advantages of traditional food essay

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Benefits of Traditional Foods

Nutritional benefits of traditional food.

Foods from land and sea once provided everything for people. Today, a mix of market and traditional food is common for most people, but traditional food remains an important source of many nutrients.

A study in 43 Arctic communities found that on days when people ate both traditional and market foods, their diets were better than when they ate only market food.

When traditional foods were included in the diet, benefits were:

• Less calories ­- helpful for weight control
• Less saturated fat -- better for the heart
• More lean meats and fish
• More iron -- better for muscles and blood
• More zinc -- better for wound healing and fighting infection
• More Vitamin A -- better for vision and fighting disease
• More calcium -- better for strong bones and teeth
• Strengthened cultural capacity and well-being

Department and University Information

Centre for indigenous peoples' nutrition and environment.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Traditional Food

Looking for advantages and disadvantages of Traditional Food?

We have collected some solid points that will help you understand the pros and cons of Traditional Food in detail.

But first, let’s understand the topic:

What is Traditional Food?

Traditional food refers to dishes that have been prepared by a community or culture for many years. These foods often use local ingredients and cooking methods, and are passed down through generations. They are a key part of a region’s heritage and identity.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Traditional Food

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of Traditional Food:

Advantages of Traditional Food

Also check:

Disadvantages of Traditional Food

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Importance of Traditional Foods

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If you’ve read my blog much, you probably noticed that I’m big on homemade bone broth and fermented foods like sauerkraut  and with good reason…

What are Traditional Foods?

Traditional foods are foods that were consumed throughout history before the modernization and industrialization of the food supply. These foods are not only free from additives, chemicals and many of the things we find in food today, but they were exceptionally nourishing. Though the specifics of traditional food varied by culture, many cultures included some variation of the following:

• Healthy proteins like free range meats, fish or eggs
• Beneficial fats from healthy sources including coconut based fats, handmade butter, tallow, lard, ghee and olive oil
• Fermented foods like kimchee, kefir , kombucha , sauerkraut, atchara, etc
• Bone broth or soups cooked with bone-in meat for the variety of minerals and gelatin
• Organ meats
• Vegetables, fruits and nuts, especially leafy greens
• Sometimes tubers and root vegetables
• Raw dairy and dairy products (in some cultures)

Why These Traditional Foods?

From a past article :

Besides it’s amazing taste and culinary uses, broth is an excellent source of minerals and is known to boost the immune system (chicken soup when you are sick anyone?) and improve digestion. Its high calcium, magnesium and phosphorus content make it great for  bone and tooth health . Bone broth also supports joints, hair, skin and nails due to its high collagen content. In fact, some even suggest that it helps eliminate cellulite as it supports smooth connective tissue.

Fermented foods have been through a process of lactofermentation which preserves the vegetables and creates vitamins, enzymes and beneficial bacteria.

“Cultures around the world have been eating fermented foods for years, from Sauerkraut in Germany to Kimichi in Korea and everywhere in between.  Studies have even shown the link between probiotic rich foods and overall health (PDF). Sadly, with the advances in technology and food preparation, these time-honored traditional foods have been largely lost in our society.”

As this article explains :

Anthropological data suggest that those cultures subsisting entirely or largely on native, unrefined foods prepared according to time-honored traditions enjoy better health than peoples consuming a largely refined diet of modern foods. Infertility, heart disease, diabetes, autoimmune disease, mental illness, obesity, dental cavities and other diseases were largely absent in cultures subsisting on a native diet of unrefined foods. Whole foods lead to whole health.

If you have the time, you can make mineral rich bone broth ( recipe )  and fermented vegetables at home. I often make and consume both of these daily.

Traditional Food Resources

• The book Deep Nutrition really delves in to the reasons for these traditional foods on a genetic level and provides some very compelling research.
• In the same way, the book Cure Tooth Decay , talks about how these foods can improve oral health and even lead to improved oral health and remineralize cavities .
• My recipe list contains many recipes that use these traditional ingredients and that contain beneficial fats for optimal health.
• My “ Food Rules ” are my blueprint for helping kids adapt to and enjoy a healthier lifestyle.

What is the biggest challenge you have with incorporating traditional foods like broth and sauerkraut in to your diet? What traditional food will you soon be trying? Share in the comments below!

About Katie Wells

Katie Wells , CTNC, MCHC, Founder of Wellness Mama and Co-founder of  Wellnesse , has a background in research, journalism, and nutrition. As a mom of six, she turned to research and took health into her own hands to find answers to her health problems. WellnessMama.com is the culmination of her thousands of hours of research and all posts are medically reviewed and verified by the Wellness Mama research team. Katie is also the author of the bestselling books  The Wellness Mama Cookbook and The Wellness Mama 5-Step Lifestyle Detox.

8 responses to “Importance of Traditional Foods”

Nice Information thank you!

what is the difference between traditional food and modern food ? what is the advantages and disadvantages about traditional and modern food?

I got caught up in the weston price fad and used to make bone broth regularly in a slowcooker, but I noticed how much my energy costs doubled and the cost of good bones that it was almost the same as buying gelatin powder. Now I only do it occasionally and do not miss it , which frees up energy/time to make freshly squeezed vegetable juices.

This may be a stupid question, but if I bought organic beef or chicken broth from the store…is that similar to bone broth? And stock would not have the same benefits, right? I just don’t have time to make this, but the prices on that sight were very expensive.

The ones at the store are extremely watered down and usually have additives that are harmful….

This bone broth “product” has me thinking. I don’t want to put down this website because I use it as a source of information for so many things, it would take me all day to list them. Now I figure the typical reader of this site has made a decision to exercise, eat well, favor natural/homemade from processed products and generally take the extra time to have a house and body free of damaging substances. Just as a quick example above the comment section I’m typing, there is a link to “Herbal Mouth Wash Recipe” which I haven’t followed (yet) but I can bet money it is more time consuming, than buying an almost free (with the right coupon) than an already made in the store filled with chemicals and who knows what inside.

But we go through the process of “making” this and many other things because we believe it is better and it makes a difference. But we don’t have time to put cow bones in a pot with water with a handful of our favorite cooking “herbs” and let it boil for a bit, then remove the marrow from the core, use a portion and freeze the leftover? Seriously, we are going to get a PACKET of bone broth? I don’t have a problem with someone trying to make a living selling whatever they think they can sell, good for them I wish them high profits, but just like I won’t use my money to buy commercial Vapor Rub I sure won’t use it to buy a PACKET of bone broth.

I haven’t quite made the jump to trying fermented foods yet, this would be such a great place to start! Thanks for the chance!

My biggest challenge of incorporating traditional foods was taking the time to make them. I would like to try the soaked cereals or the fermented veggies or juice!

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IELTS Essay: Traditional Foods and Fast Food

by Dave | Real Past Tests | 10 Comments

This is an IELTS writing task 2 sample answer essay on the topic of traditional and fast food from the real IELTS exam.

Be sure to sign up for my Patreon here so that you don’t miss out on any other sample answers.

In many countries, traditional foods are being replaced by fast food. This has a negative impact on families, individuals and society.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

The rise of fast food globally is often thought to have an injurious impact on families, individuals, and society at large. In my opinion, fast food is a negative overall despite some tangible benefits.

The advantages of fast food vary according to the segment of society in question. Individuals get enjoyment out of fast food, the clearest evidence of which is its popularity. Fast food is also relatively cheap and, as its name suggests, saves time. For families, the advantages are similar. In many working-class families, parents spend at a lot time and energy at their jobs and do not have the luxury of preparing a nutritious, time-consuming meal for their children. Fast food is therefore a necessary, viable alternative. Finally, society benefits in a general sense because of the employment opportunities. Fast food restaurants employ thousands of, admittedly, lowly paid workers and is a safe transitional job for students and struggling individuals.

Regardless, the negative impact of fast food is greater. Though people enjoy the taste and convenience of fast food, they are doing irreparable harm to both their short and long-term health. Research has shown that the high fat and sugar content in fast food not only affects daily energy levels but also contributes to conditions such as heart disease and diabetes. These same health risks extend to families, with the added caveat that children are forming potentially life-long bad habits. Society also suffers from the growth of the fast food industry as local businesses lose revenue to these international conglomerates that enrich primarily the already wealthy or foreign nationals.

In conclusion, despite the benefits related to convenience and economics that fast food brings, the health drawbacks should serve as strong deterrents for countries looking to encourage these industries.

1. The rise of fast food globally is often thought to have an injurious impact on families, individuals, and society at large. 2. In my opinion, fast food is a negative overall despite some tangible benefits.

• Paraphrase the overall essay topic.
• Write a clear opinion and include some hints at your main ideas. Read more about conclusions here .

1. The advantages of fast food vary according to the segment of society in question. 2. Individuals get enjoyment out of fast food, the clearest evidence of which is its popularity. 3. Fast food is also relatively cheap and, as its name suggests, saves time. 4. For families, the advantages are similar. 5. In many working-class families, parents spend at a lot time and energy at their jobs and do not have the luxury of preparing a nutritious, time-consuming meal for their children. 6. Fast food is therefore a necessary, viable alternative. 7. Finally, society benefits in a general sense because of the employment opportunities. 8. Fast food restaurants employ thousands of, admittedly, lowly paid workers and is a safe transitional job for students and struggling individuals.

• Write a clear topic sentence with your main idea at the end.
• Explain you main idea and focus on one category.
• Develop that category.
• Switch to families.
• Develop that idea.
• Finish developing it.
• Focus finally on society.
• Develop it fully. This paragraph is a little too long.

1. Regardless, the negative impact of fast food is greater. 2. Though people enjoy the taste and convenience of fast food, they are doing irreparable harm to both their short and long-term health. 3. Research has shown that the high fat and sugar content in fast food not only affects daily energy levels but also contributes to conditions such as heart disease and diabetes. 4. These same health risks extend to families, with the added caveat that children are forming potentially life-long bad habits. 5. Society also suffers from the growth of the fast food industry as local businesses lose revenue to these international conglomerates that enrich primarily the already wealthy or foreign nationals.

• Write another topic sentence with a new main idea at the end.
• Explain that main idea.
• Use research to support your ideas.
• Make sure that you cover all areas.
• This paragraph should have stronger reasons since it is the side you agree with.

1. In conclusion, despite the benefits related to convenience and economics that fast food brings, the health drawbacks should serve as strong deterrents for countries looking to encourage these industries.

• Repeat your opinion, summarise your main ideas and add a final thought. Read more about conclusions here .

What do the words in bold below mean?

The rise of fast food globally is often thought to have an injurious impact on families, individuals, and society at large . In my opinion, fast food is a negative overall despite some tangible benefits .

The advantages of fast food vary according to the segment of society in question . Individuals get enjoyment out of fast food, the clearest evidence of which is its popularity. Fast food is also relatively cheap and, as its name suggests , saves time . For families, the advantages are similar. In many working-class families , parents spend at a lot time and energy at their jobs and do not have the luxury of preparing a nutritious , time-consuming meal for their children. Fast food is therefore a necessary , viable alternative . Finally, society benefits in a general sense because of the employment opportunities . Fast food restaurants employ thousands of, admittedly , lowly paid workers and is a safe transitional job for students and struggling individuals .

Regardless , the negative impact of fast food is greater. Though people enjoy the taste and convenience of fast food, they are doing irreparable harm to both their short and long-term health . Research has shown that the high fat and sugar content in fast food not only affects daily energy levels but also contributes to conditions such as heart disease and diabetes . These same health risks extend to families, with the added caveat that children are forming potentially life-long bad habits . Society also suffers from the growth of the fast food industry as local businesses lose revenue to these international conglomerates that enrich primarily the already wealthy or foreign nationals .

In conclusion, despite the benefits related to convenience and economics that fast food brings, the health drawbacks should serve as strong deterrents for countries looking to encourage these industries .

rise increase

globally around the world

injurious impact negative effect

society at large all people

negative overall bad in general

tangible benefits concrete advantages

vary different

segment part

in question being discussed

clearest evidence of which best instance includes

relatively somewhat

as its name suggests can be figured out from the name

saves time doesn’t waste time

working-class families normal, working families

luxury privilege

preparing making

nutritious good for your health

time-consuming takes a lot of time

necessary needed

viable alternative good second option

in a general sense overall

employment opportunities job chances

admittedly it must be said

lowly paid workers don’t make a lot of money

safe transitional job not risky in-between work

struggling individuals people who need help

regardless nonetheless

irreparable harm can’t be fixed injury

short and long-term health in the near and far future

content what’s inside it

affects daily energy levels impacts how much energy you have

contributes to adds to

conditions such as diseases including

diabetes disease from eating too much sugar

health risks extend to health problems include

added caveat extra warning

forming potentially life-long bad habits possibly last forever habits

suffers hurt from

growth of the fast food industry more powerful fast food companies

local businesses lose revenue neighborhood shops lose money

international conglomerates big companies

enrich primarily mostly get money from

foreign nationals people from other countries

related to similar to

should serve as ought to be

deterrents dissuades people

encourage these industries support those companies

Pronunciation

raɪz   ˈgləʊbəli   ɪnˈʤʊərɪəs ˈɪmpækt   səˈsaɪəti æt lɑːʤ ˈnɛgətɪv ˈəʊvərɔːl   ˈtænʤəbl ˈbɛnɪfɪts ˈveəri   ˈsɛgmənt   ɪn ˈkwɛsʧən ˈklɪərɪst ˈɛvɪdəns ɒv wɪʧ   ˈrɛlətɪvli   æz ɪts neɪm səˈʤɛsts seɪvz taɪm ˈwɜːkɪŋklɑːs ˈfæmɪliz ˈlʌkʃəri   prɪˈpeərɪŋ   nju(ː)ˈtrɪʃəs ˈtaɪmkənˈsjuːmɪŋ   ˈnɛsɪsəri ˈvaɪəbl ɔːlˈtɜːnətɪv ɪn ə ˈʤɛnərəl sɛns   ɪmˈplɔɪmənt ˌɒpəˈtjuːnɪtiz ədˈmɪtɪdli ˈləʊli peɪd ˈwɜːkəz seɪf trænˈsɪʒənl ʤɒb   ˈstrʌglɪŋ ˌɪndɪˈvɪdjʊəlz rɪˈgɑːdlɪs ɪˈrɛpərəbl hɑːm   ʃɔːt ænd ˈlɒŋtɜːm hɛlθ ˈkɒntɛnt   əˈfɛkts ˈdeɪli ˈɛnəʤi ˈlɛvlz   kənˈtrɪbju(ː)ts tuː   kənˈdɪʃənz sʌʧ æz   ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz hɛlθ rɪsks ɪksˈtɛnd tuː   ˈædɪd ˈkeɪvɪæt   ˈfɔːmɪŋ pəʊˈtɛnʃəli laɪf-lɒŋ bæd ˈhæbɪts ˈsʌfəz   grəʊθ ɒv ðə fɑːst fuːd ˈɪndəstri   ˈləʊkəl ˈbɪznɪsɪz luːz ˈrɛvɪnjuː   ˌɪntə(ː)ˈnæʃənl kənˈglɒmərɪts   ɪnˈrɪʧ ˈpraɪmərɪli   ˈfɒrɪn ˈnæʃənlz rɪˈleɪtɪd tuː   ʃʊd sɜːv æz   dɪˈtɛrənts   ɪnˈkʌrɪʤ ðiːz ˈɪndəstriz

Vocabulary Practice

Remember and fill in the blanks:

The r____e of fast food g________y is often thought to have an i_____________t on families, individuals, and s______________e . In my opinion, fast food is a n________________l despite some t_________________s .

The advantages of fast food v_____y according to the s__________t of society i_______________n . Individuals get enjoyment out of fast food, the c___________________h is its popularity. Fast food is also r___________y cheap and, a_____________________s , s_________e . For families, the advantages are similar. In many w____________________s , parents spend at a lot time and energy at their jobs and do not have the l________y of p___________g a n____________s , t_______________g meal for their children. Fast food is therefore a n___________y , v__________________e . Finally, society benefits i____________________e because of the e________________________s . Fast food restaurants employ thousands of, a_____________y , l__________________s and is a s____________________b for students and s________________________s .

R______________s , the negative impact of fast food is greater. Though people enjoy the taste and convenience of fast food, they are doing i____________________m to both their s_________________________h . Research has shown that the high fat and sugar c____________t in fast food not only a____________________s but also c__________________________s heart disease and d_____________s . These same h____________________o families, with the a______________________t that children are f_____________________________________s . Society also s________s from the g________________________________y as l________________________________e to these i____________________________s that e_____________________y the already wealthy or f_____________________s .

In conclusion, despite the benefits r______________o convenience and economics that fast food brings, the health drawbacks s__________________s strong d________________s for countries looking to e________________________s .

Listening Practice

Watch the video below to learn more:

Reading Practice

Read more about this topic below in The New York Times:

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/22/business/mcdonalds-tech-artificial-intelligence-machine-learning-fast-food.html

Speaking Practice

Practice with the following question from the real IELTS speaking exam :

• Do people in your country often eat together?
• Why are family meals less common today?
• Is this a positive or negative development?
• Are there any holidays in your country centred around food?
• Are international foods a threat to the traditional culture of your country?

Writing Practice

Write about the related topic below then check with my sample answer:

In many countries, fast food is becoming cheaper and more widely available.

Do the disadvantages of this outweigh the advantages?

IELTS Essay: Fast Food

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10 Comments

Thanks a lot!

It was absolutely helpful and informative for students like me. Im going to take an IELTS test in the 21st, November,2020 though i am extremely nervous. I hope i could get a 6.5 in that examination. *I am stressed and i have to force myself to wake up at 4 a.m to keep writing again and again these essay so that i can get as many vocabulary and ideas as possible( i believe in the accuracy and reliability of your essays 100%)

Thanks for saying that but I’m not 100% sure that cutting down on your sleep will help in the long-term! Send me a message here if you need any advice: Facebook.com/davelanghowtodoielts

“Regardless, the negative impact of fast food is greater. Though people enjoy the taste and convenience of fast food, they are doing irreparable harm to both their short and long-term health.” I dont understand the structure of this sentence thoroughly. Could you please explain the word “regardless” for me ? how it is used ?

Regardless is short for regardless of the…

We use it the same as despite, in spite of.

Extremely great essay

you are not understanding question because question requires task response

I’m not sure what you mean. Can you explain? IELTS essays are marked on task achievement, cohesion and coherence, vocabulary, and grammar.

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• Published: 02 December 2019

Understanding traditional and modern eating: the TEP10 framework

• Gudrun Sproesser   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4223-2614 1 ,
• Matthew B. Ruby 2 ,
• Naomi Arbit 3 ,
• Charity S. Akotia 4 ,
• Marle dos Santos Alvarenga 5 ,
• Rachana Bhangaokar 6 ,
• Isato Furumitsu 7 ,
• Xiaomeng Hu 8 ,
• Sumio Imada 7 ,
• Gülbanu Kaptan 9 ,
• Martha Kaufer-Horwitz 10 ,
• Usha Menon 11 ,
• Claude Fischler 12 ,
• Paul Rozin 13 ,
• Harald T. Schupp 1 &
• Britta Renner 1  

BMC Public Health volume  19 , Article number:  1606 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Across the world, there has been a movement from traditional to modern eating, including a movement of traditional eating patterns from their origin culture to new cultures, and the emergence of new foods and eating behaviors. This trend toward modern eating is of particular significance because traditional eating has been related to positive health outcomes and sustainability. Yet, there is no consensus on what constitutes traditional and modern eating. The present study provides a comprehensive compilation of the various facets that seem to make up traditional and modern eating. Specifically, 106 facets were mentioned in the previous literature and expert discussions, combining international and interdisciplinary perspectives. The present study provides a framework (the TEP10 framework) systematizing these 106 facets into two major dimensions, what and how people eat, and 12 subdimensions. Hence, focusing only on single facets of traditional and modern eating is an oversimplification of this complex phenomenon. Instead, the multidimensionality and interplay between different facets should be considered to gain a comprehensive understanding of the trends, consequences, and underlying factors of traditional and modern eating.

Peer Review reports

We are currently in the midst of a major change in what people eat and in the way they eat [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Some of these changes have been described as a nutrition transition, which refers to a shift from diets high in complex carbohydrates and fiber towards more varied diets with a higher proportion of fats, saturated fats, and sugar [ 3 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. The changes partially result from the globalization and modernization of food and eating, for example, access to new technologies, modern supermarkets, and food marketing [ 3 , 10 , 11 ]. Also, urbanization has separated a large part of the world’s population from the direct production of foods, which has produced changes in eating behavior [ 12 ]. Furthermore, these changes have been accompanied by a general increase in wealth and food supply [ 13 ] as well as by a decrease in food insecurity [ 14 ]. Food safety has improved [ 15 ], costs for many foods have decreased [ 16 ], and a much wider variety of foods is available to people in almost all parts of the Earth [ 5 ]. One result of all of this has been an increase in life expectancy. In the USA, life expectancy increased from 47 years in 1900 to 78 years in 2007, for example [ 17 ]. Another advantage of the globalization and modernization of food and eating is that many of the distinctive, nutritious and delicious foods developed by different cuisines, at different localities in the world are now widely available. In a survey of people in 17 countries spanning a wide range of developmental status, 500–2000 individuals per country were asked ‘What is your favorite food?’ [ 18 ]. We inspected the five most frequently named foods within these 17 countries and categorized these 85 foods into traditional within the respective country vs. imported from other countries. The results showed that 24 of these foods can be considered traditional in the respective country (e.g., fufu in Ghana, feijoada in Brazil), 29 can be considered foods that have been imported from other parts of the world to the respective country (e.g., pizza and pasta in the Netherlands), and the remaining 32 could not be classified in these two categories (e.g., vegetables in Germany).

At the same time, however, increasing wealth has promoted eating away from home and obesity has increased. The latter will probably affect more people than food insecurity [ 19 ] at some point in the next few decades. Also, obesity already co-exists together with food insecurity [ 20 , 21 ]. As a result of the forces described, there has been a shift from acute, infectious diseases to chronic, degenerative diseases (the epidemiological revolution, [ 22 , 23 ]). All of these forces are at work around the world, with developed countries such as the United States, Germany, Japan and France much further along in this change or transition than developing countries, such as India, Ghana and Brazil. With the increasing incidence of obesity and chronic diseases, the negative consequences of these changes, that is the shift from traditional to modern eating, has become more salient in the scholarly literature [ 3 , 6 , 7 ]. Diets have become homogenized and words like ‘Coca-Colonization’ have been used to describe the changes [ 7 ], see also [ 24 ]. In addition, advantages of traditional eating have been highlighted. For instance, it has been argued that traditional regional food consumption is a step towards sustainable rural development [ 25 ]. In addition, Trichopoulou [ 25 ] stated that traditional foods are environmentally friendly because they are often plant-based and integrated in the local biosystem, although there are certainly also animal-source traditional foods [ 26 ].

The change from traditional to modern eating has also been seen as a net negative by many in the general public and the media. In his New York Times bestseller “Food Rules” [ 27 ], Michael Pollan states “Regard nontraditional foods with skepticism” as one rule for eating wisely (p. 91). According to Pollan [ 27 ], “people who eat according to the rules of a traditional food culture are generally healthier than those of us eating a modern Western diet of processed foods” (p. 89). There are some signs of a return to traditional eating. Specifically, there seems to be a growing interest in sustainable food consumption, with some commonalities to traditional eating: Low meat consumption, low food waste, and high consumption Footnote 1 of local foods were both labeled as sustainable (see Sustainable Development Goals [ 28 ]) and traditional [ 3 , 6 , 8 , 29 ]. This growing interest is underlined by the terms sustainability, climate change, and environmental friendliness having joined the public discourse. Also, the interest in sustainable food has become a new source of income for the food industry. For instance, foods labeled as sustainable or local are common in Western supermarkets today and there are headlines such as “Europe’s food sector shows highest growth of sustainable product sales” [ 30 ]. Whether one considers the massive changes in eating behavior a net positive or negative, there is no doubt that a shift from traditional to modern foods and eating has occurred and that this is a timely and increasingly important topic.

However, what exactly is traditional and modern eating? Importantly, whereas changes in eating behavior are measurable, such as the intake of nutrients across time, what is considered traditional and modern eating mostly appears to be subject to a consensus agreement. Specifically, how much increase in a specific eating behavior over time is necessary to define this eating behavior as modern? What absolute level of a specific eating behavior then and now is necessary to call it traditional or modern? Hence, we believe that it is subject to human evaluation whether something is considered traditional or modern, and that this holds for both experts and lay people.

Moreover, what is considered traditional and modern eating varies across time, society, and culture. For instance, what is called modern in 2018 might be called traditional in 2100. Similarly, a food (e.g. sushi) might be perceived traditional in one country (e.g. Japan), but modern in another country (e.g., Germany). The latter example shows that, within a certain time, society, and culture, one might even talk about three categories when taking the perspective of foods: historically traditional, imported traditional, and modern. For instance, sushi might be considered ‘historically traditional’ in Japan, ‘imported traditional’ in Germany, whereas a new type of breakfast cereal might be considered ‘modern’ in both countries. However, the present article takes the perspective of people in a society or culture, for whom the consumption of ‘imported traditional’ foods might be nevertheless a ‘modern’ behavior, rendering two categories, namely ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ eating behavior.

As far as it concerns these two categories, taking the perspective from 2018 and compiling international views, the literature indicates that multiple definitions of traditional and modern eating exist, rendering it complex and multifaceted. For instance, an often-applied definition of traditional and modern eating focuses on what people eat. Specifically, in scientific articles, modern diets have been defined by a high consumption of meat, sugar, oils, and fats [ 1 , 3 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 31 ]. In contrast, traditional diets have been defined by a high intake of fiber and grains [ 3 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. However, comparing today’s eating in many Western societies to how it was 100 years ago, one finds that there are not only differences in what people eat but also in how they eat, for example, whether people eat at home or in other places [ 3 , 4 ]. This ‘how’-dimension of traditional eating has received considerably less research attention. Furthermore, a comprehensive compilation and systematization of these different facets has not yet been conducted and, thus, research in this area is impeded. This article aims to fill in this gap by comprehensively compiling and systematizing the different facets that are suggested to underlie traditional and modern eating. Moreover, we aim to present a comprehensive framework of traditional and modern eating across societies and cultures.

Method: conceptualizations of traditional and modern eating

A qualitative approach was chosen to meet the aims of the article. Specifically, facets were compiled from the previous literature and expert discussions. In an inclusive approach, everything that was mentioned to be part of traditional or modern eating was compiled as a facet. A single mention of a behavior as part of traditional or modern eating by one article or one expert was enough for it to be listed as a facet in the present work. The only specification was that the facets had to be broad enough to potentially apply to more than one country. Hence, single traditional dishes, like Schnitzel in Austria [ 26 ], were not included as facets.

First, we compiled facets of traditional and modern eating through an extensive literature review in 2017 and 2018. The literature review targeted articles that specified characteristics of traditional or modern eating. Something was extracted as a facet of traditional or modern eating if the article explicitly used words like ‘traditional’ or ‘modern’ in relation to the facet. Furthermore, if an article stated that there was a pronounced increase in the facet within the last century, this was extracted as a modern facet. For instance, Popkin & Gordon-Larsen [ 6 ] stated that “modern societies seem to be converging on a diet high in saturated fats, sugar, and refined foods …” (p. S2). Hence, we extracted the facets ‘high consumption of saturated fats, sugar, and refined foods’ to characterize modern eating. The facets were extracted from the articles and saved together with the referencing article. The literature review was performed by one reviewer (GS) in major databases (e.g., Web of Science, PsycINFO, Google Scholar). Several combinations of the terms traditional, modern, food, eating, and nutrition transition were used. Also, references of relevant articles were screened and scientific books were reviewed. No limits were established regarding the year of publication. However, only articles published in peer-reviewed academic journals or scientific books were included. Amongst these, any type of article or review was included. Hence, we did not limit the literature review to empirical findings showing that something is part of traditional or modern eating. Instead, when authors of a manuscript mentioned something as part of traditional or modern eating, that was sufficient to be included as a facet of traditional and modern eating. A further inclusion criterion was English, French, or German as the article’s language.

Second, to prevent bias due to most literature targeting Western countries [ 32 ], we included facets that resulted from discussions within our group, whose members combine expertise from ten different countries. Specifically, we included perspectives from the USA (PR, MR, NA), Mexico (MK), Brazil (MA), France (CF), Germany (GS, BR, HS), Ghana (CA), Turkey (GK), India (RB, UM), China (XH), and Japan (SI, IF). Criteria for approaching the members of our group were being an academic and native of one of these countries, and well informed about eating in their native countries. Besides that, some members of our group had already collaborated in other cross-cultural food-related projects in the past which prompted to approach them for the present study. Our international group with interdisciplinary research experience draws on expertise in the psychology, anthropology, and sociology of eating, as well as nutrition and epidemiology.

Criteria for the selection of countries were diversity in terms of cuisines, obesity prevalence, income, and geography. The cuisines of these countries are characterized by distinct flavor principles. Specifically, the Mexican flavor principle is marked by tomatoes, onions, and chili peppers; the Japanese by soy sauce, sugar, and rice wine vinegar; the German by sour cream, vinegar, dill, mustard, and black pepper; the French by butter, cream, wine, and boquet garni; the Chinese by soy sauce, rice wine, and ginger root; the Brazilian by chili peppers, dried shrimp, ginger root, and palm oil; the Indian by garam masala; the Ghanaian by tomatoes, onion, and chili peppers sautéed in palm oil; and the Turkish by hot and intense spices [ 33 , 34 ]. In addition, the US American cuisine constitutes a unique mixture of different ethnic groups [ 35 ]. Moreover, obesity prevalence in these countries differs and is displayed in Fig.  2 . Specifically, obesity prevalence ranged from 3.4% in India to 36% in the USA in 2014 [ 37 ]. Furthermore, six of the countries (India, Ghana, China, Brazil, Mexico, Turkey) are considered middle-income countries, whereas the remaining four countries are considered high-income countries (range in GDP/capita from $2016 in India to $62,641 in the USA [ 38 ]). In addition, the ten countries cover five different continents (North America, South America, Africa, Europe, and Asia) and different climates, namely the equatorial climate (Ghana, Brazil, Mexico, India), the arid climate (USA, Mexico, India, China), the warm temperature climate (Germany, France, USA, Mexico, Brazil, Turkey, India, China, Japan), the snow climate (USA, Turkey, China, Japan) and the polar climate (China [ 39 ]).

Discussions took place in formal meetings about what constitutes traditional and modern eating in the respective countries. Specifically, based on the literature review a first list of facets was put together and presented to nine of our group (below referred to as ‘experts’) in a first face-to-face meeting. GS facilitated this meeting asking the experts about any missing facet in this list. Based on the experts’ feedback, the first list was extended, resulting in a second list of facets. This list was subsequently sent to all experts via email for reviewing and adding any facet that was missing. If necessary, GS held an online face-to-face meeting with an expert to clarify specific points. The feedback from all experts was incorporated into the facets list, resulting in a third list. This third list was finally reviewed in a second face-to-face meeting with all experts resulting in a fourth and final list of facets. This final list includes a compilation of 106 facets of traditional and modern eating (see Table  1 ).

Third, an iterative process based on the constant comparative method of qualitative data analysis was used to implement a grounded theoretical approach [ 52 ]. Steps in the analytic process were (1) to classify a first set of the 106 facets into emergent categories, (2) to compare the remaining facets with these categories, and (3) to classify these facets into the existing categories and, if necessary, to revise these categories or to generate new ones. This process resulted in the classification of the 106 facets into 12 subdimensions, six of which were further subsumed under the dimension ‘what people eat’, and six of which were subsumed under the dimension ‘how people eat’ (see Fig.  1 ). As this research was part of a larger project, the Traditional Eating Project: 10 countries (TEP10; funded by the German Research Foundation, Grant SP 1610/2–1, granted to GS), the framework is called TEP10 framework.

The TEP10 framework of traditional and modern eating, displaying dimensions, subdimensions, and examples of facets of traditional (‘T’) and modern (‘M’) eating

Dimension ‘what people eat’

The first dimension represents what people eat and includes six subdimensions, namely Ingredients, Processing, Preparation, Temporal Origin, Spatial Origin, and Variety.

Ingredients (subdimension 1)

A major aspect that differentiates traditional and modern eating is food ingredients. Fourteen facets were subsumed in this subdimension. For instance, the literature review and authors’ discussions revealed that traditional diets are characterized by a high consumption of basic foods, Footnote 2 plant-based foods, grains [ 5 , 10 ], fruit [ 31 ], vegetables [ 3 , 31 ], and fiber [ 6 , 8 , 10 , 31 ]. In contrast, modern diets are characterized by a high consumption of both energy-dense foods [ 1 , 31 ] and diet drinks and foods. Moreover, modern eating includes a high consumption of refined foods [ 3 , 6 , 8 , 10 ], animal-source foods [ 3 , 6 , 8 ], sugar and caloric sweeteners [ 1 , 3 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 31 ], artificial sweeteners, oils and fats (especially trans fats and saturated fats [ 1 , 3 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 31 ]), and salt [ 1 , 3 ].

Processing (subdimension 2)

A second subdimension is the manner of production as well as the level of processing of foods. Nine facets were subsumed in this subdimension. Specifically, traditional diets are characterized by a high consumption of industrially unprocessed [ 9 , 40 ] and fresh foods whereas modern diets are characterized by a high consumption of industrially mass produced [ 29 ] and ultra-processed [ 1 , 8 , 9 ] foods. In their NOVA classification, Monteiro et al. [ 54 ] categorize foods into the four groups ‘Unprocessed or minimally processed foods’, ‘Processed culinary ingredients’, ‘Processed foods’, and ‘Ultra-processed foods’. Ultra-processed foods “are not modified foods but formulations made mostly or entirely from substances derived from foods and additives” (p. 9 [ 54 ]). Examples of ultra-processed foods are subsumed in this subdimension, such as a high consumption of convenience products [ 41 ], ultra-processed microwavable or frozen meals that were industrially produced, fast food [ 41 ], and soft drinks [ 31 ] (please see [ 55 ] for an example how foods are categorized in the four groups). Foods that are labeled as organic were also discussed as part of modern eating with the emphasis on the label being modern, not necessarily the way of production.

Preparation (subdimension 3)

This subdimension refers to both who prepares the food as well as where and how the food is prepared. Fourteen facets were subsumed in this subdimension. For instance, consumption of home-made food [ 41 ] that was prepared by women is considered part of traditional eating. Regarding how the food is prepared, traditional foods require a long preparation time as well as are prepared as one’s grandmother would have done [ 42 ]. In contrast, modern eating is defined by the use of time-saving food preparation equipment such as microwave ovens, rice cookers, and bread machines [ 41 ], and by a lot of different ways to cook and heat up foods (e.g., frying, boiling, steaming, grilling). Also, high consumption of fried and grilled foods can be considered modern [ 9 ] as well as a high consumption of ready-prepared food [ 41 ] or take-away/delivered meals [ 9 ].

Temporal origin (subdimension 4)

The fourth subdimension that we identified includes facets that refer to the length of time that a food has been part of the diet in any particular region. Seven facets were subsumed in this subdimension. For instance, foods that are typical for the region or foods present for a long time (e.g., before the Second World War, as suggested by Trichopoulou and colleagues [ 29 ]) are considered as traditional. Our discussions revealed that a high consumption of foods that were already known by people’s grandparents is another facet in this subdimension. Weichselbaum, Benelam, and Soares Costa [ 26 ] published a synthesis report listing such traditional foods across Europe. For instance, Wiener Schnitzel is considered a traditional food in Austria, Pumpernickel bread in Germany, Cured Greenland shark in Iceland, and Kebab with yogurt in Turkey [ 26 ].

Spatial origin (subdimension 5)

This subdimension has to do with where the consumed foods come from. Eight facets were subsumed in this subdimension. For instance, traditional eating is defined as a seasonally restricted and local food consumption [ 29 ]. In contrast, modern eating is characterized by consumption of foods that are imported from all over the world [ 3 , 29 ], and are therefore available for consumption throughout the year. Moreover, authors’ discussions revealed that, traditionally, foods were primarily bought at farmers’ markets or grown by oneself whereas in modern times, foods are mostly bought in supermarkets, in convenience stores, or from vending machines.

Variety (subdimension 6)

Within this subdimension, modern eating is characterized by a large choice of available foods. Five facets were subsumed in this subdimension. One example facet is a diverse and varied diet [ 5 ]. This variety may be especially pronounced regarding the availability of different flavors. Also, eating a variety of different types of fruits and vegetables was discussed to be part of modern eating (e.g., apples, bananas, grapes), being able to eat them year-round via imports from countries with different climate. Notwithstanding, diversity within one type of fruit or vegetable may be part of traditional eating (e.g., eating different kinds of local apples).

Dimension ‘how people eat’

The second dimension represents how people eat and includes the six subdimensions: Temporal Aspects, Spatial Aspects, Social Aspects, Meals, Appreciation, and Concerns.

Temporal aspects (subdimension 1)

The first subdimension that we identified includes duration of eating and when people eat. Nine facets were subsumed in this subdimension. Specifically, it was discussed that, traditionally, people take time Footnote 3 to eat. In addition, Fjellström [ 45 ] and Mestdag [ 46 ] stated that, traditionally, people eat main meals at regular and traditional mealtimes. Moreover, our group’s discussions revealed that, in many countries, it is traditional for all family members to eat together at the same time. Also, traditional dishes are often consumed on special occasions (e.g., Sundays, festivities). In contrast, modern eating has been discussed to be characterized by a shorter eating duration, by eating irregularly, and by skipping meals. Moreover, Zizza et al. [ 47 ] consider snacking between meals as part of modern eating.

Spatial aspects (subdimension 2)

This subdimension focusses on where people eat. Seven facets were subsumed in this subdimension. For instance, traditional eating is characterized by eating at home [ 3 , 8 , 41 ]. In contrast, eating in restaurants is modern [ 4 , 41 ], especially in buffet restaurants. Moreover, eating on the run is categorized as part of modern eating in the USA [ 41 ]. Also, eating food ‘to-go’ (i.e., take-away food) as well as eating while working was classified as modern.

Social aspects (subdimension 3)

A third subdimension is with whom people eat, and the extent to which social norms are present and followed. Twelve facets were subsumed in this subdimension. Specifically, eating together, especially with the family, is part of traditional eating [ 41 , 46 ]. Also, meals are traditionally central opportunities for conversations in many countries and are at the center of larger family events. In contrast, in modern times, people more often eat by themselves [ 48 ]. As another social aspect, Fischler [ 50 ] mentions that traditionally, eating is guided by social norms and highly constraining, homogeneous collective rules. As a result, everybody eats the same food within a meal at home. One of these rules, which is present in many countries, is that, traditionally, men get preferential treatment over women at mealtimes. For instance, men eat while women serve food in India, Ghana, and Mexico. In comparison, modern eating is more individualistic and egalitarian, and based on individual preferences rather than on social norms [ 50 ].

Meals (subdimension 4)

Another subdimension that we identified was the significance and content of meals, such that some meals consistently feature particular content, and some meals during the day are considered more important and substantial than others. Five facets were subsumed in this subdimension. For instance, which meal is considered the main meal of the day is a discriminant feature between traditional and modern eating. For example, traditionally, the main meal is lunch in Germany, whereas in modern times the main meal is dinner. Footnote 4 Regarding the content of meals, traditionally, Western main meals end with a sweet dessert. In contrast, drinking soft drinks during the main meal was considered to be modern, as well as consuming special foods for breakfast that differ largely from the foods eaten at other meals.

Appreciation (subdimension 5)

This subdimension targets the extent to which respect is shown for the food consumed, as well as for other people at the table. Seven facets were subsumed in this subdimension. Specifically, authors’ discussions revealed that traditional eating is characterized by the appreciation of food and adhering to table manners, that is to eat according to socially accepted conventions. In contrast, modern eating is marked by wasting food (e.g., throwing away the rest of a meal instead of eating it later), using plastic utensils, and not knowing where the food comes from or what is in it. Also, doing something else while eating is part of modern eating (e.g., watching screens [ 41 ]).

Concerns (subdimension 6)

The sixth subdimension deals with concerns about eating. Nine facets were subsumed in this subdimension. For instance, traditional eating is characterized by concerns about the availability of food, whereas, in modern times, concerns center on the quality of food [ 50 ]. Also, traditionally, people eat in an intuitive way, whereas modern eating is often marked by an analytical approach. Specifically, people pay attention to nutritional aspects and food labels. Scrinis [ 56 ] has labeled this focus on nutrients as ‘nutritionism’. In the light of the variety and abundance of the modern food environment, people are concerned both about what to eat [ 50 ] and about eating too much.

The TEP10 framework summarizes a comprehensive compilation and systematization of the different facets that are suggested to underlie traditional and modern eating. It shows that traditional and modern eating is characterized not only by what people eat, but also by how they eat. Twelve subdimensions and 106 facets were suggested to underlie traditional and modern eating. Therefore, the current study provides a broad overview of what constitutes the concept of traditional and modern eating.

Importantly, the present framework shows that traditional and modern eating is complex and multifaceted. It is not only defined by one facet, such as eating traditional dishes, but by the co-occurrence of multiple facets at the same time, such as eating traditional dishes on Sundays together with the family. This co-occurrence might be the critical factor in finding evidence for the relationship between traditional and modern eating and health. Specifically, certain facets might need to come together to have an effect on health outcomes. For instance, foods with traditional temporal origin, such as Wiener Schnitzel in Austria [ 26 ], might need to be eaten according to traditional temporal aspects, such as only at special occasions. Also, it is possible that a combination of some modern and some traditional facets has health effects. For instance, eating a wide variety of different types of fruits and vegetables (modern) as part of a family dinner at home (traditional) might have a health effect. The presented framework enables both the differentiated examination as well as the investigation of the joint impact and interplay of different facets on health outcomes.

The potential of a joint examination of multiple facets of traditional and modern is displayed in Fig. 2 . Specifically, for ten selected countries, the co-occurrence of ‘modern vs. traditional ingredient’ Footnote 5 consumption and obesity prevalence is displayed in Fig. 2 . The ‘modern vs. traditional ingredient consumption’ that is displayed on the left Y-Axis of Fig. 2 is calculated with data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [ 36 ]. Specifically, we computed the percentage of consumed energy that comes from ‘modern ingredients’ divided by the percentage of energy that comes from ‘traditional ingredients’. As a high consumption of cereals, vegetables, and fruits was reported to be part of traditional eating [ 3 , 10 , 31 ], these were regarded as ‘traditional ingredients’. Similarly, a high consumption of sugar/sweeteners, meat/offal, and vegetable oils/animal fats was reported to be part of modern eating [ 1 , 6 , 8 , 9 ]; therefore these were regarded as ‘modern ingredients’. With values higher than 1, people in the USA, Germany, and France derive more energy from ‘modern’ than from ‘traditional’ ingredients, whereas the opposite is true for Brazil, Mexico, Japan, Turkey, China, India, and Ghana with values below 1. As can be seen, across these ten countries, the co-occurrence of modern vs. traditional ingredients consumption is related to obesity prevalence ( r  = .68). It is, however, important to note that such a relationship with obesity prevalence might be absent or even reversed for other subdimensions or facets of traditional and modern eating.

Bars represent the quotient of percentage of energy derived through ‘modern vs. traditional ingredients’ with data from the FAO [ 36 ]. Points depict the prevalence of obesity in 2014 (i.e. BMI ≥ 30 kg/m 2 ) [ 37 ]. Note. Cereals, starchy roots, pulses, vegetables and fruits were considered to be ‘traditional ingredients’ whereas sugar/sweeteners, meat/offal, and vegetable oils/animal fats were considered to be ‘modern ingredients’

As for the relationship between traditional eating and health outcomes, the TEP10 framework shows that there are two further issues that need to be considered. First, this relationship needs to be investigated in relation to society, culture, and time. An example why this is important lies in ‘imported traditional’ foods which were considered to be part of modern eating in the adopting society or culture. However, these imported foods probably have similar nutritional qualities to those from traditional cuisines. Hence, given that the consumption of sushi can be considered traditional in Japan but modern in Germany, the ingested nutrients of a German ‘modern eater’ who eats a lot of sushi are comparable to a Japanese ‘traditional eater’ who does so. This demonstrates that general statements about the relationship between traditional eating and health are rarely tenable but need to be related to society, culture, and time.

Second, the TEP10 framework shows that a simple dichotomy between traditional and modern eating is an oversimplification, even within a certain time, society, or culture. Specifically, a person might score high on traditional eating regarding one facet or subdimension but high on modern eating regarding another facet or subdimension. For instance, an Italian who consumes a lot of frozen mass-produced pizza would score high on traditional eating with regard to the Temporal Origin subdimension, as pizza has been labeled traditional in Italy [ 57 ]. However, he or she would score high on modern eating with regard to the Processing subdimension as mass-production has been classified as modern [ 29 ]. This shows again that generic statements about the relationship between traditional eating and health outcomes are difficult to support. Rather, statements about the relationship between certain facets of traditional eating or their co-occurrence and health are possible.

The multidimensionality of traditional and modern eating also underlines its conceptual distinction from sustainable and healthy eating. Specifically, although low meat consumption, low food waste, and high consumption of local foods seems to be part of both sustainable (see Sustainable Development Goals [ 28 ]) and traditional eating [ 3 , 6 , 8 , 29 ], traditional eating was defined by many other facets. In a similar vein, a high intake of fruits, vegetables, unprocessed and fresh foods as well as a low intake of fat, sugar, and salt seems to be both part of traditional [ 1 , 3 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 31 , 40 ] and healthy eating [ 58 ]. However, traditional eating goes beyond the consumption of these foods and also includes how people eat.

As far as it concerns healthy eating, the TEP10 framework shows a new perspective on modern eating. Specifically, a frequently mentioned characteristic of modern eating is that there is a focus on nutrients (‘nutritionism’, [ 56 ]) and concerns about the healthiness of foods coexist with a high consumption of ‘modern’ ingredients that are considered to be unhealthy, such as sugar. Specifically, Rozin et al. [ 59 ] showed that US-Americans scored highest on concerns about the healthiness of foods as compared to Belgians, French, and Japanese. At the same time, US-Americans also score highest on the intake of ‘modern’ ingredients such as meat, sugar, oils, and fats, as compared to the other three countries [ 36 ]. This paradox appears to be a central characteristic of modern eating. Therefore, we included concerns in the framework of traditional and modern eating, although one could argue that concerns do not qualify as ‘eating’.

The TEP10 framework allows a comprehensive and in depth investigation of traditional and modern eating in future research. Next to the investigation of consequences (e.g., for health), it also enables examination of the drivers of the transition from traditional towards modern eating. For instance, motives for why people eat what they eat [ 60 , 61 , 62 ] or what meaning food has for individuals [ 63 ] might be factors underlying the different facets of traditional and modern eating. The TEP10 framework offers both to comprehensively investigate traditional and modern eating as well as to focus on single facets, while acknowledging the multidimensionality of the overall phenomenon. Furthermore, the TEP10 framework enables researchers to uncover similarities and differences in the concept of traditional and modern eating across the world. In the case of Japan, we have already investigated whether the presented multidimensionality of traditional and modern eating is valid [ 64 ]. Specifically, we asked 340 adults from Japan to rate the ‘traditionality’ of 46 facets. The results showed that, in accordance with the TEP10 framework, traditional and modern eating is also multidimensional in Japan. More precisely, both dimensions what and how people eat are part of traditional and modern eating in Japan as well as ten subdimensions of the TEP10 framework [ 64 ].

There are some limitations and avenues for future research that need to be addressed. The presented compilation of facets constitutes a first step and is certainly a developing process with additional facets to be potentially included in the future, for example from countries that were not represented in this manuscript. Also, future research needs to add quantitative evidence whether the facets are part of traditional and modern eating; for instance, by surveying people about the ‘traditionality’ or ‘modernity’ of facets.

The TEP10 framework is a step towards a comprehensive understanding of the concept of traditional and modern eating. Specifically, traditional and modern eating is not only characterized by what people eat but also by how they eat, a dimension that has been neglected in past research. The present article sheds new light on the overall phenomenon of traditional and modern eating, underlining its multidimensionality. Also, it shows that reducing traditional and modern eating to single dimensions, subdimensions, or facets constitutes an oversimplification of the overall phenomenon. Future research might benefit from considering the multidimensionality and interplay of multiple facets of traditional and modern eating. This might provide new insights into the transition from traditional towards modern eating, its consequences and underlying factors, moving forward research on this timely and important topic.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Please note that with the term “high consumption” we refer to the overall intake across multiple eating occasions. Most often, this might mean a frequent consumption of the respective food but might also mean a high consumed amount in a single eating occasion in some cases.

Please note that the term ‘basic foods’ relates to a definition provided by The Department of Health of the Australian Government [ 53 ]: Basic foods provide the nutrients essential for life and growth. These foods are also known as ‘everyday foods’.

Please note that ‘taking time to eat’ and other terms within this manuscript are subjective and subject to interpretation.

Please note that this largely varies by country. For instance, in the USA the main meal is traditionally dinner.

Please note that the expression ‘modern vs. traditional ingredients’ is used for simplification. However, while some ingredients and foods are objectively modern (they did not exist in the past), what is specifically modern in many cases is not the food itself but how much and how often it is consumed.

Abbreviations

Body Mass Index

Group discussion

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Traditional

Traditional Eating Project: 10 countries

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr. Xuan Gao, Tianjiao Yu, Anne Kaufmann and Desiree Katzenberger for their valuable support.

This work was supported by the German Research Foundation within the project “Why people eat in a traditional or modern way: A cross-country study” (Grant SP 1610/2–1, granted to GS) and by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant (Grant Number JP16KT0097, granted to SI and IF). Additional funding came from the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Germany (BMBF; Project SmartAct; Grant 01EL1420A, granted to BR & HS). The funding sources had no involvement in study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; or in the decision to submit the article for publication.

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GS, MR, NA, CA, MA, RB, IF, XH, SI, GK, MK, UM, CF, PR, HS, and BR have made substantial contributions to the conception of this work. GS performed the literature review and drafted the framework with substantial contributions from MR, NA, CA, MA, RB, IF, XH, SI, GK, MK, UM, CF, PR, HS, and BR. GS drafted the paper. MR, NA, CA, MA, RB, IF, XH, SI, GK, MK, UM, CF, PR, HS, and BR provided critical revisions. GS, MR, NA, CA, MA, RB, IF, XH, SI, GK, MK, UM, CF, PR, HS, and BR gave their final approval of the version to be published and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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The Importance Of Traditional And Ethnic Food

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The Ark of Taste Project strives to preserve natural and endangered foods.

Is your diet nutritional and sustainable? The importance of traditional and ethnic food should never be underestimated, meaning that customers should always think twice about what they buy whenever they go to a shop. To find out more about traditional and ethnic food, read on.

What Are Traditional And Ethnic Foods?

Outsiders can define ethnic food as cuisines coming from the culture and heritage of particular ethnic groups. For example – Mexican food is only considered an ethnic cuisine by people outside of Mexico.

Traditional foods are dishes passed down from generation to generation, having been consumed for a long time throughout history. These foods are traditional, frequently having a historical precedent in a local, regional, or national cuisine.

By preserving endangered and exotic foods, markets may attract more attention from consumers wanting to explore new cuisines or just those wanting to find nutrient-rich sources.

The Significance Of This Type Of Food

Ethnic cuisines reflect a specific region’s diverse traditions, ethnicities, and food cultures. Documenting this type of cuisine can aid our understanding of how food is linked to dietary environments, local production systems, traditions, cultures, food and nutrition security, societal bonding, and the economy.

Ethnic food is crucial in meeting nutritional requirements, as well as being important in boosting immunity. Furthermore, ethnic food and local food systems are essential because they bind identities and cultures, influencing environments and economies.

Present Times

These types of food are healthy, nutritional foods which hold an anchor for further demand. Therefore, there is a considerable scope for the manufacturing sector to strive forward in creating new equipment and enhancing the manufacturing speed of these goods. The global blending of ethnic and traditional foods has triggered many combinatorial foods, adding a fresh dimension and bringing forth new challenges to regulators and ingredient manufacturers.

Functional ingredients of ethnic and traditional foods thus holistically improve human health. After all, adopting a nutritional diet can improve the quality of life and lead to a healthy aging population since nutrients work to strengthen body cells and combat disease.

Presently, the integration of bioinformatics and biotechnology aids the maintenance of massive databases on these food types, allowing us to understand them from the perspective of molecular gastronomy. Thus incorporating science in an approach to hygiene and safety, we can better understand the importance of ethnic and traditional foods.

The Ark of Taste Project

This international catalog targets endangered heritage foods, maintained by the global slow food initiative. The Ark operates to preserve these at-risk foods, which are sustainable, original in taste, and part of a unique ecoregion.

This project strives to maintain cuisines to promote the growth and eating of sustainable foods, preserving biodiversity in the human food chain.

Foods within the list are historically or culturally linked to a particular locality, ethnicity, region, or traditional production practice. A committee composed of the slow food organization decides which foods meet the criteria to earn their place on the list, with tastings and identifications of producers all being part of this rigorous process.

Founded in 1996, the Ark has welcomed over 5000 products from 130 countries on the list, being celebrated and growing every day. The list includes prepared foods, many fruit and vegetable cultivars, and livestock breeds. Furthermore, this handy catalog contains a resource list for individuals wanting to grow or purchase specific foods.

Key Takeaways

• Incorporating a conventional and ethnic diet into your life can help you understand other cultures and gain the nutrients you need to live a happier and healthier life. The critical nature of food should never be ignored when considering your quality of life.
• Businesses could benefit from celebrating and embracing traditional and ethnic cuisines. By preserving endangered and exotic foods, markets may attract more attention from consumers wanting to explore new cuisines or just those wanting to find nutrient-rich sources.
• It’s integral to note that ethnic and traditional foods have and will continue to change the world for the better. By providing high sources of nutrients, knowledge of cultures, and an ever-increasing demand in markets, these dishes are more than food – they are excellent sources of health, history, and happiness.

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Traditional Foods: The Inheritance for Good Health

• First Online: 03 June 2020

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The term “traditional food” refers to the foods which have been eaten for centuries and have been passed through many generations. Such foods are believed to be in their original form without any interference of modern technology, processing, or packaging. They are whole, nutrient dense, simple, basic, and thoughtfully prepared. They are an expression of culture, history, and lifestyle. Moreover, they have a long background of supporting good health. In the present scenario, changing food patterns and lifestyle has led to a prominent drift toward processed food and junk food due to the convenience and preference, but it has deleterious effect on health due to its consumption for a prolonged period. This significant transition is believed to be responsible for the chronic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases. The treasured knowledge of traditional food can play a significant role in improving and restoring the well-being and health of the people. Emphasis must be laid on creating awareness about the importance of traditional foods of one’s own culture and society to combat the modern-day health issues arising because of irrational eating habits. To bridge the gap between ancient times and the present day, efforts need to be done in the direction of adapting the inheritance to today’s modern society requirements through existing scientific knowledge and experimentation. As the health conscious and health problems both are raising among consumers, the food sector should recognize potential market and profits in traditional foods for the benefit of all.

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Vandana, Verma, C., Sabharwal, P.K. (2020). Traditional Foods: The Inheritance for Good Health. In: Thakur, M., Modi, V. (eds) Emerging Technologies in Food Science. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2556-8_11

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Embracing tradition: the vital role of traditional foods in achieving nutrition security.

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Share and Cite

Ghosh, S.; Meyer-Rochow, V.B.; Jung, C. Embracing Tradition: The Vital Role of Traditional Foods in Achieving Nutrition Security. Foods 2023 , 12 , 4220. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12234220

Ghosh S, Meyer-Rochow VB, Jung C. Embracing Tradition: The Vital Role of Traditional Foods in Achieving Nutrition Security. Foods . 2023; 12(23):4220. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12234220

Ghosh, Sampat, Victor Benno Meyer-Rochow, and Chuleui Jung. 2023. "Embracing Tradition: The Vital Role of Traditional Foods in Achieving Nutrition Security" Foods 12, no. 23: 4220. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12234220

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 07 January 2021

Promoting traditional foods for human and environmental health: lessons from agroecology and Indigenous communities in Ecuador

• Ana Deaconu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4313-890X 1 , 2 ,
• Geneviève Mercille 1 , 2 &
• Malek Batal 1 , 2  

BMC Nutrition volume  7 , Article number:  1 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The displacement of traditional dietary practices is associated with negative nutritional consequences for rural Indigenous people, who already face the brunt of both nutritional inadequacies and excesses. Traditional food (TF) consumption and production practices can improve nutritional security by mitigating disruptive dietary transitions, providing nutrients and improving agricultural resilience. Meanwhile, traditional agricultural practices regenerate biodiversity to support healthy ecosystems. In Ecuador, Indigenous people have inserted TF agricultural and dietary practices as central elements of the country’s agroecological farming movement. This study assesses factors that may promote TF practices in rural populations and explores the role of agroecology in strengthening such factors.

Mixed methods include a cross-sectional comparative survey of dietary, food acquisition, production and socioeconomic characteristics of agroecological farmers ( n  = 61) and neighboring reference farmers ( n  = 30) in Ecuador’s Imbabura province. Instruments include 24-h dietary recall and a food frequency questionnaire of indicator traditional foods. We triangulate results using eight focus group discussions with farmers’ associations.

Compared to their neighbors, agroecological farmers produce and consume more TFs, and particularly underutilized TFs. Farm production diversity, reliance on non-market foods and agroecology participation act on a pathway in which TF production diversity predicts higher TF consumption diversity and ultimately TF consumption frequency. Age, income, market distance and education are not consistently associated with TF practices. Focus group discussions corroborate survey results and also identify affective (e.g. emotional) and commercial relationships in agroecological spaces as likely drivers of stronger TF practices.

Conclusions

Traditional food practices in the Ecuadorian highlands are not relics of old, poor and isolated populations but rather an established part of life for diverse rural people. However, many TFs are underutilized. Sustainable agriculture initiatives may improve TF practices by integrating TFs into production diversity increases and into consumption of own production. Agroecology may be particularly effective because it is a self-expanding global movement that not only promotes the agricultural practices that are associated with TF production, but also appears to intensify affective sentiments toward TFs and inserts TFs in commercial spaces. Understanding how to promote TFs is necessary in order to scale up their potential to strengthen nutritional health.

Peer Review reports

Globally, populations are hastily replacing their traditional food Footnote 1 practices with diets marked by excesses in sugar, sodium, fat, and calories, and this pattern is accelerating among the world’s rural poor [ 2 ]. In the face of this nutrition transition [ 3 ], Indigenous people in Ecuador aspire to preserve their traditional food practices, which they perceive as being healthier, more resilient and more culturally meaningful than non-traditional foods [ 4 ]. However, biodiversity loss, dietary transitions and shifting agricultural strategies threaten their access to these products [ 4 ]. In localities around the world, traditional practices around food have been observed to be associated with balanced diets and dietary health [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ], cultural integrity [ 5 , 9 ], and resilient agricultural ecosystems, especially in the face of climate change [ 10 , 11 ]. Such practices include the production of traditional crops and crop varieties; traditional agricultural techniques, including intercropping and high agricultural biodiversity; hunting, fishing and wild harvest of traditional foods; and, consumption of traditional foods on their own or as parts of dietary patterns [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Yet the homogenizing march of globalization has made it be that traditional foods have in many cases become synonymous with “neglected” and “underutilized” crops, the former referring to crops ignored by the scientific community, and the latter referring to those that have largely fallen out of cultural and economic use [ 7 , 12 ].

The decline of traditional food (TF) practices has garnered attention for its impacts on nutritional health. For Indigenous people in multiple contexts, the displacement of TFs is associated variously with underweight, stunting, micronutrient deficiencies, overweight, diet-related chronic diseases and the intergenerational effects of malnutrition, especially when coupled with poverty [ 5 , 8 , 13 , 14 ]. Researchers observe a disproportionately large prevalence of simultaneous nutrient inadequacies and excesses, dubbed the double burden of malnutrition, among Indigenous people in Canada, Brazil and Guatemala [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. This trend is also clear among Ecuador’s Indigenous people, who have the nation’s highest prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies and are also experiencing increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity [ 19 ]. Further, declines in TF production practices may lead to ecological degradation that not only sets off a feedback cycle of further decline in TF practices, but can also trap farmers in poverty [ 20 ] and perpetuate food insecurity [ 21 ]. In light of such evidence, supporting diverse TF practices is emerging as an international prerogative [ 5 , 7 , 14 ].

Identifying the factors that may actively promote TF practices begins with understanding how TFs are obtained, and who is producing or consuming them. Some TFs are available for local consumption through conventional market purchase [ 22 ]. For the many TFs that markets neglect, own production, wild harvest and hunting, and the social economy (local trade, including direct purchase, barter and gifting) are primary forms of access, and the people that continue to obtain food from these subsistence practices are better positioned to consume TFs [ 5 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]. Following suit, the most widely recognized stewards of TF practices are Indigenous people [ 4 , 5 , 26 ], older generations [ 4 , 25 , 26 , 27 ], and the rural poor [ 26 , 28 ]. Similarly, living in remote areas is associated with stronger TF practices, and especially wild harvest, due to reduced opportunities for market integration or marginal ecological conditions that necessitate better-adapted crops [ 26 , 28 , 29 ]. High inter- and intraspecies diversity is also integral to most traditional agricultural strategies [ 1 , 30 ]. These correlates help to understand where and among whom we might expect to observe TF practices, but they do not necessarily offer reasonable courses of action. For example, it makes no sense to suggest that people be isolated, old and poor in the name of supporting TF practices.

In the Ecuadorian context, a possible proactive driver of TF practices is the growing movement toward agroecological farming. Agroecology applies ecosystem science to agriculture and uses biodiversity, symbiotic relationships, biological controls, and a healthy soil microbiome to support productive and environmentally regenerative farming [ 30 , 31 , 32 ]. A growing number of marginalized, resource-poor and Indigenous farmers in Ecuador and around the world have adopted agroecology because of its compatibility with traditional agricultural systems [ 30 , 33 , 34 ].

While agroecology in Ecuador emerged largely out of a need for more environmentally sustainable agricultural practices [ 30 ] and as a means to prevent pesticide poisoning [ 35 , 36 ], the Indigenous resistance movement further saw agroecology as an opportunity to maintain cultural sovereignty in a number of spheres, including agriculture and food [ 33 , 36 ]. While agroecology in Ecuador eventually spread to include farmers of non-Indigenous identity, today’s “agroecological” identity is largely entangled with Indigenous traditions and objectives. Because agroecological farming has much in common with traditional farming strategies, the distinguishing characteristic of agroecological farmers is typically their membership in an association that participates in an alternative food network such as a farmers’ market [ 33 , 37 ]. The agroecology movement’s close connections with Indigenous identity and its embrace of TF practices make it a unique space of inquiry for measurable impacts on TFs. Agroecology’s potential to promote TFs is particularly relevant given its ongoing expansion as the predominant framework for connection among food-oriented social movements and peasant farmer organizations across the world [ 30 , 34 ].

In this study, we aim to understand the factors that are associated with and may serve to promote TF agricultural and dietary practices among farmers in the Ecuadorian highlands. We assess the diversity of production and consumption of several indicator traditional foods, as well as their frequency of consumption. Further, we assess consumption of wild harvested foods. Finally, we explore the relationship between agroecology and TF practices by comparing TF practices among farmers that do and do not participate in the agroecology movement.

Study site and population

This study was conducted in the Imbabura province of Ecuador’s highland region, where people live and farm in areas ranging from around 500 to 3500 m above sea level. The rapidly-changing ecosystems associated with this drastic topography are favorable for diversified production across climatic niches, but also lead to soil erosion and infrastructure challenges on steep slopes [ 38 ]. As such, the steepest, most remote, and otherwise most marginal lands are home to the highest poverty rates, with some rural communities in the province reaching 99.8% prevalence of poverty by basic needs [ 39 ]. Farmers in these communities are predominantly smallholders, with many managing less than 1 ha of land. Imbabura is nationally distinguished as a cultural hub for Kichwa Indigenous people, and 25.8% of the population identifies as Indigenous [ 40 ]. Of Imbabura’s Indigenous people, 86.6% live in rural areas [ 41 ], where they utilize agriculture for both own-consumption and sale, as well as partake in other livelihood strategies.

The study population exclusively comprises female smallholder farmers, as women are primarily responsible for food preparation, and it includes women from all six of Imbabura’s cantonal districts. Farmers were selected from two categories: (i) agroecological farmers: farmers who participate in agroecological market associations and are selected at random from a list of association participants, which was generated with local partners prior to recruitment; and, (ii) reference farmers: farmers who are randomly-selected neighbors of agroecological farmers and do not participate in agroecological market associations. One reference farmer was sampled for every second agroecological farmer. The sample size is larger for agroecological farmers to address additional study objectives that are beyond the scope of this article. Interventions promoting agroecology in the region primarily targeted marginalized, Indigenous communities [ 36 ], meaning that both the agroecological farmers and their reference neighbors in the present study tend to be from such communities. Farmers from the study population are semi-commercial, meaning that they produce food for own consumption but also aim to generate a surplus for sale. Footnote 2

Study instruments

We employed a three-phase exploratory and sequential mixed methods approach [ 43 ], summarized in Fig.  1 . The first phase employed ethnography and key informant interviews [ 36 ]. This informed the design of the second phase, which was a cross-sectional survey conducted in Imbabura province from July 2017–October 2017 with 91 female farmers (61 agroecological and 30 reference farmers). The survey included a food frequency questionnaire on the consumption and acquisition of indicator TF products, with specific modules on wild food consumption, production diversity of edible foods and livestock, and sociodemographic characteristics. Further, it included a quantitative, multi-pass 24-h dietary recall [ 44 ] that gathered information on the source of each food item. The survey was developed to accommodate multiple study objectives and included additional modules that are not addressed here. The survey materials used in this study are provided in Additional file  1 . Surveys were conducted in farmers’ homes in Spanish. For farmers who spoke only the local Indigenous language, Kichwa, a family member was recruited to translate. Finally, the third phase deployed eight focus group discussions to triangulate results, as further detailed in the section “results triangulation.”

Overview of study phases, instruments, variables and analyses

Traditional food practice variables

We follow the consumption and production of products that are socio-culturally and bio-culturally considered to be traditional in our study context [ 1 ] in order to explore TF practices. Specifically, we assess: (i) TF consumption diversity, (ii) TF consumption frequency, (iii) TF production diversity, and (iv) wild food consumption diversity.

TF consumption diversity and TF consumption frequency are measured from the survey’s food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The FFQ contains 12 indicator foods Footnote 3 selected following consultation with local experts to include both TF products that are commonly consumed and easily accessible in markets (Andean lupine, melloco , quinoa, sweet potato, zanahoria blanca ) as well as those that are locally recognized as underutilized (amaranth, yacón, oca , mashua , amaranth leaf, quinoa leaf). We also include chulpi , which is an increasingly underutilized maize cultivar [ 45 ]. The selected indicators were chosen to also represent the multiple climatic niches in Imbabura province. The sum of indicator TFs consumed produces the TF consumption diversity variable, with a maximum value of 12. Because many of the indicator TFs are only available during specific seasons, we used the frequency of consumption over the reported period of availability (in months) to calculate the annual frequency of each TF. We then summed frequencies of all TFs to obtain the aggregate annual frequency of TF consumption, or TF consumption frequency.

TF production diversity is a count of the different indicator TFs produced on the farm in the past year, with a maximum of 11 products. This is fewer than the maximum for TF consumption diversity because quinoa seed and quinoa leaf are both from the same plant; however, because amaranth seed and amaranth leaf are obtained from distinct varieties, these are maintained separate.

We calculate wild food consumption diversity based on the wild foods that farmers report consuming in an open recall with no specific timeframe. We only consider caloric wild edibles, meaning we ignore plants used exclusively as herbs or teas. For a subset of farmers ( n  = 22), we also queried for the moment of most recent consumption for each product consumed.

Sources of TFs and general dietary acquisition patterns

To understand how participants obtain each TF, the FFQ also queried for the most common source of acquisition. Similarly, to understand food acquisition practices more generally, we use the item source data from 24-h recalls to calculate the caloric share of the diet (as a percentage of total calories) that comes from distinct food sources. For both TF acquisition and overall dietary acquisition, reported sources were grouped into three categories: harvest (own-production or wild harvest); social economy (barter, gifting, or direct purchase from other farmers); and, conventional market purchase (wet markets, supermarkets, grocers, corner-stores, other).

Sociodemographic and agricultural variables

We assess age, income, time to market, on-farm production diversity and food acquisition practices as potential correlates of TF practices. Age, monthly income (USD), time to market and education completed are participants’ self-reported values. Household size is used to calculate monthly income per capita. We calculate farm production diversity as a list-based species richness count of caloric edible products (excluding spices and herbs) as well as livestock.

Statistical analysis

We performed bivariate analyses to compare agroecological farmers and their reference neighbors. We use Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlations (for parametric and non-parametric variables, respectively) to explore relationships between TF production diversity, TF consumption diversity, TF consumption frequency, and wild food consumption diversity, as well as their relationships with other potential correlates. Farming category is input as a dummy variable (reference = 0, agroecological = 1) and the ordinal variable on education completed is treated as continuous (none = 0, partial primary = 1, complete primary = 2, partial secondary = 3, complete secondary = 4, post-secondary = 5). Because this study explores human dietary and production behavior, we defer to behavioral statistics to characterize effect size, with R-values near or above 0.5 (R 2  = 0.25) considered as a large effect size and R-values near or above 0.3 (R 2  = 0.09) considered a medium effect size [ 46 ]. We then input the strongest correlates into a path analysis to better understand predictors of TF practices. We did not include wild food consumption diversity in path analysis because we did not identify likely correlates for inclusion in the model. Given our sample size, we assessed goodness of fit using the standardized root mean squared residual, with values below 0.08 considered adequate, as well as the root mean squared error of approximation, with values below 0.06 considered adequate [ 47 ]. As often occurs in behavioral research, one of our path analysis dependent variables, TF consumption frequency, is not normally distributed. Although path analysis is intended to function with normally-distributed variables, parameter estimates generally remain valid even with non-normal data; however, non-normal data may produce biased standard errors [ 48 ]. Further, 24-h recall data was missing for one farmer, producing an agroecological sample size of 60 for some variables. All analysis was conducted using SAS software, version 9.4.

Results triangulation and qualitative elaboration

We implemented focus group discussions (FGDs) [ 43 ] to assess whether farmers’ perceptions converged with quantitative results and to explore how farmers explain the drivers behind the results. Further, these served to return study results to local communities. In March and April 2019, we conducted eight FGDs with 128 total participants. Participants were from the eight agroecological associations whose members had participated in the quantitative study. FGDs were carried out in Spanish, or in Spanish with Kichwa translation by the association leader on an as-needed basis. Farmers voted on “what type of farmer consumes more traditional foods,” with possible answer choices of: agroecological, reference, or both consume equally/uncertain. They were then asked to explain their decision. Then, survey results regarding TF practices were revealed and compared to results from the voting activity. Farmers were asked if they agreed with the findings, and time was allotted for open discussion. Voting activity answers were tabulated, and notes on all other discussion were taken by hand. FGDs were not conducted with reference farmers because reference farmers are not necessarily aware of agroecology and do not self-identify as counterfactuals to agroecological farmers, making it inappropriate to elicit comparisons between the two groups.

Traditional food practices among agroecological and reference farmers

Table  1 describes the sample and compares agroecological and reference farmers on study variables. Agroecological farmers have greater TF production diversity, TF consumption diversity and TF consumption frequency than their reference neighbors. The two groups perform equally on wild food consumption diversity. We detected compelling differences in production diversity and food acquisition practices, but not in sociodemographic characteristics.

Supplemental Table 1 (Additional File  2 ) shows the consumption prevalence, frequency and most common acquisition source for each TF for the pooled population and by farmer group. Agroecological farmers were much more likely to consume underutilized TFs (amaranth, yacón, oca, mashua, amaranth leaf, quinoa leaf) than reference famers, and consumed even the most common TFs (quinoa seed, lupine) at a greater frequency. Among both groups, indicator TFs are most commonly acquired from harvest and most rarely from market purchase. Underutilized TFs are never or very rarely purchased from markets. However, agroecological farmers are more likely than their counterparts to obtain TFs from harvest, and reference farmers are more likely than their counterparts to obtain TFs by means of market purchase. Reliance on social economy for TFs is similar between the two groups

All farmers consume at least one wild food, and on average, they consume between 7 and 8. Wild foods and their consumption prevalence are shown in Supplemental Table 2 (Additional File 2 ). In the sub-sample of most recent wild food consumption, 32, 23, 27, and 14% did so in the past day, week, month and year, respectively, with only 5% having not consumed a wild food in the past year.

Correlates and pathways toward traditional food practices

Correlations among TF practices and with other variables are summarized in Table  2 . The strongest correlations appear among the four TF practices themselves, as well as with farm production diversity and farmer category. We identified no correlations between TF practices and market distance and only weak, inconsistent relationships with age, income or education. Farmers that obtain a higher share of their food by conventional market purchase tend to have weaker TF practices, whereas those that obtain a higher share of their food from non-market sources (harvest and social economy) tend to have stronger TF practices.

Figure  2 shows the significant pathways resulting from path analysis, and Table  3 details all path non-standardized and standardized estimates. The modeled pathway shows that higher TF production diversity predicts higher TF consumption diversity, which in turn predicts higher TF consumption frequency. Model estimates suggests that it would take four additional products in TF production diversity to gain an increase of one product to TF consumption diversity. In turn, each additional product in TF consumption diversity predicts 26 additional instances of consumption to the annual TF consumption frequency. Total on-farm production diversity acts on this pathway through TF production diversity, wherein an additional 16 products on the farm predict one additional indicator TF in production. Agroecology participation acts on the pathway through both TF production diversity and TF consumption diversity, contributing an increase of about one product to both TF production and consumption. The share of foods obtained from non-market sources is associated with TF consumption frequency, although the association is not as strong.

Pathways to traditional food (TF) practices. Standardized estimates for direct effects on traditional food production and consumption are represented with arrows. Dotted lines, dashed lines and solid lines indicate significance levels at 10, 5 and 1% respectively

While correlation and path analyses show a relationship between production and consumption of TFs in general, we find that the extent of this relationship varies from one indicator TF to another (Supplemental Table 3 [Additional File 2 ]). With the exceptions of quinoa and Andean lupine, farmers that produce a given indicator TF are more likely to consume it and to consume it more often.

Table  4 shows that across all focus group discussions (FGDs), participants perceived that agroecological farmers consume more TFs than their reference farming neighbors. FGD participants also perceived survey findings to be accurate.

Asked to explain why agroecological farmers consume a greater diversity of TF products and with more frequency, all eight FGDs spontaneously produced answers similar to “because we produce more traditional products.” Farmers in six FGDs explained that they produce more TFs in response to consumer demand in the agroecological market. One farmer and market president elaborated:

“With the Que Rico Es [civil society responsible consumption] campaign, one objective is to reposition traditional products. In the [agroecological] markets, the consumer began to understand and request these products, and the farmers also began to assimilate them in their diets. Traditional products are nothing new for the most conscious consumers, and these are the consumers that come to our market.”

Similarly, some participants credited NGOs and Indigenous federations for their positive influence on TF practices for both farmers and clients involved in agroecological markets. FGD participants identified the role of the agroecological market in strengthening the cultural value that they place on TFs and informing their understanding of TF medicinal or health properties. Many farmers expressed that agroecology strengthened their interest in reclaiming Indigenous identity, and they saw utilizing TFs as a means of doing so. One farmer was met with resounding agreement when she stated, “Since being in the [agroecological] market, we value traditional foods more. Before, we were not like this.”

In further discussion on the importance of TFs, several farmers told stories about how reclaiming TFs allowed them to re-discover the foods of their childhood, and they reminisced on the diverse shapes, colors and flavors of lost varieties. Similarly, one farmer expressed that planting TFs is a means of respecting and reconnecting with his ancestors who developed these products through generations of seed selection. Others saw TFs as a strategic part of agroecological farming, given their pest resistance, low water needs, and adaptability to marginal lands.

Other farmers found TFs to be an important means of supporting nutritional health. Some sustained that TFs contain more vitamins and minerals than “modern” foods, which they saw as the vectors of overweight and disease. Women in particular saw TF preparation as necessary “for the health of the children,” despite requiring more effort to prepare. Discussions tended to emphasize the importance of TFs for children and younger generations, and make reference to healthy growth.

The state of traditional foods in rural Imbabura diets

Traditional foods remain a part of daily life for farmers in our study population, but there is no bar to gauge how much traditional food consumption is “enough” to curb TF displacement and mitigate the nutrition transition toward foods that contribute to a double burden of over- and undernutrition. Most farmers consume at least half of the indicator TFs assessed, and they consume them often: agroecological farmers report consuming indicator TFs 260 times a year, and reference farmers do so 144 times a year. All farmers continue to practice wild harvest to some extent, and most do so on a weekly basis. TF consumption appears more alive in this farming population than in other spaces in the country; for example, a recent representative study in three Ecuadorian highland cities found that only 19% of participants consumed either quinoa, amaranth or Andean lupine more than three times per month [ 49 ]. The comparable figures in our study population would be 60% of reference farmers and 85% of agroecological farmers. Even the indicator TFs that we selected because they are locally recognized as underutilized (amaranth, yacón, oca, mashua, quinoa leaf, amaranth leaf) are all still present to some extent in our study population’s diets. Some of these products are receiving attention for their potential to support dietary health. For example, amaranth seed is recognized for its protein and lipid profiles [ 50 ], and amaranth and quinoa leaves are green leafy vegetables with high concentrations of nutrients that are of special concern in the Ecuadorian rural population, notably vitamin A, iron, calcium, zinc and vitamin C [ 19 , 50 , 51 ]. Even though some of these products are only marginally alive in the diets of reference farmers (i.e., with median consumption of only once yearly), they point to opportunities to strengthen the use of endogenous foods to support nutritional health.

Opportunities for traditional food promotion

Our analysis suggests that TF consumption is associated with TF production. This is no surprise in light of the expanding literature on the pathways between production and consumption, and namely production diversity and dietary diversity [ 52 ]. Indeed, we find that farmers that grow a given TF are not only more likely to consume it, but they also consume it more frequently. Some underutilized TFs are exclusively obtained from own harvest. For other TFs, farmers who do not produce them obtain them from farmers who do, relying on social economy transactions such as barter or direct purchase. That these underutilized products are never purchased at markets is likely a consequence of their reduced availability [ 53 ], and signals the importance of the social economy in filling supply gaps.

The diversity of TF products grown on the farm is associated with higher overall farm production diversity of edible products. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that increasing agrobiodiversity alone would guarantee an increase in TF production diversity. Instead, the association we detected may reflect adherence to more traditional cropping systems, which depend on relatively high agrobiodiversity [ 1 ], or it may be a reflection of the diversity supported by the ecological niche. While there may not be a direct causal relationship between overall farm production diversity and TF production diversity, the two may be mutually reinforced as farmers and organizations aim to increase farm production diversity for ecological, productive and nutritional reasons [ 32 ]. Doing so by targeting TF production diversity may be particularly relevant for nutrition-sensitive agriculture initiatives, given that TFs are shown to simultaneously contribute to agricultural resilience, food access [ 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 ] and to dietary intake of key macronutrients, micronutrients and phytochemicals [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ], and they further play a protective role against chronic diseases [ 6 , 8 , 59 ].

We further find that farmers whose diets rely less on conventional markets and more on own harvest or the social economy maintain stronger TF practices. Other scholars similarly discuss the importance of non-market subsistence practices such as own production and local trade in conserving traditional crops [ 5 , 23 ]. In contrast to other studies [ 4 , 26 , 28 , 29 ], market distance, income and age did not emerge as strongly or consistently associated with TF practices among our study population. This means that in this context, TF practices are not merely a relic of the most isolated, impoverished and aging—or in short, marginalized—people, as public opinion has long perceived them to be [ 7 ]. In the development literature, practices that are the purview of the most marginalized people, and especially of subsistence-oriented farmers, tend to be discussed as “coping” or “adaptive” strategies driven by reactive necessity rather than proactive agency [ 62 ]. In contrast, the fact that we detected an association with reliance on non-market food sources but did not detect a strong association with marginalization implies that TF practices in our study population are not merely a reaction to adverse conditions. Possibly, farmers may be participating in a globalized cultural shift toward re-valorization of TFs, as has been described in Europe [ 63 ]. Doing so, some may even perceive TF practices as active agents in strengthening cultural identity and food sovereignty [ 36 ].

Agroecology as an incubator for traditional food promotion

Agroecological farmers unambiguously perform better than their reference neighbors on three of the four TF practices assessed. They produce twice as much TF diversity, consume 40% more TF diversity and consume TFs 80% more often compared to their reference counterparts. In our path analysis, participation in agroecology was directly associated with both TF production diversity and TF consumption diversity, leading to a downstream association with TF consumption frequency. While we did not measure changes over time, agroecological farmers emphatically identify their participation in agroecological markets as the drivers of increased TF production and consumption, pointing to agroecology as a means to strengthen TF practices. Moreover, the strongest differences in consumption of specific TFs appear precisely in those that are locally recognized as underutilized. Agroecology may thus be key for reclaiming at-risk TFs in this region and re-inserting them into healthy dietary patterns.

Part of the reason why agroecological farmers in our population perform so much better on TF practices may be because agroecology explicitly promotes farm production diversity and reliance on non-market food sources [ 34 , 36 ], which are correlates of TF practices. Yet even when these are held constant, agroecology participation still shows an association, suggesting that other forces are at play. Focus group discussions help clarify these unknowns, identifying two additional potential drivers that may motivate agroecological farmers to increase their TF practices.

First, the social environment of the agroecological market association may drive farmers to produce and consume TFs for their nutritional properties, taste, agricultural resilience, cultural value and even aesthetics. While such convictions around TFs are also found among other farmers in Northern Ecuador [ 64 ], the social encounters in agroecological spaces appear to further concentrate these convictions by inserting TF practices into social norms that strengthen a shared cultural identity. Further, they seem to embed TF consumption into the moral impetus of feeding healthy food to the family. The importance of these socially-driven elements in guiding TF practices is consistent with dietary behavior models that find food decisions to be informed by “affective” components, including feelings and emotions, moral obligations, and social norms and pressures [ 65 ].

Second, focus group discussions also identified the specialized consumer demand for TFs in agroecological markets as a potential driver of TF practices among farmers. Other studies on TFs similarly find that consumer demand-driven value chains influence TF production [ 66 , 67 ]. However, discussion participants further sustained that when they grow TFs for sale, they also increase their own consumption. These flows of influence are probably bidirectional, given that agroecological farmers’ associations played an important role in the emergence of a nation-wide campaign to form “responsible” consumers that seek out traditional Andean crops as well as nutritious, socially just and ecologically sustainable food [ 68 , 69 ]. As such, there appears to be a feedback loop between agroecological market farmers and clients in forming affective spaces [ 36 ] that support traditional foods.

Wild harvest

Wild harvest appears to be a common practice among our study population, even though most of the harvested foods are consumed in small amounts as condiments or snacks. As far as we can tell, wild food consumption diversity among our study population is not associated with age, income, distance to markets, food acquisition strategies or agroecology participation. This relative democratization is compelling given that wild foods can be remarkably nutritious, but also remarkably neglected and underutilized [ 7 , 70 , 71 ]. This combination often relegates wild foods to coping strategies for the poorest of the poor and erroneously dismisses them as “famine foods” [ 7 , 70 ]. While we were unable to detect plausible pathways promoting wild food consumption, we find that people who consume a greater diversity of TFs in general also consume a greater diversity of wild harvested products, potentially signaling similar drivers for these two dietary outcomes. While our findings suggest that wild foods have not been prioritized by the local agroecology movement, its unique affective and commercial spaces may hold the enabling conditions to effectively promote wild foods.

Internal and external validity of findings

We believe a word of caution is warranted regarding our data on TF consumption frequency, given the cognitive recall difficulties that beleaguer FFQs [ 72 ] as well as the added complexity of seasonality [ 73 ]. Footnote 4 However, farmers participating in focus group discussions corroborated the detected pathways between TF production and consumption. This triangulation between qualitative and quantitative methods gives us more confidence in our findings, despite the relatively small sample assessed in the survey. Nevertheless, we only conducted FGDs with agroecological farmers and we are uncertain of the subjective biases at play. FGDs were also key for identifying farmers’ perceptions of causality between agroecology and TF practices. Moreover, path analysis has the advantage that it can identify likely chains of influence, even with cross-sectional data [ 74 ]. While neither the subjective experiences of farmers nor the results of path analysis are sufficient to definitively establish causality, the triangulation of the two strengthens the internal validity of our results. Nevertheless, our study is limited to a single region, and we recognize that many contextual factors could affect external validity. Not only is agroecology a term that embraces many local expressions [ 30 ], but other factors that are subject to broad variation include the cultural presence of TFs, ecological context, food acquisition patterns, gender norms around food and many more. Rather than providing a proscriptive formula for strengthening TF practices, it is our hope that we shed light on how these possible paths can play out, recognizing that they will likely be different in other localities.

In the Ecuadorian highlands, traditional foods (TF) remain a routine part of rural life to a certain extent, but for some TF products, production and consumption decline is a compelling concern. Meanwhile, the nutrition transition away from traditional diets and toward calorie-dense, micronutrient-poor foods marches forward, undermining Indigenous health [ 2 , 75 ]. Aiming to understand how TF practices may be strengthened, we found evidence supporting a pathway between the production of TFs and their consumption. Key starting points on this pathway appear to be higher farm production diversity of edible products and a stronger reliance on non-market food sources, namely foods from own harvest and from the social economy. Just as interesting as the correlates of TF practices are the non-correlates. Older age, lower income, less education, and greater market distance do not generally predict TF practices in this context. This is cause for optimism, in that it suggests that TF practices are not an exclusive relic of marginalized populations, but rather a dynamic part of the food habits of relatively diverse farming populations.

Agroecological farmers in our study site drastically out-perform their neighbors on TF practices. This may be because agroecology promotes farm production diversity and reliance on non-market foods [ 34 , 36 ], thus enabling the pathway we identified for TF promotion. However, agroecology also appears to support TF practices in other ways. First, the social spaces surrounding agroecological associations intensify affective (e.g. emotional) relationships with TFs by emphasizing their cultural, health and sensory qualities. Moreover, agroecological markets place farmers in specialized value chains where there is consumer demand for TFs. Importantly, these factors are likely to be locally specific and cannot be copy-pasted to other contexts. Nevertheless, the diversity of ways in which agroecology interacts with TF practices provides hope that it may enhance the role of TFs in the diet without separate investments of capital. It may further be strategic because it is already a rapidly growing global movement [ 30 ] with emphatic buy-in among Indigenous people and the rural poor [ 33 , 34 , 36 ], who disproportionately face a double burden of nutrient deficiencies and excesses [ 2 , 5 , 21 ]. Given the growing body of evidence that links traditional diets to the mitigation of the nutrition transition, stronger food security and healthier nutritional status [ 5 , 6 , 12 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ], we hope the pathway we identified serves to inform effective strategies for TF promotion.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

We follow Johns and colleagues in using “traditional” as a qualifier for products and practices that are defined both socio-culturally and bio-culturally following a period of historical continuity [ 1 ].

Pingali and Rosegrant offer a useful discussion on semi-commercial farming [ 42 ].

Latin names for indicator foods are as follows: Quinoa: Chenopodium quinoa ; Andean lupine: Lupinus mutabilis ; Melloco: Ollucus tuberosus ; Mashua: Tropaeolum tuberosum ; Oca: Oxalis tuberosa ; Zanahoria blanca: Arracacia xanthorrhiza ; Yacón: Smallanthus sonchifolius ; Chulpi: Zea mays amylosaccharata ; Sweet potato: ipomea batata ; Amaranth: amaranthus spp. Yacón is known locally as jicama, but we use the regional term yacón in order to avoid confusion with Pachyrhizus erosus.

Farmers in our study population would often report that they ate a given product “every day while it’s available”, which, for a product that is available for two months, would lead to an unrealistic estimated frequency of 60 during that time period. While we believe this inflation would be equally distributed across both agroecological and reference farmers, we do not have a reliable means of correction in order to obtain a more accurate TF consumption frequency.

Abbreviations

Focus group discussion

Traditional food

Food frequency questionnaire

Standard error

Root mean square residual

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Acknowledgements

We are greatly indebted to the leaders of agroecological associations who shared their knowledge and opened the doors to their communities, and to the farmers of Imbabura province who patiently and thoughtfully answered our questions. We deeply thank EkoRural Foundation and the Ekomer research team, without whom this research would not have been possible. We further thank Leonardo Velasco for his diligent assistance in data collection, as well as Eduar Pinzón and Michelle O. Fried for their input. We are grateful for the generous support of the organizations that funded our research and results dissemination activities.

Data collection, analysis and manuscript writing was carried out by the Ekomer Research Consortium, with the aid of a grant from the International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of IDRC or its Board of Governors [Grant number CR-48490;]. The project further received publication support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research [Grant number 406536] and from IDRC [Grant number 109101–001] as part of the Global Alliance for Chronic Diseases. AD received general support from the Fonds de Recherche du Québec en Santé [Grant number 262314] and from the Université de Montréal Faculty of Medicine, as well as support for results dissemination from the Quebec Population Health Research Network. MB is supported by the Canada Research Chair program.

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• Stephen Sherwood
• , Myriam Paredes
• , Peter Berti
• , Pablo López
• , Donald Cole
• , Fabian Muñoz
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• , Ross Borja
• , Marcelo Aizaga
• , Eliana Estrella
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AD, MB and Ekomer conceived the study objectives; All authors contributed to protocol design and analytical framework; AD collected, cleaned, and analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript; MB, GM and Ekomer provided substantive revisions to the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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AD, GM and MB are affiliated with the Transnut WHO Collaborating Centre on Nutrition Changes and Development at Université de Montréal, Faculty of Medicine, Nutrition Department, as well as with the Centre de Recherche en Santé Publique (CReSP). Ekomer is an Ecuadorian-Canadian research consortium that studies food and food environments in Ecuador. At the time of this study, the following people were part of Ekomer: Stephen Sherwood (Wageningen University and Fundación EkoRural), Myriam Paredes (Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales, Ecuador), Peter Berti (Healthbridge Foundation of Canada), Pablo López (Pontífica Universidad Católica del Ecuador), Donald Cole (University of Toronto), Fabian Muñoz (Visor Análisis Estadístico Cía. Ltd.a.), Pedro Oyarzún (Fundación EkoRural), Ross Borja (Fundación EkoRural), Marcelo Aizaga (Minga por la Pachamama), Eliana Estrella (Minga por la Pachamama), Gabriel April-Lalonde (Université de Montréal), as well as MB and AD.

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The study protocol was approved by the Health Research Ethical Committee of the University of Montreal, certificate number 17–053-CERES-P, and from the Institutional Review Board of the Universidad San Francisco de Quito in Ecuador, certificate number 2016-118E. As approved by the ethics committees and documented in survey data collection, all participants gave informed verbal consent. This form of consent was chosen given low literacy rates among the study population and cultural discomfort with signing documents.

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Deaconu, A., Ekomer., Mercille, G. et al. Promoting traditional foods for human and environmental health: lessons from agroecology and Indigenous communities in Ecuador. BMC Nutr 7 , 1 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40795-020-00395-y

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Is The Indian Diet Healthy? Power Of Traditional Indian Food And Its Many Health Benefits

Indian food benefits: indian food is popular for its diversity. health coach luke coutinho elaborates on the many health benefits of indian food and how to cook it in a healthy manner..

Indian food comprises the variety of food which is needed for good health

• Indian food supports immunity and brain function
• A variety of cooking oils are available in India
• Indian pickles and chutney have many health benefits

Indian food is most popular for its diversity. The variety of foods, spices and dishes that are native to India makes Indian food one of the most wholesome foods in the world. But lately, Indian food has begun to be categorised as unhealthy because it is being linked to high sugar and high carb food which can contribute to high cholesterol. Traditional Indian food, however, is not only healthy, but is also incredibly tasty with a lot of health benefits. Indian food supports immunity, inflammation , brain function and several other functions in the human body. In order to elaborate on Indian diet and its health benefits, health coach Luke Coutinho recently went live on Facebook.

Read below to know why the benefits of Indian food how it went from being healthy to unhealthy

The human body requires variety in food

A variety of foods and nutrients is needed for trillions of cells in the human body. Indian cuisine includes a variety of spices, where every spice has many health benefits. Including a variety of spices and vegetables in your diet is important for living healthy . Eat local and seasonal vegetables and fruits at the right time for good health and strong immunity.

Also read:  A South Indian Meal Is All You Need For Better Health: Says Health Coach Luke, Know The Details

Indian food has a lot of grains

Bajra, nachni, jowar along with different rice grains are grown in abundance in India. It is disappointing that in the age of low-carb diets, consumption of rice is denied for weight loss. Luke highlights the fact that even diabetics can eat hand-pounded rice. There are also a variety of pulses in Indian food. Combinations like dal rice and rajma rice have been popular in Indian since ages. These combinations are perfect protein meals with all the essential amino acids.

Traditional Indian food is wholesome, tasty and healthy Photo Credit: iStock

Indian thalis

In the traditional Indian thali, each bowl in the thali has a small size. It includes 2-3 varities of dal, sabzi, some rice or roti or both. The thali also includes a small amount of sweet dish. This thali makes for a complete meal, including all essential nutrients in the right proportion. But thalis served in restaurants today have much larger portion size . It is probably because of the western culture of supersizing that the portion size in traditional Indian thalis has increased here.

Also read:  Rujuta Diwekar Clarifies All Doubts About Eating Rice

Indian oils

A variety of cooking oils are available in India. From mustard oil and peanut oil to coconut oil and groundnut oil, many healthy varieties of cooking oil are present in India. But the way they were processed in earlier times was much healthier than they are processed today.

Traditional Indian food comprises a variety of spices Photo Credit: iStock

Indian salt

Black salt, pink salt and rock salt were native to India. But we slowly moved to the more refined version of salt, which is probably the reason why Indian food became unhealthier too. So, it is probably the ingredients which changed Indian food.

The magic of Indian curry

The Indian curry, if cooked with the right ingredients and proper amounts of oil, is good for immunity. It can help in reducing inflammation - which is the root cause of diseases like diabetes , high blood pressure and heart diseases. Prepared with curry leaves, tomato, onion, black pepper, garlic, turmeric and various other spices, the Indian curry has many health benefits.

The traditional Indian curry can help in reducing inflammation Photo Credit: iStock

Also read:  Why We Urge You To Eat Only Seasonal Foods: Health Benefits And Tips

We came under the influence that wheat causes inflammation. However, it is totally dependent how the wheat is processed. Unprocessed, hand-ground wheat does not give bloating or digestive issues. Avoid consumption of bread as they are prepared with harmful chemicals which can wreak havoc with your gut health.

Pickles and chutneys

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Pickels, when made with the right quality of salt (rock salt) and oil, it is one of the best probiotic foods that you can have. Made with ground leafy greens and seeds, the traditional Indian chutney is very nutritious.

The idea here is to tell that Indian food has always been nourishing, wholesome and healthy. Cook your food with natural and traditional ingredients and there is probably no food as healthy as Indian food! 

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Band 4+: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of traditional food and fast food. Which type of food do you prefer and why?

There are two forms of food, traditional food and fast food, in restaurants. In my opinion, I am in favor of traditional food. Since traditional food are more healthy than fast food.

Regarding the aspect of advantages, traditional food is more healthy than fast food. Unlike the last generation, there were not have much as fast food. Hence this generation is not as healthy as the priority people. According to a report from National Taiwan University, there are about 50% people in the world has obesity problem that is cause by fast food. Therefore if people want to live longer and more healthy, they have to eat less fast food.

In these few years, fast food are produced more variety than in the past. As the people want to save their time when they are running in the time. Nowadays fast food is become more popularity, but the fast food are not good for us. For instance, there are more about 50% person died by cancer caused by eating too much fast food. Although fast food are more convenience but are not good for our health. So if we want to have a nice health, we have to reject to eat more fast food.

In conclusion, based on the aforementioned, traditional food are a necessary exist for our live.

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Generate a band-9 sample with your idea, overall band score, task response, coherence & cohesion, lexical resource, grammatical range & accuracy, other topics:, many parents today organise extra classes for their children after school and at the weekends. do you feel that this is a worthwhile thing to do or do you feel children have enough education at school.

Nowadays, most parents organize additional classes for their children at the weekends and after school. Personally, I think that it is one of the most worthwhile things that parents can do because extra classes help children to reinforce their knowledge, and teach them some essential skills that some classes may lack. Additional classes will help […]

History is the main medium civilizations use to record events and learn from past experences, and studing it helps people understand their culture and heritage. However, some people feel like it is less important than other subjects like physics and math because it deals with things that happend in the past, but I believe it is just as important if not more.

History is the main medium civilizations use to record events and learn from past experences, and studing it helps people understand their culture and heritage. However, some people feel like it is less important than other subjects like physics and math because it deals with things that happend in the past, but I believe it […]

Some people think that poverty is the reason behind most crimes. To what extent do you agree or disagree? Write at least 250 words

In the modern world, despite advancements in technology and the brilliance of people ensuring safety, crime remains a persistent issue. Poverty is often cited as a significant factor contributing to criminal activities, and I partially agree with this view. On the one hand, poverty can compel individuals to resort to illegal activities. Nowadays, there is […]

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In conclusion, human being have the chocie between a high income and jobs which suitable for them . Grandted, almost everyone want to have more money to satisfy personal needs, but each person will have different ways to make money based on their conditions

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Many children these days have an unhealthy lifestyle.Both schools and parents are responsible for solving this problem. To what extent do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge or experience.

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Plans & Pricing

Benefits Of Traditional Food Products

While the country scores high marks from the World Bank Doing Business Report in enforcing contracts, it ranks poorly in providing attractive conditions to start a business and protecting investors. When talking about functional food products it is noticed that they are much less common in China than in Western Europe and North America and the Chinese organic market is still in its infancy. However, although still timid, organic and functional foods are starting to be present in supermarkets and other caterings in China. Growing increasingly distrustful of local food sources, many people are turning to organics and/or imported food items, which are perceived to be safer. Lesser trends have also developed, including urban farming and dining out less frequently due to recent food scares. Despite there being opportunity in China, we still don’t recommend Eurochoice to enter the Chinese market at the moment for a few reasons. First of all, there is already a huge variety of different goods on the market. Secondly, local people prefer traditional medicine to the healthy import foods, and in the end, Chinese economy is unstable right now, and it is risky for an unknown company to launch a new product for a specific segment of consumers. But if the company is ready to take a risk, we have a few recommendations for launching and branding nutrition products in China. First of all, as our research shows, if it is necessary, the company might be prepared to alter the products

Benefits of Organic Food

Organic food, once only found in health food stores, is now a consistent element at local supermarkets. So what is the difference between a conventionally grown apple and an organic one? The answer is in the way the crop is grown and what it is and is not exposed to.

Why Organic Farming Is America 's Leading Source Of Food Production Essay

The food industry allows consumers to choose from a wide variety of products. However, most food corporations fail to tell the story behind their food. Is this secrecy due to their methods in creating their products? Conventional farming is America’s leading source of food production. Yet, the controversial practices used in conventional farming, may lead American’s to question if this is the only farming source that can feed our nation. Since 1972, organic farming has been creeping up the success ladder and demonstrating the methods involved can withstand the food demands of our nation. With the rising popularity of organic farming, U.S. citizens now have the option to purchase wholesome food. Consumers curious about purchasing organic goods should be aware of the notable differences between organic and conventional practices. The significant differences between organic and conventional farming include; animal welfare, health, and environmental. With the given information, consumers will be able to make informed decisions about their food purchases.

Inca Food Benefits

Potatoes are an essential part of any person’s diet in today's society, they are cost efficient and can be used and stretched in many different ways to ensure consumers get the most 'bang for their buck.' Potatoes are an easily obtainable product now but it originated high in the Andes Mountains of South America. The Andes are ideal for potatoes because they flourish and grow in a cool environment with elevations exceeding 12,000 feet. The Inca of Peru were the first to cultivate the potato around 4,500 years ago; they often worshiped them and even buried them with their dead.

Whole Foods Market

Owning to the large customer market of organic food, the demand of it also increases in recent years. On the

Shapin's Essay What Are We Buying When You Buy Organic?

It is becoming a universally known fact that organic foods is the key to beginning a

The organic foods industry is one that shows consistent growth. From year to year, they are undergoing an increase in demand. There are a number of factors that contribute to the industry’s growth. These factors include more consumers being educated, and conscious of health concerns of processed foods having a negative impact on their body and the environment. Trends in the retailing of organic foods would include the ups and downs in the

World's Diet Can End World Hunger

Residents have started to lose faith in their government and start their own means of getting safe, organic food. Ms. Liu, the highlighted individual in this article, has created a delivery service that transports only organic food. After a large scandal in 2008 that left six infants dead and 300,000 hospitalized, many people have sought out other means to get safe food. The government of China is initiating a new law has been put in place to “...ban highly toxic pesticides, regulate food labelling and, importantly, increase punishments for those who violate China's existing laws”. Residents in China are still worried that even with the new law, nothing will change; the executive director of Justice For All commented “we welcome this new law, but I am not optimistic it will be enforced”. Unfortunately, even with the new law, little change has been seen by the chinese

Why We Are Better Than Conventional Foods

I believe that organic foods cost more than conventional foods for many reasons. The number one reason that I have run into on many websites explained that the cost is higher because organic foods are much healthier. Organic foods do not add any hazardous products that could later be harmful to the human body, but conventional foods add those products. Another reason organic foods are more expensive would be because the farmers are limited to options. For example, as we all know farmers are very careful and need to keep pests, weeds and diseases away from the food. Normal farmers are allowed to use synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, but not organic farmers. Organic farmers are usually stuck with the more expensive ways to get rid of those pests, weeds and diseases. Organic farmers also explain that the process also takes much longer when compared to conventional food process. Organic famers also do not make much of a profit because they make less money than conventional farmers. This is another reason organic foods are more expensive. Organic farmers make the prices higher because they are trying to make a slight profit as well. There are many reasons organic

The Obesity Epidemic Is A Problem Underlying The World 's Population

Many ‘food products’ today are mass-produced by large multinational corporations who prioritize efficiency, profits and

Whole Foods Pricing Strategy

Nowadays, people are more concern about the healthy lifestyles as well as the environmental sustainability. “If people believe that the food is healthier and they are doing something good for themselves, they are willing to invest a bit more, particularly as they get older” – as Hollie Shaw said. It can be seen that the market for organic and natural foods is a potential market: Organic foods and beverages were available in nearly every food category in 2014 and were available in over 90 percent of U.S. retail food stores (is used to be 75% in 2008). Food labeled “organic” accounted for about $35 billion across North America in

The demographic, economic and the socio-cultural segments would be the most relevant segments to Whole Foods Market. These segments have a direct impact on the profitability, sustainability and survivability of Whole Foods Market, and the organic food industry. The relevance of the demographic segment stems from the fact that the age structure, income distribution and population size are important factors which will influence the demand for organic products. The economic segment is relevant, as an affluent population will continue to drive and sustain demand for organic products. The socio-cultural segment is another relevant segment, where attitudes about quality of life,

Who Will Feed China?

2). However, they differ from Brown’s (1995, 1996) arguments in that they contend that it is food safety that we should be concerned about, as opposed to food supply (pg. 5). They also highlight the fact that China’s per person production of cereals has heightened to the global average, due to breeding programs and hybrid forms of food being produced (pg. 3). This proves that supply is not necessarily the issue, but rather technology, policy reforms and environmental protection could be the solution to China’s food

Banana From Mexico Research Paper

The international food system replicate humanities’ rule uncodified which determine who eats and how our earth fares. Many of our citizen community involved in shaping the farm bills resulting in rules encouraging organic production. Even small changes in the rules can generate a huge possibilities and can flows which create law requiring at least 30% of school meals to consist of food from local family farms. Government has given a right to human community’s initial guarantees to one another and in 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights gave access to food that prominence. Food movement’s is important because its create power that can shift our wisdom of self from passive, disconnected consumers in a enthralled market to actively connect to co-producers in societies we create. Food movement’s power is connected itself with deep human needs for connection and power and fairness. Local produce and global trade helps us build relationship and profits. Many companies franchise all around the country to help one another to bring healthy food to our local market or local stores which can help consumers buy health organic foods whether its fruits or vegetables. Reducing food miles can create unwanted and

Executive Summary : The Australian Supermarket Industry

These factors represent the culture of the society in which the organization operates with in. Change in social values towards healthy livings has adjusted purchasing behaviour and now people are more focusing towards organic produce. For this reason organic domestic retail sales have increased by more than 50% in the last two years from 623 million to 947 million (Keith, 2012). Availability and distribution of this healthy food have increase rapidly. Woolworths, Coles and Aldi all over Australia stock a range of private label goods.

Organic Food and Beverage

U.S. sales of organic foods and beverages have grown from $1 billion in 1990 to $24.8 billion in 2009. Sales in 2009 represented 5.1% growth over 2008 sales (Industry Statistics and Projected Growth, 2010). These trends are having a significant impact on the food market industry as a whole, and in particular the organic foods markets. Provide a discussion of the trends in the organic foods industry and how these trends will impact the organizations that sell organic foods. Examine the competitive environment that organic foods can create for an organization and apply Porter's model, providing an analysis of each factor relative to the industry. Identify the opportunities and potential threats to the organic foods industry by completing a

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• Overseas Chinese

• Review article
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• Published: 04 December 2020

Indigenous and traditional foods of Sri Lanka

• Sachithra Mihiranie 1 ,
• Jagath K. Jayasinghe 1 ,
• Chamila V. L. Jayasinghe 2 &
• Janitha P. D. Wanasundara   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7491-8867 3  

Journal of Ethnic Foods volume  7 , Article number:  42 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Indigenous and traditional foods of Sri Lanka inherit a long history and unique traditions continued from several thousands of years. Sri Lankan food tradition is strongly inter-wound with the nutritional, health-related, and therapeutic reasoning of the food ingredients and the methods of preparation. The diverse culinary traditions and preparations reflect multipurpose objectives combining in-depth knowledge of flora and fauna in relation to human well-being and therapeutic health benefits. Trans-generational knowledge dissemination related to indigenous and traditional food is now limited due to changing lifestyles, dwindling number of knowledge holders, and shrinking floral and faunal resources. Awareness on the relationship between non-communicable diseases and the diet has garnered the focus on traditional ingredients and foods by the consumers and major food producers in Sri Lanka. This review presents concise details on the indigenous and traditional foods of Sri Lanka, with scientific analysis when possible.

Introduction

Indigenous and traditional foods of Sri Lanka present a perfect blend of cultural diversity with human wisdom that has been evolved through generations in establishing a cultural heritage and an identity. In the Sri Lankan culture, food is treated with the highest gratitude, respect, and generosity, expressed by sharing and offering to fellow humans, animals as well as the divine powers. Sri Lankans love to share foods with neighbors, family, and friends; house visits are always accompanied with bundles of food items. Some foods and the preparation know-how are specialties of the locality. Trans-generational knowledge transmission of food and food ingredients is inter-woven with regular maintenance of healthy life, cultural legacy, and religious concepts of the ethnicities of the land and have been the key to sustain a traditional food culture in Sri Lanka; evidence are found in written literal work and archeological sources as well as folklore.

Archeological findings, ancient travelers’ records, and early world maps are living evidence for the significance of this island in geo-politics and sea trade since ancient times. Elements of Afro-Arabic, Central Asian, European, South-east Asian, and Oriental food cultures that followed with the trade activities, royal marriages, and invasions have been customized to align with the habits, the culture, and the palate of island inhabitants while keeping the indigenous and traditional food culture in a nutshell. A significant geographic differentiation can be seen in traditional foods aligning with the eco- and biodiversity of the island. Indigenous and Ayurveda medicine holds a strong base and provides recommendations with clear and defined identity on the ingredients, preparation methods, and consumption in order to maintain a healthy life while preventing and treating major diseases and minor ailments. Traditionally, the primary knowledge holders are the community elders (both male and female) and indigenous medical practitioners who are well versed about the local flora and fauna, their medicinal values, and the ingredients and preparations.

The present review describes the essentials of indigenous and traditional foods of Sri Lanka, for the first time, providing a perspective analysis in science, technology, and nutrition of food and preparations when possible. Ancient texts and books written on Sri Lanka by various authors and other published media and discussions with different individuals holding traditional knowledge were consulted in generating this condensed review.

Geographical and climatic perspective

Geo-positioning and climate of the country are highly relevant to the available food sources and existence of various food traditions. Sri Lanka is a tropical island positioned between 5° 55' and 9° 51' North latitudes and 79° 42' and 81° 53' East longitudes in the south of the Indian peninsula. The island and area of 65,610 km 2 bears distinguishable elevation (Fig. 1 a; central highlands, plains, and the coastal belt), rainfall (Fig. 1 b; wet, intermediate, and dry zones), and vegetation (Fig. 1 c; closed rainforest, more open intermediate tropical forest, and open grassland) zones [ 1 ]. The terrain of the island is mostly low, flat to rolling plains with mountains in the South-central area. The island coastline is 1,340 km long and inland water bodies cover 2,905 km 2 . Several offshore islands account for 342 km 2 area. The island receives monsoonal, convectional, and depressional rains annually, with < 900 mm in the driest areas (North-western and South-eastern regions) to > 5000 mm in the wettest areas (Western slopes and Central highlands). Mean annual temperature (MAT) varies between 26.5 °C and 28.5 °C, with the altitudes > 1800 m marking MAT of 15.9 °C, and the coldest temperatures in January and the warmest temperatures in April and August [ 2 ]. Of the total land area, ~ 19% is arable, and agriculture accounts for ~ 44% of the workforce and 12% of the GDP [ 3 ].

Maps of Sri Lanka showing a Elevation map based on Digital Elevation Model, b Precipitation map showing Wet Zone, Intermediate Zone, and Dry Zone, and c Vegetation map ([ 1 ], with permission). Black circles in the maps indicate archeological and paleo-environmental sites of the island covered in the studies of reference [ 1 ]. Sri Lanka, formerly known as Ceylon is an island in the Indian Ocean, South-east of Indian subcontinent. Island terrain is primarily low, flat to rolling plain with mountains in the South-central interior. Island’s climate is tropical monsoon. The mountains and the South-western part of the country (wet zone) receive annual average rainfall of 2500 mm and the South-east, East and Northern parts of the country (dry zone) receive between 1200 and 1900 mm of rain annually. The arid North-west and South-east coasts receive the least amount of rain, 600 to 1200 mm per year. There is strong evidence of prehistoric settlements in Sri Lanka that goes back to ~ 125,000 BP

Crucial positioning in the middle of the Indian Ocean and to the extreme south of the Indian Peninsula together with the protective natural harbors and, floral and faunal richness have been the key elements that attracted many global travelers, explorers, and trading nations to this island. Ancient maps and manuscripts account the importance of harbor towns and cities of the island. The map by Claudius Ptolemy (second century CE) was the first to provide absolute co-ordinates of specific locations of the island. Many names referred by various nations identify this island: Taprobane (Greek), Serendib (Persian, Arabic), Simhaladvipah (Sanskrit), Ceilão (Portuguese), Ceylon (English), Thambapanni (Mahavamsa) and since 1972 the country declared Sri Lanka (Sinhala) or Ilankei (Tamil).

Food consumption patterns of pre- and proto-historic humans of Sri Lanka

The pre-historic man of Sri Lanka is known as the Balangoda Man ( Homo sapiens balangodensis ) belonging to the Pleistocene/Holocene epoch boundary in the geo-chronological scale [ 4 ], in which the Mesolithic period of archeological timescale coincides. The oldest human fossil evidence in South Asia (~ 45,000 to 38,000 calibrated years before present) were found in the rock shelters and caves scattered in all ecoregions of the island (Fig. 1 a, b, and c) [ 1 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. The archeo-zoological and archeo-botanical evidence along with the microlithic and osseous tools and other artifacts found in these rock shelters indicate that the nutritional needs of these early human inhabitants have been supported by a number of sources [ 1 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. These include a variety of small and large animals and plant sources found above and below ground, and in the aquatic environments. Material evidence dating back to 2700 BCE support the involvement of pre-historic inhabitants in plant material processing, plant domestication, and pottery manufacturing, and the transition from forager, hunter-gatherer to agricultural, a more sedentary lifestyle [ 1 , 5 , 8 , 9 ].

Foods of indigenous people

The Veddā (a.k.a. Aadi Vaasin , Wanniyala-eththo ) is a group of people with indigenous ancestry, ~ 10,000 in number now, and confined to inland isolated pockets extending from the Eastern and North-eastern slopes of the hill country and the Eastern and North-central parts of the country [ 10 ]. They inherit an ancient culture that values the interdependency of social, economic, environmental, and spiritual systems. The Great Genealogy/Dynasty or Mahāvaṃsa , an ancient non-canonical text written in the fifth century CE on the Kings of Sri Lanka (the first version covers from 543 BCE to 304 CE) records Veddā ’s origin dating back to the fifth to the sixth century BCE. Recent studies show that Veddā is genetically distinct from other populations in Sri Lanka [ 11 , 12 , 13 ] and most likely descends from early Homo sapiens who roamed the island. Hunting has been the mainstay of this group and skills still remain, using bow and arrows to hunt forest animals [ 14 ] and aquatic fish species that satisfy the animal protein supply. The hunter-gatherer lifestyle that Veddā subsisted on has now partly been replaced; they engage in crop cultivation to supplement grains and vegetables for food.

Traditionally, the Veddā group prepares meat and fish by direct roasting over wood fire, covering with hot ashes or smoking, and drying on a wooden rack [ 15 , 16 ]. Excess hunt is sun-dried or smoked to preserve for rainy seasons. Harvesting honey of various forest insects is a regular task and a group activity. Honey is for direct consumption and for meat preservation [ 17 ]. A sausage-like product, “ Perume ,” is an energy- and nutrient-dense preserved form of meat. Alternative layers of meat and fat consist this product with variations depending on the animal type (deer, venison) and parts (monitor lizard tail stuffed with fat from the sides of the animal, or clotted blood). Boneless game meat, roasted rice ( Oryza sativa ) flour, green chili ( Capsicum annuum ), cumin ( Cuminum cyminum ), coriander ( Coriandrum sativum ), and leaves of Asamodagam ( Trachyspermum roxburghianum) are formed into balls, batter coated with rice flour and deep fried in Bassia longifolia seed oil to make “ Mas guli ” or “ Kurakkal .” Present-day Veddā ’s food reflects the use of condiments, spices, herbs, salt, and lime juice similar to making curries. Changing laws in the country that ensures conservation and sustainability of wildlife has limited the hunting lifestyle and the food sources of Veddā group.

Tubers and yams of forest origin mainly Dioscorea species ( D. spicata , D. pentaphylla , and D. oppositifolia ) and less often Aracea plants (e.g., Arisaema leschenaultii ) roasted over direct fire is a carbohydrate source of the Veddā’s diet. Cultivated cereals such as rice, finger millet ( Eleusine coracana ), and maize ( Zea mays ) made into flour is for unleavened flatbread ( Roti ) or thick boiled flour paste ( Thalapa ) that accompany cooked smoked meat with gravy ( Ānama ) [ 18 , 19 ]. When available, cereal flours are supplemented with cycad ( Cycas circinalis) seed flour (sliced, dried, and ground) or Bassia longifolia flowers (dried and ground) for Roti and Thalapa . Various herbs, leafy vegetables, and unripe fruits of gourds and melons having medicinal and therapeutic properties are part of the regular diet. Among these, leaves of Cassia tora , Ipomoea cymosa , and Memecyclon umbellatum ; ripe wild tree fruits and berries such as Mangifera zeylanica , Nephelium longana , Hemicyclia sepiaria , Manikkara hexandra , Terminalia belerica , and Dialium ovoideum ; and wild mushrooms are integral. Transgenerational knowledge transfer on traditional systems for sourcing and sustainable harvesting practices of food, converting into safer ingredients (e.g., ways to reduce toxins and undesirable compounds while improving palatability, digestion, and safety), and effective preservation technologies has enabled harmonic balance between human-forest environment while sustaining nutrition and health status of the Veddā group.

History-related influences

Sri Lanka has a continuous written history. Stone scripts as early as ~ 250 BCE, ancient texts together with remaining palm ( Ōla ) leaf texts evidence the knowledge on sophisticated agricultural practices and food preparations that appreciate intricacies of health and nutrition basis of foods. Archeological and documentary evidence found in Sri Lanka support continuous inward migration and convergence of various foreign nations ensuring trade, governing power, and diplomatic relations resulting in multiethnic nature of the foods and food traditions of the island.

The first recorded food-related hospitality is described in Mahāvaṃsa (Chapter VII), about a special incidence happened in fifth century BCE, between the noblewoman Kuweni and Indian prince Vijaya and crew. This Aryan language–speaking group of 700 from Northern India landed in the north-west coast of the island (coinciding with the passing away of lord Gautama Buddha ) was served with special rice preparations, sweets made from rice, rice flour, jaggery (a traditional sweetener [ 20 ]), honey, and a variety of local fruits [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Reintroduction of Buddhism in third century BCE (250 to 207 BCE) and subsequent invasions, occupancies, royal marriages between foreign nations had a profound impact and significant contribution to the island food culture. Several nations including, Arabic, Roman, Oriental, Central Asian, and Indian in the early centuries for internal and foreign trade, and the domination of three European nations (Portuguese, Dutch, and English) in the island governance since 1505 AD had profound influence on Sri Lankan culinary tradition and style. Buddhism and Hinduism that existed since ancient times with the later introduction of Islam and Christianity influenced the religious aspects of food culture, traditions, and taboos. Low consumption of meat, particularly beef, even today may have a religious influence. Similar to the cultural practices and languages, all these foreign influences enriched Sri Lankan food culture than taking presidency over in converting to a microcosm of another culture or a nation.

Food and traditional medical systems

Ingredients and preparation processes of traditional Sri Lankan foods have a strong relationship with maintenance of general health and prevention of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) of the consumer in addition to providing required nutrition. Today, the deeply rooted indigenous medical system ( Hela Wedakam since the time of multi-talented local ruler Rāvana , time unknown) co-exists with the Ayurvedic since pre-Aryan civilization ( Siddha and Unani ) and the Western medical system introduced during the colonial era. Although taste and appeal are the key, the indigenous medical system emphasizes the use of ingredients and preparations that suit general wellbeing, physiological condition, involved activities, and disease conditions of the consumer, and the environment and climate of the consuming location as primary considerations. Indigenous medicine–based healing system focuses on mental and physical fitness simultaneously, bearing some similarities with Ayurveda but diverges in practice and constituents. Maintaining harmony between the human being and nature and integration of foods that nature provides in keeping the balance of bodily systems are the fundamentals of the indigenous medical system. Avoidance of extremes and selective use of opposites of “hot/heaty” and “cold/cooling” foods is embedded in indigenous and Ayurveda systems [ 24 ].

Foods and food preparation

Being a predominantly agrarian society, food culture and traditions in Sri Lanka have evolved with the cultivated crops, daily activities, beliefs and the seasonal nature of food sources. A typical traditional meal comprises a carbohydrate source/s (grains or grain products, tubers, or starchy fruit) and accompaniments providing protein, lipids, fiber, and micronutrients. Protein sources are animal or plant (e.g., cashew nut, Anacadia occidentalis ) based and lipids are mainly from plants, especially from coconut ( Cocos nucifera ) or sesame ( Sesamum indicum ). A variety of fruits, pods, seeds, leaves, tubers, stems, and flowers of native plants are included in the meal as various preparations. Ripe local fruits, buffalo milk curd with a sweetener, and simple sweetmeats are the common dessert options. A “Chew of Betel” comprised of betel leaves ( Piper betle ) and arica nuts ( Areca catechu ) with tropical aromatic spices such as cardamom ( Elettaria cardamomum ) finishes the traditional meal. The diverse nature of sources and preparations makes the plate of a Sri Lankan meal comprised of a range of colors, tastes, and flavors. When eating food, usually fingers are used, particularly the right hand. Each bite of food is a mix of all food items in the plate that is squeezed well and mixed with fingers to combine all flavors and tastes.

Grains and grain products

Rice and rice-based products.

Rice is the staple and the main carbohydrate source of Sri Lankan diet since ancient days. Cultivation of paddy and production of rice has been central to societal, cultural, religious, and economic activities of the island [ 17 , 25 ]. The Cascade Tank-Village System of Sri Lanka is a recognized Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System that provides water needs for water-intensive rice cultivation securing food supply and creating a resilient ecosystem while preserving biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge [ 18 , 26 ].

The indica varieties of rice are the primarily cultivated types in Sri Lanka. Among the traditional rice varieties, eating quality traits and grain milling characteristics, e.g., small round grains, thin long grains, pigmented (red-brown), fragrant, etc. are equally important considerations as agronomic performances. The low-protein levels (average value of 7.7% compared with 12.4% in traditional rice varieties) and high glycemic index (GI) [ 27 ] of modern rice varieties is a concern because of the considerable daily intake. In 2016, the per capita consumption of rice including rice-based products was ~ 114 kg per year providing 45% total caloric and 40% total protein requirement of a Sri Lankan [ 28 ]. Increasing science-based evidence and awareness of health benefits of the major and minor nutrients of traditional rice varieties have boosted production of indigenous varieties making them available for the average consumer [ 27 , 29 ].

Traditional rice preparations

Processing of paddy into edible rice grains, once a household task, is now an industrial operation. Unpolished rice and red-pigmented rice are considered superior in health benefits since ancient times. Parboiling has been in practice since time unknown and can be done for indica varieties. Boiling in water allowing grains to absorb all or rarely draining excess water out makes rice ready for consumption. Simple additives besides salt, vegetable oil, and ghee, turmeric ( Curcuma longa ), curry leaves ( Murraya koenigii ), rampe leaves ( Pandanus amaryllifolius ), cardamom, and/or nutmeg ( Myristica fragrans ) are cooked with rice depending on the choice of the consumer. These additives bring color, aroma, and flavor to rice while impregnating with water-soluble components having antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Complex rice preparations include incorporation of different fat types, dairy products, coconut milk, honey, vegetables, and fruits. These practices essentially enhance nutrient density, flavor, and taste of cooked rice; such are central in festivities, religious, and spiritual offerings. A meal portion of warm cooked rice with the accompanying curries, salads, and chutneys when wrapped in mildly withered (on direct heat to be pliable) banana ( Musa spp.) leaves infuses leafy aroma to the content. This traditional meal presentation is common for packing meals and adorned by all regardless of age or social status.

Milk rice is a specialty in Sri Lankan food culture (Table 1 , Fig. 2 a). This preparation of non-parboiled rice cooked with coconut milk (rarely with dairy) can be a regular meal item adored by consumers of all ages and social levels. Milk rice of various forms takes a central place in the traditional ceremonies, devotions, and festivities. Elaborative milk rice preparations include the addition of mung bean or green gram ( Vigna radiata ) (Fig. 2 b; cereal-pulse blends complement in improving essential amino acid profile and recommended by the FAO), sugarcane ( Saccharum officinarum ) jaggery , or grated coconut infused with concentrated sap of palm inflorescence (treacle) [ 22 , 30 ].

Starchy staples of traditional Sri Lankan food items and meals are based on cereals, pulses and/or tubers. Some of the preparations do not show locality dependence but alternative cereals to rice is used according to abundance of the growing areas. A meal is comprised of a main food item and accompaniments which are usually paired with the food product. Accompaniments could be hot-savory and/or sweet. Fresh coconut kernel is used in a variety of ways mixed with cereal flour or in preparation of the accompaniments. a Milk rice with accompanying Lunumiris , b Milk rice with mung bean accompanied with Lunumiris , c Diyabath preparation, d Thalapa made of finger millet flour, e Roti made of rice and finger millet flour with Lunumiris , f String hoppers or Indiáppa with Sambōla , g Laveriya - sweetened string hoppers, h Plain Hoppers or Āppa , i Pittu made of red rice flour, j Boiled chickpea with fresh scraped coconut, k Boiled mung bean with Lunumiris , l Boiled cassava roots with fresh scraped coconut and Lunumiris

Certain rice preparations are household remedies for various ailments. Leftover cooked rice of the previous night (no refrigeration) without reheating is a highly favored breakfast item that delays hunger. Diyabath made with leftover cooked rice (Table 1 , Fig. 2 c) can lower gastric acidity [ 31 ]. Mixing fresh cow’s milk or curdled water buffalo milk with cooked rice enhances medicinal value and consumed by the locals where such milk products are abundant. A porridge-style or gruel preparation of roasted, non-parboiled rice is an easily digestible, energy-dense food for individuals recovering from any sickness (Fig. 3 a). Although indica rice varieties have high amylose content (23–31%) in starch that resists digestion and pose low GI, longer cooking time, and excess water in porridge preparation can result in a high degree of starch gelatinization that increases digestibility [ 32 ]. Rice porridge can be enriched with protein and fat of coconut milk, sweetened with palm jaggery or treacle, or spiced with onion ( Allium cepa ), ginger ( Zingiber officinale Roscoe), and garlic ( Allium sativum ), with or without various pulverized/juiced green leaves having medicinal value (Fig. 3 b). Even today, the green leaves popular for porridges are Aerva lantana , Asparagus racemosus , Cardiospermum halicacabum , Centella asiatica , and Vernonia cineria which are known for their medicinal and therapeutic value in providing blood sugar controlling, anti-inflammatory, and/or blood-purifying effects according to indigenous and Ayurveda medical systems.

Beverages based on leaves, flowers, stems, bark or root of plants and trees that are known for various health benefits are part of traditional foods of Sri Lanka. A creamy, smooth porridge-style beverage is prepared with cooked cereals or cereal flours and with fresh coconut milk and pulverized plant materials or their water extract. Herbal teas are prepared as water infusion or by boiling with water. Usually, herbal beverages are accompanied with palm jaggery . Herbal beverages prepared with cereals could be a breakfast meal due to their caloric-richness. Water infusions and extracts are consumed as herbal teas in any time of the day. a Plain rice porridge, b Rice porridge made with extract of plant leaves or Kola Kenda , c Porridge made with finger millet flour, d Herbal tea made with flowers of bael fruit

The recipes and notes maintained by chef clans for royal families of pre-colonial era show the use of various vegetable oils and animal fats in rice preparations. The sacred food offering to the Temple of Tooth Relic in Sri Lanka includes a wide range of traditional food items about 32 in number at a time, which is an honorable task these chef clans performed and still maintained [ 33 ]. Present-day rice preparations in Sri Lanka reflect the influence of several ethnic cultures. Mixing cooked rice with tempered vegetables, especially carrots, leeks, and green peas, and garnishes such as cashew, raisins, meat, and egg in making fried rice could be a convergence of British and Oriental food preferences. Biriyani -style rice of Northern or Central Asian culinary tradition remains with a selection of spices and oil (vegetable oil replaces ghee) that are preferable to the local palate. The Lamprais is rice cooked with flavored oil and lumped together with shellfish-based fried chutney, curried plantains, and meat (poultry, beef, or mutton) and has Dutch influence.

Rice flour-based preparations

Traditionally, rice flour is prepared either by pounding grains (dehusked grains soaked and drained) in a wooden or stone mortar with a wooden pestle or grinding between two flat stone slabs which is now replaced by commercial-scale flour mills or home-scale electric grinders. Flour particle size is controlled by sieving with different mesh sizes.

Gruels ( Thalapa , Kanji ; Fig. 2 d), unleavened flatbreads ( Roti ; Fig. 2 e), string hoppers ( Indiāppa ; Fig. 2 f), hoppers ( Āppa ; Fig. 2 h), and Pittu (Fig. 2 i) that are made primarily from rice flour comprise the main meal item in the traditional diet and consumed with suitable accompaniments (Table 1 ). Flours of other grains and plant materials are combined depending on the product. Some of these food products are found in the South Indian food traditions. Mild fermentation, heat denaturation, and/or gelatinization of starch and protein of grain flours [ 34 , 35 ] during steaming (moist–heat treatment) of the wet pastes or roasting of flour slurries create the unique structures, textures, and tastes of these products.

Other cereals and pulses

Various grains requiring far less water than rice to grow are common in low-rainfall seasons and non-irrigating areas and replace rice in the meals.

Grains of finger- ( Eleusine coracana ), proso- ( Panicum miliaceum ), foxtail- ( Setaria italica ), and kodo- ( Papsalum scorbiculatum ) millets and maize are primarily converted into flour for various products (Figs. 2 b, d, e, j, k and 3 c, Table 1 ). Boiled maize cob is a popular snacking item and now a street food. Incorporation of wheat flour to the Sri Lankan food culture may be since the Portuguese invasion, now a sought-after ingredient for many flour-based foods [ 19 ]. Depending on the availability, flours of cycad seeds or Bassia longifolia dry flower supplement the grain flour. Hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycemic effects of cycad seed flour have been reported [ 36 ]. Water lily ( Nymphaea pubescens ) seeds harvested from large water bodies where they grow naturally are prepared similar to rice and prescribed for diabetic patients [ 37 ].

Pulses and legumes

Mung bean and black gram ( Vigna mungo ) are common in rain-fed Chena cultivation (slash-and-burn cultivation method) and contribute to traditional diet and food products. Cowpea or black-eyed peas ( Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), white or red skin, was popularized during the Green Revolution for intercropping. Horse gram ( Macrotyloma uniflorum ) has well-recognized medicinal properties [ 38 ] and included in meals in various ways. Pigeon pea ( Cajanus cajan ) whole or split (dhal) is for curries and fried/roasted snacks. Chick pea ( Cicer arietinum , both Kabuli and Desi) and lentil ( Lens culinaris , red and green, Mysoor dhal) have been introduced after 1977 through the trade relationships with India [ 39 ]. Boiled whole grain pulses garnished with salt, coconut pieces, red chilies, and/or onion makes a simple meal (Fig. 2 j, k). Curried red lentil has become a necessity in present-day Sri Lankan meals without limits of consumer income, type of occasion, or the social class. In 2011, lentil comprised > 70% of the average monthly per capita consumption of pulses amounting to 671 g/person/month [ 40 ].

Accompaniments

Various preparations of animal and plant sources accompany the carbohydrate staple of the traditional meal. These accompaniments are prepared as a thin gravy ( Hodda ), sour curry ( Ambula ), thick gravy ( Niyambalāwa ), mildly cooked salad ( Malluma ), deep fried ( Thel Beduma ), or dry roasted ( Kabale Beduma ). Coconut milk, grated coconut, coconut (or sesame) oil, and a variety of herbs and spices are essential ingredients in these preparations [ 17 ]. Some of these accompaniments are paired with main meal items. For example, milk rice goes well with Lunumiris , and Sambōla with boiled tubers or jack fruit. Similarly, some of the food items have preferred meal of the day, and physiology or health condition of the consumer depending on the health attributes of the source material, e.g . , mung bean usually does not accompany the nighttime meal or a person suffering from the common cold.

Herbs and spices

Various herbs and spices add flavor while prolonging product shelf life. Almost all the herbs and spices used in traditional Sri Lankan cooking have reported antifungal, antimicrobial, bacteriostatic, fungicidal and/or fungistatic properties, or pH-lowering ability and medicinal value such as anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic [ 41 , 42 ].

Turmeric, the rhizome of Curcuma longa L. is an essential ingredient that gives unique yellow color and subtle flavor to Sri Lankan curries and rice preparations. Heat-blanched turmeric rhizome is dried and used as a powder or a paste. The main active ingredient, curcuminoids possess cardioprotective, hypo-lipidemic, antibacterial, anti-HIV, anti-tumor, anti-carcinogenic, and anti-arthritic activities [ 43 ].

The hot pungent taste and flavor of traditional dishes are primarily from ginger and black pepper ( Piper nigrum L.) besides several hot chili pepper varieties. Oriental/brown ( Brassica juncea ) and black mustard  ( B. nigra ), fenugreek ( Trigonella foenum-graecum ), cardamom, nutmeg, cloves ( Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry) provide a range of flavors and aroma in the traditional dishes. The dried husk of Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Roxb. (Gambooge, formerly G. cambogia ), and the flesh of ripe tamarind ( Tamarindus indica (L.) pods give a tarty note and increase the viscosity of the medium. The lemons ( Citrus limon ), limes ( Citrus aurantiifolia ), and fruits of Averrhoa bilimbi (Oxilidacea; Bilin ) are used for sour, tangy taste notes. The bark of cinnamon ( Cinnamomum zeylanicum ), Moringa ( Moringa oleifera ), and Terminalia arjuna are used in various preparations. Dry spices are used as whole, pieces, powder, or a wet paste. The traditional spice base ( Thuna-Paha ) is quite distinct in flavor and comprises either three ( Thuna ) seeds (coriander, fennel, and cumin) or five ( Paha ) aromatic spices (cinnamon, cardamom, turmeric, cumin, and curry leaves) together. Combinations and pre-treatments such as dry roasting create variations in the appearance and taste in the final spice preparation.

Preparation types

The variations of curries could be with a thin or thick gravy, moist without a gravy, white/yellow, red, black, sour, sweet, bitter, or hot-pungent. White curries are made pungent with immature green chili, garlic, ginger, or ground black pepper. Red curries contain a considerable amount of red chili paste/powder with a few other spices. Black curries are prepared with dark roasted spices, especially coriander, fennel, and cumin [ 44 ]. Dry gambooge gives dark, brown-black color to the final preparation. Coconut milk, buffalo milk, or water is the base for gravy while roasted rice flour (bland, roasted), soaked and ground mustard (pungent), and ripe tamarind pulp (sour) are the primary thickeners. A thin spiced gravy made with ground coriander, cumin, black pepper, red chili, curry leaves, and garlic is Kāyan hodda or Thambum hodi ; an appetizer and a remedy for various ailments including stomach disorders, reducing blood cholesterol, and for post-confinement mothers. Seven different plant items curried together ( Hath Māluwa , Fig. 4 a) is a must in the traditional New Year (based on the movement of sun and constellations, and the arrival of spring in April) menu that accompanies milk rice and also for specific spiritual devotions. It is a macro- and micro-nutrient-dense plant-based dish made of fruits (e.g., squash), flowers (e.g., pumpkin Cucurbita maxima ), green leaves, nuts (cashew, immature coconut), pods (e.g., long bean Vigna unguiculata or winged bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus ), seeds (e.g. pulses, jackfruit seeds), and tubers that can accompany any meal. Ingredient choices depend on local availability. Dried fish is optional [ 21 ].

Accompaniments are essential in the typical Sri Lankan meal plate. They are prepared with animal or plant sources and complete the main meal with starchy staple such as rice and rice flour-based food products. Accompaniments are prepared in various ways and consistencies. These accompaniments add protein, fats, dietary fiber and micronutrients and complete the nutrient package that the meal provide. Condiments and spices that are added and the way of preparation give a range of colors, flavors and taste while improving the eating satisfaction of the food. a Hath Maluwa made with seven ingredients, b Sambōla , c Kiri Hodi , d Curried cashew, e Curried immature jackfruit, f Boiled mature jackfruit perianth with scraped coconut, g Curried jackfruit seeds, h Bread fruit Malluma , i Fried bitter melon salad, j Green leaf Malluma , k Traditional Sri Lankan pickle, l Dry sour fish curry ( Ambulthiyal )

Oilseeds, nuts, and other seeds

Plant oils are preferred over animal fats in regular food preparations. The use of clarified butter ( ghee ) is limited to infuse flavor and in devotion preparations. Coconut, the most sought-after oil-rich seed, is integral to the island’s food culture since time unknown. Virtually, almost all parts of the mature coconut tree are utilized in a range of products for sustaining human life providing food, medicine, construction materials, decoration pieces, animal feed, and fuel. Coconut kernel fresh or dried, the water of the fruit, and inflorescence sap are all direct foods or food ingredients. The liquid inside the immature coconut drupe is rich in electrolytes and sugars and considered the most natural drink after water. Fresh coconut kernel, finely grated, is an accompaniment to starchy staples. A spicy salad ( Sambōla , Fig. 4 b) is made with fresh scraped coconut, onion, chili, lemon, and salt. Such spicy coconut salad with thinly cut green leaves, starchy items such as pulses, tubers, breadfruit ( Artocarpus altilis ; Del ) or jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus ; Kos ) cooked together makes Malluma , a macro- and micronutrient-rich food. The water extract of mature coconut kernel or “coconut milk” is rich in protein and oil, an essential ingredient in Sri Lankan curries and gravies. Mildly cooked (near boiling) coconut milk with salt, turmeric, green chili, shallots, curry leaves, pandanus leaves, and lime juice makes Kiri Hodi (Fig. 4 c) a versatile accompaniment for any meal. Mechanical pressing of dry mature coconut kernel produces oil for cooking or for lighting fuel. The pleasant nutty aroma and almost bland flavor of coconut oil make it a sought-after oil for deep frying. Oil extracted from fibrous residue is a filler in certain sweets or for animal feed.

Sesame oil obtained from mechanical pressing is valued for its medicinal properties and a popular food oil among the Tamil ethnic group. Whole seed is adorned in traditional sweetmeats and vegetable preparations [ 33 ]. Groundnut/peanut ( Arachis hypogaea ) oil is not traditional in Sri Lankan food but the whole seed is a cheaper alternative to cashew in sweetmeats. Roasted or oil tempered mature groundnut and boiled immature groundnut are popular snacks. Cashew takes a special place in Sri Lankan food culture. Mature cashew is a popular snack and tender or mature nut is used in various preparations. Curried mature/tender cashew (Fig. 4 d) is an energy-dense (48.3% lipids, 20.5% protein, ~ 4% dietary fiber and free sugars) vegan dish [ 45 , 46 ] and essential ingredient for the Hath Māluwa .

Tubers, roots, and their products

Various tubers and roots (yams) satisfy carbohydrates in the Sri Lankan diet. The edible species of Dioscorea and Colocasia are the most popular. Tubers of Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (elephant-foot yam), Dioscorea alata , Dioscorea bulbifera , Dioscorea sativa , and Typhonium trilobatum (Bengal arum) are consumed since historical times [ 30 ]. Arrowroot ( Maranta arundinacea ), cassava/tapioca ( Manihot esculenta Crantz), sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas ), and red-colored Canna discolor may be introductions by the Portuguese [ 47 ]. Potato ( Solanum tuberosum ), a popular root vegetable, has been introduced by the British ~ 1850 [ 48 ].

Yams boiled in water with or without salt accompanied by grated fresh coconut and Lunumiris or Sambōla makes a meal (Fig. 2 l). Whole yams are stored in dry conditions such as sand pits for off-seasons. Thinly sliced yams are sundried and make into flours for supplementing roti and gruels.

Fruits and vegetables and their preparations

The traditional meals comprise a wide range of plant materials of different species prepared in a variety of ways. Pre-treatments such as steaming, sun drying, and soaking in salt or acidified water are practiced for some plant items as they contain potentially harmful compounds and/or enzymes that can release toxic compounds; e.g., alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides that release hydrocyanic acid [ 17 ].

Two Moraceae trees, jackfruit, and breadfruit found ubiquitously in the island provide many edible components. Jackfruit, a multiple fruit that grows in the tree trunk, is the largest fruit known; the achenes with fleshy perianth covering the seed comprise a fruit. Both perianth and seed are edible and record significant nutritional, phytochemical, and medicinal value [ 49 , 50 , 51 ]. All developing stages and components of the multiple fruit are edible, e.g., inflorescence, young fruit, mature starch-rich fleshy perianth, starch-rich seed, and perianth of the ripe fruit. The young fruit ( Polos ) is considerably high in phenolic compounds and dietary fiber and processed as a vegetable that provides several health benefits (Fig. 4 e). These various jackfruit components and preparations are enjoyed regardless of age, social status, or physiological condition of the consumer. The starchy perianth (~ 25% carbohydrates) of one jackfruit provides a meal for several individuals. The simplest preparation is the small cut pieces of mature perianth boiled in water with salt until soft. Popular accompaniments are curried meat, fish or dry fish, and grated coconut kernel or Sambōla (Fig. 4 f). Low GI (< 55%), and high levels of dietary fiber and slowly available glucose (30%) have been reported for such meals [ 51 ] . Starch-rich jackfruit seed is a good source of fiber, protein and vitamins [ 52 ], makes an appetizing food when boiled, roasted, or curried (Fig. 4 g). When ripe, the starchy perianth becomes a fragrant, sweet-tasting dessert fruit either with soft, melting pulp ( Wela ) or firm, fleshy pulp ( Waraka ).

The mature breadfruit is rich in starch and considered a “heaty food.” The food preparations are more or less similar to jackfruit and the curried or Mallun preparations accompany rice (Fig. 4 h). The reduction in glucose absorption upon breadfruit consumption is linked to its fiber components [ 53 ].

Various types of gourds (snake, ridge, bitter, bottle), squashes, melons, beans (long, French, winged, broad) are popular traditional vegetables. Health benefits and medicinal properties of the edible plant parts are serious considerations when incorporating in a meal than their taste. For example, although tastes bitter, the bitter melon/gourd ( Momordica charantia , Fig. 4 i) is a very popular vegetable for curries and salads. The ability of M. charantia to control blood glucose levels in type 1 and type 2 human diabetes is supported by traditional medicine and scientific research [ 54 , 55 ].

Green leaves of various local plants having positive health attributes enrich the meal with fiber and micronutrients. The most common preparation is Malluma (Fig. 4 j), thinly sliced tender leaves mixed with grated coconut and spiced to provide pungency and acidity making a salad-style preparation that is consumed fresh or with mild heating. Few examples are Gotu kola or Indian pennywort ( Centella asiatica ) which has many health benefits including neuroprotective, brainpower and eyesight improving, bitter-tasting leaves of green milkweed ( Wattakaka volubilis / Dregea volubilis ) and crepe gingers ( Costus speciosus ) are considered to lower blood glucose levels, Indian coral tree ( Erythrina indica ) leaves are natural de-worming food for young children and the leaves, flowers of vegetable hummingbird tree ( Sesbania grandiflora ) is a good source of antioxidants and calcium, and Alternanthera sessilis (sessile joyweed/ drawf copper leaf) from aquatic environment relieves simple digestive problems [ 56 ]. Greens mixed with cooked pulses, yams, unripe jackfruit, or breadfruit also make popular accompaniments.

Vegetable as pickles or relishes makes a taste-enhancing side dish for the traditional meal. The young fruits of papaya ( Carica papaya ), jackfruit, mango, Ceylon olive ( Elaeocarpus serratus ), Spondias dulcis , or the stems of Lacia spinosa with shallots and green chilies combined with coconut vinegar as the acidulant with the flavor supplemented by the pungent isothiocyanates released from wet pastes of mustard and chopped pieces of Moringa root bark makes the traditional Sri Lankan vegetable pickle (Fig. 4 k). Immature fruits of mango ( Mangifera indica ), forest mango or hog-plum ( Spondias pinnata ), Indian gooseberry ( Phyllanthus emblica ), and boiled fruits of Ceylon olive garnished with hot chili and salt are popular snacks and available from present-day roadside vendors.

A wide range of ripe fruit such as mango, papaya ( Carica papaya ), pineapple ( Ananas comosus ), passion fruit ( Passiflora edulis ), anona ( Anona reticulata ), durian ( Durio zibethinus ), rambutan ( Nephelium lappaceum ), mangosteen ( Garcinia mangostana ), guava ( Psidium guajava ), banana, and jackfruit are common dessert fruits accompanying the main meal. Usually, wood apple ( Limonia acidissima ), bael ( Aegle marmelos ) fruit, and avocado ( Persea americana ) are further prepared by mixing with a sweetener, salt, and/or lemon/lime juice.

Sweetmeats, snacks, and desserts

Sweetmeats are snacking foods that occupy a special place in regular life, festivities and offerings, and adorned in folklore poems, stories, and historical texts. The fourth century CE Thonigal a rock inscription indicates the quantity of a meal provided with the food items such as curd, bee honey, sweets, sesame, butter, salt, green herbs, and turmeric in between the morning and noon for the refectory of the monastery [ 57 ]. Family and friendly visits accompany bundles of sweetmeats and the content varies with the locality, availability of the expertise, and affordability. Obvious regional variations depending on the ingredients found in the ecoregions reflect the product diversity. Visitors during non-meal times are served with sweets available in the house with hot or cold beverages. Sweets are usually accompanied by ripe banana of different types. Home-made sweets are essential food items of the traditional New Year celebrations for the family, visitors, and friendly food exchanges. Traditional sweeteners are bee honey, treacle and jaggery , which now replaced mostly by cane or corn sugar. Jaggery and treacle making involves collection of sugar-rich inflorescence sap of Caryota urens or Cocos nucifera palms into clay pots containing fresh lime, pieces of Vateria copallifera and/or Careya arborea tree bark, and leaves of Azadirachta indica (avoids fermentation), then boiled to become a thick brown syrup for treacle or further concentrated to a solid soft enough to bite as jaggery (65–85% total sugar) [ 20 , 58 ].

The starch base for sweetmeats is mainly rice flour. Supplementation with mung bean, finger millet, or black gram flour brings variations. Depending on the product, particle size, moisture content, and pre-gelatinization are significant considerations in preparing the flour base. Coconut milk, fresh scraped coconut, dry aromatic spices (e.g., ginger, black pepper, cardamom, nutmeg and cloves), cashew, and sesame seeds enrich these preparations. Coconut oil is the preferred medium for deep frying. The non-deep-fried products are usually flattened and cut into pieces or formed into shapes (Table 2 ). The simplest and the most ancient sweetmeat is Aggalā (Table 2 , Fig. 5 a) which is made with rice flour and sweetener syrup. Popped rice ( Vilanda ) with bee honey is another ancient sweetmeat even mentioned in Buddhist literature.

Sweetmeats can be snack items or dessert food of the traditional main meal. Common ingredients for sweetmeats are cereal (rice, millet) or other grain flours, palm sap-based sweetener, fresh coconut kernel and vegetable oil. Preparation methods include steaming, deep frying, and roasting. Final products are of various shapes, texture and taste and some are local specialties based on the ingredients of the eco-region. a Aggalā ; Balls formed from flour of roasted rice and a sweetner, b Konda Kevum ; deep-fried knotted oil cakes made from a rice flour and a sweetner mixture, c Mung Kevum ; deep-fried, batter-coated oil cakes of mung bean flour, d Nāran Kewum ; batter-coated and deep-fried balls made from sweetened mixture of coconut, pieces of roasted mung bean and cashew nuts or balls of sweetened Pittu , e Athirasa ; deep-fried oilcakes made from the flattened balls of rice flour and a sweetner dough, f Undu Walalu ; sweetener infused deep-fried product of black gram flour and rice flour mixture, g Aasmi ; deep-fried (2 times) product of a mixture of rice flour and viscous plant extract with sugar syrup decorations, h Kokis ; deep-fried rice flour and coconut milk batter using a mold, i Aluvā ; roasted rice flour and sweetner syrup mixture cooked, flattened and cut into pieces, j Kalu Dodol ; dark brown/black soft, delicate sweet made of rice flour and coconut milk cooked together until a soft dark caramel color solid and then flattened and cut into pieces, k Sow Dodol ; a cooked mixture of rice flour Pittu and a sweetener until a soft cake is formed and then cut into pieces, l Helapa ; steamed dough of rice and finger millet flour with grated coconut and sweetener that is wrapped in kenda ( Macranga peltata ) leaves. Preparation details of these products are in Table 2

Among the deep-fried sweetmeats, few variations of oil cakes ( Kevum ) are central in the traditional food culture. For oil cakes, a mixture of rice flour-liquid sweetener prepared in various ways is deep fried to obtain a soft-spongy cake about 2-bite sizes. Variations of the product (Table 2 , Fig. 5 b–e) are created by heat and moisture treatments during the batter preparation, sweetener type (treacle vs cane sugar), mixing of roasted mung bean flour, and addition of coconut milk, etc. The “ Undu Walalu ” (Table 2 , Fig. 5 f) which is a famous sweetmeat of the central hilly areas of the country is an example of eco-region specialty. The Aasmi or Del Kevum is a unique Sri Lankan fried sweetmeat of semi-circular shape that has filigreed white honeycomb look and soft-crispy texture (Table 2 , Fig. 5 g). Although not sweet, Kokis (Fig. 5 h) is a fried, molded (different shapes) batter of rice flour and coconut milk colored with turmeric, with a crunchy, crispy texture and nutty taste, and may be of Dutch origin [ 16 , 19 ].

Among the other non-deep-fried sweetmeats, Aluvā (Fig. 5 i) and softer, semi-moist Dodol have few variations. The dark brown/black Kalu Dodol (Fig. 5 j) made from coconut milk and treacle is a special delicacy of the island south while the not so dark product Kiri Dodol is made with dairy milk and a specialty in the mid-country. Granules of Pittu sweetened with sugar syrup and cut into pieces makes Welithalapa / Sow Dodol (Fig. 5 k). Moreover, roasted nuts, seeds, and pickled fruits are simple snacking foods. Sesame seeds mixed with honey, jaggery , with or without coconut and made into balls ( Thala Guli ) is a timeless popular product.

Helapa (Table 2 , Fig. 5 l) is a unique sweetmeat prepared by steaming the mixture of rice flour, finger millet flour, grated coconut, and a sweetener [ 16 ]. Deep-fried fritters ( Wade ) is made from soaked split pulses (e.g., lentil, chick pea, or mung bean) ground into a coarse paste and mixed with ingredients that contribute to a hot savory taste. Various pastry forms (e.g., Cutlets , Chinese rolls, Pattis ) found today are introductions from foreign food cultures.

Puddings such as Watalappan and Bibikkan are deserts having international roots and use coconut milk or grated coconut, rice flour (for Bibikkan ), eggs, and treacle or jaggery and involve heat setting by steaming or baking. Cooked Sago beads in water, sweetened and with or without dry fruits and nuts, generate a spoonable gel-like product and considered a cooling food.

Beverages, alcoholic and non-alcoholic

Natural springs provide regular drinking water; storing in unglazed clay vessels cools drinking water for the tropical household. The liquid of immature coconut drupe rich in sugars, vitamins, amino acids, and minerals is a highly valued natural beverage. King coconut, a native variety with an orange-yellow outer skin, provides a sweeter liquid than regular coconut, and a healthy drink with a cooling effect. Consumption of juices of local fruits is popular since ancient times, primarily for their therapeutic/medicinal properties. Different oranges and mandarin types; Cirtus sinensis , Citrus aurantium , Citrus nobilis , Citrus reticulate , and Citrus madurensis are common in households. Juice of sweet orange or pomegranate ( Punica granatum ) enhances recovery from minor ailments. Excessive consumption of citrus juices is considered affecting the chemical balance of the body towards more phlegmatic conditions. Sour orange juice mixed with honey and fresh ginger root juice is a household remedy for cough. Ripe fruits of Aegle marmelos and Phyllanthus emblica have medicinal value and usually made into nutrient-rich drinks. Watermelon that grows in the dry areas is a thirst quencher.

Traditional herbal teas (Fig. 3 d) with associated health benefits were the common beverages before introduction of coffee and tea ~ 300 years ago. Dry flowers (e.g., Cassia auriculata , Aegle marmelos ), leaves (e.g., Justicia adhatoda ), roots (e.g., Hemidesmus indicus ), barks (e.g., Coscinium fenestratum ), stems (e.g., Tinospora cordifolia ), young fruits (e.g., Aegle marmelos ), mature fruits (e.g., Coriandrum sativum , Phyllanthus emblica ), or whole plants (e.g., Sida alnifolia , Aerva lanata ) having proven medicinal value is boiled in water and the extract is consumed with palm jaggery .

Coffee ( Coffea arabica mainly) was introduced in part of the “production states” of the Dutch East-India trade scheme. Hot coffee is a beverage served for breakfast, late night, or cold rainy days. Coffee infused with cardamom, nutmeg, sugar, and milk is served chilled for warm afternoons. Tea ( Camelia sinensis ) and cocoa ( Theobroma cocoa ) were introduced around 1820 and 1834, respectively by the British for the commercial value in foreign markets [ 59 ]. Careful monitoring of soil, environmental conditions, and the production practices up to final dry tea preparation is crucial for the unique flavors and color of world-famous “Ceylon black tea.” Hot water infusion of black tea with or without milk and sugar is the beverage that starts the day and also common in social gatherings and festivities. Darker red infusion with strong tea taste sometimes with a slice of fresh ginger root is mostly preferred; the delicate fancy flavors or aroma-infused teas are only a modern consideration.

Fruit-based milk or smoothie-type traditional drinks are found in different eco-regions. Juice of mangrove Sonneratia caseolaris fruit mixed with coconut milk is a vitamin-rich, delicate refreshing drink with recognized medicinal value [ 60 ] and popular in the Southern  coastal areas [ 17 ]. Wood/elephant apple fruit pulp blended with coconut or dairy milk is an authentic Sri Lankan beverage. Ripe banana and coconut milk sweetened with palm jaggery is popular in the North central region and resembles the banana-based non-dairy smoothie of today’s popular food trend.

Gruels or porridge (Fig. 3 a–c) popular since ancient times could be cereal grain-based or from starch and polysaccharides rich flours such as the spongy pith of Caryota urens palm (contains 28.4% amylose and 71.3% amylopectin), [ 61 ] and Sago palm ( Metroxylon sagu , 60% starch) [ 62 ]. Health effects of these are described as digestion tract health, blood sugar lowering, and body cooling.

Traditional fermented alcoholic drinks are from the inflorescence sap of Cocos nucifera (in the coastal area) or Caryota urens (in the inner parts of the island. Sucrose, glucose, and fructose of the sap [ 63 ] are allowed to ferment naturally by Saccharomyces species in clay pots till ethanol concentration reaches 5–6% (by volume) to procure sweet-tasting cloudy, white palm wine or toddy [ 64 ]. Fermentation if continued, growth of Acetobacter increases acidity and produces sour-tasting palm vinegar. Tapping the inflorescence, sap harvesting, and conversion to palm wine, sweetener, or vinegar all require a highly skilled “ Toddy Tappers ” who know the techniques and routines. Consumption, production, and sale of toddy has been documented since ancient times; however, introduction and consumption of other wines, distillates, and spirits were after the occupancy of European nations [ 65 ].

Animal products and their preparations

Being a pluri-religious and multi-ethnic society, religious and cultural biases and prejudices preclude the consumption of animal flesh among Sri Lankans. Meat supply of the traditional diet is primarily from a variety of large and small game, ground mammals, and birds. Drying with or without smoking or marinating in honey are traditional preservation practices that ensured low water activity to prolong shelf life in the tropical, humid environment. Such products are similar to the Jerky-style, low-moisture, protein, and energy-dense meat products. Consumption of beef and cow meat is less common since these animals are valuable helpers in agricultural and draft activities and provide milk for the family. Animal rearing for meat in the household is very much limited to non-Buddhists. Goat meat is popular among Hindu and Islamic groups. Traditionally, meat is curried with spices with or without coconut milk making a suitable accompaniment for rice and other starchy staples. Cured meat products such as bacon, ham, and sausages introduced from foreign cultures have limited popularity. Lingus , a special form of sausage made by cooking small pieces of pork with spices (coriander, black pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, vinegar, and salt) [ 66 ] stuffed into casings and smoked, is a specialty in Sri Lanka and a delicacy inherited from Portuguese.

Generally, fish is acceptable among all religious and ethnic groups and always in great demand [ 17 ]. Oceanic fish is abundant for the coastal area population while fresh-water species are available for inland dwellers. About 70% of the country’s animal protein supply is from fish and aquatic sources, in which marine sources provide 86% of the supply [ 67 ]. Small and large, near and offshore, pelagic and demersal fish, sharks, skates and rays, etc. comprise food fish supply. Popular food fish are; large species such as Lethrinus lentjan , L. nebulosus , Pristipomoides spp., Epinephelus spp . , commercially important Katsuwonus pelamis (Skipjack tuna) and Thunnus albacares (tuna), Scomberomorus commerson (Seer fish), Platypterus spp., Tetrapturus angustirostris , T. audax , Makaira nigricanus , M. indica , Xiphias gladius and Caryphaens hippurus , Istiophorus platypterus (Sail fish), Euthynnus affinis , and small- and medium-size fish like Amblygaster sirm , Amblygaster clupeoides , Auxis thazard , Hirundichthys spp . (Sore fish), Lepturacanthus savala , Rastrelliger spp., Sardinella albella , and Stolephorus spp . , (Anchovy) [ 68 ].

A variety of freshwater fish including Arius falcarius (Whiskered fish), Heteropneusts fossilis (Stinging catfish), Clarias brachysoma (Walking catfish) and Ophiocephalus striatus (Murrel catfish) and the highly productive freshwater fish Oreochromis mossambicus (introduced in 1951) together contribute ~ 15% of food fish supply [ 69 ].

Oceanic fish sun dried in sea breeze preserves and generates unique savory and salty (up to 17% salt content) [ 70 ] taste of dry fish, an affordable protein source with a long shelf life. The “Maldive fish” is a special form of dried fish preparation having a long shelf life and processed by cooking, drying, and smoking, mostly the deboned flesh of Scromboidiae species. It is a favorite additive in curries and salads for meaty/umami taste. Autolyzing fish under controlled conditions by maintaining a high salt level and acidity ( Garcinia gummi-gutta as the acidulant) makes fermented or wet-salted fish Jādi [ 71 , 72 ], another preserved fish delicacy in the coastal regions.

The dry curry preparation of fish, sour fish curry or Ambulthiyal (Fig. 4 l) with a paste of peppercorns, Garcinia gummi-gutta , and salt is a traditional ready-to-eat, short-term (3–7 days at ambient temperature), and preserved form common in the coastal areas. The bioactives of pepper together with pH reduction by organic acids of Garcinia fruit pulp suppress microbial spoilage of fish tissues. This popular dish primarily uses tuna species. Curried fish with gravy in red-style or white-yellow (with coconut milk) is also common. In the coastal areas, a traditional meal consists of non-parboiled red rice, curried fish, and grated fresh coconut or Sambola (or Malluma with green leaves), providing the full complement of protein, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, essential fatty acids, and micronutrients. Freshwater fish from inland reservoirs are prepared similar to oceanic fish and the excess harvest is converted to dry fish with no or less salt.

Since historic times, rearing free-range hens is common among rural households primarily for eggs; an animal protein source for the family [ 73 ]. Harvesting eggs of wild birds is less common under the current regulatory protection of wild bird species. Incorporation of eggs in meals could be mainly in cooked forms and raw uncooked uses of eggs are also found. Along the coastal area, curried fish roe is commonly consumed.

Dairy and water buffalo milk is consumed in various ways. In a traditional village setting, milking cows and few calves are considered essential for the sustainable life that ensures good nutritional status of the family and perhaps neighbors who can afford to buy excess milk. Dairy milk gives five essences ( Pasgorasa ); milk, curd, ghee, cream/butter, and whey which are the traditional delicacies that are considered noble and extraordinary [ 74 ]. Ghee is exclusively obtained from the cream by removing water; the remaining non-fat solids and fat develop characteristic flavor and texture. Traditionally, water buffalo milk (~ 17% of the total milk production of the country) is converted to curd for consumption. The curdling of heated buffalo milk is by coagulation of milk protein at low pH (4.8–5.8) due to lactic acid generated by the growth of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis , L. plantarum , L. helveticus , Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and L. casei subsp. casei , Streptococcus thermophilus and S. lactis , S. diacetylactis , S. cremoris under controlled fermentation [ 75 ]. Buffalo milk has high total solids content (16.3 to 18.4%); protein (3.8 to 4.5%), fat (6.6 to 8.8%), lactose (4.5 to 5.2%), and casein (3.0 to 3.2%) compared with cow’s milk [ 76 ] and produces a firmer curd that is a bio-therapeutic agent with a long history of use in traditional medicine. Curd accompanied with treacle completes the most favored traditional dessert that is integral for a Sri Lankan meal. The whey fraction or buttermilk ( Mōru ) makes a popular beverage.

Concluding remarks

Traditional foods of Sri Lanka depict a convolution of indigenous foods with adaptations from various non-native cultures. An in-depth understanding of the nutritional and therapeutic value of local flora and fauna, preparations, and conversion methods of these sources into safe, edible ingredients, and an almost similar to personalized nutrition-based consumption patterns guided by indigenous medicine have converged and evolved into traditional foods of this island. In traditional Sri Lankan food, health benefits and nutrition take presidency over sensory attributes, and both diet and lifestyle are serious considerations for a healthy body and mind. At present, traditional foods are celebrated more for culinary diversity. Various socio-economic factors that prevail in this middle-income developing country challenge the appreciation and understanding of traditional foods and consumption patterns while limiting the traditional knowledge transfer even at the non-urban household. Socio-economic factors that favor lifestyle changes, consumption patterns to accommodate limited time and resources, the dwindling supply of traditional ingredients, inward migration of multi-national fast and processed food chains together with the limited knowledge and interest in food, ingredient preparation and traditional practices have overshadowed the persistence on indigenous and traditional foods in Sri Lanka. Although the direct relationship is not made, the marked rise in NCDs in last two decades despite the general good health status of the country’s population questions about the food sources, ingredients, consumption patterns, and lifestyle of the nation. About 25% of adults in Sri Lanka suffer from metabolic syndrome, and 1/5th of the adult population is either pre-diabetic or diabetic while 1/3rd of those are undiagnosed despite the low level of obesity (body mass index BMI > 30 is 3.7%) [ 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 ]. Consumers mindful of the diet and lifestyle have created a renewed demand for healthy, indigenous, and traditional food ingredients and products. Building the evidence-based data with modern science tools and practices is necessary to protect traditional knowledge of Sri Lankan foods, which is happening at a slow phase than needed. Handful number of products are available through public and private sector partnerships that are convenient, ready to eat, and portion limited while utilizing traditional food concepts.

Rapidly expanding urban population and the changing lifestyles increase the demand for processed and semi-processed convenient foods, especially in urban markets. Urban and semi-urban consumer groups look for traditional staples and sweetmeats in the form of convenient foods without compromising their known health benefits and sensory attributes. This is a window of opportunity to upgrade traditional food making presently carried out at cottage level to small-scale food industries that satisfy the safety regulations and quality standards. In a wider scale, the indigenous and traditional foods are a cultural identity that play a vital role in improving the tourism industry in Sri Lanka; therefore, sources and preparations must meet the needs other than the regular local consumer.

Consumer awareness on the food and ingredients, in general, creates the market pull in the direction of healthy eating which needs co-operation of both agri-food and health sectors. The food processing industry needs quality parameters that are science-based and measurable in order to maintain raw material sourcing, ingredient processing, product manufacturing, and storage aligning with the nutritional and therapeutic value intended in the final product. In that context, a considerable gap exists in the science and technology development related to strengthening the position of indigenous and traditional foods in Sri Lanka.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka, under the University Research Grant No.: ASP/01/RE/SCI/2016/18.

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Sachithra Mihiranie & Jagath K. Jayasinghe

Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries and Nutrition, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Gonawila, Makandura, Sri Lanka

Chamila V. L. Jayasinghe

Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0X2, Canada

Janitha P. D. Wanasundara

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JKJ, CVLJ, and JPDW devised the main conceptual ideas and proof project outline and initiated, wrote and revised the paper with input from all authors. SM worked out the technical details and performed information collection, manuscript drafting, and incorporating revisions. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

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Common names of foods and ingredients provided in parenthesis and in italics are Sinhala language names unless otherwise the Latin name of the organism/plant.

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Mihiranie, S., Jayasinghe, J.K., Jayasinghe, C.V.L. et al. Indigenous and traditional foods of Sri Lanka. J. Ethn. Food 7 , 42 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-020-00075-z

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Healthy Food Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on healthy food.

Healthy food refers to food that contains the right amount of nutrients to keep our body fit. We need healthy food to keep ourselves fit.

Furthermore, healthy food is also very delicious as opposed to popular thinking. Nowadays, kids need to eat healthy food more than ever. We must encourage good eating habits so that our future generations will be healthy and fit.

Most importantly, the harmful effects of junk food and the positive impact of healthy food must be stressed upon. People should teach kids from an early age about the same.

Benefits of Healthy Food

Healthy food does not have merely one but numerous benefits. It helps us in various spheres of life. Healthy food does not only impact our physical health but mental health too.

When we intake healthy fruits and vegetables that are full of nutrients, we reduce the chances of diseases. For instance, green vegetables help us to maintain strength and vigor. In addition, certain healthy food items keep away long-term illnesses like diabetes and blood pressure.

Similarly, obesity is the biggest problems our country is facing now. People are falling prey to obesity faster than expected. However, this can still be controlled. Obese people usually indulge in a lot of junk food. The junk food contains sugar, salt fats and more which contribute to obesity. Healthy food can help you get rid of all this as it does not contain harmful things.

In addition, healthy food also helps you save money. It is much cheaper in comparison to junk food. Plus all that goes into the preparation of healthy food is also of low cost. Thus, you will be saving a great amount when you only consume healthy food.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Junk food vs Healthy Food

If we look at the scenario today, we see how the fast-food market is increasing at a rapid rate. With the onset of food delivery apps and more, people now like having junk food more. In addition, junk food is also tastier and easier to prepare.

However, just to satisfy our taste buds we are risking our health. You may feel more satisfied after having junk food but that is just the feeling of fullness and nothing else. Consumption of junk food leads to poor concentration. Moreover, you may also get digestive problems as junk food does not have fiber which helps indigestion.

Similarly, irregularity of blood sugar levels happens because of junk food. It is so because it contains fewer carbohydrates and protein . Also, junk food increases levels of cholesterol and triglyceride.

On the other hand, healthy food contains a plethora of nutrients. It not only keeps your body healthy but also your mind and soul. It increases our brain’s functionality. Plus, it enhances our immunity system . Intake of whole foods with minimum or no processing is the finest for one’s health.

In short, we must recognize that though junk food may seem more tempting and appealing, it comes with a great cost. A cost which is very hard to pay. Therefore, we all must have healthy foods and strive for a longer and healthier life.

FAQs on Healthy Food

Q.1 How does healthy food benefit us?

A.1 Healthy Benefit has a lot of benefits. It keeps us healthy and fit. Moreover, it keeps away diseases like diabetes, blood pressure, cholesterol and many more. Healthy food also helps in fighting obesity and heart diseases.

Q.2 Why is junk food harmful?

A.2 Junk food is very harmful to our bodies. It contains high amounts of sugar, salt, fats, oils and more which makes us unhealthy. It also causes a lot of problems like obesity and high blood pressure. Therefore, we must not have junk food more and encourage healthy eating habits.

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Ielts essay # 579 - traditional foods are being replaced by international fast foods, ielts writing task 2/ ielts essay:, in many countries, traditional foods are being replaced by international fast foods. this is having a negative effect on both families and societies., to what extent do you agree or disagree.

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Traditional food is undergoing great changes and being replaced by new diets. What do you think are the reasons and what do you think about this phenomenon?

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• 1. Globalization
• 2. International cuisines
• 3. Ingredients
• 4. Health and nutrition
• 5. Veganism
• 6. Keto diet
• 7. Paleo diet
• 8. Urbanization
• 9. Ready-to-eat meals
• 10. Fast food
• 11. Media influence
• 12. Social media platforms
• 13. Food trends
• 14. Economic factors
• 15. Mass production
• 16. Traditional ingredients
• 17. Social changes
• 18. Nuclear families
• 19. Convenience
• 20. Culinary heritage
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In many countries today, parents are able to choose to send their children to single-sex schools or co-educational schools. Some people think that children going to single-sex schools have disadvantages later in life. To what extent do you agree?

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Managing food safety in traditional food markets: WHO pilots Five Keys strategy to raise hygiene and sanitation standards

WHO team promoted the Five Keys to Safer Traditional Markets to meat seller in Jakarta. Credits: WHO/Tri

From August through October 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) supported a series of activities in three provinces of Indonesia to make traditional food markets safer. The focus of the activities was on raising hygiene and sanitation standards and protecting the health and well-being of consumers and market workers. 

Across Indonesia, an estimated 16 000 traditional food markets are a primary source of fresh food and produce for surrounding communities. In a 2020 survey, the Indonesian Ministry of Health (MoH) found that among 448 traditional food markets across 28 provinces, just over 10% met health and sanitation standards. This increases the risk of foodborne disease transmission and the emergence and spread of zoonotic diseases. 

To address the problem, WHO helped design and implement a pilot programme in three key locations in Semarang and Bandung districts and Samarinda city, based on WHO’s Five Keys for Safer Traditional Food Markets. The Five Keys offer practical risk mitigation measures and strategies to enhance risk communication and community engagement. They are designed to benefit entire market communities, including management, staff and the public, and to be adapted to meet context-specific challenges. 

Using an MoH-developed assessment tool, programme staff first conducted comprehensive analyses of market situations. Results showed an absence of information posters on food safety and health, as well as insufficient assessments of water quality, lack of documented cleaning protocols, inadequate pest control measures and lack of protocols on the handling of live animals. While the knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of market workers were aligned with elements of the Five Keys approach, several misconceptions were common, such as the belief that washing hands with water alone is sufficient. 

Based on these findings, WHO – in consultation with key national stakeholders – developed a range of information, education and communication materials, which were disseminated through stakeholder trainings, one-on-one discussions with vendors, market announcements and via social media platforms. This was followed by a series of post-intervention KAP surveys and meetings, which found significant improvement in the implementation of hygiene and sanitation standards in each location.

Interactive information, education and communication materials were developed to transfer knowledge across social media platforms and through flyers. Credits: WHO

“From this activity, I have learned that there are several stages for hand-washing, and that sufficient time is needed in order to kill germs,” said Ibu Nurul Uwafik, a meat vendor at Karangjati Market, Semarang District. Across the three locations, vendors' knowledge of key hygiene measures increased from an average 84% before the interventions to 90% after, and 80% of vendors now clean kiosks and floors with water and soap or disinfectant, compared to only 70% before.  

The success of the Five Keys programme highlights the value of evidence-based, targeted interventions that raise awareness, change behaviours and promote collaboration among local authorities, market stakeholders and the wider community. 

"A health-focused food market goes beyond promoting well-being; it is central to fostering a circular economy, where health benefits seamlessly integrate with the prosperity of the entire community,” said Ence Ling Ibrahim, Trade and Industry Officer, Bandung District. “Through the implementation of the Five Keys approach we have established essential standards in market design that not only minimize health risks but also prevent transmission of zoonotic diseases.”

In the months ahead, WHO will support ongoing capacity building for market communities and will continue to engage the Ministries of Trade and Industry and MoH on integrating the Five Keys approach into the SNI Pasar Rakyat, which enables uniform application of food safety protocols across Indonesia, for healthier, safer traditional food markets. 

Written by Indah Deviyanti, National Professional Officer Environmental Health and Climate Change, WHO Indonesia 

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