components of argument essay

8 Effective Strategies to Write Argumentative Essays

In a bustling university town, there lived a student named Alex. Popular for creativity and wit, one challenge seemed insurmountable for Alex– the dreaded argumentative essay!

One gloomy afternoon, as the rain tapped against the window pane, Alex sat at his cluttered desk, staring at a blank document on the computer screen. The assignment loomed large: a 350-600-word argumentative essay on a topic of their choice . With a sigh, he decided to seek help of mentor, Professor Mitchell, who was known for his passion for writing.

Entering Professor Mitchell’s office was like stepping into a treasure of knowledge. Bookshelves lined every wall, faint aroma of old manuscripts in the air and sticky notes over the wall. Alex took a deep breath and knocked on his door.

“Ah, Alex,” Professor Mitchell greeted with a warm smile. “What brings you here today?”

Alex confessed his struggles with the argumentative essay. After hearing his concerns, Professor Mitchell said, “Ah, the argumentative essay! Don’t worry, Let’s take a look at it together.” As he guided Alex to the corner shelf, Alex asked,

Table of Contents

“What is an Argumentative Essay?”

The professor replied, “An argumentative essay is a type of academic writing that presents a clear argument or a firm position on a contentious issue. Unlike other forms of essays, such as descriptive or narrative essays, these essays require you to take a stance, present evidence, and convince your audience of the validity of your viewpoint with supporting evidence. A well-crafted argumentative essay relies on concrete facts and supporting evidence rather than merely expressing the author’s personal opinions . Furthermore, these essays demand comprehensive research on the chosen topic and typically follows a structured format consisting of three primary sections: an introductory paragraph, three body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph.”

He continued, “Argumentative essays are written in a wide range of subject areas, reflecting their applicability across disciplines. They are written in different subject areas like literature and philosophy, history, science and technology, political science, psychology, economics and so on.

Alex asked,

“When is an Argumentative Essay Written?”

The professor answered, “Argumentative essays are often assigned in academic settings, but they can also be written for various other purposes, such as editorials, opinion pieces, or blog posts. Some situations to write argumentative essays include:

1. Academic assignments

In school or college, teachers may assign argumentative essays as part of coursework. It help students to develop critical thinking and persuasive writing skills .

2. Debates and discussions

Argumentative essays can serve as the basis for debates or discussions in academic or competitive settings. Moreover, they provide a structured way to present and defend your viewpoint.

3. Opinion pieces

Newspapers, magazines, and online publications often feature opinion pieces that present an argument on a current issue or topic to influence public opinion.

4. Policy proposals

In government and policy-related fields, argumentative essays are used to propose and defend specific policy changes or solutions to societal problems.

5. Persuasive speeches

Before delivering a persuasive speech, it’s common to prepare an argumentative essay as a foundation for your presentation.

Regardless of the context, an argumentative essay should present a clear thesis statement , provide evidence and reasoning to support your position, address counterarguments, and conclude with a compelling summary of your main points. The goal is to persuade readers or listeners to accept your viewpoint or at least consider it seriously.”

Handing over a book, the professor continued, “Take a look on the elements or structure of an argumentative essay.”

Elements of an Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay comprises five essential components:

Claim in argumentative writing is the central argument or viewpoint that the writer aims to establish and defend throughout the essay. A claim must assert your position on an issue and must be arguable. It can guide the entire argument.

2. Evidence

Evidence must consist of factual information, data, examples, or expert opinions that support the claim. Also, it lends credibility by strengthening the writer’s position.

3. Counterarguments

Presenting a counterclaim demonstrates fairness and awareness of alternative perspectives.

4. Rebuttal

After presenting the counterclaim, the writer refutes it by offering counterarguments or providing evidence that weakens the opposing viewpoint. It shows that the writer has considered multiple perspectives and is prepared to defend their position.

The format of an argumentative essay typically follows the structure to ensure clarity and effectiveness in presenting an argument.

How to Write An Argumentative Essay

Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to write an argumentative essay:

1. Introduction

• Begin with a compelling sentence or question to grab the reader’s attention.
• Provide context for the issue, including relevant facts, statistics, or historical background.
• Provide a concise thesis statement to present your position on the topic.

2. Body Paragraphs (usually three or more)

• Start each paragraph with a clear and focused topic sentence that relates to your thesis statement.
• Furthermore, provide evidence and explain the facts, statistics, examples, expert opinions, and quotations from credible sources that supports your thesis.
• Use transition sentences to smoothly move from one point to the next.

3. Counterargument and Rebuttal

• Acknowledge opposing viewpoints or potential objections to your argument.
• Also, address these counterarguments with evidence and explain why they do not weaken your position.

4. Conclusion

• Restate your thesis statement and summarize the key points you’ve made in the body of the essay.
• Leave the reader with a final thought, call to action, or broader implication related to the topic.

5. Citations and References

• Properly cite all the sources you use in your essay using a consistent citation style.
• Also, include a bibliography or works cited at the end of your essay.

6. Formatting and Style

• Follow any specific formatting guidelines provided by your instructor or institution.
• Use a professional and academic tone in your writing and edit your essay to avoid content, spelling and grammar mistakes .

Remember that the specific requirements for formatting an argumentative essay may vary depending on your instructor’s guidelines or the citation style you’re using (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Always check the assignment instructions or style guide for any additional requirements or variations in formatting.

Did you understand what Prof. Mitchell explained Alex? Check it now!

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Prof. Mitchell continued, “An argumentative essay can adopt various approaches when dealing with opposing perspectives. It may offer a balanced presentation of both sides, providing equal weight to each, or it may advocate more strongly for one side while still acknowledging the existence of opposing views.” As Alex listened carefully to the Professor’s thoughts, his eyes fell on a page with examples of argumentative essay.

Example of an Argumentative Essay

Alex picked the book and read the example. It helped him to understand the concept. Furthermore, he could now connect better to the elements and steps of the essay which Prof. Mitchell had mentioned earlier. Aren’t you keen to know how an argumentative essay should be like? Here is an example of a well-crafted argumentative essay , which was read by Alex. After Alex finished reading the example, the professor turned the page and continued, “Check this page to know the importance of writing an argumentative essay in developing skills of an individual.”

Importance of an Argumentative Essay

After understanding the benefits, Alex was convinced by the ability of the argumentative essays in advocating one’s beliefs and favor the author’s position. Alex asked,

“How are argumentative essays different from the other types?”

Prof. Mitchell answered, “Argumentative essays differ from other types of essays primarily in their purpose, structure, and approach in presenting information. Unlike expository essays, argumentative essays persuade the reader to adopt a particular point of view or take a specific action on a controversial issue. Furthermore, they differ from descriptive essays by not focusing vividly on describing a topic. Also, they are less engaging through storytelling as compared to the narrative essays.

Alex said, “Given the direct and persuasive nature of argumentative essays, can you suggest some strategies to write an effective argumentative essay?

Turning the pages of the book, Prof. Mitchell replied, “Sure! You can check this infographic to get some tips for writing an argumentative essay.”

Effective Strategies to Write an Argumentative Essay

As days turned into weeks, Alex diligently worked on his essay. He researched, gathered evidence, and refined his thesis. It was a long and challenging journey, filled with countless drafts and revisions.

Finally, the day arrived when Alex submitted their essay. As he clicked the “Submit” button, a sense of accomplishment washed over him. He realized that the argumentative essay, while challenging, had improved his critical thinking and transformed him into a more confident writer. Furthermore, Alex received feedback from his professor, a mix of praise and constructive criticism. It was a humbling experience, a reminder that every journey has its obstacles and opportunities for growth.

Frequently Asked Questions

An argumentative essay can be written as follows- 1. Choose a Topic 2. Research and Collect Evidences 3. Develop a Clear Thesis Statement 4. Outline Your Essay- Introduction, Body Paragraphs and Conclusion 5. Revise and Edit 6. Format and Cite Sources 7. Final Review

One must choose a clear, concise and specific statement as a claim. It must be debatable and establish your position. Avoid using ambiguous or unclear while making a claim. To strengthen your claim, address potential counterarguments or opposing viewpoints. Additionally, use persuasive language and rhetoric to make your claim more compelling

Starting an argument essay effectively is crucial to engage your readers and establish the context for your argument. Here’s how you can start an argument essay are: 1. Begin With an Engaging Hook 2. Provide Background Information 3. Present Your Thesis Statement 4. Briefly Outline Your Main 5. Establish Your Credibility

The key features of an argumentative essay are: 1. Clear and Specific Thesis Statement 2. Credible Evidence 3. Counterarguments 4. Structured Body Paragraph 5. Logical Flow 6. Use of Persuasive Techniques 7. Formal Language

An argumentative essay typically consists of the following main parts or sections: 1. Introduction 2. Body Paragraphs 3. Counterargument and Rebuttal 4. Conclusion 5. References (if applicable)

The main purpose of an argumentative essay is to persuade the reader to accept or agree with a particular viewpoint or position on a controversial or debatable topic. In other words, the primary goal of an argumentative essay is to convince the audience that the author's argument or thesis statement is valid, logical, and well-supported by evidence and reasoning.

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Essential components of argumentative writing

In high-quality argumentative writing, defending a position is not enough. It is necessary to provide counterarguments and rebuttals. To strengthen the quality of your argumentation, ask critical questions from the proponent (the side in favour of the argument) and the opponent’s (the side opposed to the argument) sides, and don’t hesitate to include critical questions in your argumentative writing. Asking questions is an effective method that guides self-explanation, elaboration, and self-regulatory learning. The main components of an argumentative paper are:

Claims assert your position on an issue. Your claims must be arguable. This is not an arguable claim: “this paper will examine the extent to which grouping students based on ability would accommodate their different needs.” Examining the extent of an issue suggests an expository paper instead of an argumentative one. You should claim your position by stating: “grouping students based on ability accommodates their different needs.” 

You also need to provide reasons to support your claim(s), and back up your reasons with evidence (note: your "evidence" is usually what you have found by doing your research!).

Counterarguments:

Counterarguments predict what an opponent would say to reject an argument. When you provide a counterargument, you provide reasonable objections to an argument that may arise for some who disagrees with you. For example, someone claims, “making learning fun in classrooms allows for good learning because it motivates students to learn.” Ask yourself: are there people who would say that having fun in classrooms is not necessary for learning? What would be the reasons that would support that claim? Could someone argue that emotional interest stimulated through fun activities is not as important as cognitive interest stimulated through relevant information? Would they have evidence to back up their reason? Can they explain how and why the evidence supports their claim?               

After you set up the counterarguments, you need to respond to, address, or refute those counterarguments. Otherwise, your read might end up being convinced by the opposing argument! 

In the previous example, you could ask yourself: “What can I say to show that it isn't right to suggest that emotional interest isn't as important as cognitive interest?" 

To provide a reasonable rebuttal, weigh up the balance of evidence and reasons provided in the arguments and the counterarguments, and prove that you have more evidence and reasons for the argument.

-- blog post by Teeba Obaid, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Education 

For more support on writing effective argumentative papers, check out the SLC's new resources on using templates to structure an argumentative essay, including practice exercises!: 

https://www.lib.sfu.ca/about/branches-depts/slc/writing/argumentation/templates-structuring-argumentative-essays

Thank you to SLC Graduate Writing Facilitator Mohsen for his work creating these resources! 

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Content writing by Vectors Point from the Noun Project

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• Writing Tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay

4-minute read

• 30th April 2022

An argumentative essay is a structured, compelling piece of writing where an author clearly defines their stance on a specific topic. This is a very popular style of writing assigned to students at schools, colleges, and universities. Learn the steps to researching, structuring, and writing an effective argumentative essay below.

Requirements of an Argumentative Essay

To effectively achieve its purpose, an argumentative essay must contain:

●  A concise thesis statement that introduces readers to the central argument of the essay

●  A clear, logical, argument that engages readers

●  Ample research and evidence that supports your argument

Approaches to Use in Your Argumentative Essay

1.   classical.

●  Clearly present the central argument.

●  Outline your opinion.

●  Provide enough evidence to support your theory.

2.   Toulmin

●  State your claim.

●  Supply the evidence for your stance.

●  Explain how these findings support the argument.

●  Include and discuss any limitations of your belief.

3.   Rogerian

●  Explain the opposing stance of your argument.

●  Discuss the problems with adopting this viewpoint.

●  Offer your position on the matter.

●  Provide reasons for why yours is the more beneficial stance.

●  Include a potential compromise for the topic at hand.

Tips for Writing a Well-Written Argumentative Essay

●  Introduce your topic in a bold, direct, and engaging manner to captivate your readers and encourage them to keep reading.

●  Provide sufficient evidence to justify your argument and convince readers to adopt this point of view.

●  Consider, include, and fairly present all sides of the topic.

●  Structure your argument in a clear, logical manner that helps your readers to understand your thought process.

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●  Discuss any counterarguments that might be posed.

●  Use persuasive writing that’s appropriate for your target audience and motivates them to agree with you.

Steps to Write an Argumentative Essay

Follow these basic steps to write a powerful and meaningful argumentative essay :

Step 1: Choose a topic that you’re passionate about

If you’ve already been given a topic to write about, pick a stance that resonates deeply with you. This will shine through in your writing, make the research process easier, and positively influence the outcome of your argument.

Step 2: Conduct ample research to prove the validity of your argument

To write an emotive argumentative essay , finding enough research to support your theory is a must. You’ll need solid evidence to convince readers to agree with your take on the matter. You’ll also need to logically organize the research so that it naturally convinces readers of your viewpoint and leaves no room for questioning.

Step 3: Follow a simple, easy-to-follow structure and compile your essay

A good structure to ensure a well-written and effective argumentative essay includes:

Introduction

●  Introduce your topic.

●  Offer background information on the claim.

●  Discuss the evidence you’ll present to support your argument.

●  State your thesis statement, a one-to-two sentence summary of your claim.

●  This is the section where you’ll develop and expand on your argument.

●  It should be split into three or four coherent paragraphs, with each one presenting its own idea.

●  Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that indicates why readers should adopt your belief or stance.

●  Include your research, statistics, citations, and other supporting evidence.

●  Discuss opposing viewpoints and why they’re invalid.

●  This part typically consists of one paragraph.

●  Summarize your research and the findings that were presented.

●  Emphasize your initial thesis statement.

●  Persuade readers to agree with your stance.

We certainly hope that you feel inspired to use these tips when writing your next argumentative essay . And, if you’re currently elbow-deep in writing one, consider submitting a free sample to us once it’s completed. Our expert team of editors can help ensure that it’s concise, error-free, and effective!

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Argumentative Essay – Outline, Form, and Examples

What is an argumentative essay?

An argumentative essay requires the writer to investigate a specific topic by collecting and evaluating evidence to establish a position on the subject matter.

When preparing to compose a good argumentative essay, utilize the following steps:

Step 1: Select a topic.

Step 2: Identify a position.

Step 3: Locate appropriate resources.

Step 4: Identify evidence supporting the position. ( NOTE: If there is little evidence in support of the claim, consider re-examining the main argument.)

When gathering evidence, use credible sources . To determine the credibility of the source, consider authority, currency, accuracy, and objectivity:

Who is the author ? Are they an expert in the field? Has a reputable publisher published the work?

How current is the information in the source? Does the currency of the source matter? Does the age of the source impact the content? Is there newer information that disproves the source’s information?

Can other sources verify the accuracy of the information? Does the information contradict that found in other commonly accepted sources?

Is there any evidence of bias, or is the source objective ? Is the research sponsored by an organization that may skew the information?

The following are typically recognized as providing appropriate, credible research material:

Peer-reviewed journals/research papers

Government agencies

Professional organizations

Library databases

Reference books

Writers should avoid using the following sources:

Social media posts

Out-of-date materials

Step 5: Utilize the research to determine a thesis statement that identifies the topic, position, and support(s).

Step 6: Use the evidence to construct an outline, detailing the main supports and relevant evidence.

Argumentative essay outline

After gathering all of the necessary research, the next step in composing an argumentative essay focuses on organizing the information through the use of an outline:

Introduction

Attention Grabber/Hook

Background Information: Include any background information pertinent to the topic that the reader needs to know to understand the argument.

Thesis: State the position in connection to the main topic and identify the supports that will help prove the argument.

Topic sentence

Identify evidence in support of the claim in the topic sentence

Explain how the evidence supports the argument

Evidence 3 (Continue as needed)

Support 2 (Continue as needed)

Restate thesis

Review main supports

Concluding statement

Invite the audience to take a specific action.

Identify the overall importance of the topic and position.

How to write an argumentative essay

Regardless of the writer’s topic or point of view, an argumentative essay should include an introductory paragraph, body paragraphs, a conclusion, and works cited.

Background information

Body Paragraphs

Analysis of evidence

Rephrased thesis

Review of main ideas

Call to action

Works Cited

Argumentative essay introduction

The introduction sets the tone for the entire paper and introduces the argument. In general, the first paragraph(s) should attract the reader’s attention, provide relevant context, and conclude with a thesis statement.

To attract the reader's attention , start with an introductory device. There are several attention-grabbing techniques, the most common of which consist of the following:

The writer can emphasize the topic’s importance by explaining the current interest in the topic or indicating that the subject is influential.

Pertinent statistics give the paper an air of authority.

There are many reasons for a stimulating statement to surprise a reader. Sometimes it is joyful; sometimes it is shocking; sometimes it is surprising because of who said it.

An interesting incident or anecdote can act as a teaser to lure the reader into the remainder of the essay. Be sure that the device is appropriate for the subject and focus of what follows.

Provide the reader with relevant context and background information necessary to understand the topic.

Conclude with a thesis statement that identifies the overall purpose of the essay (topic and position). Writers can also include their support directly in the thesis, which outlines the structure of the essay for the reader.

Avoid the following when writing the introduction to argumentative writing:

Starting with dictionary definitions is too overdone and unappealing.

Do not make an announcement of the topic like “In this paper I will…” or “The purpose of this essay is to….”

Evidence supporting or developing the thesis should be in the body paragraphs, not the introduction.

Beginning the essay with general or absolute statements such as “throughout history...” or “as human beings we always...” or similar statements suggest the writer knows all of history or that all people behave or think in the same way.

Argumentative essay thesis

The thesis statement is the single, specific claim the writer sets out to prove and is typically positioned as the last sentence of the introduction . It is the controlling idea of the entire argument that identifies the topic, position, and reasoning.

When constructing a thesis for an argumentative paper, make sure it contains a side of the argument, not simply a topic. An argumentative thesis identifies the writer’s position on a given topic. If a position cannot be taken, then it is not argumentative thesis:

Topic: Capital punishment is practiced in many states.

Thesis: Capital punishment should be illegal.

While not always required, the thesis statement can include the supports the writer will use to prove the main claim. Therefore, a thesis statement can be structured as follows:

TOPIC + POSITION (+ SUPPORTS)

No Supports: College athletes (TOPIC) should be financially compensated (POSITION).

Supports: College athletes (TOPIC) should be financially compensated (POSITION) because they sacrifice their minds and bodies (SUPPORT 1), cannot hold

Argumentative essay body paragraphs

Body paragraphs can be of varying lengths, but they must present a coherent argument unified under a single topic. They are rarely ever longer than one page, double-spaced; usually they are much shorter.

Lengthy paragraphs indicate a lack of structure. Identify the main ideas of a lengthy paragraph to determine if they make more sense as separate topics in separate paragraphs.

Shorter paragraphs usually indicate a lack of substance; there is not enough evidence or analysis to prove the argument. Develop the ideas more or integrate the information into another paragraph.

The structure of an argumentative paragraph should include a topic sentence, evidence, and a transition.

The topic sentence is the thesis of the paragraph that identifies the arguable point in support of the main argument. The reader should know exactly what the writer is trying to prove within the paragraph by reading the first sentence.

The supporting evidence and analysis provide information to support the claim. There should be a balance between the evidence (facts, quotations, summary of events/plot, etc.) and analysis (interpretation of evidence). If the paragraph is evidence-heavy, there is not much of an argument; if it is analysis-heavy, there is not enough evidence in support of the claim.

The transition can be at the beginning or the end of a paragraph. However, it is much easier to combine the transition with the concluding observation to help the paragraphs flow into one another. Transitions in academic writing should tell the reader where you were, where you are going, and relate to the thesis.

Some essays may benefit from the inclusion of rebuttals to potential counterarguments of the writer’s position.

Argumentative essay conclusion

The conclusion should make readers glad they read the paper. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest readers but also enrich their understanding in some way. There are three aspects to follow when constructing the conclusion: rephrase the thesis, synthesize information, and call the reader to action.

Rephrased the thesis in the first sentence of the conclusion. It must be in different words; do not simply write it verbatim.

Synthesize the argument by showing how the paper's main points support the argument.

Propose a course of action or a solution to an issue. This can redirect the reader's thought process to apply the ideas to their life or to see the broader implications of the topic.

Avoid the following when constructing the conclusion:

Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing;" although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as trite in writing

Introducing a new idea or subtopic in the conclusion

Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of the paper

Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper

Argumentative essay examples

Examples of argumentative essays vary depending upon the type:

Academic essays differ based upon the topic and position. These essays follow a more traditional structure and are typically assigned in high school or college. Examples of academic argumentative essay topics include the following:

Advantages or disadvantages of social media

Animal testing

Art education

Benefit or detriment of homework

Capital punishment

Class warfare

Immigration

School uniforms

Universal healthcare

Violence in video games

Argumentative literary essays are typically more informal and do not follow the same structure as an academic essay. The following are popular examples of argumentative literary essays:

“Letter from Birmingham Jail” by Martin Luther King, Jr.

“Death of the Moth” by Virginia Woolf

“Shooting an Elephant” by George Orwell

“Thoughts for the Times on War and Death” by Sigmund Freud

“Does the Truth Matter? Science, Pseudoscience, and Civilization” by Carl Sagan

“Self-Reliance” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

Module 9: Academic Argument

The argumentative essay, learning objectives.

• Examine types of argumentative essays

Argumentative Essays

You may have heard it said that all writing is an argument of some kind. Even if you’re writing an informative essay, you still have the job of trying to convince your audience that the information is important. However, there are times you’ll be asked to write an essay that is specifically an argumentative piece.

An argumentative essay is one that makes a clear assertion or argument about some topic or issue. When you’re writing an argumentative essay, it’s important to remember that an academic argument is quite different from a regular, emotional argument. Note that sometimes students forget the academic aspect of an argumentative essay and write essays that are much too emotional for an academic audience. It’s important for you to choose a topic you feel passionately about (if you’re allowed to pick your topic), but you have to be sure you aren’t too emotionally attached to a topic. In an academic argument, you’ll have a lot more constraints you have to consider, and you’ll focus much more on logic and reasoning than emotions.

Figure 1 . When writing an argumentative essay, students must be able to separate emotion based arguments from logic based arguments in order to appeal to an academic audience.

Argumentative essays are quite common in academic writing and are often an important part of writing in all disciplines. You may be asked to take a stand on a social issue in your introduction to writing course, but you could also be asked to take a stand on an issue related to health care in your nursing courses or make a case for solving a local environmental problem in your biology class. And, since argument is such a common essay assignment, it’s important to be aware of some basic elements of a good argumentative essay.

When your professor asks you to write an argumentative essay, you’ll often be given something specific to write about. For example, you may be asked to take a stand on an issue you have been discussing in class. Perhaps, in your education class, you would be asked to write about standardized testing in public schools. Or, in your literature class, you might be asked to argue the effects of protest literature on public policy in the United States.

However, there are times when you’ll be given a choice of topics. You might even be asked to write an argumentative essay on any topic related to your field of study or a topic you feel that is important personally.

Whatever the case, having some knowledge of some basic argumentative techniques or strategies will be helpful as you write. Below are some common types of arguments.

Causal Arguments

• You write about how something has caused something else. For example, you might explore the increase of industrial pollution and the resulting decline of large mammals in the world’s ocean.

Evaluation Arguments

• You can write an argumentative evaluation of something as “good” or “bad,” but you also need to establish the criteria for “good” or “bad.” For example, you might evaluate a children’s book for your Introduction to Educational Theory class, but you would need to establish clear criteria for your evaluation for your audience.

Proposal Arguments

• With this type of writing, you need to propose a solution to a problem. First, you must establish a clear problem and then propose a specific solution to that problem. For example, you might argue for a removal of parking fines on students who use the parking deck on campus.

Narrative Arguments

• For this type of argument, you make your case by telling a story with a clear point related to your argument. For example, you might write a narrative about your negative experiences with standardized testing in order to make a case for reform.

Rebuttal Arguments

• In a rebuttal argument, you build your case around refuting an idea or ideas that have come before. In other words, your starting point is to challenge the ideas of the past. For this type of writing assignment, you have to explain what you are refuting first, and then you can expand on your new ideas or perspectives.

Definition Arguments

• In this type of argument, you use a definition as the starting point for making your case. For example, in a definition argument, you might argue that NCAA basketball players should be defined as professional players and, therefore, should be paid.

Essay Examples

• You can read more about an argumentative essay on the consequences of fast fashion . Read it and look at the comments to recognize strategies and techniques the author uses to convey her ideas.
• In this example, you’ll see a sample argumentative paper from a psychology class submitted in APA format. Key parts of the argumentative structure have been noted for you in the sample.

Link to Learning

For more examples of types of argumentative essays, visit the Argumentative Purposes section of the Excelsior OWL .

• Argumentative Essay. Provided by : Excelsior OWL. Located at : https://owl.excelsior.edu/rhetorical-styles/argumentative-essay/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
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Elements of Argumentative Essay: The Complete Guide

by  Antony W

October 24, 2022

It’s important to learn and understand the different elements of an argumentative essay to navigate the writing process for the project.

Understanding these elements will enable you to structure your essay well, so you can write the most significant details from start to finish.

Key Takeaways

A comprehensive argumentative essay must feature the following elements:

• Thesis statement: A thesis statement gives a summary of the main claim of the subject. Instead of being a fact or random opinion, the statement should be arguable in nature with a matter of probability.
• Audience: The audience is the people to whom you present your argument.
• Exigence: Exigence allows you to create an environment in which you make a claim and offer strong evidence to support your position.
• Support: Your premise should include reasons to support your claim.
• Reasoning: You have to use reasons to give answers to hypothetical challenges, which should act as a way to convince your audience that your claims are valid.
• Counterclaims and Rebuttals: You anticipate objections to your argument and must therefore recognize counterclaims and refute them with rebuttals.

If you’re struggling with incorporating these elements in your argument or you can’t get yourself to write the essay fast, hire an argumentative essay writer from Help for Assessment for writing assistance.

6 Elements of an Argumentative Essay Explained

Below is a detailed explanation of all the six elements of an argumentative essay:

1. Thesis Statement

A thesis in an argument highlights the main claim of a subject. It should be a sentence long, although some essays can have a maximum of two sentences.

In argumentative writing, a statement of declaration cannot be a fact or random opinion. Instead, it must be arguable in nature with a matter of probability. Moreover, the statement should bring out point clearly, even if the subject is on a complex or controversial issue.

The thesis statement should be clear, concise, and specific. Or your audience is likely to miss the primary objective of the essay.

Your argument’s thesis must touch on a major warrant before you begin working on the body paragraphs .

By touching on the main premise, you grab the attention of the opposing reader and demonstrate the reasonability of your argument. 

2. Audience

The audience is your reader or a group of people you need to convince that your position on an issue is more viable.

You must use a tentative approach with a strong conviction to get your human readers or listeners to agree with you. In some cases, though, you may have to present your argument in a passionate way.

Whichever approach you use, ensure you detail your arguments so that you audience can pay attention to the message you wish to communicate.

Your audience is a mix of readers from different backgrounds and varying opinions. A part of your audience will agree with your position on an issue, some will debate your argument. Therefore, you must use significant evidence in a manner that moves the audience to agree with you.

3. Exigence

Exigence is a rising circumstance that pushes for the need for a real argument. By creating a forum in time, exigence enables you to make claims to which you can provide sufficient evidence for support.

Although exigence is mostly only possible in real-time debates that happen in classrooms, your teacher may ask you to present it in the written form. In such a case, you may create your own exigence and use it throughout the writing.

Support is one of the elements of an argumentative essay that requires you to consider a few important questions.

• What is your premise?
• Is your evidence good enough to convince your readers or listeners of the reasonability of your side of the argument? 

Your premise must have a “because” statement to support your claim. If you intend to make longer arguments, ensure you introduce sufficient supporting statement.

To support your claim and get your audience to agree with your position on an underlying issue:

• Provide as much data or evidence as possible provided they’re relevant to the subject.
• If possible, don’t hesitate to include some or rhetorical appeals, statistics, anecdotal support, and historical data.

Regardless of the information you provide, the premise should give your audience enough reasons to consider your argument’s thesis statement. In other words, the evidence you provide must be valid and logical enough to prove the validity of your claim.

Consider including a concession in your argumentative essay even as you provide credible evidence and reliable data to support your stance on an issue.

If you think about it, your opponent’s argument will have some truth in it, so it makes sense to concede with these. However, exercise caution so that you don’t agree with points that serve to weaken your argument.

5. Reasoning

Reasoning responds to the “but why?” question in an argument. Written to serve as a response to a hypothetical challenge, reasoning proves to your target reader that your claim is valid.

To be clear, reason tries to support a claim whether it’s part of the introduction or the body of the essay.

In the terms of structure , your argumentative essay must have a single thesis statement. However, the essay may have sub-claims proved by different reasons as long as they tie back to the thesis statement.

6. Counterclaims and Rebuttals

In argumentative essay writing, you must anticipate probable objections and other arguments that challenge the position you hold. These objections are what we refer to as counterclaims .

With this respect, some readers might find the whole or parts of your argument illogical. Interestingly, these objections can help you to analyze your ideas, making it possible for you to review the strength and credibility of the evidence you provide.  

We hope this guide has helped you to understand the different elements of an argumentative essay as well as the reasons why they’re important in writing.

Ideally, these elements will enable you to structure your essay well, so you can present your arguments in a way that easily convinces your audience of the validity of your claims and position. 

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

Chapter 8: Making Academic Arguments

8.2 Basic Structure and Content of Argument

Amanda Lloyd and Emilie Zickel

Basic Components of an Argumentative Essay

When you are tasked with crafting an argumentative essay, it is likely that you are to do so based on a number of sources–all of which should support your topic in some way. Your instructor might provide these sources for you, ask you to locate these sources, or provide you with some sources and ask you to find others. Whether or not you are asked to do additional research, an argumentative essay should be comprised of these basic components.

Claim: What do you want the reader to believe?

The thesis in an argument paper is often called a claim.  This claim is a statement in which you take a stand on a debatable issue. A strong, debatable claim has at least one valid counterargument–an opposite or alternative point of view that is as sensible as the position that you take in your claim. In your thesis statement, you should clearly and specifically state the position you will convince your audience to adopt.

A closed thesis statement includes sub-claims or reasons why you choose to support your claim.  For example:

• The city of Cleveland has displayed a commitment to attracting new residents by making improvements to its walkability, city centers, and green spaces.

In this instance, improvements to walkability, city centers, and green spaces are the sub-claims or reasons why you would make the claim that Cleveland is attracting new residents.

An open thesis statement does not include sub-claims and might be more appropriate when your argument is less easy to prove with two or three easily-defined sub-claims.  The choice between an  open or a closed thesis statement often depends upon the complexity of your argument. When in doubt about how to structure your thesis statement, you should seek the advice of your instructor.

Consult section 3.4  for help constructing a strong open or closed thesis statement.

Context: What background information about the topic does your audience need?

Before you get into defending your claim, you will need to place your topic (and argument) into context by including relevant background material. Remember, your audience is relying on you for vital information, such as definitions, historical placement, and controversial positions. This background material might appear in either your introductory paragraph/s or your body paragraphs. How and where to incorporate background material depends a lot upon your topic, assignment, evidence, and audience.

Evidence or Grounds: What makes your reasoning valid? 

To validate the thinking that you put forward in your claim and sub-claims, you need to demonstrate that your reasoning is  not only based on your personal opinion. Evidence, sometimes referred to as grounds, can take the form of research studies or scholarship, expert opinions, personal examples, observations made by yourself or others, or specific instances that make your reasoning seem sound and believable. Evidence only “works” if it directly supports your reasoning — and sometimes you must explain how the evidence supports your reasoning (do not assume that a reader can see the connection between evidence and reason that you see).

Section 4.4 provides a thorough overview of what evidence is and how evidence fits into body paragraphs. As you plan or draft your argument, use this chapter as a resource to help you organize ideas.

Warrants:  Why should a reader accept your claim?

A warrant is the rationale the writer provides to show that the evidence properly supports the claim ,  with each element working towards a similar goal.  Think of warrants as the glue that holds an argument together and ensures all pieces work together coherently.

An important way to ensure you are properly supplying warrants within your argument is to use “linking sentences” or a “link” that connects the particular claim directly back to the thesis.  Ensuring that there are linking sentences in each paragraph will help to create consistency within your essay.  Remember, the thesis statement is the driving force of organization in your essay, so each paragraph needs to have a specific purpose in proving or explaining your thesis; linking sentences complete this task. These linking sentences will often appear after your textual evidence in a paragraph. See Section 4.5 for help linking supporting evidence to your thesis.

Counterargument: But what about other perspectives?

In Section 10.4 , Steven Krause offers a thorough explanation of what counterargument is (and how to respond to it). In summary, a strong arguer should not be afraid to consider perspectives that either challenge or completely oppose his or her own claim. When you respectfully and thoroughly discuss perspectives or research that counters your own claim or even weaknesses in your own argument, you are showing yourself to be an ethical arguer. Here are some things that counterarguments may consist of:

• summarizing opposing views
• explaining how and where you actually agree with some opposing views
• acknowledging weaknesses or holes in your own argument

You have to be careful and clear that you are not conveying to a reader that you are rejecting your own claim; it is important to indicate that you are merely open to considering alternative viewpoints. Being open in this way shows that you are an ethical arguer – you are considering many viewpoints.

Response to Counterargument: I see that, but…

Just as it is important to include counterargument to show that you are fair-minded and balanced, you must respond to the counterargument so that a reader clearly sees that you are not agreeing with the counterargument and thus abandoning or somehow undermining your own claim. Failure to include the response to counterargument can confuse the reader. There are several ways to respond to a counterargument. You can:

• concede to a specific point or idea from the counterargument by  explaining why that point or idea has validity. However, you must then be sure to return to your own claim, and explain why even that concession does not lead you to completely accept or support the counterargument
• reject the counterargument if you find it to be incorrect, fallacious, or otherwise invalid
• explain why the counterargument perspective does not invalidate your own claim

Again, Chapter 10.4  offers a much more developed discussion of how to respond to counterarguments.

A note about where to put the counterargument:

It is certainly possible to begin the argument section (after the background section) with your counterargument + response instead of placing it at the end of your essay. Some people prefer to have their counterargument first, where they can address it and then spend the rest of their essay building their own case and supporting their own claim. However, it is just as valid to have the counterargument + response appear at the end of the paper, after you have discussed all of your reasons.

What is important to remember is that wherever you place your counterargument, you

• Address the counterargument(s) fully. Explain what the counter perspectives are. Describe them thoroughly. Cite authors who have these counter perspectives. Quote them and summarize their thinking.
• Then, respond to these counterarguments. Make it clear to the reader of your argument why you concede to certain points of the counterargument or why you reject them. Make it clear that you do not accept the counterargument, even though you understand it. Be sure to use transition phrases that make this clear to your reader. This page contains material from “About Writing: A Guide” by Robin Jeffrey,  OpenOregon Educational Resources , Higher Education Coordination Commission: Office of Community Colleges and Workforce Development is licensed under CC BY 4.0

A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing by Amanda Lloyd and Emilie Zickel is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 3 strong argumentative essay examples, analyzed.

General Education

Need to defend your opinion on an issue? Argumentative essays are one of the most popular types of essays you’ll write in school. They combine persuasive arguments with fact-based research, and, when done well, can be powerful tools for making someone agree with your point of view. If you’re struggling to write an argumentative essay or just want to learn more about them, seeing examples can be a big help.

After giving an overview of this type of essay, we provide three argumentative essay examples. After each essay, we explain in-depth how the essay was structured, what worked, and where the essay could be improved. We end with tips for making your own argumentative essay as strong as possible.

What Is an Argumentative Essay?

An argumentative essay is an essay that uses evidence and facts to support the claim it’s making. Its purpose is to persuade the reader to agree with the argument being made.

A good argumentative essay will use facts and evidence to support the argument, rather than just the author’s thoughts and opinions. For example, say you wanted to write an argumentative essay stating that Charleston, SC is a great destination for families. You couldn’t just say that it’s a great place because you took your family there and enjoyed it. For it to be an argumentative essay, you need to have facts and data to support your argument, such as the number of child-friendly attractions in Charleston, special deals you can get with kids, and surveys of people who visited Charleston as a family and enjoyed it. The first argument is based entirely on feelings, whereas the second is based on evidence that can be proven.

The standard five paragraph format is common, but not required, for argumentative essays. These essays typically follow one of two formats: the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model.

• The Toulmin model is the most common. It begins with an introduction, follows with a thesis/claim, and gives data and evidence to support that claim. This style of essay also includes rebuttals of counterarguments.
• The Rogerian model analyzes two sides of an argument and reaches a conclusion after weighing the strengths and weaknesses of each.

3 Good Argumentative Essay Examples + Analysis

Below are three examples of argumentative essays, written by yours truly in my school days, as well as analysis of what each did well and where it could be improved.

Argumentative Essay Example 1

Proponents of this idea state that it will save local cities and towns money because libraries are expensive to maintain. They also believe it will encourage more people to read because they won’t have to travel to a library to get a book; they can simply click on what they want to read and read it from wherever they are. They could also access more materials because libraries won’t have to buy physical copies of books; they can simply rent out as many digital copies as they need.

However, it would be a serious mistake to replace libraries with tablets. First, digital books and resources are associated with less learning and more problems than print resources. A study done on tablet vs book reading found that people read 20-30% slower on tablets, retain 20% less information, and understand 10% less of what they read compared to people who read the same information in print. Additionally, staring too long at a screen has been shown to cause numerous health problems, including blurred vision, dizziness, dry eyes, headaches, and eye strain, at much higher instances than reading print does. People who use tablets and mobile devices excessively also have a higher incidence of more serious health issues such as fibromyalgia, shoulder and back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and muscle strain. I know that whenever I read from my e-reader for too long, my eyes begin to feel tired and my neck hurts. We should not add to these problems by giving people, especially young people, more reasons to look at screens.

Second, it is incredibly narrow-minded to assume that the only service libraries offer is book lending. Libraries have a multitude of benefits, and many are only available if the library has a physical location. Some of these benefits include acting as a quiet study space, giving people a way to converse with their neighbors, holding classes on a variety of topics, providing jobs, answering patron questions, and keeping the community connected. One neighborhood found that, after a local library instituted community events such as play times for toddlers and parents, job fairs for teenagers, and meeting spaces for senior citizens, over a third of residents reported feeling more connected to their community. Similarly, a Pew survey conducted in 2015 found that nearly two-thirds of American adults feel that closing their local library would have a major impact on their community. People see libraries as a way to connect with others and get their questions answered, benefits tablets can’t offer nearly as well or as easily.

While replacing libraries with tablets may seem like a simple solution, it would encourage people to spend even more time looking at digital screens, despite the myriad issues surrounding them. It would also end access to many of the benefits of libraries that people have come to rely on. In many areas, libraries are such an important part of the community network that they could never be replaced by a simple object.

The author begins by giving an overview of the counter-argument, then the thesis appears as the first sentence in the third paragraph. The essay then spends the rest of the paper dismantling the counter argument and showing why readers should believe the other side.

What this essay does well:

• Although it’s a bit unusual to have the thesis appear fairly far into the essay, it works because, once the thesis is stated, the rest of the essay focuses on supporting it since the counter-argument has already been discussed earlier in the paper.
• This essay includes numerous facts and cites studies to support its case. By having specific data to rely on, the author’s argument is stronger and readers will be more inclined to agree with it.
• For every argument the other side makes, the author makes sure to refute it and follow up with why her opinion is the stronger one. In order to make a strong argument, it’s important to dismantle the other side, which this essay does this by making the author's view appear stronger.
• This is a shorter paper, and if it needed to be expanded to meet length requirements, it could include more examples and go more into depth with them, such as by explaining specific cases where people benefited from local libraries.
• Additionally, while the paper uses lots of data, the author also mentions their own experience with using tablets. This should be removed since argumentative essays focus on facts and data to support an argument, not the author’s own opinion or experiences. Replacing that with more data on health issues associated with screen time would strengthen the essay.
• Some of the points made aren't completely accurate , particularly the one about digital books being cheaper. It actually often costs a library more money to rent out numerous digital copies of a book compared to buying a single physical copy. Make sure in your own essay you thoroughly research each of the points and rebuttals you make, otherwise you'll look like you don't know the issue that well.

Argumentative Essay Example 2

There are multiple drugs available to treat malaria, and many of them work well and save lives, but malaria eradication programs that focus too much on them and not enough on prevention haven’t seen long-term success in Sub-Saharan Africa. A major program to combat malaria was WHO’s Global Malaria Eradication Programme. Started in 1955, it had a goal of eliminating malaria in Africa within the next ten years. Based upon previously successful programs in Brazil and the United States, the program focused mainly on vector control. This included widely distributing chloroquine and spraying large amounts of DDT. More than one billion dollars was spent trying to abolish malaria. However, the program suffered from many problems and in 1969, WHO was forced to admit that the program had not succeeded in eradicating malaria. The number of people in Sub-Saharan Africa who contracted malaria as well as the number of malaria deaths had actually increased over 10% during the time the program was active.

One of the major reasons for the failure of the project was that it set uniform strategies and policies. By failing to consider variations between governments, geography, and infrastructure, the program was not nearly as successful as it could have been. Sub-Saharan Africa has neither the money nor the infrastructure to support such an elaborate program, and it couldn’t be run the way it was meant to. Most African countries don't have the resources to send all their people to doctors and get shots, nor can they afford to clear wetlands or other malaria prone areas. The continent’s spending per person for eradicating malaria was just a quarter of what Brazil spent. Sub-Saharan Africa simply can’t rely on a plan that requires more money, infrastructure, and expertise than they have to spare.

Additionally, the widespread use of chloroquine has created drug resistant parasites which are now plaguing Sub-Saharan Africa. Because chloroquine was used widely but inconsistently, mosquitoes developed resistance, and chloroquine is now nearly completely ineffective in Sub-Saharan Africa, with over 95% of mosquitoes resistant to it. As a result, newer, more expensive drugs need to be used to prevent and treat malaria, which further drives up the cost of malaria treatment for a region that can ill afford it.

Instead of developing plans to treat malaria after the infection has incurred, programs should focus on preventing infection from occurring in the first place. Not only is this plan cheaper and more effective, reducing the number of people who contract malaria also reduces loss of work/school days which can further bring down the productivity of the region.

One of the cheapest and most effective ways of preventing malaria is to implement insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs).  These nets provide a protective barrier around the person or people using them. While untreated bed nets are still helpful, those treated with insecticides are much more useful because they stop mosquitoes from biting people through the nets, and they help reduce mosquito populations in a community, thus helping people who don’t even own bed nets.  Bed nets are also very effective because most mosquito bites occur while the person is sleeping, so bed nets would be able to drastically reduce the number of transmissions during the night. In fact, transmission of malaria can be reduced by as much as 90% in areas where the use of ITNs is widespread. Because money is so scarce in Sub-Saharan Africa, the low cost is a great benefit and a major reason why the program is so successful. Bed nets cost roughly 2 USD to make, last several years, and can protect two adults. Studies have shown that, for every 100-1000 more nets are being used, one less child dies of malaria. With an estimated 300 million people in Africa not being protected by mosquito nets, there’s the potential to save three million lives by spending just a few dollars per person.

Reducing the number of people who contract malaria would also reduce poverty levels in Africa significantly, thus improving other aspects of society like education levels and the economy. Vector control is more effective than treatment strategies because it means fewer people are getting sick. When fewer people get sick, the working population is stronger as a whole because people are not put out of work from malaria, nor are they caring for sick relatives. Malaria-afflicted families can typically only harvest 40% of the crops that healthy families can harvest. Additionally, a family with members who have malaria spends roughly a quarter of its income treatment, not including the loss of work they also must deal with due to the illness. It’s estimated that malaria costs Africa 12 billion USD in lost income every year. A strong working population creates a stronger economy, which Sub-Saharan Africa is in desperate need of.  

This essay begins with an introduction, which ends with the thesis (that malaria eradication plans in Sub-Saharan Africa should focus on prevention rather than treatment). The first part of the essay lays out why the counter argument (treatment rather than prevention) is not as effective, and the second part of the essay focuses on why prevention of malaria is the better path to take.

• The thesis appears early, is stated clearly, and is supported throughout the rest of the essay. This makes the argument clear for readers to understand and follow throughout the essay.
• There’s lots of solid research in this essay, including specific programs that were conducted and how successful they were, as well as specific data mentioned throughout. This evidence helps strengthen the author’s argument.
• The author makes a case for using expanding bed net use over waiting until malaria occurs and beginning treatment, but not much of a plan is given for how the bed nets would be distributed or how to ensure they’re being used properly. By going more into detail of what she believes should be done, the author would be making a stronger argument.
• The introduction of the essay does a good job of laying out the seriousness of the problem, but the conclusion is short and abrupt. Expanding it into its own paragraph would give the author a final way to convince readers of her side of the argument.

Argumentative Essay Example 3

There are many ways payments could work. They could be in the form of a free-market approach, where athletes are able to earn whatever the market is willing to pay them, it could be a set amount of money per athlete, or student athletes could earn income from endorsements, autographs, and control of their likeness, similar to the way top Olympians earn money.

Proponents of the idea believe that, because college athletes are the ones who are training, participating in games, and bringing in audiences, they should receive some sort of compensation for their work. If there were no college athletes, the NCAA wouldn’t exist, college coaches wouldn’t receive there (sometimes very high) salaries, and brands like Nike couldn’t profit from college sports. In fact, the NCAA brings in roughly $1 billion in revenue a year, but college athletes don’t receive any of that money in the form of a paycheck. Additionally, people who believe college athletes should be paid state that paying college athletes will actually encourage them to remain in college longer and not turn pro as quickly, either by giving them a way to begin earning money in college or requiring them to sign a contract stating they’ll stay at the university for a certain number of years while making an agreed-upon salary.  

Supporters of this idea point to Zion Williamson, the Duke basketball superstar, who, during his freshman year, sustained a serious knee injury. Many argued that, even if he enjoyed playing for Duke, it wasn’t worth risking another injury and ending his professional career before it even began for a program that wasn’t paying him. Williamson seems to have agreed with them and declared his eligibility for the NCAA draft later that year. If he was being paid, he may have stayed at Duke longer. In fact, roughly a third of student athletes surveyed stated that receiving a salary while in college would make them “strongly consider” remaining collegiate athletes longer before turning pro.

Paying athletes could also stop the recruitment scandals that have plagued the NCAA. In 2018, the NCAA stripped the University of Louisville's men's basketball team of its 2013 national championship title because it was discovered coaches were using sex workers to entice recruits to join the team. There have been dozens of other recruitment scandals where college athletes and recruits have been bribed with anything from having their grades changed, to getting free cars, to being straight out bribed. By paying college athletes and putting their salaries out in the open, the NCAA could end the illegal and underhanded ways some schools and coaches try to entice athletes to join.

People who argue against the idea of paying college athletes believe the practice could be disastrous for college sports. By paying athletes, they argue, they’d turn college sports into a bidding war, where only the richest schools could afford top athletes, and the majority of schools would be shut out from developing a talented team (though some argue this already happens because the best players often go to the most established college sports programs, who typically pay their coaches millions of dollars per year). It could also ruin the tight camaraderie of many college teams if players become jealous that certain teammates are making more money than they are.

They also argue that paying college athletes actually means only a small fraction would make significant money. Out of the 350 Division I athletic departments, fewer than a dozen earn any money. Nearly all the money the NCAA makes comes from men’s football and basketball, so paying college athletes would make a small group of men--who likely will be signed to pro teams and begin making millions immediately out of college--rich at the expense of other players.

Those against paying college athletes also believe that the athletes are receiving enough benefits already. The top athletes already receive scholarships that are worth tens of thousands per year, they receive free food/housing/textbooks, have access to top medical care if they are injured, receive top coaching, get travel perks and free gear, and can use their time in college as a way to capture the attention of professional recruiters. No other college students receive anywhere near as much from their schools.

People on this side also point out that, while the NCAA brings in a massive amount of money each year, it is still a non-profit organization. How? Because over 95% of those profits are redistributed to its members’ institutions in the form of scholarships, grants, conferences, support for Division II and Division III teams, and educational programs. Taking away a significant part of that revenue would hurt smaller programs that rely on that money to keep running.

While both sides have good points, it’s clear that the negatives of paying college athletes far outweigh the positives. College athletes spend a significant amount of time and energy playing for their school, but they are compensated for it by the scholarships and perks they receive. Adding a salary to that would result in a college athletic system where only a small handful of athletes (those likely to become millionaires in the professional leagues) are paid by a handful of schools who enter bidding wars to recruit them, while the majority of student athletics and college athletic programs suffer or even shut down for lack of money. Continuing to offer the current level of benefits to student athletes makes it possible for as many people to benefit from and enjoy college sports as possible.

This argumentative essay follows the Rogerian model. It discusses each side, first laying out multiple reasons people believe student athletes should be paid, then discussing reasons why the athletes shouldn’t be paid. It ends by stating that college athletes shouldn’t be paid by arguing that paying them would destroy college athletics programs and cause them to have many of the issues professional sports leagues have.

• Both sides of the argument are well developed, with multiple reasons why people agree with each side. It allows readers to get a full view of the argument and its nuances.
• Certain statements on both sides are directly rebuffed in order to show where the strengths and weaknesses of each side lie and give a more complete and sophisticated look at the argument.
• Using the Rogerian model can be tricky because oftentimes you don’t explicitly state your argument until the end of the paper. Here, the thesis doesn’t appear until the first sentence of the final paragraph. That doesn’t give readers a lot of time to be convinced that your argument is the right one, compared to a paper where the thesis is stated in the beginning and then supported throughout the paper. This paper could be strengthened if the final paragraph was expanded to more fully explain why the author supports the view, or if the paper had made it clearer that paying athletes was the weaker argument throughout.

3 Tips for Writing a Good Argumentative Essay

Now that you’ve seen examples of what good argumentative essay samples look like, follow these three tips when crafting your own essay.

#1: Make Your Thesis Crystal Clear

The thesis is the key to your argumentative essay; if it isn’t clear or readers can’t find it easily, your entire essay will be weak as a result. Always make sure that your thesis statement is easy to find. The typical spot for it is the final sentence of the introduction paragraph, but if it doesn’t fit in that spot for your essay, try to at least put it as the first or last sentence of a different paragraph so it stands out more.

Also make sure that your thesis makes clear what side of the argument you’re on. After you’ve written it, it’s a great idea to show your thesis to a couple different people--classmates are great for this. Just by reading your thesis they should be able to understand what point you’ll be trying to make with the rest of your essay.

#2: Show Why the Other Side Is Weak

When writing your essay, you may be tempted to ignore the other side of the argument and just focus on your side, but don’t do this. The best argumentative essays really tear apart the other side to show why readers shouldn’t believe it. Before you begin writing your essay, research what the other side believes, and what their strongest points are. Then, in your essay, be sure to mention each of these and use evidence to explain why they’re incorrect/weak arguments. That’ll make your essay much more effective than if you only focused on your side of the argument.

#3: Use Evidence to Support Your Side

Remember, an essay can’t be an argumentative essay if it doesn’t support its argument with evidence. For every point you make, make sure you have facts to back it up. Some examples are previous studies done on the topic, surveys of large groups of people, data points, etc. There should be lots of numbers in your argumentative essay that support your side of the argument. This will make your essay much stronger compared to only relying on your own opinions to support your argument.

Summary: Argumentative Essay Sample

Argumentative essays are persuasive essays that use facts and evidence to support their side of the argument. Most argumentative essays follow either the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model. By reading good argumentative essay examples, you can learn how to develop your essay and provide enough support to make readers agree with your opinion. When writing your essay, remember to always make your thesis clear, show where the other side is weak, and back up your opinion with data and evidence.

What's Next?

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9-Making an Argument

2. Components of an Argument

Making an argument in an essay, research paper, blog post or other college writing task is like laying out a case in court. Just as there are conventions that attorneys must adhere to as they make their arguments in court, there are conventions in arguments made in research assignments. Among those conventions is to use the components of an argument.

This section on making an argument was developed with the help of “Making Good Arguments” in The Craft of Research , by Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb, and Joseph Williams, University of Chicago Press, 2003.

The arguments you’re used to hearing or participating in with friends about something that is uncertain or that needs to be decided contain the same components as the ones you’ll need to use in academic writing. Arguments contain those components because those are the ones that work—used together, they stand the best chance of persuading others that you are correct.

For instance, the question gets things started off. The claim, or thesis, tells people what you consider a true way of describing a thing, situation, relationship, or phenomenon or what action you think should be taken. The reservations, alternatives, and objections that someone else brings up in your sources (or that you imagine your readers logically might have) allow you to demonstrate how your reasons and evidence (maybe) overcome that kind of thinking—and (you hope) your claim/thesis comes out stronger for having withstood that test.

Activity: Labeled Components

Read the short dialog on pages 114 and 115 in the ebook The Craft of Research by Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb, and Joseph Williams. The components of an argument are labeled for you.

Example: Argument as a Dialog

Here’s a dialog of an argument, with the most important components labeled.

Activity: Components of an Argument

Open activity in a web browser.

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research Copyright © 2015 by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Home » Literacy Lines » Teaching Basic Argument Writing Components

Teaching Basic Argument Writing Components

Over the past two years since Keys to Literacy published my Keys to Argument Writing professional development module and the associated training book Keys to Content Writing   I am often asked by teachers advice for how to teach argument writing (and opinion for elementary grades). The place to start is to introduce students to the structure of argument/opinion writing.

The first standard of the Common Core Writing Standards is devoted to argument writing. Here is the anchor standard from which Standard #1 for grades K through 12 are based:

WS #1: Write opinions/arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.

Sometimes argument writing seems very similar to informational writing (Common Core Writing Standard #2). They both incorporate information, and they have similar basic text structures: They must begin with an introduction that states the topic and end with a conclusion. However, their aims are different and the body of an argument organizes  information in a different way.

The purpose of informational writing is to examine and explain previously learned information or new information, and this information is typically organized into paragraphs of main ideas that are “chunked” into topics and sub-topics. That is, the information is presented in categories/sections. The purpose of argument writing is to convince a reader that a point of view is valid or to persuade the reader to take a specific action. Information is used, but it is organized based on these major components of an argument: claim, reason, evidence, counter-claim, and rebuttal.

Here are simple descriptions of these components to share with your students:

• Claim: the position taken by the writer; what the writer is trying to prove or argue
• Reason: provided to support a claim; reasons are supported by evidence
• Evidence: use to support or prove a reason; statistics, facts, quotations, surveys, etc.
• Counterclaim: opposing position, counterargument
• Rebuttal: refutes or disproves the counterclaim; addresses the criticism of the claim

And here’s an even simpler set of questions students can ask themselves to help remember each component:

• Claim: What do I think?
• Reason: Why do I think it?
• Evidence: How do I know (proof)?
• Counterclaim: What is the other side?
• Rebuttal: My response to the other side?

The claim is typically stated in the introduction, and restated again in the conclusion. The information in the body paragraphs is organized as a series of reasons supported by evidence. For arguments that include a counter-claim and rebuttal (a requirement for students in grade seven and beyond), there will be additional paragraphs that represent the counter-claim and rebuttal.

Keys to Literacy has posted a nine-minute video recorded during a teacher training in which I explain the major components of an argument and offer suggestions for teaching them to students. The video, along with several other training video clips is available to the public for free at the Free Resources section of the Keys to Literacy website.

At the same resource site you will find a teacher’s checklist and rubric  for giving feedback to students about their argument writing that include items related to the text structure of an argument writing piece.

• Joan Sedita

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I have found your lectures and instructions very helpful. Do you have any guidelines on Exposition?

Visit our free videos and webinars where you will find several items related to writing.

What components are there into the claim and evidence rubric?

Some of the things to look for in student argument writing are: Is the claim (position taken) supported with logical reasons and relevant evidence? Are the reasons and evidence presented in an organized way? Is the evidence from sources integrated effectively? Is the rebuttal supported with logical reasons and evidence? Are transitions used to link and to create cohesion among claim, reasons and evidence? Is there a formal style and an objective tone established and maintained throughout the piece?

That was a super helpful resource! I used it to write a paragraph essay on “Elements of Argument”.

Thank you for explaining an argumentive essay. and supportive of me getting started on this essay.

Thanks for the tips..really helpful in writing my assignment in Academic English.

May you send me an example of an argumentative essay and other essay and their example please.

This site has examples of argument essays: https://www.collegeessay.org/blog/argumentative-essay-examples

Thank you for better clarity and better simplicity

Now I understand how to write an argumentative essay I found it so easier

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9.2: Components of an Argument

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Components of an Argument

Making an argument in an essay, term paper, blog post or other college writing task is like laying out a case in court. Just as there are conventions that attorneys must adhere to as they make their arguments in court, there are conventions in arguments made in research assignments. Among those conventions is to use the components of an argument.

This section on making an argument was developed with the help of “Making Good Arguments” in The Craft of Research , by Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb, and Joseph Williams, University of Chicago Press, 2003.

The arguments you’re used to hearing or participating in with friends about something that is uncertain or that needs to be decided contain the same components as the ones you’ll need to use in academic writing. Arguments contain those components because those are the ones that work—used together, they stand the best chance of persuading others that you are correct.

For instance, the question gets things started off. The claim, or thesis, tells people what you consider a true way of describing a thing, situation, relationship, or phenomenon or what action you think should be taken. The reservations, alternatives, and objections that someone else brings up in your sources (or that you imagine your readers logically might have) allow you to demonstrate how your reasons and evidence (maybe) overcome that kind of thinking—and (you hope) your claim/thesis comes out stronger for having withstood that test.

Activity: Labeled Components

Read the short dialog on pages 114 and 115 in the ebook The Craft of Research by Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb, and Joseph Williams. The components of an argument are labeled for you.

Example: Argument as a Dialog

Here’s a dialog of an argument, with the most important components labeled.

Activity: Components of an Argument

Open activity in a web browser.

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Title: which side are you on a multi-task dataset for end-to-end argument summarisation and evaluation.

Abstract: With the recent advances of large language models (LLMs), it is no longer infeasible to build an automated debate system that helps people to synthesise persuasive arguments. Previous work attempted this task by integrating multiple components. In our work, we introduce an argument mining dataset that captures the end-to-end process of preparing an argumentative essay for a debate, which covers the tasks of claim and evidence identification (Task 1 ED), evidence convincingness ranking (Task 2 ECR), argumentative essay summarisation and human preference ranking (Task 3 ASR) and metric learning for automated evaluation of resulting essays, based on human feedback along argument quality dimensions (Task 4 SQE). Our dataset contains 14k examples of claims that are fully annotated with the various properties supporting the aforementioned tasks. We evaluate multiple generative baselines for each of these tasks, including representative LLMs. We find, that while they show promising results on individual tasks in our benchmark, their end-to-end performance on all four tasks in succession deteriorates significantly, both in automated measures as well as in human-centred evaluation. This challenge presented by our proposed dataset motivates future research on end-to-end argument mining and summarisation. The repository of this project is available at this https URL

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Exploring Students’ Generative AI-Assisted Writing Processes: Perceptions and Experiences from Native and Nonnative English Speakers

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Generative artificial intelligence (AI) can create sophisticated textual and multimodal content readily available to students. Writing intensive courses and disciplines that use writing as a major form of assessment are significantly impacted by advancements in generative AI, as the technology has the potential to revolutionize how students write and how they perceive writing as a fundamental literacy skill. However, educators are still at the beginning stage of understanding students’ integration of generative AI in their actual writing process. This study addresses the urgent need to uncover how students engage with ChatGPT throughout different components of their writing processes and their perceptions of the opportunities and challenges of generative AI. Adopting a phenomenological research design, the study explored the writing practices of six students, including both native and nonnative English speakers, in a first-year writing class at a higher education institution in the US. Thematic analysis of students’ written products, self-reflections, and interviews suggests that students utilized ChatGPT for brainstorming and organizing ideas as well as assisting with both global (e.g., argument, structure, coherence) and local issues of writing (e.g., syntax, diction, grammar), while they also had various ethical and practical concerns about the use of ChatGPT. The study brought to front two dilemmas encountered by students in their generative AI-assisted writing: (1) the challenging balance between incorporating AI to enhance writing and maintaining their authentic voice, and (2) the dilemma of weighing the potential loss of learning experiences against the emergence of new learning opportunities accompanying AI integration. These dilemmas highlight the need to rethink learning in an increasingly AI-mediated educational context, emphasizing the importance of fostering students’ critical AI literacy to promote their authorial voice and learning in AI-human collaboration.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The rapid development of large language models such as ChatGPT and AI-powered writing tools has led to a blend of apprehension, anxiety, curiosity, and optimism among educators (Warner, 2022 ). While some are optimistic about the opportunities that generative AI brings to classrooms, various concerns arise especially in terms of academic dishonesty and the biases inherent in these AI tools (Glaser, 2023 ). Writing classes and disciplines that use writing as a major form of assessment, in particular, are significantly impacted. Generative AI has the potential to transform how students approach writing tasks and demonstrate learning through writing, thus impacting how they view writing as an essential literacy skill. Educators are concerned that when used improperly, the increasingly AI-mediated literacy practices may AI-nize students’ writing and thinking.

Despite the heated discussion among educators, there remains a notable gap in empirical research on the application of generative AI in writing classrooms (Yan, 2023 ) and minimal research that systematically examines students’ integration of AI in their writing processes (Barrot, 2023a ). Writing–an activity often undertaken outside the classroom walls–eludes comprehensive observation by educators, leaving a gap in instructors’ understandings of students’ AI-assisted writing practices. Furthermore, the widespread institutional skepticism and critical discourse surrounding the use of generative AI in academic writing may deter students from openly sharing their genuine opinions of and experiences with AI-assisted writing. These situations can cause disconnect between students’ real-life practices and instructors’ understandings. Thus, there is a critical need for in-depth investigation into students’ decision-making processes involved in their generative AI-assisted writing.

To fill this research gap, the current study explores nuanced ways students utilize ChatGPT, a generative AI tool, to support their academic writing in a college-level composition class in the US. Specifically, the study adopts a phenomenological design to examine how college students use ChatGPT throughout the various components of their writing processes such as brainstorming, revising, and editing. Using sense-making theory as the theoretical lens, the study also analyzes students’ perceived benefits, challenges, and considerations regarding AI-assisted academic writing. As writing is also a linguistic activity, this study includes both native and non-native speaking writers, since they may have distinct needs and perspectives on the support and challenges AI provides for writing.

2 Literature Review

2.1 ai-assisted writing.

Researchers have long been studying the utilization of AI technologies to support writing and language learning (Schulze, 2008 ). Three major technological innovations have revolutionized writing: (1) word processors, which represented the first major shift from manual to digital writing, replacing traditional typewriters and manual editing processes; (2) the Internet, which introduced web-based platforms, largely promoting the communication and interactivity of writing; and (3) natural language processing (NLP) and artificial intelligence, bringing about tools capable of real-time feedback and content and thinking assistance (Kruse et al., 2023 ). These technologies have changed writing from a traditionally manual and individual activity into a highly digital nature, radically transforming the writing processes, writers’ behaviors, and the teaching of writing. This evolution reflects a broader need towards a technologically sophisticated approach to writing instruction.

AI technologies have been used in writing instruction in various ways, ranging from assisting in the writing process to evaluating written works. One prominent application is automatic written evaluation (AWE), which comprises two main elements: a scoring engine producing automatic scores and a feedback engine delivering automated written corrective feedback (AWCF) (Koltovskaia, 2020 ). Adopting NLP to analyze language features, diagnose errors, and evaluate essays, AWE was first implemented in high-stakes testing and later adopted in writing classrooms (Link et al., 2022 ). Scholars have reported contrasting findings regarding the impact of AWE on student writing (Koltovskaia, 2020 ). Barrot ( 2023b ) finds that tools offering AWCF, such as Grammarly, improves students’ overall writing accuracy and metalinguistic awareness, as AWCF allows students to engage with self-directed learning about writing via personalized feedback. Thus the system can contribute to classroom instruction by reducing the burden on teachers and aiding students in writing, revision, and self-learning (Almusharraf & Alotaibi, 2023 ). However, scholars have also raised concerns regarding its accuracy and its potential misrepresentation of the social nature of writing (Shi & Aryadoust, 2023 ). Another AI application that has been used to assist student writing is intelligent tutoring system (ITS). Research shows that ITS could enhance students’ vocabulary and grammar development, offer immediate sentence- and paragraph-level suggestions, and provide insights into students’ writing behaviors (Jeon, 2021 ; Pandarova et al., 2019 ). Scholars also investigate chatbots as writing partners for scaffolding students’ argumentative writing (Guo et al., 2022 ; Lin & Chang, 2020 ) and incorporating Google’s neural machine translation system in second language (L2) writing (Cancino & Panes, 2021 ; Tsai, 2019 ).

Research suggests that adopting AI in literacy and language education has advantages such as supporting personalized learning experiences, providing differentiated and immediate feedback (Huang et al., 2022 ; Bahari, 2021 ), and reducing students’ cognitive barriers (Gayed et al., 2022 ). Researchers also note challenges such as the varied level of technological readiness among teachers and students as well as concerns regarding accuracy, biases, accountability, transparency, and ethics (e.g., Kohnke et al., 2023 ; Memarian & Doleck, 2023 ; Ranalli, 2021 ).

2.2 Integrating Generative AI into Writing

With sophisticated and multilingual language generation capabilities, the latest advancements of generative AI and large language models, such as ChatGPT, unlock new possibilities and challenges. Scholars have discussed how generative AI can be used in writing classrooms. Tseng and Warschauer ( 2023 ) point out that ChatGPT and AI-writing tools may rob language learners of essential learning experiences; however, if banning them, students will also lose essential opportunities to learn how to use AI in supporting their learning and their future work. They suggest that educators should not try to “beat” but rather “join” and “partner with” AI (p. 1). Barrot ( 2023a ) and Su et al. ( 2023 ) both review ChatGPT’s benefits and challenges for writing, pointing out that ChatGPT can offer a wide range of context-specific writing assistance such as idea generation, outlining, content improvement, organization, editing, proofreading, and post-writing reflection. Similar to Tseng and Warschauer ( 2023 ), Barrot ( 2023a ) is also concerned about students’ learning loss due to their use of generative AI in writing and their over-reliance on AI. Moreover, Su et al. ( 2023 ) specifically raise concerns about the issues of authorship and plagiarism, as well as ChatGPT’s shortcomings in logical reasoning and information accuracy.

Among the existing empirical research, studies have explored the quality of generative AI’s feedback on student essays in comparison to human feedback. Steiss et al. ( 2024 ) analyzed 400 feedback instances—half generated by human raters and half by ChatGPT—on the same essays. The findings showed that human raters provided higher-quality feedback in terms of clarity, accuracy, supportive tone, and emphasis on critical aspects for improvement. In contrast, AI feedback shone in delivering criteria-based evaluations. The study generated important implications for balancing the strengths and limitations of ChatGPT and human feedback for assessing student essays. Other research also examined the role of generative AI tools in L1 multimodal writing instruction (Tan et al., 2024 ), L1 student writers’ perceptions of ChatGPT as writing partner and AI ethics in college composition classes (Vetter et al., 2024 ), and the collaborative experience of writing instructors and students in integrating generative AI into writing (Bedington et al., 2024 ).

Specifically with regard to classroom-based research in L2 writing, Yan ( 2023 ) examined the use of ChatGPT through the design of a one-week L2 writing practicum at a Chinese university. Analyzing eight students’ classroom behaviors, learning logs, and interviews, the study showed that the use of generative AI helped L2 learners write with fewer grammatical errors and more lexical diversity. The study also found that the students’ biggest concerns were the threat to academic honesty and educational equity. This study is a pioneer in exploring students’ strategies and engagement with ChatGPT in writing; however, it was only conducted through a one-week practicum which did not involve authentic writing assignment tasks. Furthermore, students’ use of ChatGPT was limited to editing AI-generated texts instead of incorporating AI in a wider range of writing activities such as pre-writing and revising human generated texts. In another study by Han et al. ( 2023 ), the authors designed a platform that integrated ChatGPT to support L2 writers in improving writing quality in South Korea. Analyzing 213 students’ interaction data with the platform, survey results, as well as a focus group interview with six students and one instructor, the study found that the students generally held positive experiences with ChatGPT in supporting their academic writing. Although the study undertook a more extensive investigation involving a larger poll of participants with authentic writing assignments, it only explored generative AI’s role as a revision tool without examining its use across various stages of writing. Furthermore, participants in this study were tasked with engaging with a ChatGPT embedded platform of predefined prompts designed by the researchers. Consequently, how students interact with ChatGPT in natural settings remains largely unknown for researchers and educators.

2.3 Writing Process

Since the early 1980s until now, scholars have proposed various writing process models (e.g., Abdel Latif, 2021 ; Flower & Hayes, 1981 ; Hayes, 2012 ; Kellogg, 1996 ), yet they are still trying to form a complete understanding of composing processes. Despite the distinct specific aspects that different models highlight in the writing process, they all negate writing as a linear, sequential process of simply a text generation labor, but emphasize the non-linear and recursive nature of the writing process. Abdel Latif ( 2021 ) noted that various components of writing process such as ideational planning, searching for content, and revising interact with each other, and that both novice and experienced writers employ all of the components but with varying degrees and strategies. For instance, skilled writers refine and revise their ideas during writing, whereas novice writers mostly engage in sentence level changes such as fixing grammatical and lexical issues (e.g., Khuder & Harwood, 2015 ). For L2 students, writing can be very complex and cognitively daunting (Mohsen, 2021 ) due to reasons including but not limited to linguistic barriers (Johnson, 2017 ). Furthermore, writing is more than a cognitive process, it is also a social, cultural, and situated activity. For instance, the concept of plagiarism may carry different meanings and consequences across different cultural contexts. Thus, writing should be investigated in consideration of its dynamic interplay with institutional, cultural, and technological factors (Atkinson, 2003 ).

Considering the intricate nature of writing as a cognitive and social activity, it is thus important to investigate how generative AI may impact the different components of students’ writing processes. However, there is still a substantial gap in knowledge and research about students’ real-world integration of AI into their writing workflows, their decision-making processes, and the rationale behind their decision making while they interact with generative AI and utilize the technology in their writing in formal educational settings. While previous studies shed light on the impacts of generative AI on English writing, empirical classroom-based research remains limited. To further understand how students, both L1 and L2 writers, engage with generative AI in real-life classroom contexts, with authentic writing tasks, and throughout their various processes of writing, the current study thus undertook a naturalistic, exploratory direction that focused on how college students utilized ChatGPT in a first-year writing class in the US. Understanding and unpacking students’ AI-assisted writing processes could help educators better adjust their pedagogy in the face of the growing AI influences. The following research questions guided the present study:

How do students utilize ChatGPT in their writing processes?

How do student writers perceive the benefits of integrating ChatGPT into their writing?

What concerns and limitations do students experience when using ChatGPT to assist with their writing?

What considerations do students identify as important when engaging in generative AI-assisted writing?

3 Theoretical Framework

This study adopts sensemaking theory as its theoretical lens. Sensemaking has been conceptualized as the process through which individuals make meaning from ambiguous and puzzling situations that happen in their experience (Golob, 2018 ). Some scholars view sensemaking as a cognitive process of managing and processing information. This perspective focuses on the cognitive strategies employed in connecting and utilizing information to achieve the purpose of explaining the world (Klein et al., 2006 ). Alternatively, a socio-cultural orientation towards sensemaking regard it as construction of collective identity through an individual’s ongoing interactions with the educational context (Weick, 2005 ). Poquet ( 2024 ) integrates these two theoretical orientations, proposing that sensemaking encompasses both the individual and the collective, drawing attention to how learners explain the cognitive aspects of their learning as well as the social and cultural factors shape their learning experiences.

According to Poquet ( 2024 ), there are three components of the sensemaking process: (1) An individual’s understanding of the activity, available tools, and the situation is the antecedent of sensemaking. (2) Noticing and perceiving constitute the process of sensemaking per se. Noticing involves the identification of salient features of the tool(s) for the activity, while perceiving goes beyond noticing through making sense of the observed, taking into account contextual factors such as learner characteristics and the type of activity undertaken. Perceiving leads to the formulation of meaning and potential implications of what is noticed, playing a critical role in decision-making and action. (3) Outcomes of sensemaking may range from perceived affordances of tools for the activity to casual explanations for the observed phenomena. As defined by Poquet ( 2024 ), sensemaking involves learners crafting explanations for unclear situations through dynamically connecting information within the context of a specific activity. Essentially, sensemaking is both an intentional and intuitive process shaped by how learners understand their environment and their role within it.

Because sensemaking theories aim to examine people’s meaning-making, acting, and experience in “unknown,” “less deliberate,” and “more intuitive” situations (Poquet, 2024 , p. 5), it well aligns with the purpose of this study which is to form an emergent understanding of a less known situation given the relatively new phenomenon of generative AI-assisted writing practices among college students. Adopting a sensemaking lens helps to understand how students make sense of generative AI, how they perceive its affordances, what strategies they develop to use it to assist with their writing, what puzzling experiences they may have, and how they make decisions in those puzzling situations. The dual focus of the cognitive and the social is critical when examining how students engage with and perceive the AI technology and how they negotiate these perceptions and experiences within the learning communities of higher education. Sensemaking theory can also capture the range of individual experiences and shared interpretations among them, elucidating how they deal with uncertainty and make judgments generative AI usage.

4 Research Design

This qualitative study adopted a phenomenological research design, which focuses on understanding and interpreting a particular aspect of shared human experience (Moran, 2002 ; Smith, 1996 ). Phenomenology seeks to form a close and clear account of people’s perceptions and lived experiences as opposed to delivering a positivist conclusion of human encounters, as “pure experience is never accessible” (Smith et al., 2009 , p. 33). In the present study, as there is limited understanding of students’ engagement with ChatGPT in their writing process, a phenomenological lens could help capture participants’ own sense making of their AI-assisted writing experiences.

4.1 Context and Participants

The study took place in spring 2023 at a higher education institution in the US. I chose to focus on first-year writing as the study setting, as it is a required course in most colleges and universities, thus a typical writing and learning context for most college students. First-year writing serves as the foundation for cultivating academic writing skills, with the aim of developing students’ essential literacy and writing proficiency needed for their undergraduate learning experiences. The 14-week course focused on English academic reading, writing, and critical thinking and consisted of three major units.

This study focused on the last unit, which was about argumentative writing, a common type of academic essay writing (American Psychological Association, 2020 ). The final essay asked students to form an argumentative response to a research question of their own choice. The unit, lasting for three weeks, was structured as follows (see Fig.  1 ): During the first week, the instructor spent two classes, each for 75 min, introducing ChatGPT (GPT 3.5) as a large language model and inviting students to explore ChatGPT as a tool for writing. The instructor carefully chose and assigned five readings that allowed the students to grasp the ongoing academic and public debates and concerns regarding the use of ChatGPT in writing and educational settings. During the class sessions, students participated in various activities exploring the functionalities of ChatGPT, discussed ethics and academic integrity, and critiqued AI-generated writing. As part of the discussions on ethics, the instructor explicitly addressed academic integrity issues drawing upon both the writing program’s guidelines and the institution’s academic integrity policies to ensure that the students were aware of and committed to ethical use of generative AI in the writing class. During the second week, students learned various strategies for integrating sources in academic writing and practiced ways of using sources to build arguments. During the last week, students spent time peer reviewing each other’s work and met with the instructor individually to improve their drafts.

Unit design with key topics and learning tasks over the three weeks

The final essay allowed but did not mandate students to use ChatGPT. For those who used ChatGPT and AI writing tools, disclosure and transparency about how AI was used were required as part of the submission to the assignment. The instructor left using AI in their final essay as an open option to the students themselves, ensuring that students could pursue the option that works best for their individual needs. Thus the unit provided various opportunities and flexibility for planning, researching, drafting, reviewing, and editing with ChatGPT throughout students’ writing process.

There were 11 students, all freshmen, enrolled in the class. All but one reported using ChatGPT in their writing. Six students were recruited based on their willingness to participate and the diversity of their first language to ensure a balanced coverage. Table 1 shows the demographic information of the students (with pseudonyms).

4.2 Data Collection

Aligned with an interpretive phenomenological design that focuses on exploring participants’ lived experiences and how they construct meaning of their own experiences (Smith & Shinebourne, 2012 ), I collected three major types of data in order to uncover the students’ writing processes involving ChatGPT and their perceptions. First, I collected students’ written products and artifacts such as in-class writing, screenshots of students’ conversations with ChatGPT, informal short writing assignments, and the formal writing assignments for the final argumentative essay. Second, I collected students’ written self-reflections about their use of ChatGPT in writing. Finally, the participants were interviewed for around 30–40 min, and all interviews were audio-recorded. These semi-structured interviews were developed around students’ former experiences with ChatGPT, their views of the tool, and the ways they utilized ChatGPT for their writing assignments in this class.

Students’ conversational screenshots with ChatGPT and their in-class and outside class writing drafts could demonstrate their interactions with AI as well as the changes they made upon contemplating the responses from the chatbot. The interviews and students’ self-reflections could further shed light on their perceptions and decision-making. Multiple sources of data helped to understand students’ behaviors, perceptions, and engagement with AI during different stages of writing. Triangulation of the data also helped me to understand students’ rationale for and practices of integrating, discounting, and reflecting on the chatbot’s output into their writing.

It is important to note that a phenomenological qualitative research design like this aims to provide in-depth understanding and insights into participants’ experiences. The context of the study—a first year writing class—and the specific type of assignment investigated are both common scenarios in college classrooms, thereby enhancing the study’s relevance despite its limited sample size and scale. Furthermore, the incorporation of data collected from multiple and diverse sources for triangulation adds to insights into participants’ experiences, which helps strengthen the credibility of the study.

4.3 Data Analysis

Thematic analysis (Creswell, 2017 ) was used to analyze the written drafts and transcriptions of interview data as it is commonly used in qualitative studies to identify patterns across various types of data (Lapadat, 2012 ). While transcribing all the interview data verbatim into written scripts, I took notes with the research questions in mind. Then I organized and read through the various types of written data to get familiar with and form a holistic impression of participants’ perceptions and experiences of AI-assisted writing. The coding, conducted on Nvivo, a qualitative data analysis software, followed an inductive and iterative process. During the first cycle of coding, I reviewed the data line-by-line and applied in vivo coding to generate initial, descriptive codes using participants’ voices (Saldaña, 2016 ). For the second cycle, I identified patterns across the in vivo codes and synthesized them into 20 pattern codes (Saldaña, 2016 ). During the third cycle, I clustered and grouped the pattern codes into four emerging themes. To finalize and refine the themes, I double checked themes, codes, and the supporting data guided by the research questions. Table 2 shows the themes and pattern codes. To ensure the trustworthiness of the qualitative analysis, I also conducted a peer debriefing (Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ) on the codebook with an experienced qualitative researcher. Furthermore, member check was also conducted with each participant via email to minimize the possible misinterpretations of their perceptions and experiences.

5.1 How Do Students Utilize ChatGPT in Their Writing Processes?

The students reported using ChatGPT throughout different components of writing their argumentative essays including (1) brainstorming, (2) outlining, (3) revising, and (4) editing.

In terms of brainstorming, the students acknowledged the value of ChatGPT in helping them get initial ideas and inspirations prior to the research phase for their essays. For instance, Lydia was interested in writing about the cause of the low fertility rate in South Korea but she “had trouble thinking of any focus areas” (Lydia, Reflection). In order to narrow down the topic and find a good focus, she used ChatGPT for exploring possible directions she could pursue. As she noted:

It immediately gave me suggestions to approach the cause from demographic changes, economic factors, traditional gender roles, governmental policies, and cultural attitudes with detailed explanations beside each suggestion. So, I went on to pick economic reasons, which I think were the most accessible to write about. (Lydia, Reflection)

ChatGPT’s feedback facilitated a smoother decision-making process for Lydia regarding the specific topic to further investigate. Another student Kevin mentioned that running his initial research idea into ChatGPT was helpful because ChatGPT gave him “some relevant ideas that hadn’t crossed his mind when thinking about the topic” (Kevin, Written Assignment).

Considering ChatGPT’s suggestions did not mean that the students just took them for granted and incorporated them unquestioningly. For instance, Nora was interested in writing about the impact of AI on human lives. Upon putting her initial research question into ChatGPT, she found the feedback helpful and decided to do more research on the aspects highlighted by ChatGPT (see Fig.  2 ).

Screenshot of Nora’s conversation with ChatGPT

Students also reported using ChatGPT for outlining. Emma used ChatGPT extensively to help organize her outline and shared her procedure as follows:

I wrote my own outline first consisting of my own ideas and then put it into ChatGPT. I asked ChatGPT to make the outline flow better. I was surprised with the results it gave me. It made the ideas more concise and connected better off of each other...I tried it a few times, and every time it gave me a different version of the outline that I could potentially use. I ultimately compared the information from my sources and chose an outline I thought best suited my essay and my essay question. (Emma, Reflection)

Emma’s approach revolved around utilizing ChatGPT to unearth linkages among her various initial yet disorganized ideas she already had. By experimenting with diverse ways to build coherence and connection among her thoughts with the aid of AI, she shortcut the mental task of structuring her ideas from scratch.

Using ChatGPT for refining the flow of ideas was also a strategy adopted by other students, but not always during the outlining stage. For instance, after completing her first draft, Lydia “copied and pasted her entire essay into the chatbox and asked for suggestions on how to improve the structure and argument” (Lydia, Reflection). Lydia underlined that her revision process with ChatGPT was iterative, as she put her revised version back into the chatbot and went through another round of feedback and subsequent revision. Additional applications reported by students also encompassed employing ChatGPT to reduce redundancy and enhance conciseness of content (Emma) as well as to refine topic sentences for accurately summarizing the main ideas of body paragraphs (Kevin).

Apart from utilizing ChatGPT to assist with global level issues such as structure, argument, and coherence, the students also harnessed the AI tool for sentence-level issues. They unanimously agreed that ChatGPT was a valuable tool for language editing. Alex, a L1 student, commented that ChatGPT could edit essays “exceptionally well.” Alex not only used the AI tool to help improve the syntax of his writing such as “run-on sentences” but also consulted it as his dictionary for “providing academic diction” (Alex, Interview). The L2 participants particularly acknowledged ChatGPT as beneficial for enhancing the accuracy of their writing. Lydia shared that upon completing a paragraph of her essay, she would put it into ChatGPT and ask it to “revise the wording and grammar only” so she could refine her language and keep the content original (Lydia, Reflection). Another L2 student Nora noted that “when I struggle with expressing my thoughts accurately in English words, ChatGPT can help me express those ideas in a more powerful and accurate way. It removes communication barriers” (Nora, Written Assignment).

5.2 How Do Student Writers Perceive the Benefits of Integrating ChatGPT into Their Writing?

Utilizing ChatGPT in their various writing process components, the students reported that ChatGPT had the following benefits: (1) accelerating their writing process, (2) easing their cognitive load, (3) fostering new learning opportunities, (4) getting immediate feedback, and (5) promoting positive feelings about writing.

Students stated that using ChatGPT could “speed up the process of writing” (Alex, Interview) as exemplified by the following quotes: “ChatGPT really helped me to explore the essay topics that I’m interested in within a very short amount of time and identify what can be written about” (Nora, Interview); “I discovered after using it for my final essay that ChatGPT can greatly improve the efficiency of my writing” (Alex, Reflection). For L2 writers, it significantly saved the time they typically spent on editing, as mentioned by Lydia:

As an international student who is not a native English speaker, writing college essays would take me double the amount of time compared to those who write essays in their first language. Oftentimes, the biggest time I spent was on editing the grammar and trying to make my language readable and understandable. (Lydia, Reflection)

The benefits of saving the time and energy on language concerns, grammar, wording, and the organization of ideas and messy drafts, furthermore, reduced the cognitive burden among the student writers, both L1 and L2. For instance, knowing ChatGPT’s editing power, Alex felt that he was able to “focus more on the subject of the writing rather than the language itself” and “spew out thoughts freely” when drafting the essay (Alex, Interview). Likewise, the L2 students noted that ChatGPT allowed them to delay their concerns about the linguistic forms of ideas and alleviate the demanding cognitive load associated with L2 writing. As claimed by Lydia, “It freed my thoughts so that I could spend more time revising the content, but not worry about how to express my ideas for the essay” (Lydia, Interview).

The students conveyed that incorporating ChatGPT in different components of writing also fostered new learning opportunities for them to improve writing. Nora shared that “ChatGPT not only made my language more fluent and comprehensible, but it also helped me to learn new ways of expression in English” (Nora, Interview). Su remarked that although ChatGPT’s feedback was generic, it promoted her to do further research about her topic and learn more writing strategies (Su, Written Assignment).

Students particularly highlighted the “instant and personalized feedback” (Kevin, Reflection) provided by ChatGPT as a strong impetus and benefit. For instance, as a frequent visitor of the school’s writing center, Lydia mentioned she typically scheduled two to three appointments with a writing tutor for each major writing assignment she had worked. With ChatGPT, she could obtain feedback anytime: “Now I don’t have to physically go to the writing center at 11 pm, waiting for the previous visitor to finish their session” (Lydia, Interview). She used “my walking AI tutor” to describe the role of AI in her writing.

Ultimately, the students mentioned that these cognitive and practical benefits of ChatGPT not only improved their efficiency of writing, but also promoted positive feelings about writing. They used words such as “more relieved” (Emma), “sense of accomplishment” (Lydia), and “less anxious” (Nora) to describe the AI-assisted writing process. Although the students expressed different needs and utilization of ChatGPT, they all conveyed that they would like to continue using it in the future.

5.3 What Concerns and Limitations Do Students Experience When Using ChatGPT to Assist with Their Writing?

Despite the benefits and usefulness of ChatGPT for assisting with students’ writing, they also expressed many reservations and limitations regarding the AI tool. The first concern was about the false information it produced and its potential to mislead people. The students commented that ChatGPT tended to “make up information” (Emma), “make assumptions and guesses” (Su), and generate “inaccurate information” (Nora), “wrong information” (Alex), and “nonsense” (Lydia). Furthermore, the students pointed out that ChatGPT was inadequate in addressing high-level questions requiring critical thinking, as Su explained: “When I was consulting with ChatGPT, I learned that it has a very limited understanding of the topic I was talking about” (Su, Reflection). Other students also pointed out that the responses they got from ChatGPT could be “very generalized” (Kevin) and lacked “depth and complexity” (Nora).

The next shortcoming of ChatGPT, as noted by the students, is the lack of creativity and originality. Su highlighted that relying on ChatGPT’s ideas would not yield intriguing essays, as even though ChatGPT’s responses may “appear to make sense,” they usually came across as “cliched and superficial.” Su understood that it was because ChatGPT and large language models “work based on the patterns and data they have been trained on and cannot think outside of this” (Su, Reflection). Therefore, it is “not effective in generating new ideas” for an essay (Alex, Interview).

The algorithm unavoidably led to another limitation as observed by the students, which is the lack of reliable evidence and support for the content generated by ChatGPT. Su acknowledged that ChatGPT was not a good source for writing as it was impossible for a reader to trace the original information. Apart from the lack of clarity and transparency about the sources ChatGPT draws upon, Kevin pointed out an additional drawback that ChatGPT’s ideas were “not up to date,” thus not a good source for academic writing (Kevin, Written Assignment).

5.4 What Considerations Do Students Identify as Important When Engaging in Generative AI-Assisted Writing?

Presented with these limitations of ChatGPT, the students shared some important aspects they think should be considered when incorporating AI into writing, summarized as follows: (1) balanced and moderate use of AI, (2) critical use of AI, (3) ethical considerations, (4) the need for human voice, (5) the importance of authenticity, (6) seizing AI as a learning opportunity, and (7) transparency from and conversation between teachers and students.

The students worried that over-reliance on ChatGPT would undermine their writing ability, so they should use ChatGPT to a balanced and moderate extent. The students believed that ChatGPT should be used as “guidance,” “support,” “supplement,” and “assistant” (Alex, Reflection) rather than a “substitute” or “replacement” (Su, Reflection).

Furthermore, the students emphasized the importance of critical use of AI. Emma noted that AI platforms could “decline the need to think critically” as some students might want to “take the easy route and just get the answer” (Emma, Interview). They insisted keeping a critical eye on the information AI generated as it was not reliable. To do this, students shared similar strategies which was to use ChatGPT as a departure rather than a destination for writing, thinking, and research. They underscored the importance of validation and critical thinking in this process.

Another facet to consider is the ethical use of AI. The students believed that one must be very careful when using ChatGPT as it can easily walk the line of plagiarism. They deemed acts such as using ChatGPT to generate new ideas and write entire essays unethical, as these are forms of taking credit for other people’s work based on their language and ideas (Kevin, In-Class Writing). Thus students emphasized the importance of “doing research on your own” (Emma), “making sure the ideas are my own” (Lydia), and “not using everything (i.e. sentence by sentence, word by word) provided by ChatGPT” (Su).

The students also regarded the issue of retaining human voice a pivotal consideration for AI-assisted writing. They pointed out that writing should be a means to express the writer’s identity and thoughts, but AI was not able to personalize the text to their individual style and voice. Wary of the threat posed by extensive adoption of ChatGPT to individual expressions, Lydia commented, “ChatGPT tended to use similar dictions and patterns of wording and sentence structures. If everyone uses ChatGPT, our style will become more and more alike” (Lydia, Interview). Similarly, Su pointed out that ChatGPT could make the text “sound generic and impersonal,” which is a problem “when you are trying to convey your own ideas, feelings, and perspectives” (Su, Written Assignment). To “truly present a unique perspective and make writing individualized,” one must “take full control” of their writing to deliver a powerful message (Kevin, Reflection). This process requires the discernment to dismiss advice from ChatGPT to avoid generating an impersonal, blunt style of writing that lacks the writer’s distinct character.

Students also pointed out that the involvement of ChatGPT in writing may not only jeopardize how human voice is conveyed through the ideas ChatGPT generates, but also through the language it produces, thus “ruining the authenticity of an essay” (Alex, Reflection). He questioned himself for a paradoxical use of ChatGPT. On the one hand, he utilized ChatGPT for editing and better academic diction; on the other, he was perplexed and apprehended about the tipping point where the essay would start to sound “more like ChatGPT rather than yourself.” As he explained:

ChatGPT suggested some words I never would have used, and I decided not to include them. While they may obviously sound better than my own authentic words, I just did not feel honest using them. For instance, when writing this paper, ChatGPT suggested I use “judiciously” rather than “in moderation.” I never would have used “judiciously,” and it felt unauthentic to use it. (Alex, Reflection)

The students suggested cautious, strategic, and purposeful use of ChatGPT’s editing features to ensure it amplifies rather than conflicts with their own writing style.

However, boundaries like this still appeared to the students as vague. Hence, the students called for guidelines and instructions in the classroom and open conversation between teachers and students. The students expressed their confusion over the lack of clear guidelines across their classes. As Alex commented, “It’s hard to draw lines with different ways of using ChatGPT and which one would be considered cheating or not” (Alex, Interview). The students hoped that all their instructors, instead of only writing teachers, could engage in comprehensive discussions about what specific ways of using ChatGPT would be regarded as acceptable or problematic according to their disciplinary conventions and learning purposes.

Participants also expected that school policies and instructors would not shut down AI as a resource and learning opportunity for students. Emma said, “It’s tricky as there are a lot of different opinions, but technology is the world we live in. We should go with the grain as opposed to against it” (Emma, Interview). Cautious of possible missed learning opportunities that AI might bring to thinking, Lydia commented, “I am afraid of becoming lazy…But I guess it also depends on how you use it. It gives a shortcut for people who do not want to make the effort to learn and think. But it could be useful for those who really want to learn” (Lydia, Interview). Alex noted that to prevent the loss of learning opportunity, for instance, he decided that rather than taking ChatGPT’s diction suggestion immediately, he “would use those words in the next essay,” demonstrating his effort in learning and internalizing the knowledge. In general, the students were still exploring ways to use ChatGPT in critical, authentic, and ethical ways that would promote rather than harm their learning.

6 Discussion

Adopting sensemaking theory, the study investigated how students made sense of their AI-assisted writing practices, providing insights into students’ learning process and their shared practices emerging around the AI technology. Confirming previous research (e.g., Guo et al., 2022 ; Holmes et al., 2019 ; Su et al., 2023 ), this study found that the students overall had positive experiences with generative AI-assisted writing, for it could accelerate their writing process, reduce their cognitive load and anxiety, and provide prompt feedback. The students integrated ChatGPT into various components of their composing process, such as searching for content, ideational planning, language editing, and revising. Although the students acknowledged the cognitive and affective benefits (e.g., Ebadi & Amini, 2022 ; Fryer & Carpenter, 2006 ) of using ChatGPT in writing, they were very cautious about adopting its ideas and suggestions at different discourse levels (i.e., essay, paragraph, and sentence levels) due to critical, ethical, and authentic concerns. This finding extends previous research which identified that students’ primary concerns were academic dishonesty and educational inequity (Yan, 2023 ). Despite recognizing AI’s limitations such as the lack of in-depth insights (Gao et al., 2022 ), originality, creativity, and reliability—qualities essential for good academic writing—the students deemed it necessary to embrace rather than abandon the tool, with the purpose of fostering one’s critical thinking and writing skills. The results suggest that students’ sensemaking of AI-assisted writing is shaped by their prior knowledge and understanding of writing as a cognitive and sociocultural activity, their exploration of AI’s functionalities and strategies for leveraging them to achieve learning goals, and their interrogation of the appropriateness and limitations of AI in the specific context of academic writing.

The study highlights two emerging dilemmas students experienced in their generative AI-assisted writing processes. The first dilemma, as Alex put it, is the choice between sounding better or sounding like me when integrating AI into the decision making process of writing, reflecting a larger issue about academic integrity, authenticity, and voice in human-AI collaboration. The participants believed that it is crucial to prevent their writing from being AI-nized, which could lead to either plagiarism or a writing style resembling AI that overshadows their own voice—the very essence of their “identity and presentation of the self in writing” (Prince & Archer, 2014 , p. 40). The students’ beliefs align with a connectivism paradigm of AI in Education (AIEd) outlined by Ouyang and Jiao ( 2021 ), in which AI serves as a tool to augment human intelligence and capability (Yang et al., 2021 ) and learner agency is placed at the core. Reliance on AI could lead to superficial engagement with writing tasks, discouraging deeper, reflective thought processes essential for original creative expression. Furthermore, when AI suggests similar vocabulary, structures, and styles to various learners, it risks imposing a uniformity in expression that undermines the educational value of cultivating each individual’s unique and creative voice. AI may hinder students from exploring how language variation and linguistic diversity can be rich resources for meaning-making, creativity, identity formation, problem-solving (Wang et al., 2020 ). Such critical engagement with diverse language resources is crucial for developing students’ literacy skills in a digital age where multicultural awareness is an integral part of education (Sánchez-Martín et al., 2019 ). As Dixon-Román et al. ( 2020 ) noted, educators must be wary of AI’s “racializing forces,” which standardize learning processes in ways that can marginalize non-dominant forms of knowledge and communication, as well as students whose experiences and identities are either not represented or misrepresented in the system.

While the participants concurred that upholding human voice and agency entails possessing integrity and alignment not only at the ideational level but also in the linguistic expression of those ideas, the L2 writers in this study added another nuanced dimension to the impact of AI on human voice and authenticity in the context of AI-assisted writing. As the L2 students experienced, ChatGPT’s language suggestions might not pose a threat to their voice but serve as a catalyst for augmenting their voice, as AI helped overcome their language barriers and better express ideas true to themselves. In other words, generative AI afforded the L2 writers powerful language repertoires that enhanced the accuracy and efficiency of “linguistic rehearing” (Abdel Latif, 2021 ) or “translating” (Kellogg, 1996 ) component of their writing process, thus allowing L2 students to produce writing more authentic to themselves. The finding highlights how learner characteristics and individual differences play an important role in students’ sensemaking of AI-assisted writing, complicating the existing understanding of AI’s affordances for learners with diverse linguistic backgrounds and learning needs.

From earlier conceptualizations of authenticity as “ownedness” and “being one’s own” by Heidegger (1927/ 1962 ), to contemporary perceptions as the “self-congruency” of an individual, group, or symbolic identity (Ferrara, 1998 , p. 70), the notion of authenticity has been evolving and becoming more pluralistic. As Rings ( 2017 ) acknowledged, authenticity extends beyond adherent to personally endorsed commitments; it requires a comprehensive consideration of one’s self-awareness and the changing social context. Scholars should further pursue what it means by authenticity and academic integrity in an increasingly AI-mediated educational context, ways to promote students’ authorial voice and agency, as well as the complicated authorship issues (Jabotinsky & Sarel, 2022 ) involved in AI-human collaboratively generated texts. As Eaton ( 2023 ) claims, it is time to contemplate “postplagiarism” and academic integrity in a future where “hybrid human-AI writing will become normal”.

Apart from the sounding better or sounding like me dilemma experienced by students, another paradox is whether AI caused missed learning opportunities or created new learning opportunities . As noted by the previous literature, AI-writing tools may rob students of essential learning experiences (Barrot, 2023a ; Tseng & Warschauer, 2023 ). Adding to this concern from educators and scholars, the present study shows that the students themselves are also cognizant of the possible learning loss due to AI adoption. Furthermore, the study shows that rather than passively indulging themselves in the convenience of AI tools, a common concern among educators (Chan & Hu, 2023 ; Graham, 2023 ), the student writers attempted to seize new learning opportunities that emerged from AI technologies to promote their critical thinking and writing. This finding suggests a nuanced addition to sensemaking theory: the process of making sense of uncertainties in AI-infused literacy practices can also be uncertain, involving reconciling dilemmas and acknowledging perplexing experiences. While not always yielding clear-out outcomes or casual attributions for the observed phenomena and personal experience as suggested by Poquet ( 2024 ), noticing and perceiving the unpredictable impacts of generative AI on students’ own learning processes can, in itself, be empowering. The process fosters a sense of agency and critical engagement, suggesting that the outcomes of sensemaking in the context of AI-assisted writing can be open-ended yet profound.

This important finding leads scholars to reconsider the essence of learning in an era of generative AI. Hwang et al. ( 2020 ) and Southworth et al. ( 2023 ) argued that AI is likely to transform not only the learning environment, but also the learning process, and even what it means to learn. This perspective finds resonance in the experiences of the participants in this study. While AI may shortcut traditional ways of doing writing, it does not inherently imply a reduction in students’ cognitive, behavioral, and affective engagement with writing, learning, and thinking. AI does not necessarily make writing easier; on the contrary, a critical, ethical, and authentic approach to AI-assisted writing pushes students to think further and prioritize their own voice, originality, and creativity, leading to high quality writing. In this sense, when used properly, AI has the potential to introduce a new avenue for humanizing writing and education. As generative AI technologies are advancing rapidly, an expanding array of AI-powered writing assistance, intelligent tutoring systems, and feedback tools has the promise to cater to the diverse needs and learning styles of language learners and writers. These tools are not limited to mere textual assistance; the multimodal functionalities of generative AI can also allow writers to explore creative expressions and multimodal writing, enriching students’ literacy practices by integrating more visual, auditory, and interactive elements into the composition process (Kang & Yi, 2023 ; Li et al., 2024 ). As noted by Cao and Dede ( 2023 ), our educational model has long been centered around the product , directing our focus towards the outcomes and grades students achieve, often overlooking the learning process itself. The judgmental calls involved in students’ interactions with AI, as showcased in the nuances of participants’ AI-assisted writing process in this study, represent emerging learning opportunities that require students to draw upon a range of knowledge, skills, awareness of ethics and the self, criticality, and self-reflection to make informed decisions about AI in learning. The present study shows that such decision making process can play a pivotal role in cultivating students’ “AI literacy” (Ng et al., 2021 ) and promoting their responsible use of AI. Therefore, it should also be recognized as a valuable teaching opportunity that educators should not overlook.

7 Conclusion

This study explored students’ generative AI-assisted writing processes in a first-year writing class in an American college. The study found that students utilized generative AI for assisting with both global (e.g., argument, structure, coherence) and local issues of writing (e.g., syntax, diction, grammar), while they also had various ethical and practical concerns about the use of AI. Findings showed that large language models offer unique benefits for L2 writers to leverage its linguistic capabilities. The study highlights the urgency of explicit teaching of critical AI literacy and the value of (post)process-oriented writing pedagogy (e.g., Graham, 2023 ) in college writing classrooms so that students not only understand AI writing tools’ functions and limitations but also know how to utilize and evaluate them for specific communication and learning purposes.

However, writing instruction is still at the beginning stage of addressing this pressing need. Thus, pedagogical innovations, policy adjustments, new forms of writing assessments, and teacher education (Zhai, 2022 ) are needed to adapt to the potential impact of AI on desired student learning outcomes within specific writing curriculums. For instance, integrating critical digital pedagogy into writing instruction and inviting students to reflect on their relevant AI literacy practices allow writing instructors to more effectively guide students in critically engaging with AI technologies in their academic literacy development. Policy adjustments should aim to cultivate an inclusive rather than “policing” environment (Johnson, 2023 ) that encourages students to use AI responsibly and as a means of fostering self-learning. Furthermore, writing assessment methods should evolve to not just evaluate final learning outcomes such as the written products but also the learning journey itself such as the decision-making involved in their AI-assisted writing. This shift encourages students to appreciate learning processes and the productive struggles they encounter along the way, so that they can move beyond seeing AI as a shortcut but as assistance in their quest for learning and writing development. In this way, students can leverage the linguistic, multimodal, interactive, and adaptable affordances of generative AI tools for personalized learning. This facilitates greater student ownership of their learning, enhancing their learner competence through self-direction, self-assessment, and self-reflection when interacting with AI tools (Barrot, 2023c ; Fariani et al., 2023 ).

Following a phenomenological research design, the present study aims to provide in-depth understanding of college students’ use of ChatGPT in their academic writing, yet it is limited due to its small sample size and duration. Therefore, the findings may not apply to other classroom contexts and to a wide range of student populations. Future research could benefit from adopting a large scale, longitudinal design to examine generative AI’s impacts on student writing and students’ long-term engagement with generative AI tools, both in formal classroom settings and in informal learning contexts. It is also worth exploring students of diverse age groups and language proficiency levels as well as writing courses of different languages, purposes, and writing genres to examine other factors that may influence students’ generative AI assisted writing. After all, the participants in this study have already developed some proficiency and skills in academic writing, but holding learner agency (Ouyang & Jiao, 2021 ) can be more complex and challenging for younger learners. Further research is needed to understand students with varied domain knowledge, expertise, and writing abilities (Yan, 2023 ) and uncover individual differences in AI-assisted writing. Additionally, the participants in this study utilized GPT 3.5 for their AI-assisted writing practices. Given the rapid advancement of AI technologies, new AI models and applications are continuously emerging. Thus, future research should investigate how various AI models and functionalities might differently influence students, taking into account the ongoing developments and innovations in AI.

Data Availability

The data are available from the author upon reasonable request.

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Electric Cars Are Suddenly Becoming Affordable

More efficient manufacturing, falling battery costs and intense competition are lowering sticker prices for battery-powered models to within striking distance of gasoline cars.

By Jack Ewing

Alex Lawrence, a dealer in Salt Lake City who specializes in used electric cars, has seen a change over the last year in the kinds of customers who are coming into his showroom. They used to be well-heeled professionals who could drop $70,000 on a Rivian luxury pickup truck.

Recently, Mr. Lawrence said, customers have been snapping up used Teslas for a little over $20,000, after applying a $4,000 federal tax credit.

“We’re seeing younger people,” Mr. Lawrence said. “We are seeing more blue-collar and entry-level white-collar people. The purchase price of the car has suddenly become in reach.”

Regarded by conservative politicians and other critics as playthings of the liberal elite, electric vehicles are fast becoming more accessible. Prices are falling because of increased competition, lower raw-material costs and more efficient manufacturing. Federal tax credits of up to $7,500 for new electric cars, often augmented by thousands of dollars in state incentives, push prices even lower.

At the same time, technology is improving quickly and making electric vehicles more practical. Cars that can travel more than 300 miles on a fully charged battery are becoming common, and charging times are dropping below 30 minutes. The number of fast chargers, which can top up a battery in less than half an hour, grew 36 percent from April 2023 to April 2024.

Carmakers including Tesla, Ford, General Motors and Stellantis, the owner of Jeep, have announced plans for electric vehicles that would sell new for as little as $25,000.

“The E.V. market has hit an inflection point,” said Randy Parker, chief executive of Hyundai Motor America, which will begin producing electric vehicles at a factory in Georgia by the end of the year. “The early adopters have come. They’ve got their cars. Now you’re starting to see us transition to a mass market.”

All this is good news for proponents of electric vehicles and the Biden administration, which is aiming for half of new cars sold to be electric by 2030 as part of the president’s plan to combat climate change. Even if Republicans gain control of the White House and Congress and follow through on promises to dismantle electric vehicle subsidies, they may not be able to undo the market forces pushing down prices.

“There may be some hiccups in the exact pace and scale of E.V. sales if there are major policy changes, but I wouldn’t expect the E.V. market to flatline,” said Peter Slowik, who leads research on passenger cars at the International Council on Clean Transportation, a research organization. “Most automakers are committed to an all-electric future, and many are planning on a timeline that goes far beyond the next administration.”

Electric cars, sales of which have slowed in recent months, are still more expensive than gasoline models, costing an average of $55,252 in the United States in April, according to estimates by Kelley Blue Book. That is a decline of 9 percent from April 2023, but still about $6,700 more than the average for all vehicles.

But Mr. Slowik’s group estimates that cars and sport-utility vehicles capable of traveling 400 miles on a full battery will cost less than cars with internal combustion engines in 2030, even before taking into account government subsidies. (Pickup trucks, which require bigger batteries, will take a little longer, not reaching parity for 400-mile models until 2033.)

Those calculations do not take into account lower fuel and maintenance costs that strengthen the financial argument for electric vehicles. Electricity is almost always cheaper per mile than gasoline, and battery-powered vehicles don’t need oil changes, engine air filters or spark plugs. For people who drive a lot, electric cars may already be a better deal. At the same time, some automakers are offering strong discounts on E.V. models as an enticement for buyers.

While prices are clearly trending downward, there are risks. China supplies more than half of the lithium-ion batteries used in cars sold in the United States, according to Interact Analysis, a research firm. Those batteries will become more expensive because the Biden administration announced in May that it would raise tariffs on them to 25 percent from 7.5 percent.

Many companies are building battery factories in the United States and Canada , but most of these won’t produce enough batteries to replace China for several years.

Raw materials are another risk. The price of lithium and other materials required for batteries has plunged in the last 12 months, making electric cars cheaper. But commodity prices could soar again.

The recent slowdown in the growth of electric car sales has prompted Tesla, Ford and others to delay plans to expand manufacturing. But many analysts expect sales to pick up as a glut of models pushes down prices, and as the charging network grows. High prices and the fear of not being able to find a place to recharge are the two biggest reasons people hesitate to buy an electric vehicle, surveys show.

For many people, the car’s price is not the only expense to consider. People who live in apartments often depend on public charging plugs. Public charging, besides being less convenient, tends to be more costly than charging at home.

Still, the forces pushing prices down are powerful. Manufacturing costs are dropping as traditional carmakers, who were slow to sell electric vehicles, start to apply their decades of experience with mass production to the new technology.

Later this year, for example, General Motors will begin selling an electric version of its Chevrolet Equinox sport-utility vehicle that will have a range of more than 300 miles and sell for less than $30,000 after the $7,500 federal tax credit. And the company plans to sell an even cheaper car, a new Chevrolet Bolt, next year.

The Equinox and Bolt will be built on G.M.’s Ultium platform, a collection of components that can be used for a variety of vehicles including pickups and luxury Cadillacs. G.M., which has cut costs by using the same batteries and parts for different models, has said its electric vehicles will become profitable in the second half of this year.

Electric cars still cost more to manufacture than cars with internal combustion engines, said Prateek Biswas, an analyst at Wood Mackenzie, a research firm. But costs will come down as companies learn how to produce the cars more efficiently, Mr. Biswas said — for example, by eliminating rare minerals from electric motors or replacing copper wiring with aluminum.

At the same time, the cost to make a gasoline car is rising because of stricter emissions regulations. “At some point it will be easier to just move toward E.V.s,” Mr. Biswas said.

Competition is also intensifying. Toyota and other Japanese carmakers with a reputation for delivering reliable and affordable vehicles are belatedly offering electric vehicles. Honda plans to begin producing them at an Ohio factory next year.

There will be more than 100 fully electric models for sale in the United States by next year, according to Cars.com, an online sales platform, double the number available last year. “We’re at the point now where anybody that wants an E.V. for a price point can actually get an E.V.,” said Rebecca Lindland, senior director of industry data at Cars Commerce, which operates Cars.com.

Used car prices are arguably more important than prices of new cars. Most people buy used cars. A vibrant used market vastly increases the number of people who can consider an electric vehicle.

Models from Tesla, Nissan or G.M. have been on the road for three years or more, generating inventory for dealers as the original owners buy new ones. More than half of the used electric vehicles on the market sell for less than $30,000, according to Recurrent, a research firm that focuses on the used E.V. market.

Jesse Lore, owner of Green Wave Electric Vehicles in North Hampton, N.H., recently sold a used Chevy Bolt for $15,000. After applying a federal tax credit for used electric vehicles, the price was $11,000. Besides the lure of affordable prices, he noted, his customers like that electric vehicles are quieter than gasoline models, better for the environment, and faster because an electric motor generates instant torque.

“The car is more fun than whatever they’re driving now,” Mr. Lore said.

Jack Ewing writes about the auto industry with an emphasis on electric vehicles. More about Jack Ewing