self-Rated Emotional Intelligence Scale; EISDI: Emotional Intelligence Self-Description Inventory; GEIS: Greek Emotional Intelligence Scale, SSI: Social Skills Inventory, EES: Emotion Empathy Scale, SWLS: Satisfaction with Life Scale, PANAS: Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, ASSET: An Organisational Stress Screening Tool; STEM: Situational Test of Emotion Management; OCEANIC-20: Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Index Condensed 20-item version, STEM-B: Situational Test of Emotion Management-Brief Version; STEU: Situational Test of Emotional Understanding, STEU-B: Situational Test of Emotional Understanding-Brief Version; ESCQ: Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire; AVEI: Audiovisual Test of Emotional Intelligence; GERT: Geneva Emotion Recognition Test, GERT-S: Geneva Emotion Recognition Test-Short Version, GECo: Geneva Emotional Competence Test; TIE: Test of Emotional Intelligence, SIE-T: Emotional Intelligence Scale-Faces, NEO-FFI: NEO Five-Factor Inventory; EIQ-SP: Self-Perception of Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire; TEIFA: Three-Branch Emotional Intelligence Forced-Choice Assessment; TEIRA: Three-Brach Emotional Intelligence Rating Scale Assessment; NEAT: North Dakota Emotional Abilities Test, DANVA 2-AF: Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy-Adult Faces; IIEP: Perceived Emotional Intelligence Inventory; MEIT: Mobile Emotional Intelligence Test; RAVEN: Raven’s Progressive Matrices; EIT: Emotional Intelligence Test; EQ-i: S: Emotional Quotient Inventory Short Version, EQ-i: 2.0: Emotional Quotient Inventory Revised Version, EQ-i: 360°: Emotional Quotient Inventory-360-degree version; EQ-i: YV: Emotional Quotient Inventory-Youth Version, EQ-i: YVS: Emotional Quotient Inventory Youth Short Version; ECI 2.0: Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0, ECI-U: Emotional Competence Inventory University Version; EIQ: Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire; 16PF: Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, OPQ: Occupational Personality Questionnaire, BTR: Belbin Team Roles; EIA: Emotional Intelligence Appraisal; EIS: Emotional Intelligence Scale; USMEQ-I: USM Emotional Quotient Inventory; TEIQue: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, TEIQue-SF: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form, TEIQue-360°: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-360-degree version, TEIQue-AF: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Adolescent Form, TEIQue-CF: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Child Form; REIS: Rotterdam Emotional Intelligence Scale, PEC: Profile of Emotional Competence.

3.1. Ability-Based Measures

The first category includes those instruments based on the ability-based model, mainly on that of Mayer and Salovey [ 4 ]. The first instrument created under this conceptualization is the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) [ 30 ], a self-report scale designed to assess people’s beliefs about their own emotional abilities. It measures three key aspects of perceived EI: attention to feelings, emotional clarity and repair of emotions. It presents a very good reliability [ 80 ] and convergent validity with various instruments, although the authors recommend the use of a later version of 30 items. It also presents a widely used 24-item version [ 31 ] that has been validated in many countries.

Three years later, the Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence (SSRI) test was developed [ 33 ]. This questionnaire is answered through a five-point Likert scale and is composed of one factor that is divided into three categories: appraisal and expression of emotion in the self and others, regulation of emotion in the self and others and utilization of emotions in solving problems. It shows excellent internal consistency. It presents negative correlations with instruments that measure alexithymia, depression and impulsivity among others, which confirms its convergent validity. There is a modified version [ 34 ] and an abbreviated version [ 35 ], and it has been translated into many languages.

The Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) [ 37 ] is another tool developed by the authors that originally defined and conceptualized EI. The MEIS is a scale made up of 12 different tasks that contains 402 items and it has been translated into several languages. However, it has strong limitations such as its length and the low internal consistency offered by some of the tasks (e.g., “blends” and “progressions”; α = 0.49 and 0.51, respectively). These authors developed, years later, the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) [ 38 ]. The items developed for the MEIS served as the starting point for the MSCEIT. This measure is composed of a five-point Likert scale and multiple response items with correct and incorrect options, which comprise eight tasks. Each of the four dimensions is assessed through two tasks. It presents an adequate internal consistency. It currently has a revised version by the same authors, and another validated in a young population. In addition, it has been translated into many languages. This instrument has detractors. Its convergent validity has been questioned since no correlation has been found between the emotional perception scale of MSCEIT and other emotional perception tests [ 81 ]. As can be seen in Table 1 , the MSCEIT has two different approaches to construct the score (consensus score and expert score). In the case of EI, it is difficult to classify an answer as correct or incorrect, so if a person responds in a different way to the experts or the average, it might mean that they have low emotional capacity or present a different way of thinking [ 81 ].

In the same year, three more instruments based on this conceptualization were developed in different countries. The first one, the Profile of Emotional Intelligence (PIEMO) [ 40 ] is an inventory developed in Mexico. Their items consist of a statement that represents a paradigmatic behaviour trait of EI with true and false answers. It is composed of eight independent dimensions that together constitute a profile. Its internal consistency is excellent and its validity has been tested by a confirmatory factor analysis and expert consultations on the items.

The second instrument is Wong and Law’s Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS) [ 41 ]. It was developed in China to measure EI in a brief way in leadership and management studies. It has an adequate internal consistency and has positive correlations with the TMMS and the EQ-i. Subsequent studies have shown its predictive validity in relation to life satisfaction, happiness or psychological well-being, and its criteria’s validity with respect to personal well-being. Measurement equivalence of scores in different ethnic and gender groups has also been tested [ 82 ]. It has been translated into a multitude of languages and it is currently one of the most widely used instruments.

The third instrument is the Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile-3 (WEIP-3) [ 43 ]. It is a scale designed in Australia as a self-report to measure the EI of people in work teams. It has very good internal consistency and presents correlations with several instruments that prove its convergent validity. The authors made a particularly interesting finding in their study. Teams that scored lower in the WEIP-3 performed at lower levels in their work than those with high EI. This instrument has a short version and has been translated into different languages.

The Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment (MEIA) [ 45 ] was developed in the USA. The authors state that the test takes only 20 min. It has very good internal consistency. Its validity has been tested in different ways. Content validity was tested by independent experts who considered each element as representative of its target scale. Convergent validity was tested by significant correlations between the scores and personality tests. Finally, the lack of correlation between the MEIA and theoretically unrelated personality tests proved the divergent validity. It has a version for the work context.

The Sojo and Steinkopf Emotional Intelligence Inventory—Revised version (IIESS-R) [ 47 ] was developed in Venezuela to measure the three dimensions that compose it. It presents 34 phrases that describe the reactions of people with high EI, as well as contrary behaviours. It has excellent internal consistency and its content has been validated through expert judgment. It shows correlations with some scales of similar instruments and its internal structure has been tested by exploratory analysis and PCA.

In the original article of the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EmIn), created for the Russian population [ 46 ], its author proposes his own model of ability-based EI that differs in some aspects from that proposed by Mayer and Salovey. Accordingly, he designed a questionnaire to measure the participants’ beliefs about their emotional abilities under this model. It is composed of two dimensions answered using a 4-point Likert scale. Their scales have a good internal consistency, but their validity has not been tested beyond the factor analysis of its internal structure. Years later, this same author developed the Videotest of Emotion Recognition [ 59 ], an instrument that uses videos as stimuli. It was also designed in Russia to obtain precision indexes in the recognition of the types of emotions, as well as the sensitivity and intensity of the observed emotions. It has 15 scales that measure through a single item each of the emotions recorded by the instrument. Its internal consistency is good. It is correlated with MSCEIT and EmIn, which proves its convergent validity.

Another instrument based on the Mayer and Salovey model is the Self-Rated Emotional Intelligence Scale (SREIS) [ 49 ]. It was developed throughout three studies that used the MSCEIT as a comparison. The first one did not show a very high correlation between the scores of both tools. In the second one, only men’s MSCEIT scores correlated with perceived social competence after personality measures remained constant. Finally, in the third only MSCEIT predicted social competence, but only for males again. Internal consistency was also not consistent throughout the three studies, as the α yielded values were 0.84, 0.77, and 0.66, respectively. Its internal structure was tested by a confirmatory factor analysis and the content of each item was validated by the judgment of students familiar with the Mayer and Salovey model. It has been translated into several languages.

The Emotional Intelligence Self-Description Inventory (EISDI) [ 49 ] is also a short instrument, consisting of four dimensions designed to assess EI in the workplace. It has an excellent internal consistency. It presents correlations with instruments such as the WLEIS and the SREIS and a discriminant validity with the Big Five Personality. The same year, the Greek Emotional Intelligence Scale (GEIS) [ 51 ] was developed in Greek to assess four basic dimensions of EI. Its internal consistency is very good, as well as its test–retest value. Its internal structure was verified by a PCA, and its convergent and divergent validity were tested by a series of studies with 12 different instruments.

MacCann and Roberts [ 51 ] developed two instruments to assess EI according to the ability-based model: the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM) and the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU). Both are made up of three dimensions and a similar number of items. The first one measures the management of emotions such as anger, sadness and fear, and it can be administered in two formats: multiple choice response and rate-the-extent (i.e., test takers rate the appropriateness, strength, or extent of each alternative, rather than selecting the correct alternative). The STEU presents a series of situations about context-reduced, personal-life context, and workplace-context, which provoke a main emotion that is the correct answer to be chosen by the participant among other incorrect ones. Both instruments have similar internal consistency for the multiple response format, while for the rate-the-extent format it is much higher. Both present criteria and convergent validity and have an abbreviated version.

The Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire (ESCQ) [ 53 ] is an instrument developed in Croatia that measures EI through three basic dimensions using a five-point Likert scale. The subscales have a reliability that varies between good an excellent, and they correlate with other EI and personality instruments. The ESCQ has been translated into several languages.

The Audiovisual Test of Emotional Intelligence (AVEI) [ 55 ] is an Israeli instrument aimed at educational settings related to care-centred professions. Their items are developed from primary and secondary emotions, both positive and negative. Each one consists of short videos generated by researchers with training in psychology and visual arts. People should choose the correct answer among 10 alternatives and it takes between 12 and 18 min to be completed. It requires computers equipped with audio. The internal consistency was calculated using ICC coefficients. It has content validations through expert consultations on the items and criteria since it correlates with measures traditionally related to EI.

The Geneva Emotion Recognition Test (GERT) [ 57 ] is a German test composed of 14 scales. The stimuli are, as in the AVEI, short image and audio videos recorded by five men and five women of different ages. Thus, people must choose which of the 14 emotions is being expressed by the actors, with the responses labelled as correct or incorrect. The reliability of the test is considered excellent, and the ecological and construct validity of the instrument has been tested.

The Test of Emotional Intelligence (TIE) [ 58 ] is developed in Poland. It consists of the same four dimensions as the MSCEIT. After providing participants with different emotional problems, they should indicate which emotion is most likely to occur or choose the most appropriate action. The score is based on expert judgment. It has a very good internal consistency. It has convergent validity since it correlates with the SSEIT and has construct since women scored higher than men.

The Self-Perception of Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ-SP) [ 60 ] is an instrument designed in Portugal and composed of the four dimensions belonging to the Mayer and Salovey’s ability-based model. Their scales have good internal consistency and are correlated with each other.

The Three-Branch Emotional Intelligence Rating Scale Assessment (TEIRA) [ 61 ] and the Three-Branch Emotional Intelligence Forced-Choice Assessment (TEIFA) [ 61 ] were developed in 2015. The first is made up of three scales and is answered by a six-point Likert scale. It presents internal consistency between good and excellent and convergent validity with STEU-B and STEM-B. On the other hand, TEIFA presents a format of forced choice in order to avoid the problem of social desirability in the rating scales. In this format, participants must choose among several positive statements and therefore they cannot simply rate themselves highly on everything (e.g., “Which one is more like you: I know why my emotions change or I manage my emotions well”). It consists of the same items and dimensions as the TEIRA. The study does not report the reliability of TEIFA, as the reliability of the forced-choice tests is artificially high. It presents convergent validity with the SSRI.

A year later, the North Dakota Emotional Abilities Test (NEAT) [ 62 ] was developed in the USA to assess the ability to perceive, understand and control emotions in the workplace. It contains items that describe scenarios of work environments, in which the person must rate the extent of certain emotions that the protagonist would experience in a certain situation. The internal consistency of its scales varies between good and excellent and its internal structure has been tested by a confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, the predictive validity of the instrument has also been tested.

The Inventory of Perceived Emotional Intelligence (IIEP) [ 63 ] was developed in Argentina. It measures different components of intrapersonal and interpersonal EI. This inventory is answered using a five-point Likert scale and it has reliable dimensions. Its content validity has been tested through consultations with judges to evaluate the items.

The last of the instruments in this category is the Emotional Intelligence Test (EIT) [ 65 ]. It was developed in Russia and has four dimensions that assess EI in the workplace. It has excellent internal consistency and convergent validity tested by correlations with the MSCEIT 2.0. No information regarding the items that compose it has been found.

3.2. Measures Based on the Mixed Model

The second category includes those instruments based on the mixed EI model, mainly the Bar-On model [ 7 ] and the Goleman model [ 8 ]. The first instrument of this model is the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) [ 7 ]. Its author was the first to define EI as a mixed concept between ability and personality trait. It is a self-report measure of behaviour that provides an estimate of EI and social intelligence. Their items are composed of short sentences that are answered using a five-point Likert scale. It takes about 30 min to complete, so other shorter versions have been developed, as well as a 360-degree version and a version for young people. It has been translated into more than 30 languages. It has an internal consistency between good and very good and its construct validity has been tested by correlations with other variables.

Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0 (ECI 2.0) [ 67 ], also called ESCI, is a widely used instrument. It was developed in the USA by another of the authors who conceptualized the mixed model of EI. It was designed in a 360-degree version to assess the emotional competencies of individuals and organizations. The internal consistency of others’ ratings is good, while that of oneself is questionable, and it shows positive correlations with constructs related to the work environment. It has a version for university students and has been translated into several languages.

The Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ) [ 68 ] is another tool designed to measure EI in the workplace. It has face, content, construct, and predictive validity, although the internal consistency of its scales varies between good and not very acceptable. Years later, the Emotional Intelligence Inventory [ 69 ] was developed in India. It was also designed to measure EI using a mixed concept in the workplace. It is made up of 10 dimensions, which have an internal consistency between acceptable and excellent. It has correlations with several related scales and with the number of promotions achieved and success in employment, which is proof of its predictive validity.

The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal (EIA) [ 70 ] is a set of surveys that measures EI in the workplace using the four main components of the Goleman model. Their items have been evaluated by experts. It has an internal consistency between very good and excellent. It has three versions: an online self-report, an online multi-rater report (which is combined with responses from co-workers), and another one that has anonymous ratings from several people to get an EI score for the whole team. The Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) [ 71 ] is another tool based on the Goleman model. It is composed of three dimensions and it has excellent internal consistency. The content of the items has been validated by expert evaluations.

The USM Emotional Quotient Inventory (USMEQ-i) [ 72 ] is a tool developed in Malaysia. It consists of a total of seven dimensions composed of 46 items. Seven of these items make up the “faking index items”, that measure the tendency of respondents to manifest social desirability and have a very good internal consistency ( α = 0.83). The reliability of the total instrument yields excellent values.

The Indigenous Scale of Emotional Intelligence [ 73 ] is a Pakistani instrument developed in the Urdu language. The final items were selected from an initial set after passing through the judgment of four experts based on the fidelity to the construct: clarity, redundancy, reliability, and compression. It has excellent internal consistency. Additionally, it presents construct validity (as women obtain higher scores than men) and correlations with the EQ-i.

Years later, the Mobile Emotional Intelligence Test (MEIT) was developed [ 64 ]. It is a Spanish instrument used to measure EI online in work contexts. It is made up of seven tasks (perceptive tasks and identification tasks) to assess the emotional perception of both others and oneself, respectively, face task, in which the most appropriate photograph related to the demanded emotion must be chosen, three comprehension tasks (composition, deduction and retrospective), and story task, in which participants must choose the best action to manage feelings in a given story. It presents excellent internal consistency and convergent validity.

3.3. Trait-Based Measures

This category is composed of trait-based instruments. The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) [ 6 ] is the main instrument of this model. It is a tool widely used in many countries. It has excellent internal consistency and it shows significant correlations with the Big Five Personality. It has a short version, a 360-degree version, a version for children and another one for teenagers. It has been translated into many languages.

Years later, the Rotterdam Emotional Intelligence Scale (REIS) [ 75 ] was developed, the other instrument belonging to this category. It is a self-report instrument designed in Dutch. It has a very good internal consistency and it presents correlations with WEIS, TEIQue and PEC and its validity criterion has also been tested.

3.4. Measures Based on Other Models

Some instruments cannot be included within these categories since they have been conceptualized under different models. The first one is the Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory [ 76 ], previously known as SUEIT. It is based on an original model. It was specifically designed for use in the workplace, but it does not measure EI per se, but rather the frequency with which people display a variety of emotionally intelligent behaviours in the workplace. It presents very good reliability and convergent and predictive validity. In addition, it has two reduced versions.

The Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC) [ 77 ] is based on the model of Mikolajczak [ 83 ], which replicates the four dimensions proposed by Mayer and Salovey but separates the identification from the expression of the emotions and distinguishes the intrapersonal aspect from the interpersonal aspect of each dimension. It contains two main scales, and has excellent internal consistency and convergent, divergent and criterion validity. The original one was developed in French, but it has been translated into several languages.

The last of the instruments identified is the Group-level Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire [ 79 ]. It was designed in the USA to assess EI in work groups under Ghuman’s theoretical model [ 79 ]. This model conceives EI as a two-component construct: group relationship capability (GRC) and group emotional capability (GEC). All of them have very good internal consistency.

Regarding the framework of the Standards, differences were found among them, resulting in an unequal distribution throughout the articles. The percentages of each type of validity can be seen in Table 2 .

Number of studies and percentages for each validity test.

The instruments whose original sources could not be retrieved are cited in Table 3 . The main reasons were that they were articles from books to which the authors did not have access, unpublished documents or documents with restricted access.

Information of the non-accessible instruments.

4. Discussion

The main aim of this study is to offer an updated systematic review of EI instruments in order to provide researchers and professionals with a list of tools that can be applied in the professional field with their characteristics, psychometric properties and versions, as well as a brief description of the instrument. For this purpose, a systematic review of the scientific literature on EI has been carried out using the WoS database through a search of all articles published between 1900 and the present.

The number of instruments developed has been increasing in recent years. In the 1990s barely any instruments were developed and their production was limited to approximately one per year and to practically one country (i.e., the USA). This may be due to the recent conceptualisation of EI, as well as to the difficulty that researchers found in constructing emotion-centred questions with objective criteria [ 15 ]. However, over the years, the production of instruments to measure EI has been increasing and, in addition, it has been extended to other geographical areas. This may be due to the importance that EI has reached over the years in multiple areas (e.g., health, organizational, educational, etc.). With the passage of time, and the introduction of new technologies, multimedia platforms have begun to be used to present stimuli to participants. Recent research in EI has determined that emotions are expressed and perceived through visual and auditory signals (i.e., the tone of voice and the dynamic movements of the face and body) [ 94 ]. Thus, a meta-analysis revealed that video-based tests tend to have a higher criterion-related validity than text-based stimuli [ 95 ].

Regarding the results, a total of 40 instruments produced from 1995 to 2020 have been located. The instruments registered in a greater number of studies, and that have been most used over the years are EQ-i, SSRI, MSCEIT 2.0, TMMS, WLEIS, and TEIQue. These tools have the largest number of versions (e.g., reduced or for different ages or contexts) and are the ones that have been validated in more languages. The most recent instruments hardly have translations apart from their original version, and they have been tested on very few occasions. Most of the articles have not been developed for a specific context.

On the other hand, as can be seen in the results, most of the instruments are grouped under the three main conceptual models described in the introduction (ability, trait and mixed). These models are vertebrated around the construct of EI. However, they present differences in the way of conceptualizing it and, therefore, also of measuring it. For example, the ability-based concept of EI is measured by maximum performance tests while trait-based EI is measured by self-report questionnaires. This may, in itself, lead to different outcomes, even if the underlying model used is the same [ 96 , 97 ].

The ability model, introduced by Mayer and Salovey, is composed of other hierarchically ordered abilities, in which the understanding and management dimensions involve higher-order cognitive processes (strategic), and are based on perception and facilitation, which involve instantaneous processing of emotional information (experiential) [ 4 ]. This model has received wide recognition and has served as a basis for the development of other models. However, it has been questioned through factor analysis that does not support a hierarchical model with an underlying global EI factor. Furthermore, emotional thought facilitation (second dimension) did not arise as a separate factor and was found to be empirically redundant with the other branches [ 96 ].

Intelligence and personality researchers have questioned the very existence of ability EI, and they suggest that it is nothing more than intelligence. This fact is supported by the high correlations found between ability-based EI and the intellectual quotient [ 15 , 96 ]. On the other hand, there is the possibility of falsifying the results by responding strategically for the purpose of social desirability. However, one of the advantages of the ability model is that, through the maximum performance tests, it is not possible to adulterate them. This is because participants must choose the answer they think is correct to get the highest possible score. Another advantage is that these types of instruments tend to be more attractive because they are made up of tests in which it is required to resolve problems, solve puzzles, perform comprehension tasks or choose images [ 15 ].

The Petrides and Furnham model [ 5 ] emerged as an alternative to the ability-based model and is related to dispositional tendencies, personality traits, or self-efficacy beliefs that are measured by self-report tests. The tools based on this model are not exempt from criticism. These instruments present a number of disadvantages, the most frequently cited are being vulnerability to counterfeiting and social desirability [ 96 ]. The participant can obtain a high EI profile by responding in a strategically and socially desirable way, especially when they are examined in work contexts by supervisors or in job interviews. People are not always good judges of their emotional abilities [ 98 ], and may tend to unintentionally underestimate or overestimate their EI. Another criticism of self-report tools is their ecological validity (i.e., external validity that analyses the test environment and determines how much it influences the results) [ 96 ].

On the contrary, the fact that such tools do not present correct or incorrect answers can be advantageous in certain cases. High EI trait scores are not necessarily adaptive or low maladaptive. That is, self-report tools give rise to emotional profiles that simply fit better and are more advantageous in some contexts than in others [ 97 ]. On the other hand, trait-based tools have demonstrated good incremental validity over cognitive intelligence and personality compared to ability-based EI tests [ 99 ]. Furthermore, they tend to have very good psychometric properties, have no questionable theoretical basis, and are moderately and significantly correlate with a large set of outcome variables [ 15 ].

One aspect observed in this systematic review is that the main measure of the estimated reliability in the analysed studies has been internal consistency. However, this estimate is not interchangeable with other measurement error estimates. This coefficient gives a photographic picture of the measurement error and does not include variability over time. There are other reliability indicators (e.g., stability or test–retest) that are more relevant for social intervention purposes [ 100 ], and that according to the estimation design, can differentiate into trait variability or state variability, that is, respectively stability and dependability [ 101 ]. It has been found that the use of stability measures as a reliability parameter is not frequent. In methodological and substantive contexts, reproducibility is essential for the advancement of knowledge. For this reason, it is necessary to identify measures that can be used as parameters to compare the results of different studies [ 102 ]. On the other hand, the standard coefficient of internal consistency has been coefficient α [ 103 ]. This measure has been questioned in relation to its apparent misinformed use of its restrictions [ 104 , 105 , 106 ], of which Cronbach himself highlighted its limited applications [ 104 ]. Other reliability measures have been recommended (e.g., ω) [ 107 ], and the reliability estimation practice in the creation of EI measurements needs to be updated. Usually, ω estimation is integrated into the modelling-based estimation, where SEM or IRT methodology is required to corroborate the internal structure of the score [ 108 , 109 , 110 ] and extract the parameters used to calculate reliability (i.e., factorial loads).

Another methodological aspect to highlight is that predominantly, the construction of EI measures was based on linear modelling or classical test theory. In contrast, the least used approach was item response theory (IRT), which provides other descriptive and evaluative parameters of the quality of the score measurement, such as the information function or the characteristic curves of the options, among others.

On the other hand, it is striking that some of the articles found prove the construct validity of their instruments by obtaining higher EI scores by women than men [ 56 , 58 , 73 ]. This has also been seen in the scientific literature and in research such as that of Fischer et al. [ 111 ], in which it was found that women tend to score higher in EI tests or empathy tests than men, especially, but not only, if it is measured through self-report. Additionally, striking is the study by Molero et al. [ 112 ], in which significant differences were observed among the various EI components between men and women. However, this is not the case in all the articles analysed in this study, nor in all the most current scientific literature. This fact has led to the development of different hypotheses about how far, why, and under what circumstances women could outperform men. There are several theories that have emerged around it. There is one that claims that these differences could be related to different modes of emotional processing in the brain [ 113 , 114 ]. Another theory points to possible differences in emotional perception that suggest that women are more accurate than men in this process when facial manifestations of emotion are subtle, but not when stimuli are highly expressive [ 115 ]. Additionally, another one points out that the expression of emotions is consistent with sex, which may be influenced by contextual factors, including the immediate social context and broader cultural contexts [ 116 ]. However, other variables such as age or years of experience in the position should also be taken into account. For example, the study by Miguel-Torres et al. [ 117 ] showed a better ability to feel, express, and understand emotional states in younger nurses, while the ability to regulate emotions was greater in those who had worked for more years. For this reason, nowadays firm conclusions cannot be drawn and it must be taken into account that the differences found are generally small. Thus, more research is needed on the differences that may exist between men and women in the processes of perception, expression and emotional management before establishing possible social implications of these findings.

4.1. Limitations

This study is not without limitations. Some are inherent in this type of studies, such as publication bias (i.e., the non-publication of studies with results that do not show significant differences) that could have resulted in a loss of articles that have not been published and that used instruments other than those found. In addition, instruments that could not be accessed from their original manuscript could not be included in the systematic review. On the other hand, despite the advantages of WoS, the fact that the search was conducted in a single database may lead to some loss of literature. Furthermore, the systematic review was restricted to peer-reviewed publications and thus different studies may be presented in other information sources, such as books or grey literature. Articles that were in the press and those that may have been published in the course of the compilation of this study have not been collected either. Additionally, the entire process of searching for references was carried out by only one investigator, so an estimate of inter-judge reliability cannot be made, as well as data extraction. There are many aspects of the PRISMA statement that, due to the purpose of our research, our study does not include (visible as NA in Table A1 ). However, it is necessary to develop a protocol for recording the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the primary studies to prevent bias (e.g., bias in the selection process). There are also some methodological aspects to be improved, such as the lack of methods used to assess the risk of bias in the included studies, the preparation or synthesis of the data, or the certainty in the body of evidence of a result. In future research it is necessary to take into account and develop these aspects in order to improve the replicability and methodological validity of the study, and to facilitate the transparency of the research process. In contrast to the above, one of the strengths of this study was to minimize the presence of biases that could alter the results. To minimize language bias, articles submitted in any language were searched for and accepted to avoid over-presentation of studies in one language, and under-presentation in others [ 20 ]. In addition, this study takes into account and exposes five sources of evidence of validity of the instruments through the Standards: content, response processes, internal structure, relationship with other variables and the consequences of testing. Other aspects to be improved in the future include performing the same search in other databases such as EBSCO and Scopus to obtain possible articles not covered in WoS. A manual search for additional articles would also be useful, for example, in the references of other articles or in the grey literature.

4.2. Practical Implication

The relationship between EI and personal development has been of great interest in psychological research over time [ 8 ]. A good study of the instruments that measure constructs such as EI can be of great help both in the field of prevention and psychological intervention in social settings. The revision of EI instruments is intended to contribute to facilitating work in the general population in a way that the development of EI is promoted and antisocial behaviours are reduced. In addition, since it correlates with variables that serve as protectors against psychological distress, this work also contributes to improving, in some cases, the general level of health.

Through this systematic review, we can see the great effort that has been made by researchers not only to improve existing EI measurement instruments, but also in the construction of new instruments that help professionals in the educational, business and health fields, as well as the general population. However, given the rapid changes that society is experiencing, partly due to the effects of modernization and technology, there is a demand to go beyond measurement. For example, from educational and business institutions and from family and community organizations it is necessary to promote activities, support and commitment towards actions oriented to EI under the consideration that this construct can be improved at any age and that it increases with experience.

5. Conclusions

From the results obtained in this study, numerous instruments have been found that can be used to measure EI in professionals. Over the years, the production of instruments to measure EI has been increasing and, moreover, has spread to other geographical areas. The most recent instruments have hardly been translated beyond their original version and have been tested very rarely. In order for future research to benefit from these new instruments, a greater number of uses in larger samples and in other contexts would be desirable.

In addition, most of the instruments are grouped under the three main conceptual models described in the introduction (ability, trait and mixed). Each model has a number of advantages and disadvantages. In the ability model it is not possible to adulterate the results by strategic responses and they tend to be more attractive tests; however, factor analyses do not support a hierarchical model with an underlying global EI factor. The trait-based model, on the other hand, employs measures that have no right or wrong answers, so they result in emotional profiles that are more advantageous in some contexts than others, and they tend to have very good psychometric properties. However, they are susceptible to falsification and social desirability.

On the other hand, it is necessary to identify measures that can be used as parameters to compare the results of different studies. In addition, the standard coefficient of internal consistency has been the α coefficient, which has been questioned in relation to its apparent misinformed use of its restrictions. It would be advisable to use other reliability measures and to update the reliability estimation practice in the creation of EI measures.

Finally, some of the articles found test the construct validity of their instruments by obtaining higher EI scores from women than from men. Different hypotheses have been developed about to what extent, why and under what circumstances women would outperform men; differences may be related to different modes of emotional processing in the brain or possible differences in emotional perception or to the influence of contextual factors. However, it would be interesting to further investigate the differences that may exist between men and women or to take into account other factors such as age or number of years of experience before establishing possible practical implications.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the casual helpers for their aid with information processing and searching.

PRISMA 2020 checklist.

NA = Not applicable.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.M.B.-L. and M.M.-V.; methodology, L.M.B.-L.; validation, L.M.B.-L.; formal analysis, L.M.B.-L.; investigation, L.M.B.-L.; data curation, L.M.B.-L.; writing—original draft preparation, L.M.B.-L.; writing—review and editing, L.M.B.-L., M.M.-V., C.M.-S. and J.L.C.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Emotional Intelligence in Nursing

While nurses must possess a great deal of scientific and technical knowledge, they must be emotionally intelligent as well. In a profession that requires practitioners to understand and care for the whole person, emotional intelligence is pivotal.

Nursing is a highly emotional job, and the career comes with incredible highs and lows. Emotional intelligence in nursing ensures success, from patient outcomes to the management of nursing staff.

What is Emotional Intelligence?

The  Institute of Health and Human Potential  (IHHP) defines emotional intelligence as “the ability to recognize, understand and manage our own emotions” and “recognize, understand and influence the emotions of others.”

In his book  Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ , psychologist Daniel Goleman listed the major components of emotional intelligence. They include:

• Self-awareness
• Emotional control

Relationships

The five elements of emotional intelligence in nursing can determine a nurse’s success and health, as well as affect the well-being of patients and coworkers.

The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Nursing

Emotional intelligence in nursing practice is an enormous part of the management of staff and the care of patients. While emotion doesn’t always play a huge role in other professions, it’s inherently a part of nursing — providing care is an emotional endeavor.

A  study  titled “Emotional Intelligence in Nursing Work” stated, “Caring for someone is associated with the performance of physical tasks, whereas caring about someone implies care at a deeper level, where feelings are explicitly involved in the relationship and the resulting care. If nurses are to form relationships and engage with patients to care for and about them, this involves their emotions.”

Thus, while nurses do plenty of physical labor, they also perform emotional labor, which means managing one’s emotions in a way that’s required to do a job. Emotional intelligence in nursing is imperative when it comes to emotional labor, as the requirements are often complex and evolving.

Emotional intelligence takes on more importance as nurses progress into leadership roles.  An article  titled “Leadership and Emotional Intelligence in Nursing and Midwifery Education and Practice: A Discussion Paper” stated, “The need for emotionally intelligent and ethical leadership in the professions is paramount to highlight and confront the challenges for all involved in health service provision.”

While emotional intelligence impacts all industries, understanding emotions on a personal and social level is a crucial part of being a nurse. Examples of emotional intelligence in nursing are vast.

How does each element of emotional intelligence relate to the nursing profession? 

Self-Awareness and Emotional Control

Emotional intelligence in nursing is not just critical when caring for others; it’s vital for self-preservation. Nursing can quickly become an emotionally overwhelming and demanding job. The aspects of self-awareness and emotional control ensure that nurses can recognize their own emotions and manage their reactions to those emotions, protecting both their mental health and their patients’ well-being.

A report from the National Academy of Medicine found that  around half  of United States nurses could suffer from burnout on the job. Furthermore, that burnout could contribute to decreased quality of patient care and prove costly for the healthcare system. Nurses’ mental states are tied to outcomes for patients and require attention.

Another report stated, “The  consequences of burnout  are not limited to the personal well-being of healthcare workers; many studies have demonstrated that provider burnout is detrimental to patient care.” It went on to say, “Furthermore, the symptoms of burnout seem to overlap with those of depressive disorders.”

Emotional intelligence allows nurses to keep their fingers on their own emotions, understanding when they’re feeling burnt out or depressed. They can take steps to understand their emotions and control their reactions. While depressive disorders should be dealt with by a mental health professional, recognizing emotions along the way could help nurses identify when to ask for help.

If nurses know when their emotions are being taxed, they can take the steps necessary to re-center mentally. Their ability to control their response to often negative emotions proves beneficial for the patients they care for. Keeping calm in stressful and even life and death situations is imperative for nurses. Awareness and emotional control allow nurses to understand the emotions they’re feeling and temper their reactions for the best possible outcome.

Self-motivation, as it relates to emotional intelligence, is the drive to improve personally and achieve goals. Many people might call this resilience or ambition.

Motivation and nursing go hand-in-hand. Nurses must motivate themselves to expand their horizons, explore new specialties and more. Emotional intelligence can help drive the choices of nurses to ensure they’re in the best roles for them, where they can bring passion to their work and improve the lives of their patients and teammates.

Self-motivation is especially significant as nurses move into leadership positions. Emotional intelligence in nursing leadership helps nurses understand how they can use emotions to effect change in their staff and hospital communities. Self-motivation is essential to making the most of emotionally intense work as caregivers and leaders.

In a high stakes profession that affects many lives, leading with self-awareness, emotional control and motivation makes a huge difference in the lives of staff members and patients.

Caring for others requires empathy, or the ability to understand how others are feeling. This is not to be confused with sympathy, which is feeling pity or sorrow for another person. Empathy requires seeing a situation from the perspective of other people, including those who are very different from you.

Empathy builds a shared trust and connection between caretaker and patient. It can help nurses make the right choices and present information in a way that patients comprehend. Nurse, author and podcaster Kati Kleber, BSN, RN, CCRN said, “Rather than focus on fixing or making patients and their loved ones feel better, shifting that focus to just feeling with them can be significantly more meaningful.”

Empathy is also fundamental between nursing leaders and their staff. Understanding others’ experiences, perspectives and challenges allows nurse managers and other leaders to help staff members gain their own self-awareness and emotional control, as well as ensure patient safety by identifying possible emotional challenges among other nurses.

All of nursing boils down to relationships. The relationships nurses form with patients and their loved ones are central to the process of nursing. To ensure patients are compliant and honest, nurses must foster an environment of openness and trust. All the components of emotional intelligence from self-awareness to empathy play roles in nurses’ relationships. Each relationship is unique, presenting diverse challenges and opportunities for displaying emotional intelligence in nursing.

Further, nurses must maintain open and healthy relationships with other healthcare professionals. When a care team works together, understanding each other’s perspectives and challenges while being aware of their own emotional reactions, healthcare work becomes a more positive experience and outcomes improve. Studies show that  collaboration  between doctors and nurses could have a positive impact on many health variables for patients.

Healthy relationships are where nurses can show that they care about patients — a caring connection is at the heart of nursing.

To impact emotional intelligence in nursing, consider an RN to BSN degree. The University of West Florida’s  online RN to BSN program  opens doors to more opportunities for nurses, allowing them to demonstrate a commitment to the nursing profession and advance their careers.

Emotional Intelligence and its Application

Introduction, overview of the theory, translating theory into practice, interpretation of literature findings, recommendation, dissemination plan.

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability of an individual to recognize his/her emotion, as well as that of others, and relate with it in a manner that suits the current situation (Marvos & Hale, 2015). The rationale behind this is that human emotion is less static, it changes from time to time, yet the professional requirement is that people can maintain a more stable emotional feeling. As a leader or a nurse, it is essential that one understand the fact that the physical or psychological condition of the patients makes them vulnerable. Moreover, such changes among the patients do not only occur once; therefore, it is prudent that consistency in how the nurses or primary caregivers respond is maintained. However, the problem associated with emotional intelligence is that it is a relatively new field and indeed, there is less evidence that it is actually effective when applied to medical practice. The following section explores the extent that EI has been used in the medical profession and the documented effects it has had since.

Cherry et al. (2014) conducted a study which explored the effectiveness of emotional intelligence in nursing education. The study used yet a meta-analysis approach. Ten past studies were reviewed. The results of the study indicated a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and the following aspects: stress, anxiety, communication, and nursing performance. The study by Cherry et al. (2014) seems to be a more robust one compared to some of the studies that have been reviewed. It indicates the mediation effects that emotional intelligence has on nursing and general human care. In particular, it explains that emotional intelligence acts as a stress buffer which consequently improves the performance of the nurses. Burnout is one characteristic that is highly associated with nursing practice and has consistently been linked with poor performance. Several measures, such as reduced work load, more training, and education among others have since been used to manage the burnout problem. Studies still indicate a consistent trend of the effects of burnout on nurses’ performance. To this extent, it is logical to argue that the measures that have since been put in place, have not quite been effective. Therefore, emotional intelligence offers a solution. It provides the interpersonal avenues through which work-related stress can be managed. Cherry et al. (2014) also link the emotional intelligence with improved communication. It is paramount that nurses effectively understand the various ways through which patients communicate, not necessarily verbally. This indeed is rarely practical without inherent personal trait of great understanding. Most of the times, this has been confused with inborn personal characteristic, yet studies have shown that emotional intelligence is a concept that can be acquired by an individual.

The application of theories and concepts in practice is nevertheless not an easy encounter. In most occasions, there is often a disjoint between the two. Yet, the importance of theory and concept in practice cannot be overlooked. They form the foundation on which effective medical service delivery are grounded. But it is paramount that more study and strategies are explored in an attempt to bridge the gap between the two issues. Emotional intelligence as a case in point has been confirmed as an effective way of improving individual performance, yet less effort has since been made in making it one of the core subjects in leadership and medical profession.

Intervention

1. Carragher, J., & Gormley, K. (2017). Leadership and emotional intelligence in nursing and midwifery education and practice: a discussion paper. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 73(1), 85-96.

2. Cherry, M. G., Fletcher, I., O’sullivan, H., & Dornan, T. (2014). Emotional intelligence in medical education: a critical review. Medical Education, 48(5), 468-478.

3. Clancy, C. (2014). The importance of emotional intelligence. Nursing Management (2014+), 21(8), 15.

4. Kearney-Nunnery, R. (2015). Advancing Your Career Concepts in Professional Nursing. FA Davis.

5. Marvos, C., & Hale, F. B. (2015). Emotional intelligence and clinical performance/retention of nursing students. Asia-Pacific journal of oncology nursing, 2(2), 63.

6. Shanta, L., & Gargiulo, L. (2014). A study of the influence of nursing education on development of emotional intelligence. Journal of Professional Nursing, 30(6), 511-520.

7. Wilson, J. (2014). The awareness of emotional intelligence by nurses and support workers in an acute hospital setting. Journal of Health Sciences, 2(9), 458-464.

• AACN Synergy Model
• Advanced Practice Nurse (ADN)
• American Nurses’ Association (ANA)
• Communication

The Importance of Emotional Intelligence (Incl. Quotes)

Can you manage those feelings without allowing them to swamp you?

Can you motivate yourself to get jobs done? Do you sense the emotions of others and respond effectively?

If you answered yes to these questions, it is likely that you have developed some or all of the skills that form the basis of emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence ( EI ) forms the juncture at which cognition and emotion meet, it facilitates our capacity for resilience, motivation, empathy, reasoning, stress management, communication, and our ability to read and navigate a plethora of social situations and conflicts. EI matters and if cultivated affords one the opportunity to realize a more fulfilled and happy life.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will not only enhance your ability to understand and work with your emotions but will also give you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is the importance of emotional intelligence, five categories of emotional intelligence (ei/eq), value and benefits of emotional intelligence.

• Self Management, Self Regulation, and EQ

Resilience and EQ

Does emotional intelligence matter more than iq, is there a link between ei and job performance, how about emotional intelligence and motivation, using emotional intelligence to deal with stress, linking ei and decision-making, can emotional intelligence and success be related, goals and ei, how eq affects communication, why emotional intelligence matters for happiness.

• 6 Youtube Videos and TED Talks on Emotional Intelligence

21 Quotes on the Value of Emotional Intelligence

A take-home message.

The term ‘ Emotional Intelligence ’, first coined by psychologists Mayer and Salovey (1990), refers to one’s capacity to perceive, process and regulate emotional information accurately and effectively, both within oneself and in others and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions and to influence those of others.

Emotional intelligence can lead us on the path to a fulfilled and happy life by providing a framework through which to apply standards of intelligence to emotional responses and understand that these responses may be logically consistent or inconsistent with particular beliefs about emotion.

As the workplace evolves, so too does the body of research supporting that individuals (from interns to managers) with higher EI are better equipped to work cohesively within teams, deal with change more effectively, and manage stress – thus enabling them to more efficiently pursue business objectives.

Goleman (1995) recognized five distinct categories of skills which form the key characteristics of EI and proposed that, unlike one’s intelligence quotient (IQ), these categorical skills can be learned where absent and improved upon where present.

Thus, EI, unlike its relatively fixed cousin, IQ, is instead a dynamic aspect of one’s psyche and includes behavioral traits that, when worked upon, can yield significant benefits, from personal happiness and wellbeing to elevated success in a professional context.

Self-awareness is the first step toward introspective self-evaluation and enables one to identify behavioral and emotional aspects of our psychological makeup which we can then target for change.

Emotional self-awareness is also about recognizing what motivates you and, in turn, what brings you fulfillment.

• Self-regulation: the ability to manage one’s negative or disruptive emotions, and to adapt to changes in circumstance. Those who are skilled in self-regulation excel in managing conflict, adapt well to change and are more likely to take responsibility.
• Motivation: the ability to self-motivate, with a focus on achieving internal or self-gratification as opposed to external praise or reward. Individuals who are able to motivate themselves in this way have a tendency to be more committed and goal focused.
• Empathy: the ability to recognize and understand how others are feeling and consider those feelings before responding in social situations. Empathy also allows an individual to understand the dynamics that influence relationships, both personal and in the workplace.
• Social skills: the ability to manage the emotions of others through emotional understanding and using this to build rapport and connect with people through skills such as active listening, verbal and nonverbal communication.
• Self-awareness: the ability to recognize and understand one’s own emotions and their impact on others.

Emotional intelligence has been shown to play a meaningful role in academic success, mental and physical health, as well as attainment in professional domains; the findings of Bar-On (1997) suggested that people with higher EI performed better than those with lower EI in life.

In the modern, agile workplace, there is an ever-increasing emphasis from employers on the importance of EI over academic qualifications.

The importance of EI should not go unappreciated; the ability to understand and manage your emotions is the first step in realizing your true potential. How can we achieve meaningful progress if we don’t recognize and acknowledge the point from where we’re starting? When checking directions on your sat-nav, a destination is useless unless we know the origin.

Whether it be connecting with others and improving interpersonal communication, achieving success in the workplace or social relationships, dealing with stress and improving motivation or refining decision-making skills – emotional intelligence plays a central role in realizing success in both personal and professional life.

The value and benefits of emotional intelligence are vast in terms of personal and professional success. It is a core competency in many vocations, can support the advancement towards academic and professional success, improve relationships, and boost communication skills, the list goes on.

Bar-On (1997) goes so far as to suggest that people with higher EI tend to perform better than those with lower EI in life overall, regardless of IQ. There has been much discussion regarding the benefits of teaching EI in schools , with an emphasis on the idea that emotionally intelligent children grow up to become emotionally intelligent adults.

Proficiency in EI is becoming a vital prerequisite in prolonged or intense areas of ‘emotional work’ such as nursing, social work, the service industry, and management roles. High EI improves the physical and psychological health of people and encourages academic and business performance (Bar-On & Parker, 2000).

Emotional intelligence is an integral part of forming and developing meaningful human relationships. Schutte et al (2001) found that, over a series of studies, there were significant links between high EI and more successful interpersonal relations.

Those participants who exhibited higher levels of EI also showed a greater propensity for empathic perspective taking, cooperation with others, developing affectionate and more satisfying relationships as well as greater social skills in general.

So far, we have focused on the social and psychological benefits of EI, it is important to note that self-awareness – the ability to manage emotions and stress – and the ability to solve personal, as well as interpersonal problems, are also significantly related to physical health.

Chronic stress and the prolonged negative effects which accompany it such as anger, depression, and anxiety can precipitate the onset and progression of hypertension, heart problems, and diabetes; increase susceptibility to viruses, and infections; delay healing of wounds and injuries; and exacerbate conditions such as arthritis and atherosclerosis (Bar-On, 2006, Black & Garbutt, 2002).

The value of EI is immense; developing emotional intelligence encourages many positive traits, from resilience to communication, motivation to stress management, all of which can be seen as conducive to effectively achieving personal, physical and occupational health, and success.

Undoubtedly you know how valuable it is to develop your emotional intelligence abilities, but have you ever wondered exactly why?

Research shows there are many benefits for those with high levels of emotional intelligence, including greater resilience, social skills and connection.

But how do you reach a stage where you can reap these benefits? What barriers stand in your way? How can you help your clients, friends, colleagues, students and even your children develop excellent EI skills?

For answers to all these questions and more, check out our Emotional Intelligence Masterclass© .

Self-Management, Self-Regulation, and EQ

While it’s commonly accepted that our emotions are driven by impulses over which we have little-to-no control, we do have the capacity for self-management and  self-regulation ; the ability to manage – if not control – the resultant emotions and our reactions thereto.

Consider the calm and rational pilot despite the aircraft’s landing gear being jammed or the surgeon who carries on with their duties despite losing a patient.

This form of self-regulation builds on the basis of self-awareness and is an integral part of becoming emotionally intelligent by exercising the capacity to liberate ourselves from impulse-driven reaction (Goleman, 1995).

Self-management builds on this further and allows an individual to use knowledge about their emotions to better manage them in order to self-motivate and to create positive social interactions.

Leaders with an aptitude for self-regulation are far less likely to be aggressively confrontational and make snap decisions. Self-regulation and self-management do not pertain to the absence of anger; rather it’s about remaining in control of your emotions and not allowing your actions to be emotion-driven.

In instances of negative emotions such as anger, EI can help identify what you are feeling and determine the cause of the emotion through reflection and self-analysis allowing one to respond in a rational manner.

Self-regulation is critical in relation to other facets of EI and can be developed from early childhood, adolescence and throughout adulthood. Mastering self-management allows us the opportunity to open the door to the other beneficial aspects of EI while in the absence of self-regulation other competencies, such as effective communication and conflict management, are challenging.

The good news is that it’s never too late to embark on self-management and regulation training; the potential benefits are numerous and should not be underestimated.

The skills enabled through the development of self-regulation can aid success for (but by no means limited to) counselors, psychotherapists, small business owners, managers, and executives.

Those with stronger skills in this area are less likely to become angry or exhibit stress while being more likely to respond calmly to negative environments, harness personal needs in order to achieve goals and remain motivated.

Emotional intelligence is undoubtedly a valuable tool to utilize in the face of adversity; it has the potential to enhance not only leadership abilities and teamwork effectiveness but also personal resilience.

Focusing on the impact of EI on one’s resilience, that is, one’s ability to cope with stressful conditions, research suggests that those who display higher levels of emotional intelligence are less likely to succumb to the negative impacts of stressors.

In the context of a leadership role, one might expect increased responsibility to coincide with elevated potential stressors, highlighting the importance of strong EI for those in leadership or management positions.

An investigation into the relationship between emotional intelligence and the stress process found that participants who displayed higher levels of EI were less likely to be negatively impacted by the presence of stressors.

Participants completed an ability-based test of EI before rating the subjectively perceived threat level posed by two stressors, they then self-reported their emotional reaction to said stressors and were also subjected to physiological stress-response tests in order to assess their response.

In summary, the findings suggested that “ EI facets were related to lower threat appraisals, more modest declines in positive affect, less negative affect and challenge physiological responses to stress… This study provides predictive validity that EI facilitates stress resilience, ” (Schneider, Lyons & Khazon, 2013, pp 909).

Further research suggested a link between higher emotional intelligence, resilience and the propensity for depressive behaviors. In an examination of medical professionals – an occupation with a relatively high ‘burnout’ rate – Olson & Matan (2015) found a positive correlation between EI and resilience as well as a negative correlation between resilience, mindfulness, and self-compassion with the ‘burnout’ rate.

In a nutshell, those with higher levels of emotional intelligence also displayed greater resilience and were less likely to ‘burnout’ or succumb to depression.

These results build on previous research which found EI scores were positively correlated with psychological wellbeing while being negatively correlated with depression and burnout. Given the dynamic nature of EI, the study highlighted the potential ability to reduce one’s susceptibility to depression by way of interventions to increase EI (Lin, Liebert, Tran, Lau, & Salles 2016).

Interestingly, EI is strongly correlated with individual advancement and performance, with evidence suggesting a significant link between one’s resilience and one’s motivation to achieve (Magnano, Craparo & Paolillo, 2016).

Furthermore, it is suggested that resilience plays a mediational role between EI and self-motivated achievement. In other words, emotional intelligence is a prerequisite for resilience, and resilience can lead to greater motivation. Resilience has an underlying perseverance component that motivates endurance in the face of obstacles (Luthans, Avey & Avolio, 2010).

When psychologists began to discuss intelligence, the focus was very much on cognitive aspects relating to memory and problem-solving.

While there had been references to intelligence as having “non-intellective”, as well as “intellective” elements such as affective, personal, and social factors (Wechsler, 1943), historically, the concepts of emotion and intelligence, have been regarded as being mutually exclusive. How can one be intelligent about the emotional aspects of life when emotions can hinder individuals from achieving their goals? (Lloyd, 1979).

In reality, high IQ is no guarantee of success. How successful we are in life is determined by both emotional intelligence and by IQ, though intellect works best when it’s accompanied by high emotional intelligence.

Goleman (1995, 2011) suggests that it is not simply a case of IQ versus EI, instead, both have considerable value. Where IQ tells us the level of cognitive complexity a person can achieve and may to some degree predetermine levels of academic achievement, EI tells us which individuals will make the best leaders within top management positions, for example.

IQ has limited connections to both work and life success. Snarey & Vaillant (1985) suggested it is actually less of a predictor of how well we will do in life than our ability to handle frustration, control emotions, and get along with other people – characteristics not only accounted for but also learnable under current EI theory .

Today, standards of intelligence are still commonly applied to cognitive performance. The misconception that IQ alone is the predictor of success is still very real.

In reality, IQ contributes to around 20% of the factors that determine life success – we all know someone (or perhaps are that person) who has a high IQ yet struggles to do ‘well’. So what accounts for the other 80%? Outwith factors such as social class and plain old luck, Goleman (1995) argued that life success is influenced more by an individual’s ability to engage the 5 aspects of EI detailed above.

While there is much discussion regarding the capability of individuals to improve IQ scores, EI can be developed and refined over time with the condition – just like any skill – that it is given the necessary focus and effort to do so. Many would argue that the ability to connect with and understand others is a more powerful skill to possess than cognitive intellect alone.

In the words of American civil rights activist, Maya Angelou:

“I’ve learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel.”

The increasing awareness of emotional intelligence in management-focused literature and leadership training suggests the link between emotional intelligence and job performance not only exists but has value in myriad areas.

The workplace represents a distinct social community, separate from our personal lives, in which there is a growing appreciation that higher EI allows a person to understand themselves and others better, communicate more effectively, and cope with challenging situations.

Utilizing and developing emotional intelligence in the workplace can significantly improve the personal and social capabilities of individuals within that workplace.

EI is about managing emotions in order to improve job performance and, in turn, helping people stay calm and to think logically in order to establish good relationships and achieve goals. There is an undeniable relationship between EI and the way senior executives manage their employees – managers with higher emotional intelligence have the tools at their disposal to not only manage stress but to also recognize and address stress in others.

If we think of emotional intelligence in terms of managing stress and building relationships, the link between emotional intelligence skills and job performance is clear, with stress management positively impacting job commitment and satisfaction.

It is also important to mention that EI does not only apply at management level, likewise, employees lower down the business hierarchy with sophisticated emotional intelligence skills have the desire and ability to establish and maintain high-quality relationships in the workplace (Lopes, Salovey, & Straus, 2003).

Additionally, individuals with high EI are better equipped to effectively manage conflicts and, in turn, sustain relationships within the workplace when compared to those with low to moderate levels of EI.

Increasingly, organizations are recognizing the value of employees who exhibit the skills to cope with change and respond accordingly. EI is an important factor in job performance both on an individual level and a group level. In fact, as an individual moves up an organizational hierarchy, the positive effect of emotional intelligence on coping with situations and doing tasks in effective ways increases (Moghadam, Tehrani & Amin, 2011).

Emotional intelligence matters for motivation, and motivation matters for success. Whether it’s in relation to work, personal goals or health, the emotionally intelligent individual understands the deeper meaning of their aspirations and the self-motivation skills required to achieve them.

Goleman (1995) identified four elements that make up motivation: our personal drive to improve, our commitment to the goals we set for ourselves, our readiness to act on opportunities that present themselves to us and our resilience.

Magnano et al (2016) assert that motivation is the basic psychological process we use to stimulate ourselves into action to achieve a desired outcome. Whether it’s picking up the remote to change the TV channel or dedicating hundreds of hours to delivering a project, without motivation we’d be unable to act.

Motivation arouses, energizes, directs and sustains behavior and performance. Intrinsic motivation, that is, motivation that comes from within, pushes us to achieve our full potential. An Emotionally Intelligent individual not only possesses the skills for self-motivation but also the skills required to motivate others, a useful talent to have especially in management positions.

While self-motivation is central to achieving one’s goals, emotionally intelligent leaders within a business can also impact employee motivation. The capacity to recognize the emotions and, in turn, the concerns of others is an invaluable skill to have at your disposal in terms of realizing the most effective ways to motivate teams and individuals.

In a recent study, the EI levels of first-year medical undergraduates were found to be positively related to self-motivation to study medicine and satisfaction with choosing to study medicine (Edussuriya, Marambe, Tennakoon, Rathnayake, Premaratne, Ubhayasiri, & Wickramasinghe, 2018).

A study of senior managers with high EI employed in public sector organizations found that EI augments positive work attitudes, altruistic behavior, and work outcomes. It seems, unsurprisingly, that happy employees are motivated employees.

The ability to better cope with stress and anxiety, for example, is also a useful EI tool in terms of motivation – if one can recognize the emotions that may have a negative impact on motivation, they can be addressed and managed effectively (Carmeli, 2003).

We all endure stressful days, it’s completely normal and completely manageable if you have the right skills at your disposal. An individual with high Emotional Intelligence has sufficient self-awareness to recognize negative feelings and respond accordingly to prevent escalation. Uncontrolled and misunderstood emotions can exacerbate our vulnerability to other mental health issues, like stress, anxiety, and depression.

The skills associated with emotional intelligence can effectively help individuals deal with negative emotional states like stress and promote more positive emotions in its place. Failure to address and manage stress can lead to a further deterioration of one’s mental state and impact our physical health in turn.

Research into the social, psychological and medical components of stress emphasizes the importance of dealing with negative emotions to effectively cope with stress and in turn, reduce the potential for negative psychological and physical health outcomes.

Ganster & Schaubroeck (1991) consider our working and professional environment as the primary source of the stress, going on to suggest the ability to effectively recognize and deal with emotions and emotional information in the workplace is a vital tool in preventing negative stress and coping with occupational stress.

Emotional intelligence allows us to effectively cope with stress. Furthermore, emotionally intelligent people also have the ability to initially evaluate situations as less stressful.

While this has the obvious effect of lessening the adverse impact thereof, it also results in greater life satisfaction and happiness. Conversely, a deficit in EI and self‐regulation can lead to lower subjective wellbeing and a relatively exaggerated response to stressors.

The intelligent use of emotions is a fundamental mechanism in psychological adaptation and wellbeing. Individuals with higher EI have been found to report lower levels of stress and higher levels of happiness, indicating that the ability to regulate perceived stress directly impacts satisfaction (Ruiz‐Aranda, Extremera & Pineda‐Galán, 2014).

The role of emotional intelligence in perceiving occupational stress and preventing employees of human services from negative health outcomes is essential (Oginska-Bulk, 2005).

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Emotional Intelligence is closely related to personal and professional development, it impacts on more than how we manage our behavior and navigate social complexities, it also affects how we make decisions.

Having an authentic understanding of the emotions we feel and why we are feeling them can have a huge impact on our decision-making abilities, if we can’t look at our emotions objectively how can we avoid making misguided decisions based on them?

Superior emotional intelligence is an important element in the prevention of decision making based on emotional biases, whereas lower EI can create anxiety and lead to poor decisions. It’s not about removing emotions completely from the decision-making process, rather it’s about recognizing the emotions that are unrelated to the problem and not allowing them to be influential to the final result.

Negative emotions can impede problem-solving and decision making both in the workplace and personal circumstances. The ability to recognize emotions that are superfluous to forming a rational decision and having the capacity to effectively disregard said emotions, negating their impact on the final outcome, holds obvious benefits for decision-making processes.

Through a series of questions and observations with a focus on improving EI awareness and using EI skills to enhance the decision-making process, Hess & Bacigalupo (2011) found that organizations and individuals benefitted from the practical application of EI in decision-making scenarios.

The observations suggest EI training is an effective strategy to introduce when developing decision-making skills and aids in understanding the potential consequences of bad decision making.

Understanding the causes and consequences of emotions allows an individual to both manage the feeling and make an objective decision. Imagine you have a disagreement with your partner and go to work angry and a little stressed out, later that day you dismiss a proposal from a colleague without really paying attention to what they’re suggesting – you’re just not in the mood.

This form of emotional interference can be detrimental to the decision-making process, those with more developed EI can identify and manage this kind of emotional interference and avoid emotionally-driven decisions.

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Much like happiness, ask someone to define success and you will probably get more than one answer. Does your career make you successful? Your intelligence? How much money you have? Finding contentment and happiness? Depending on who you ask, it can be anything!

What is clear is that no matter your definition of success, emotional intelligence can play a vital role in achieving it.

As addressed, it isn’t always the most intelligent people who achieve the greatest success. IQ alone is not enough to excel in life. You can be the most intelligent person in the room, but if you don’t have EI do you have the skills to quieten negative thoughts or the mental fortitude to manage stress? Goleman (1995) described EI as being powerful and, at times, more powerful than IQ in predicting success in life.

It’s your Emotional Intelligence that really helps you achieve your goals and attain greater levels of success, developing EI can greatly influence our success by contributing to increased morale, motivation and greater co-operation (Strickland, 2000).

In the workplace, managers who consistently outperform their peers not only have technical knowledge and experience, but more importantly, they utilize the strategies associated with EI to manage conflict, reduce stress and as a result, improve their success.

There is growing evidence that the range of abilities that constitute what is now commonly known as ’emotional intelligence’ play a key role in determining success – both in one’s personal life and in the workplace – with real-life applications extending to parenting, relationships, businesses, medical professionals, service workers and so many more.

Emotional intelligence enables one to manage emotions in anxiety-provoking situations, such as taking exams at school or university and also has positive associations with success in personal relationships and social functioning.

Success within social relationships can be achieved by using EI competencies to detect others’ emotional states, adopt others’ perspectives, enhance communication, and regulate behavior.

If we think of goals as an aim or desired result, we can see how emotional intelligence skills can help one to achieve personal goals and when exercised correctly by leaders and managers, can also help to drive change and progress in the workplace.

The facets of EI are interwoven, to achieve self-actualization, we must first achieve motivation, in order to achieve motivation we must also be happy in what we are doing. Without happiness, it is a challenge to reach the levels of motivation required to achieve our goals. In essence, if we are not motivated how can we expect to achieve our goals?

There is a wealth of management literature emphasizing the importance of utilizing EI in relation to success and performance, with a focus on how individuals with high EI perform better in all aspects of a management role.

The average level of Emotional Intelligence of team members is reflected by the team process effectiveness and in team goal focus, conversely teams with lower EI skills performed at a lower level of goal achievement. (Jordana, Ashkanasyb, Härtelb, & Hooperb, 2007)

In order to produce our best and achieve our goals, we need positive self-regard, heightened emotional self-awareness, effective problem solving and decision-making skills. We must understand clearly what our goals are, and be motivated to accomplish all we can.

Our ability to be aware of and understand our own emotions can aid our awareness and understanding of the feelings of others.

This sensitivity, or lack thereof, impacts our communication capabilities in both personal and work life.

If we consider communication in the workplace, and more specifically, conflict resolution in the workplace, individuals with higher emotional intelligence are more likely to approach conflict resolution in a collaborative manner, working together with others in order to effectively reach a mutually acceptable outcome.

Relationships in the workplace are affected by how we manage our own emotions and our understanding of the emotions of those around us.

The ability to identify, manage, and understand emotions help us communicate without resorting to confrontation. A person with high EI is better equipped to manage conflict and build meaningful relationships given their elevated capacity to understand, and therefore address, the needs of those with whom they engage. (Lopez, 2005).

Emotional intelligence has unquestionably received greater attention in recent years as a driver of effective communication within teams, including the growing area of virtual teams (also known as remote or geographically dispersed teams). If we examine EQ as a predictor of virtual team success, the results support that not only is EQ a driver of team viability, but also positively impacts the quality of communication (De Mio, 2002).

The process of successful communication and, in terms of conflict, successful negotiation are closely linked to high levels of EQ. Where those with low levels of EQ may react defensively in stressful situations and escalate conflict, individuals with higher emotional intelligence have the skills available at their disposal to communicate effectively without resorting to confrontation or escalating tension.

Happiness seems like a simple enough concept, but have you ever tried to define it? Try now – what is happiness? It is more difficult than it seems because it means something different to each of us. While it is true that happiness means distinctly different things to different people, what is clear is that emotional intelligence really does matter for happiness irrespective of your interpretation.

EI facilitators such as happiness contribute to our self-actualization and self-actualization, in turn, contributes to our happiness in a positive feedback loop. Happiness, according to Wechsler (1943), is the key factor that has a positive impact on intelligent behavior.

Studies examining the link between EI and a range of interpersonal relations found that participants with higher EQ scores had higher scores for empathic perspective taking, self-monitoring and social skills, cooperation with partners, relationship satisfaction, and more affectionate relationships. (Schutte, Malouff, Bobik, Coston, Greeson, Jedlicka, Rhodes, & Wendorf, 2001).

By developing the skills for EI one can reduce stress, which consequently has a positive impact on wellbeing and happiness. In addition to its motivational value, happiness monitors one’s immediate wellbeing and interjects positive mood in the way individuals cope with daily demands, challenges, and pressures.

It is this positivity that encourages the emotional energy required to increase one’s motivational level to get things done, in short, it helps individuals to achieve what they want to achieve and tells them how well they are doing (Bar-On, 2001).

Research conducted by Furnham (2003) indicated that a large amount of the variance found in happiness and wellbeing to be determined by people’s emotion-related self-perceptions and dispositions such as the ability to regulate emotions, relationship skills, and social competence.

While these EI skills are not the sole contributor to levels of happiness, it is important to recognize their impact, with over 50% of the total variances in happiness being attributed to emotional intelligence competencies.

From Aristotle to Freud, the emphasis on the optimization of happiness has been thoroughly discussed. To augment happiness one is often required to use more sophisticated behavioral patterns such as self-regulation to subdue instant pleasure motivations.

Contemporary psychological research continues to recognize the need for this form of optimization. Mischel (1974) explicitly taught children how to delay immediate pleasures for greater long-term gain. The ability to delay gratification is important in many aspects of cognitive development given the capacity for such delays encourages an increase in cognitive competence and social maturity.

17 Exercises To Develop Emotional Intelligence

These 17 Emotional Intelligence Exercises [PDF] will help others strengthen their relationships, lower stress, and enhance their wellbeing through improved EQ.

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6 YouTube Videos and TED Talks on Emotional Intelligence

We recommend watching the following videos for more insight into Emotional Intelligence.

The Power of Emotional Intelligence – Travis Bradberry

You aren’t at the mercy of your emotions – your brain creates them – Lisa Feldman Barrett

6 Steps to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence – Ramona Hacker

Learning Human Values Via Emotional Intelligence – Ruby Bakshi Khurdi

Your Forensic Mirror: Applying Emotional Intelligence To Achieve Success – Paula Clarke

The People Currency: Practicing Emotional Intelligence – Jason Bridges

See also: 15 Most Valuable Emotional Intelligence TED Talks on YouTube .

“Emotional intelligence is a way of recognizing, understanding, and choosing how we think, feel, and act. It shapes our interactions with others and our understanding of ourselves. It defines how and what we learn; it allows us to set priorities; it determines the majority of our daily actions. Research suggests it is responsible for as much as 80 percent of the “success” in our lives.”

Joshua Freedman

“If your emotional abilities aren’t in hand, if you don’t have self-awareness, if you are not able to manage your distressing emotions, if you can’t have empathy and have effective relationships, then no matter how smart you are, you are not going to get very far.”

Daniel Goleman

Maya Angelou

“Anybody can become angry, that is easy; but to be angry with the right person, and to the right degree, and at the right time, and for the right purpose, and in the right way, that is not within everybody’s power, that is not easy.”

“Emotional intelligent people use self-awareness to their advantage to assess a situation, get perspective, listen without judgment, process, and hold back from reacting head on. At times, it means the decision to sit on your decision. By thinking over your situation rationally, without drama, you’ll eventually arrive at other, more sane conclusions.”

Marcel Schwantes

“Never stop because you are afraid – you are never so likely to be wrong.”

Fridtjof Nansen

“We are dangerous when we are not conscious of our responsibility for how we behave, think, and feel.”

Marshall B. Rosenberg

“What really matters for success, character, happiness and life long achievements is a definite set of emotional skills – your EQ — not just purely cognitive abilities that are measured by conventional IQ tests.”

“Whatever is begun in anger, ends in shame.”

Benjamin Franklin

“If you are interested in emotions, learning about them will satisfy your curiosity. If you depend upon emotional knowledge in your job, learning more about emotions would likely help.”

“Do not judge me by my successes, judge me by how many times I fell down and got back up again.”

Nelson Mandela

“When dealing with people, remember you are not dealing with creatures of logic, but with creatures of emotion.”

Dale Carnegie

“It is very important to understand that emotional intelligence is not the opposite of intelligence, it is not the triumph of heart over head – it is the unique intersection of both.”

David Caruso

“Until you make the unconscious conscious, it will direct your life and you will call it fate.”

“It takes something more than intelligence to act intelligently.”

Fyodor Dostoyevsky

“No doubt emotional intelligence is more rare than book smarts, but my experience says it is actually more important in the making of a leader. You just can’t ignore it.”

“Emotional intelligence is what humans are good at and that’s not a sideshow. That’s the cutting edge of human intelligence.”

Ray Kurzweil

“Emotional intelligence is the ability to sense, understand, and effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human energy, information, connection, and influence.”

Robert K. Cooper

“The strength of character and emotional intelligence to face your failures and learn from them are at the core of success.”

Robert Kiyosaki

“Surround yourself with amazingly intelligent men and women. The people I work with not only are smarter than I am, possessing both intellectual and emotional intelligence, but also share my determination to succeed. I will not make an important decision without them.”

George Steinbrenner

“What I’ve come to realize is that emotional intelligence was the only way I knew how to lead, and is, in my option, the only way to inspire real change.”

Kevin Allen

Find more emotional intelligence quotes here .

Emotional Intelligence is important, the value and benefits of developing your EQ are extensive and in many areas massively under-utilised. Emotional intelligence is the gateway to living a more fulfilled and happy life, and here’s why:

• Emotional intelligence allows you to understand and manage your emotions in order to self-motivate and to create positive social interactions; it’s the first step in realizing your true potential.
• The value and benefits of EI are vast in terms of personal, academic, and professional success.
• Individuals with higher levels of emotional intelligence are less likely to succumb to the negative impacts of stressors, while effectively help individuals deal with negative emotions and promote more positive emotions in its place.
• Intellect works best when it’s accompanied by high emotional intelligence.
• Utilizing and developing emotional intelligence in the workplace can greatly improve both job performance and the social capabilities of individuals within that workplace.
• Emotional Intelligence is a useful skill to prevent making decisions based on emotional biases.
• The process of successful communication and negotiation are closely linked to high levels of EQ.
• Key EI facilitators such as happiness contribute to our self-actualization.

Thanks for reading! I hope you have enjoyed this journey into the world of emotional intelligence and the important role it plays in achieving personal, physical and occupational success.

For further reading:

• 13 Emotional Intelligence Activities & Exercises
• 26 Best Emotional Intelligence Books (Reviews + Summaries)
• The Emotion Wheel: What is It and How to Use it? [+PDF]

We hope you found this article useful. Don’t forget to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free .

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this was very insightful. It will help me make positive change in my institution both to employees and clients. thanks. chao.

Personal awareness can help one develop emotional intelligence which can be developed overtime

This is great because it is a skill that can be developed over time and the results is towards success and more meaningful personal awareness of oneself life in general and the life of an entrepreneur especially

Now i know that helping others develop their own EI is part of my own EI growth as well. i plan to put this into action more intentionally to increase overall productivity.

I think it’s important to remember that emotional intelligence is a skill that can be developed and improved over time. By practicing mindfulness, improving communication skills, and working on self-awareness, individuals can become more emotionally intelligent and ultimately, more successful in all aspects of their lives. Thank You!

The article is powerful, it offers 360 degree of EQ with practical examples.

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