what is meant by abstract in research paper

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

Academic and Professional Writing

This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels.

Analysis Papers

Reading Poetry

A Short Guide to Close Reading for Literary Analysis

Using Literary Quotations

Play Reviews

Writing a Rhetorical Précis to Analyze Nonfiction Texts

Incorporating Interview Data

Grant Proposals

Planning and Writing a Grant Proposal: The Basics

Additional Resources for Grants and Proposal Writing

Job Materials and Application Essays

Writing Personal Statements for Ph.D. Programs

• Before you begin: useful tips for writing your essay
• Guided brainstorming exercises
• Get more help with your essay
• Frequently Asked Questions

Resume Writing Tips

CV Writing Tips

Cover Letters

Business Letters

Proposals and Dissertations

Resources for Proposal Writers

Resources for Dissertators

Research Papers

Planning and Writing Research Papers

Quoting and Paraphrasing

Writing Annotated Bibliographies

Creating Poster Presentations

Thank-You Notes

Advice for Students Writing Thank-You Notes to Donors

Reading for a Review

Critical Reviews

Writing a Review of Literature

Scientific Reports

Scientific Report Format

Sample Lab Assignment

Writing for the Web

Writing an Effective Blog Post

Writing for Social Media: A Guide for Academics

• How it works

How To Write A Research Paper Abstract | Steps And Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at September 23rd, 2024 , Revised On September 23, 2024

An abstract is written to pique a reader’s interest and if necessary, motivate them to leave the comfort of their home and get the full article or paper.

In simpler words, an abstract is a well-structured summary of your academic work, such as an article, research paper , thesis or dissertation. It outlines the most important aspects of your work and is about 300-500 words. Although the structure may vary from discipline to discipline, it is still a necessary part of academic writing.

Abstract Research Paper Definition

A research paper abstract is the face of the research paper. This means that it is what creates the first impression of the paper. It is the summary of the research paper and communicates the content quality and relevance. They exist with one vital purpose, and that is to sell your research. A reader quickly scrutinises and scans the abstract to gain an idea of your research, the problem statement addressed, the methodologies used and the results gained from it.

An abstract most commonly has the following parts:

• Introduction

Types of Abstracts In Research Paper

One of the main purposes of an abstract is to describe your paper. It can either be informative, descriptive, structured or unstructured. Let’s develop a common understanding of how research paper abstracts are written based on content and writing style.

Structured Abstract

Structured abstracts are mostly written in journals and have a separate paragraph for each section. Each part is organised and has distinct headings such as introduction/background, objective, design, methodologies, material, results and conclusion.

Unstructured Abstract

An unstructured abstract is mostly used in social sciences and humanities disciplines and does not have separate paragraphs for each section. It consists of one whole paragraph that serves as the face of the research paper.

Descriptive Abstract

A descriptive abstract only outlines the crucial details of the researcher’s publication. They are mostly short, consisting of 75-105 words. They briefly explain the background, mission statement, purpose and objective but omit the research methodologies, results and conclusions.

Informative Abstract

This abstract can be both structured and unstructured and provides detailed information on the research paper. This means that it is an extensive paragraph on each aspect of research and provides accurate data on each section, especially results.

How to Make Abstract In Research Paper

The abstract part of the research paper summarises the main points of the article. Whether you are applying for research grants, writing a thesis or dissertation or studying a research problem , it is necessary to know how to make a good abstract for a research paper. Here are some of the details on how to write a research paper abstract.

General Topic In Study

This section serves as the introduction to the research paper. It answers the questions of what is being studied or what problem statement is being addressed here. The hypothesis and purpose are highlighted within this section, setting the context for the rest of the research paper.

It is recommended to never go into detailed information as this part only offers initial information regarding the research. Also, this part is always written in the present or past tense, and never in the future as the research has been completed.

Our study’s main objective was to assess the photoprotective capability of chocolate consumption, by contrasting a simple dark chocolate with a specifically made chocolate with preserved high flavanol. According to the study’s hypothesis, eating chocolate induced with HF can provide nutritional defence against skin damage by the sun.

Research/Analytical Methods

Next, it is important to write the research methods used in the research. Either qualitative or quantitative methods, every aspect of them should be mentioned to give the reader a good idea of what scale, survey and sample was used within the research. Some questions that need to be answered in this paragraph are:

• What was the research setting?
• What was the sample size, and how were the participants sampled?
• What was the research method used?
• What was the primary outcome of the initial test?
• What questions or treatments were administered to the participants?

A double-blinded in vivo study was carried out, where 30 healthy adults participated in it. It included 8 males and 22 females between the age of 10 years to 43 years. Fifteen subjects each were given either an HF or LF chocolate and were divided based on their skin phototypes.

Results/ Arguments

This section can be both in present and past tense and must include the main findings of the study. It should be detailed and lengthy, giving all relevant results. These are the following questions this section of the abstract research paper must answer:

• What did the study yield?
• What were the results in comparison to the hypothesis ?
• What were the predictions and were the outcomes similar to it?

In conclusion, our research revealed that eating chocolate high in flavanol shields humans from damaging UV rays, mainly because of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The research indicates that HF chocolate lessens the acute inflammatory response to UV rays, by regulating the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide.

Discussions

Finally, you should discuss the conclusions and the author’s thoughts on the research. Whether the hypothesis proved to be right or not is mostly discussed here, along with the limitations or complications encountered during the research. It is necessary to mention this as a reader must be aware of the credibility and generalisability of the research.

Our research concludes by showing that cocoa flavanols have the potential to be a safe natural method of shielding skin from UV damage.

Hire an Expert Writer

Orders completed by our expert writers are

• Formally drafted in an academic style
• Free Amendments and 100% Plagiarism Free – or your money back!
• 100% Confidential and Timely Delivery!
• Free anti-plagiarism report
• Appreciated by thousands of clients. Check client reviews

Research Paper Abstract Example

Here is an abstract example for research papers to help you understand how abstracts are written:

Does the lockdown have a role in stopping COVID-19?

Every day the coronavirus is spreading, with deaths and fatalities increasing day by day. This has led to a nationwide lockdown all over the world. Our study aims to study the effect of lockdown days on the spread of coronavirus in countries. COVID-19 data from 49 countries was gathered from www.worldometer.com. As of May 5, 2020, there were 1440776 approved active cases of COVID-19 from the countries included in this study. Data on COVID-19 days and lockdown days was obtained from the websites of the official institutions of these 49 countries. Moreover, the correlation test was used to analyse the associations between total COVID-19 cases and the lockdown days. The lockdown days were seen to be correlated to the COVID-19 pandemic. The social-isolation phenomenon; the lockdown has been seen to prevent COVID-19 and the spread of this deadly virus. There are several concerns about the ability of the national healthcare system to effectively manage COVID-19 patients. To slow down the spread of this virus, it is necessary to take the strictest of actions. Even though Italy and Spain have the highest death rates because of COVID-19, there has been a sudden drop in the rates because of the strict measures taken by the government.

Frequently Asked Questions

When should i write an abstract.

You should write an abstract when you are completing a thesis or dissertation, submitting a research design or applying for research grants. You can also write an abstract if you are writing a book

What are things to avoid while writing an abstract?

You should avoid using passive sentences and future tenses. Avoid detailed descriptions as an abstract is supposed to be just a summary. Complex jargon and complicated long sentences should also be avoided as they take away the reader’s interest. Lastly, always address your problem statement in a good way. 

Should I cite sources in an abstract?

You should try to focus on showcasing your original work, rather than cite other work. Try to make your work as comprehensive and understanding so that your work is highlighted better. 

You May Also Like

Here we explore what is research problem in dissertation with research problem examples to help you understand how and when to write a research problem.

Not sure how to approach a company for your primary research study? Don’t worry. Here we have some tips for you to successfully gather primary study.

To help students organise their dissertation proposal paper correctly, we have put together detailed guidelines on how to structure a dissertation proposal.

USEFUL LINKS

LEARNING RESOURCES

COMPANY DETAILS

• How It Works

How to Write an Abstract in Research Papers (with Examples)

An abstract in research papers is a keyword-rich summary usually not exceeding 200-350 words. It can be considered the “face” of research papers because it creates an initial impression on the readers. While searching databases (such as PubMed) for research papers, a title is usually the first selection criterion for readers. If the title matches their search criteria, then the readers read the abstract, which sets the tone of the paper. Titles and abstracts are often the only freely available parts of research papers on journal websites. The pdf versions of full articles need to be purchased. Journal reviewers are often provided with only the title and abstract before they agree to review the complete paper. [ 1]  

Abstracts in research papers provide readers with a quick insight into what the paper is about to help them decide whether they want to read it further or not. Abstracts are the main selling points of articles and therefore should be carefully drafted, accurately highlighting the important aspects. [ 2]  

This article will help you identify the important components and provide tips on how to write an abstract in research papers effectively

What is an Abstract?  

An abstract in research papers can be defined as a synopsis of the paper. It should be clear, direct, self-contained, specific, unbiased, and concise. These summaries are published along with the complete research paper and are also submitted to conferences for consideration for presentation.  

Abstracts are of four types and journals can follow any of these formats: [ 2]  

• Structured  
• Unstructured  
• Descriptive  
• Informative  

Structured abstracts are used by most journals because they are more organized and have clear sections, usually including introduction/background; objective; design, settings, and participants (or materials and methods); outcomes and measures; results; and conclusion. These headings may differ based on the journal or the type of paper. Clinical trial abstracts should include the essential items mentioned in the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards Of Reporting Trials) guidelines.  

Figure 1. Structured abstract example [3] 

Unstructured abstracts are common in social science, humanities, and physical science journals. They usually have one paragraph and no specific structure or subheadings. These abstracts are commonly used for research papers that don’t report original work and therefore have a more flexible and narrative style.  

Figure 2. Unstructured abstract example [3] 

Descriptive abstracts are short (75–150 words) and provide an outline with only the most important points of research papers. They are used for shorter articles such as case reports, reviews, and opinions where space is at a premium, and rarely for original investigations. These abstracts don’t present the results but mainly list the topics covered.  

Here’s a sample abstract . [ 4]  

“Design of a Radio-Based System for Distribution Automation”  

A new survey by the Maryland Public Utilities Commission suggests that utilities have not effectively explained to consumers the benefits of smart meters. The two-year study of 86,000 consumers concludes that the long-term benefits of smart meters will not be realized until consumers understand the benefits of shifting some of their power usage to off-peak hours in response to the data they receive from their meters. The study presents recommendations for utilities and municipal governments to improve customer understanding of how to use the smart meters effectively.  

Keywords: smart meters, distribution systems, load, customer attitudes, power consumption, utilities  

Informative abstracts (structured or unstructured) give a complete detailed summary, including the main results, of the research paper and may or may not have subsections.   

Figure 3. Informative abstract example [5] 

Purpose of Abstracts in Research    

Abstracts in research have two main purposes—selection and indexing. [ 6,7]  

• Selection : Abstracts allow interested readers to quickly decide the relevance of a paper to gauge if they should read it completely.   
• Indexing : Most academic journal databases accessed through libraries enable you to search abstracts, allowing for quick retrieval of relevant articles and avoiding unnecessary search results. Therefore, abstracts must necessarily include the keywords that researchers may use to search for articles.  

Thus, a well-written, keyword-rich abstract can p ique readers’ interest and curiosity and help them decide whether they want to read the complete paper. It can also direct readers to articles of potential clinical and research interest during an online search.  

Contents of Abstracts in Research  

Abstracts in research papers summarize the main points of an article and are broadly categorized into four or five sections. Here are some details on how to write an abstract .   

Introduction/Background and/or Objectives  

This section should provide the following information:  

• What is already known about the subject?  
• What is not known about the subject or what does the study aim to investigate?  

The hypothesis or research question and objectives should be mentioned here. The Background sets the context for the rest of the paper and its length should be short so that the word count could be saved for the Results or other information directly pertaining to the study. The objective should be written in present or past simple tense.  

Examples:  

The antidepressant efficacy of desvenlafaxine (DV) has been established in 8-week, randomized controlled trials. The present study examined the continued efficacy of DV across 6 months of maintenance treatment . [ 1]  

Objective: To describe gastric and breast cancer risk estimates for individuals with CDH1 variants.  

Design, Setting, and Participants (or Materials and Methods)  

This section should provide information on the processes used and should be written in past simple tense because the process is already completed.  

A few important questions to be answered include:  

• What was the research design and setting?  
• What was the sample size and how were the participants sampled?  
• What treatments did the participants receive?  
• What were the data collection and data analysis dates?  
• What was the primary outcome measure?  

Hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated for each cancer type and used to calculate cumulative risks and risks per decade of life up to age 80 years.  

This section, written in either present or past simple tense, should be the longest and should describe the main findings of the study. Here’s an example of how descriptive the sentences should be:  

Avoid: Response rates differed significantly between diabetic and nondiabetic patients.  

Better: The response rate was higher in nondiabetic than in diabetic patients (49% vs 30%, respectively; P<0.01).  

This section should include the following information:  

• Total number of patients (included, excluded [exclusion criteria])  
• Primary and secondary outcomes, expressed in words, and supported by numerical data  
• Data on adverse outcomes  

Example: [ 8]  

In total, 10.9% of students were reported to have favorable study skills. The minimum score was found for preparation for examination domain. Also, a significantly positive correlation was observed between students’ study skills and their Grade Point Average (GPA) of previous term (P=0.001, r=0.269) and satisfaction with study skills (P=0.001, r=0.493).  

Conclusions  

Here, authors should mention the importance of their findings and also the practical and theoretical implications, which would benefit readers referring to this paper for their own research. Present simple tense should be used here.  

Examples: [ 1,8]  

The 9.3% prevalence of bipolar spectrum disorders in students at an arts university is substantially higher than general population estimates. These findings strengthen the oft-expressed hypothesis linking creativity with affective psychopathology.  

The findings indicated that students’ study skills need to be improved. Given the significant relationship between study skills and GPA, as an index of academic achievement, and satisfaction, it is necessary to promote the students’ study skills. These skills are suggested to be reinforced, with more emphasis on weaker domains.  

When to Write an Abstract  

In addition to knowing how to write an abstract , you should also know when to write an abstract . It’s best to write abstracts once the paper is completed because this would make it easier for authors to extract relevant parts from every section.  

Abstracts are usually required for: [ 7]    

• submitting articles to journals  
• applying for research grants   
• writing book proposals  
• completing and submitting dissertations  
• submitting proposals for conference papers  

Mostly, the author of the entire work writes the abstract (the first author, in works with multiple authors). However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work.   

How to Write an Abstract (Step-by-Step Process)  

Here are some key steps on how to write an abstract in research papers: [ 9]  

• Write the abstract after you’ve finished writing your paper.  
• Select the major objectives/hypotheses and conclusions from your Introduction and Conclusion sections.  
• Select key sentences from your Methods section.  
• Identify the major results from the Results section.  
• Paraphrase or re-write the sentences selected in steps 2, 3, and 4 in your own words into one or two paragraphs in the following sequence: Introduction/Objective, Methods, Results, and Conclusions. The headings may differ among journals, but the content remains the same.  
• Ensure that this draft does not contain: a.   new information that is not present in the paper b.   undefined abbreviations c.   a discussion of previous literature or reference citations d.   unnecessary details about the methods used  
• Remove all extra information and connect your sentences to ensure that the information flows well, preferably in the following order: purpose; basic study design, methodology and techniques used; major findings; summary of your interpretations, conclusions, and implications. Use section headings for structured abstracts.  
• Ensure consistency between the information presented in the abstract and the paper.  
• Check to see if the final abstract meets the guidelines of the target journal (word limit, type of abstract, recommended subheadings, etc.) and if all the required information has been included.  

Choosing Keywords for Abstracts  

Keywords [ 2] are the important and repeatedly used words and phrases in research papers and can help indexers and search engines find papers relevant to your requirements. Easy retrieval would help in reaching a wider audience and eventually gain more citations. In the fields of medicine and health, keywords should preferably be chosen from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) list of the US National Library of Medicine because they are used for indexing. These keywords need to be different from the words in the main title (automatically used for indexing) but can be variants of the terms/phrases used in the title, abstract, and the main text. Keywords should represent the content of your manuscript and be specific to your subject area.  

Basic tips for authors [ 10,11]  

• Read through your paper and highlight key terms or phrases that are most relevant and frequently used in your field, to ensure familiarity.  
• Several journals provide instructions about the length (eg, 3 words in a keyword) and maximum number of keywords allowed and other related rules. Create a list of keywords based on these instructions and include specific phrases containing 2 to 4 words. A longer string of words would yield generic results irrelevant to your field.  
• Use abbreviations, acronyms, and initializations if these would be more familiar.  
• Search with your keywords to ensure the results fit with your article and assess how helpful they would be to readers.  
• Narrow down your keywords to about five to ten, to ensure accuracy.  
• Finalize your list based on the maximum number allowed.  

  Few examples: [ 12]  

Important Tips for Writing an Abstract  

Here are a few tips on how to write an abstract to ensure that your abstract is complete, concise, and accurate. [ 1,2]  

• Write the abstract last.  
• Follow journal-specific formatting guidelines or Instructions to Authors strictly to ensure acceptance for publication.  
• Proofread the final draft meticulously to avoid grammatical or typographical errors.  
• Ensure that the terms or data mentioned in the abstract are consistent with the main text.  
• Include appropriate keywords at the end.

Do not include:  

• New information  
• Text citations to references  
• Citations to tables and figures  
• Generic statements  
• Abbreviations unless necessary, like a trial or study name  

Key Takeaways    

Here’s a quick snapshot of all the important aspects of how to write an abstract . [2]

• An abstract in research is a summary of the paper and describes only the main aspects. Typically, abstracts are about 200-350 words long.  
• Abstracts are of four types—structured, unstructured, descriptive, and informative.  
• Abstracts should be simple, clear, concise, independent, and unbiased (present both favorable and adverse outcomes).  
• They should adhere to the prescribed journal format, including word limits, section headings, number of keywords, fonts used, etc.  
• The terminology should be consistent with the main text.   
• Although the section heading names may differ for journals, every abstract should include a background and objective, analysis methods, primary results, and conclusions.  
• Nonstandard abbreviations, references, and URLs shouldn’t be included.  
• Only relevant and specific keywords should be used to ensure focused searches and higher citation frequency.  
• Abstracts should be written last after completing the main paper.  

Frequently Asked Questions   

Q1. Do all journals have different guidelines for abstracts?  

A1. Yes, all journals have their own specific guidelines for writing abstracts; a few examples are given in the following table. [ 6,13,14,15]  

Q2. What are the common mistakes to avoid when writing an abstract?  

A2. Listed below are a few mistakes that authors may make inadvertently while writing abstracts.  

• Copying sentences from the paper verbatim  

An abstract is a summary, which should be created by paraphrasing your own work or writing in your own words. Extracting sentences from every section and combining them into one paragraph cannot be considered summarizing.  

• Not adhering to the formatting guidelines  

Journals have special instructions for writing abstracts, such as word limits and section headings. These should be followed strictly to avoid rejections.  

• Not including the right amount of details in every section  

Both too little and too much information could discourage readers. For instance, if the Background has very little information, the readers may not get sufficient context to appreciate your research. Similarly, incomplete information in the Methods and a text-heavy Results section without supporting numerical data may affect the credibility of your research.  

• Including citations, standard abbreviations, and detailed measurements  

Typically, abstracts shouldn’t include these elements—citations, URLs, and abbreviations. Only nonstandard abbreviations are allowed or those that would be more familiar to readers than the expansions.  

• Including new information  

Abstracts should strictly include only the same information mentioned in the main text. Any new information should first be added to the text and then to the abstract only if necessary or if permitted by the word limit.  

• Not including keywords  

Keywords are essential for indexing and searching and should be included to increase the frequency of retrieval and citation.  

Q3. What is the difference between abstracts in research papers and conference abstracts? [16]  

A3. The table summarizes the main differences between research and conference abstracts.  

  Thus, abstracts are essential “trailers” that can market your research to a wide audience. The better and more complete the abstract the more are the chances of your paper being read and cited. By following our checklist and ensuring that all key elements are included, you can create a well-structured abstract that summarizes your paper accurately.  

References  

• Andrade C. How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation. Indian J Psychiatry . 2011; 53(2):172-175. Accessed June 14, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136027/  
• Tullu MS. Writing the title and abstract for a research paper: Being concise, precise, and meticulous is the key. 2019; 13(Suppl 1): S12-S17. Accessed June 14, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6398294/  
• Zawia J. Writing an Academic Paper? Get to know Abstracts vs. Structured Abstracts. Medium. Published October 16, 2023. Accessed June 16, 2024. https://medium.com/@jamala.zawia/writing-an-academic-paper-get-to-know-abstracts-vs-structured-abstracts-11ed86888367  
• Markel M and Selber S. Technical Communication, 12 th edition. 2018; pp. 482. Bedford/St Martin’s.  
• Abstracts. Arkansas State University. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://www.astate.edu/a/global-initiatives/online/a-state-online-services/online-writing-center/resources/How%20to%20Write%20an%20Abstract1.pdf  
• AMA Manual of Style. 11 th edition. Oxford University Press.  
• Writing an Abstract. The University of Melbourne. Accessed June 16, 2024. https://services.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/471274/Writing_an_Abstract_Update_051112.pdf  
• 10 Good Abstract Examples that will Kickstart Your Brain. Kibin Essay Writing Blog. Published April 5, 2017. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://www.kibin.com/essay-writing-blog/10-good-abstract-examples/  
• A 10-step guide to make your research paper abstract more effective. Editage Insights. Published October 16, 2013. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://www.editage.com/insights/a-10-step-guide-to-make-your-research-paper-abstract-more-effective  
• Using keywords to write your title and abstract. Taylor & Francis Author Services. Accessed June 15, 2024. https://authorservices.taylorandfrancis.com/publishing-your-research/writing-your-paper/using-keywords-to-write-title-and-abstract/  
• How to choose and use keywords in research papers. Paperpal by Editage blog. Published March 10, 2023. Accessed June 17, 2024. https://paperpal.com/blog/researcher-resources/phd-pointers/how-to-choose-and-use-keywords-in-research-papers  
• Title, abstract and keywords. Springer. Accessed June 16, 2024. https://www.springer.com/it/authors-editors/authorandreviewertutorials/writing-a-journal-manuscript/title-abstract-and-keywords/10285522  
• Abstract and keywords guide. APA Style, 7 th edition. Accessed June 18, 2024. https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/abstract-keywords-guide.pdf  
• Abstract guidelines. American Society for Microbiology. Accessed June 18, 2024. https://asm.org/events/asm-microbe/present/abstract-guidelines  
• Guidelines for conference abstracts. The Lancet. Accessed June 16, 2024. https://www.thelancet.com/pb/assets/raw/Lancet/pdfs/Abstract_Guidelines_2013.pdf  
• Is a conference abstract the same as a paper abstract? Global Conference Alliance, Inc. Accessed June 18, 2024. https://globalconference.ca/is-a-conference-abstract-the-same-as-a-paper-abstract/  

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• What are Journal Guidelines on Using Generative AI Tools
• How to Write a High-Quality Conference Paper

How to Write Dissertation Acknowledgements?

• How to Write the First Draft of a Research Paper with Paperpal? 

Top 7 AI Tools for Research 2024

You may also like, machine translation vs human translation: which is reliable..., dissertation printing and binding | types & comparison , what is a dissertation preface definition and examples , how to write a research proposal: (with examples..., how to write your research paper in apa..., how to choose a dissertation topic, how to write a phd research proposal, how to write an academic paragraph (step-by-step guide), maintaining academic integrity with paperpal’s generative ai writing..., research funding basics: what should a grant proposal....

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

• Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
• Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
• Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
• Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
• Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

• Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
• Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
• Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
• Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
• Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
• Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Research Paper Title – Writing Guide and Example

Context of the Study – Writing Guide and Examples

Implications in Research – Types, Examples and...

Scope of the Research – Writing Guide and...

Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide...

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

• Resources Home 🏠
• Try SciSpace Copilot
• Search research papers
• Add Copilot Extension
• Try AI Detector
• Try Paraphraser
• Try Citation Generator
• April Papers
• June Papers
• July Papers

Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Table of Contents

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

• Describe the paper.
• Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
• Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
• Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

• Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
• What you want to study, achieve or discover.
• Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

• A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
• Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
• A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
• An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

• Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
• Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
• Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

• A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
• It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
• A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
• It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
• It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
• A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
• It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
• It is written impartially and objectively.

You can have a thorough understanding of abstracts using SciSpace ChatPDF which makes your abstract analysis part easier.

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

• What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
• What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

• A significant take-home message.
• Corresponding important findings.
• The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

Interested in learning more about dedicated research solutions? Go to the SciSpace product page to find out how our suite of products can help you simplify your research workflows so you can focus on advancing science.

The best-in-class solution is equipped with features such as literature search and discovery, profile management, research writing and formatting, and so much more.

But before you go,

You might also like.

Consensus GPT vs. SciSpace GPT: Choose the Best GPT for Research

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework: Understanding the Differences

Types of Essays in Academic Writing - Quick Guide (2024)

What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Make a Gift

How to Write an Abstract (With Examples)

By Sarah Oakley

Table of Contents

What is an abstract in a paper, how long should an abstract be, 5 steps for writing an abstract, examples of an abstract, how prowritingaid can help you write an abstract.

If you are writing a scientific research paper or a book proposal, you need to know how to write an abstract, which summarizes the contents of the paper or book.

When researchers are looking for peer-reviewed papers to use in their studies, the first place they will check is the abstract to see if it applies to their work. Therefore, your abstract is one of the most important parts of your entire paper.

In this article, we’ll explain what an abstract is, what it should include, and how to write one.

An abstract is a concise summary of the details within a report. Some abstracts give more details than others, but the main things you’ll be talking about are why you conducted the research, what you did, and what the results show.

When a reader is deciding whether to read your paper completely, they will first look at the abstract. You need to be concise in your abstract and give the reader the most important information so they can determine if they want to read the whole paper.

Remember that an abstract is the last thing you’ll want to write for the research paper because it directly references parts of the report. If you haven’t written the report, you won’t know what to include in your abstract.

If you are writing a paper for a journal or an assignment, the publication or academic institution might have specific formatting rules for how long your abstract should be. However, if they don’t, most abstracts are between 150 and 300 words long.

A short word count means your writing has to be precise and without filler words or phrases. Once you’ve written a first draft, you can always use an editing tool, such as ProWritingAid, to identify areas where you can reduce words and increase readability.

If your abstract is over the word limit, and you’ve edited it but still can’t figure out how to reduce it further, your abstract might include some things that aren’t needed. Here’s a list of three elements you can remove from your abstract:

Discussion : You don’t need to go into detail about the findings of your research because your reader will find your discussion within the paper.

Definition of terms : Your readers are interested the field you are writing about, so they are likely to understand the terms you are using. If not, they can always look them up. Your readers do not expect you to give a definition of terms in your abstract.

References and citations : You can mention there have been studies that support or have inspired your research, but you do not need to give details as the reader will find them in your bibliography.

Good writing = better grades

ProWritingAid will help you improve the style, strength, and clarity of all your assignments.

If you’ve never written an abstract before, and you’re wondering how to write an abstract, we’ve got some steps for you to follow. It’s best to start with planning your abstract, so we’ve outlined the details you need to include in your plan before you write.

Remember to consider your audience when you’re planning and writing your abstract. They are likely to skim read your abstract, so you want to be sure your abstract delivers all the information they’re expecting to see at key points.

1. What Should an Abstract Include?

Abstracts have a lot of information to cover in a short number of words, so it’s important to know what to include. There are three elements that need to be present in your abstract:

Your context is the background for where your research sits within your field of study. You should briefly mention any previous scientific papers or experiments that have led to your hypothesis and how research develops in those studies.

Your hypothesis is your prediction of what your study will show. As you are writing your abstract after you have conducted your research, you should still include your hypothesis in your abstract because it shows the motivation for your paper.

Throughout your abstract, you also need to include keywords and phrases that will help researchers to find your article in the databases they’re searching. Make sure the keywords are specific to your field of study and the subject you’re reporting on, otherwise your article might not reach the relevant audience.

2. Can You Use First Person in an Abstract?

You might think that first person is too informal for a research paper, but it’s not. Historically, writers of academic reports avoided writing in first person to uphold the formality standards of the time. However, first person is more accepted in research papers in modern times.

If you’re still unsure whether to write in first person for your abstract, refer to any style guide rules imposed by the journal you’re writing for or your teachers if you are writing an assignment.

3. Abstract Structure

Some scientific journals have strict rules on how to structure an abstract, so it’s best to check those first. If you don’t have any style rules to follow, try using the IMRaD structure, which stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion.

Following the IMRaD structure, start with an introduction. The amount of background information you should include depends on your specific research area. Adding a broad overview gives you less room to include other details. Remember to include your hypothesis in this section.

The next part of your abstract should cover your methodology. Try to include the following details if they apply to your study:

What type of research was conducted?

How were the test subjects sampled?

What were the sample sizes?

What was done to each group?

How long was the experiment?

How was data recorded and interpreted?

Following the methodology, include a sentence or two about the results, which is where your reader will determine if your research supports or contradicts their own investigations.

The results are also where most people will want to find out what your outcomes were, even if they are just mildly interested in your research area. You should be specific about all the details but as concise as possible.

The last few sentences are your conclusion. It needs to explain how your findings affect the context and whether your hypothesis was correct. Include the primary take-home message, additional findings of importance, and perspective. Also explain whether there is scope for further research into the subject of your report.

Your conclusion should be honest and give the reader the ultimate message that your research shows. Readers trust the conclusion, so make sure you’re not fabricating the results of your research. Some readers won’t read your entire paper, but this section will tell them if it’s worth them referencing it in their own study.

4. How to Start an Abstract

The first line of your abstract should give your reader the context of your report by providing background information. You can use this sentence to imply the motivation for your research.

You don’t need to use a hook phrase or device in your first sentence to grab the reader’s attention. Your reader will look to establish relevance quickly, so readability and clarity are more important than trying to persuade the reader to read on.

5. How to Format an Abstract

Most abstracts use the same formatting rules, which help the reader identify the abstract so they know where to look for it.

Here’s a list of formatting guidelines for writing an abstract:

Stick to one paragraph

Use block formatting with no indentation at the beginning

Put your abstract straight after the title and acknowledgements pages

Use present or past tense, not future tense

There are two primary types of abstract you could write for your paper—descriptive and informative.

An informative abstract is the most common, and they follow the structure mentioned previously. They are longer than descriptive abstracts because they cover more details.

Descriptive abstracts differ from informative abstracts, as they don’t include as much discussion or detail. The word count for a descriptive abstract is between 50 and 150 words.

Here is an example of an informative abstract:

A growing trend exists for authors to employ a more informal writing style that uses “we” in academic writing to acknowledge one’s stance and engagement. However, few studies have compared the ways in which the first-person pronoun “we” is used in the abstracts and conclusions of empirical papers. To address this lacuna in the literature, this study conducted a systematic corpus analysis of the use of “we” in the abstracts and conclusions of 400 articles collected from eight leading electrical and electronic (EE) engineering journals. The abstracts and conclusions were extracted to form two subcorpora, and an integrated framework was applied to analyze and seek to explain how we-clusters and we-collocations were employed. Results revealed whether authors’ use of first-person pronouns partially depends on a journal policy. The trend of using “we” showed that a yearly increase occurred in the frequency of “we” in EE journal papers, as well as the existence of three “we-use” types in the article conclusions and abstracts: exclusive, inclusive, and ambiguous. Other possible “we-use” alternatives such as “I” and other personal pronouns were used very rarely—if at all—in either section. These findings also suggest that the present tense was used more in article abstracts, but the present perfect tense was the most preferred tense in article conclusions. Both research and pedagogical implications are proffered and critically discussed.

Wang, S., Tseng, W.-T., & Johanson, R. (2021). To We or Not to We: Corpus-Based Research on First-Person Pronoun Use in Abstracts and Conclusions. SAGE Open, 11(2).

Here is an example of a descriptive abstract:

From the 1850s to the present, considerable criminological attention has focused on the development of theoretically-significant systems for classifying crime. This article reviews and attempts to evaluate a number of these efforts, and we conclude that further work on this basic task is needed. The latter part of the article explicates a conceptual foundation for a crime pattern classification system, and offers a preliminary taxonomy of crime.

Farr, K. A., & Gibbons, D. C. (1990). Observations on the Development of Crime Categories. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 34(3), 223–237.

If you want to ensure your abstract is grammatically correct and easy to read, you can use ProWritingAid to edit it. The software integrates with Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and most web browsers, so you can make the most of it wherever you’re writing your paper.

Before you edit with ProWritingAid, make sure the suggestions you are seeing are relevant for your document by changing the document type to “Abstract” within the Academic writing style section.

You can use the Readability report to check your abstract for places to improve the clarity of your writing. Some suggestions might show you where to remove words, which is great if you’re over your word count.

We hope the five steps and examples we’ve provided help you write a great abstract for your research paper.

Sarah Oakley

Get started with prowritingaid.

Drop us a line or let's stay in touch via:

Frequently asked questions

What is the purpose of an abstract.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

Frequently asked questions: Academic writing

A rhetorical tautology is the repetition of an idea of concept using different words.

Rhetorical tautologies occur when additional words are used to convey a meaning that has already been expressed or implied. For example, the phrase “armed gunman” is a tautology because a “gunman” is by definition “armed.”

A logical tautology is a statement that is always true because it includes all logical possibilities.

Logical tautologies often take the form of “either/or” statements (e.g., “It will rain, or it will not rain”) or employ circular reasoning (e.g., “she is untrustworthy because she can’t be trusted”).

You may have seen both “appendices” or “appendixes” as pluralizations of “ appendix .” Either spelling can be used, but “appendices” is more common (including in APA Style ). Consistency is key here: make sure you use the same spelling throughout your paper.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

• Title: expresses the topic of your study
• Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
• Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
• Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
• Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
• Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
• Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis , dissertation or research paper .

If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.

If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.

To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.

Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .

• Revising is making structural and logical changes to your text—reformulating arguments and reordering information.
• Editing refers to making more local changes to things like sentence structure and phrasing to make sure your meaning is conveyed clearly and concisely.
• Proofreading involves looking at the text closely, line by line, to spot any typos and issues with consistency and correct them.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

Editing and proofreading are different steps in the process of revising a text.

Editing comes first, and can involve major changes to content, structure and language. The first stages of editing are often done by authors themselves, while a professional editor makes the final improvements to grammar and style (for example, by improving sentence structure and word choice ).

Proofreading is the final stage of checking a text before it is published or shared. It focuses on correcting minor errors and inconsistencies (for example, in punctuation and capitalization ). Proofreaders often also check for formatting issues, especially in print publishing.

The cost of proofreading depends on the type and length of text, the turnaround time, and the level of services required. Most proofreading companies charge per word or page, while freelancers sometimes charge an hourly rate.

For proofreading alone, which involves only basic corrections of typos and formatting mistakes, you might pay as little as $0.01 per word, but in many cases, your text will also require some level of editing , which costs slightly more.

It’s often possible to purchase combined proofreading and editing services and calculate the price in advance based on your requirements.

There are many different routes to becoming a professional proofreader or editor. The necessary qualifications depend on the field – to be an academic or scientific proofreader, for example, you will need at least a university degree in a relevant subject.

For most proofreading jobs, experience and demonstrated skills are more important than specific qualifications. Often your skills will be tested as part of the application process.

To learn practical proofreading skills, you can choose to take a course with a professional organization such as the Society for Editors and Proofreaders . Alternatively, you can apply to companies that offer specialized on-the-job training programmes, such as the Scribbr Academy .

Ask our team

Want to contact us directly? No problem.  We  are always here for you.

• Email [email protected]
• Start live chat
• Call +1 (510) 822-8066
• WhatsApp +31 20 261 6040

Our team helps students graduate by offering:

• A world-class citation generator
• Plagiarism Checker software powered by Turnitin
• Innovative Citation Checker software
• Professional proofreading services
• Over 300 helpful articles about academic writing, citing sources, plagiarism, and more

Scribbr specializes in editing study-related documents . We proofread:

• PhD dissertations
• Research proposals
• Personal statements
• Admission essays
• Motivation letters
• Reflection papers
• Journal articles
• Capstone projects

Scribbr’s Plagiarism Checker is powered by elements of Turnitin’s Similarity Checker , namely the plagiarism detection software and the Internet Archive and Premium Scholarly Publications content databases .

The add-on AI detector is powered by Scribbr’s proprietary software.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 3. The Abstract
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. A useful strategy is to avoid using conjunctions [ e.g. and, but, if] that connect long clauses or sentences and, instead, write short, concise sentences . Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page [scroll down under the heading Quick Links]. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

• << Previous: Research Process Video Series
• Next: Executive Summary >>
• Last Updated: Sep 17, 2024 10:59 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

• Departments and Units
• Majors and Minors
• LSA Course Guide
• LSA Gateway

Search: {{$root.lsaSearchQuery.q}}, Page {{$root.page}}

• Accessibility
• Undergraduates
• Instructors
• Alums & Friends

• ★ Writing Support
• Minor in Writing
• First-Year Writing Requirement
• Transfer Students
• Writing Guides
• Peer Writing Consultant Program
• Upper-Level Writing Requirement
• Writing Prizes
• International Students
• ★ The Writing Workshop
• Dissertation ECoach
• Fellows Seminar
• Dissertation Writing Groups
• Rackham / Sweetland Workshops
• Dissertation Writing Institute
• Teaching Support and Services
• Support for ULWR Courses
• Guides to Teaching Writing
• Support for FYWR Courses
• Writing Prize Nominating
• Alums Gallery
• Commencement
• Giving Opportunities
• What Exactly is an Abstract?
• How Do I Make Sure I Understand an Assignment?
• How Do I Decide What I Should Argue?
• How Can I Create Stronger Analysis?
• How Do I Effectively Integrate Textual Evidence?
• How Do I Write a Great Title?
• How Do I Present Findings From My Experiment in a Report?
• What is a Run-on Sentence & How Do I Fix It?
• How Do I Check the Structure of My Argument?
• How Do I Write an Intro, Conclusion, & Body Paragraph?
• How Do I Incorporate Quotes?
• How Can I Create a More Successful Powerpoint?
• How Can I Create a Strong Thesis?
• How Can I Write More Descriptively?
• How Do I Incorporate a Counterargument?
• How Do I Check My Citations?

See the bottom of the main Writing Guides page for licensing information.

What Exactly is an Abstract, and How Do I Write One?

An abstract is a short summary of your completed research. It is intended to describe your work without going into great detail. Abstracts should be self-contained and concise, explaining your work as briefly and clearly as possible. Different disciplines call for slightly different approaches to abstracts, as will be illustrated by the examples below, so it would be wise to study some abstracts from your own field before you begin to write one.

General Considerations

Probably the most important function of an abstract is to help a reader decide if he or she is interested in reading your entire publication. For instance, imagine that you’re an undergraduate student sitting in the library late on a Friday night. You’re tired, bored, and sick of looking up articles about the history of celery. The last thing you want to do is reading an entire article only to discover it contributes nothing to your argument. A good abstract can solve this problem by indicating to the reader if the work is likely to be meaningful to his or her particular research project. Additionally, abstracts are used to help libraries catalogue publications based on the keywords that appear in them.

An effective abstract will contain several key features:

• Motivation/problem statement: Why is your research/argument important? What practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your project filling?
• Methods/procedure/approach: What did you actually do to get your results? (e.g. analyzed 3 novels, completed a series of 5 oil paintings, interviewed 17 students)
• Results/findings/product: As a result of completing the above procedure, what did you learn/invent/create?
• Conclusion/implications: What are the larger implications of your findings, especially for the problem/gap identified previously? Why is this research valuable?

In Practice

Let’s take a look at some sample abstracts, and see where these components show up. To give you an idea of how the author meets these “requirements” of abstract writing, the various features have been color-coded to correspond with the numbers listed above. The general format of an abstract is largely predictable, with some discipline-based differences. One type of abstract not discussed here is the “Descriptive Abstract,” which only summarizes and explains existing research, rather than informing the reader of a new perspective. As you can imagine, such an abstract would omit certain components of our four-colored model.

SAMPLE ABSTRACTS

Abstract #1: history / social science.

"Their War": The Perspective of the South Vietnamese Military in Their Own Words Author: Julie Pham

Despite the vast research by Americans on the Vietnam War, little is known about the perspective of South Vietnamese military, officially called the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF). The overall image that emerges from the literature is negative: lazy, corrupt, unpatriotic, apathetic soldiers with poor fighting spirits. This study recovers some of the South Vietnamese military perspective for an American audience through qualititative interviews with 40 RVNAF veterans now living in San José, Sacramento, and Seattle, home to three of the top five largest Vietnamese American communities in the nation. An analysis of these interviews yields the veterans' own explanations that complicate and sometimes even challenge three widely held assumptions about the South Vietnamese military: 1) the RVNAF was rife with corruption at the top ranks, hurting the morale of the lower ranks; 2) racial relations between the South Vietnamese military and the Americans were tense and hostile; and 3) the RVNAF was apathetic in defending South Vietnam from communism. The stories add nuance to our understanding of who the South Vietnamese were in the Vietnam War. This study is part of a growing body of research on non-American perspectives of the war. In using a largely untapped source of Vietnamese history—oral histories with Vietnamese immigrants—this project will contribute to future research on similar topics.

That was a fairly basic abstract that allows us to examine its individual parts more thoroughly.

Motivation/problem statement: The author identifies that previous research has been done about the Vietnam War, but that it has failed to address the specific topic of South Vietnam’s military. This is good because it shows how the author’s research fits into the bigger picture. It isn’t a bad thing to be critical of other research, but be respectful from an academic standpoint (i.e. “Previous researchers are stupid and don’t know what they’re talking about” sounds kind of unprofessional).

Methods/procedure/approach: The author does a good job of explaining how she performed her research, without giving unnecessary detail. Noting that she conducted qualitative interviews with 40 subjects is significant, but she wisely does not explicitly state the kinds of questions asked during the interview, which would be excessive.

Results/findings/product: The results make good use of numbering to clearly indicate what was ascertained from the research—particularly useful, as people often just scan abstracts for the results of an experiment.

Conclusion/implications: Since this paper is historical in nature, its findings may be hard to extrapolate to modern-day phenomena, but the author identifies the importance of her work as part of a growing body of research, which merits further investigation. This strategy functions to encourage future research on the topic.

ABSTRACT #2: Natural Science

“A Lysimeter Study of Grass Cover and Water Table Depth Effects on Pesticide Residues in Drainage Water” Authors: A. Liaghat, S.O. Prasher

A study was undertaken to investigate the effect of soil and grass cover, when integrated with water table management (subsurface drainage and controlled drainage), in reducing herbicide residues in agricultural drainage water. Twelve PVC lysimeters, 1 m long and 450 mm diameter, were packed with a sandy soil and used to study the following four treatments: subsurface drainage, controlled drainage, grass (sod) cover, and bare soil. Contaminated water containing atrazine, metolachlor, and metribuzin residues was applied to the lysimeters and samples of drain effluent were collected. Significant reductions in pesticide concentrations were found in all treatments. In the first year, herbicide levels were reduced significantly (1% level), from an average of 250 mg/L to less than 10 mg/L . In the second year, polluted water of 50 mg/L, which is considered more realistic and reasonable in natural drainage waters, was applied to the lysimeters and herbicide residues in the drainage waters were reduced to less than 1 mg/L. The subsurface drainage lysimeters covered with grass proved to be the most effective treatment system.

Motivation/problem statement: Once again, we see that the problem—more like subject of study —is stated first in the abstract. This is normal for abstracts, in that you want to include the most important information first. The results may seem like the most important part of the abstract, but without mentioning the subject, the results won’t make much sense to readers. Notice that the abstract makes no references to other research, which is fine. It is not obligatory to cite other publications in an abstract, and in fact, doing so might distract your reader from YOUR experiment. Either way, it is likely that other sources will surface in your paper’s discussion/conclusion.

Methods/procedure/approach: Notice that the authors include pertinent numbers and figures in describing their methods. An extended description of the methods would probably include a long list of numerical values and conditions for each experimental trial, so it is important to include only the most important values in your abstract—ones that might make your study unique. Additionally, we see that a methodological description appears in two different parts of the abstract. This is fine. It may work better to explain your experiment by more closely connecting each method to its result. One last point: the author doesn’t take time to define—or give any background information about—“atrazine,” “metalachlor,” “lysimeter,” or “metribuzin.” This may be because other ecologists know what these are, but even if that’s not the case, you shouldn’t take time to define terms in your abstract.

Results/findings/product: Similar to the methods component of the abstract, you want to condense your findings to include only the major result of the experiment. Again, this study focused on two major trials, so both trials and both major results are listed. A particularly important word to consider when sharing results in an abstract is “significant.” In statistics, “significant” means roughly that your results were not due to chance. In your paper, your results may be hundreds of words long, and involve dozens of tables and graphs, but ultimately, your reader only wants to know: “What was the main result, and was that result significant?” So, try to answer both these questions in the abstract.

Conclusion/implications: This abstract’s conclusion sounds more like a result: “…lysimeters covered with grass were found to be the most effective treatment system.” This may seem incomplete, since it does not explain how this system could/should/would be applied to other situations, but that’s okay. There is plenty of space for addressing those issues in the body of the paper.

ABSTRACT #3: Philosophy / Literature

[Note: Many papers don’t precisely follow the previous format, since they do not involve an experiment and its methods. Nonetheless, they typically rely on a similar structure.]

“Participatory Legitimation: A Reply to Arash Abizadeh” Author: Eric Schmidt, Louisiana State University, 2011

Arash Abizadeh’s argument against unilateral border control relies on his unbounded demos thesis, which is supported negatively by arguing that the ‘bounded demos thesis’ is incoherent. The incoherency arises for two reasons: (1) Democratic principles cannot be brought to bear on matters (border control) logically prior to the constitution of a group, and (2), the civic definition of citizens and non-citizens creates an ‘externality problem’ because the act of definition is an exercise of coercive power over all persons. The bounded demos thesis is rejected because the “will of the people” fails to legitimate democratic political order because there can be no pre-political political will of the people. However, I argue that “the will of the people” can be made manifest under a robust understanding of participatory legitimation, which exists concurrently with the political state, and thus defines both its borders and citizens as bounded , rescuing the bounded demos thesis and compromising the rest of Abizadeh’s article.

This paper may not make any sense to someone not studying philosophy, or not having read the text being critiqued. However, we can still see where the author separates the different components of the abstract, even if we don’t understand the terminology used.

Motivation/problem statement: The problem is not really a problem, but rather another person’s belief on a subject matter. For that reason, the author takes time to carefully explain the exact theory that he will be arguing against.

Methods/procedure/approach: [Note that there is no traditional “Methods” component of this abstract.] Reviews like this are purely critical and don’t necessarily involve performing experiments as in the other abstracts we have seen. Still, a paper like this may incorporate ideas from other sources, much like our traditional definition of experimental research.

Results/findings/product: In a paper like this, the “findings” tend to resemble what you have concluded about something, which will largely be based on your own opinion, supported by various examples. For that reason, the finding of this paper is: “The ‘will of the people,’ actually corresponds to a ‘bounded demos thesis.’” Even though we aren’t sure what the terms mean, we can plainly see that the finding (argument) is in support of “bounded,” rather than “unbounded.”

Conclusion/implications: If our finding is that “bounded” is correct, then what should we conclude? [In this case, the conclusion is simply that the initial author, A.A., is wrong.] Some critical papers attempt to broaden the conclusion to show something outside the scope of the paper. For example, if A.A. believes his “unbounded demos thesis” to be correct (when he is actually mistaken), what does this say about him? About his philosophy? About society as a whole? Maybe people who agree with him are more likely to vote Democrat, more likely to approve of certain immigration policies, more likely to own Labrador retrievers as pets, etc.

Applying These Skills

Now that you know the general layout of an abstract, here are some tips to keep in mind as you write your own:

1. The abstract stands alone

An abstract shouldn’t be considered “part” of a paper—it should be able to stand independently and still tell the reader something significant.

2. Keep it short

A general rule of abstract length is 200-300 words, or about 1/10th of the entire paper.

3. Don’t add new information

If something doesn’t appear in your actual paper, then don’t put it in the abstract.

4. Be consistent with voice, tone, and style

Try to write the abstract in the same style as your paper (i.e. If you’re not using contractions in your paper, the do not use them in your abstract).

5. Be concise

Try to shorten your sentences as often as possible. If you can say something clearly in five words rather than ten, then do it.

6. Break up its components

If allowed, subdivide the components of your abstract with bolded headings for “Background,” “Methods,” etc.

7. The abstract should be part of your writing process

Consider writing your abstract after you finish your entire paper.

There’s nothing wrong with copying and pasting important sentences and phrases from your paper … provided that they’re your own words.

Write multiple drafts, and keep revising. An abstract is very important to your publication (or assignment) and should be treated as such.

"Abstracts." The Writing Center. The University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html

"Abstracts." The Writing Center. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/abstracts.html

Last updated August 2013

• Information For
• Prospective Students
• Current Students
• Faculty and Staff
• Alumni and Friends
• More about LSA
• How Do I Apply?
• LSA Magazine
• Student Resources
• Academic Advising
• Global Studies
• LSA Opportunity Hub
• Social Media
• Update Contact Info
• Privacy Statement
• Report Feedback

Reference management. Clean and simple.

What is the abstract of a paper?

What is an abstract?

The function of an abstract, abstract style, frequently asked questions about abstracts, related articles.

An abstract is a summary of the main contents of a paper.

An abstract provides an overview of a paper’s main arguments and conclusions. They provide the reader with a first glimpse at the paper’s contents. An abstract can influence the popularity of a paper: a well-written one will attract readers, while a poorly-written one may drive them away.

➡️ Abstracts are also used for conference submissions. If you’re preparing a presentation, take a look at our guide on how to make a scientific presentation .

The purpose of an abstract is to provide a concise description of the basic points of the paper. Researchers, academics, and general readers focus on reading abstracts before reading the rest of the paper. This way, they know what to expect in the following pages.

By reading an abstract, people decide if the paper’s information is useful for their own research or not. Therefore, it is imperative to include the most relevant aspects of the paper in the abstract.

➡️ Our guide on how to write an abstract features tips and strategies for writing and formatting abstracts.

Tip: Always wait until you’ve finished writing your paper before composing the abstract.

The exact format of an abstract depends on the citation style you implement. Whether it’s a known style (like APA, IEEE, etc.) or a journal's style, each format has its own guidelines, so make sure to know which style you are using before writing your abstract.

APA is one of the most commonly used styles to format an abstract. Therefore, we created a guide with exact instructions on how to write an abstract in APA style, and a template to download:

📕 APA abstract page: format and template

Additionally, you will find below an IEEE and ASA abstract guide by Purdue Online Writing Lab :

📗 IEEE General Format - Abstract

📘 ASA Manuscript Formatting - Abstract

You should always write an abstract last. Once you finish writing the whole paper, you are ready to write the abstract. This way you can include all important aspects of the paper, such as your aim of research, methodology, and conclusion.

The length of a abstract depends on the formatting style of the paper. For example, APA style calls for 150 to 250 words. Generally, you need between 150-300 words.

No. An abstract has an independent section after the title page and before the index, and should not be included in the table of contents.

Take a look at APA abstract page: format and template for exact details on how to format an abstract in APA style.

You can access any paper through Google Scholar or any other search engine, pick a paper and read the abstract. Abstracts are always freely available to read.

Academic & Employability Skills

Subscribe to academic & employability skills.

Enter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email.

Email Address

Writing an abstract - a six point checklist (with samples)

Posted in: abstract , dissertations

The abstract is a vital part of any research paper. It is the shop front for your work, and the first stop for your reader. It should provide a clear and succinct summary of your study, and encourage your readers to read more. An effective abstract, therefore should answer the following questions:

• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?

So here's our run down of the key elements of a well-written abstract.

• Size - A succinct and well written abstract should be between approximately 100- 250 words.
• Background - An effective abstract usually includes some scene-setting information which might include what is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question (a few short sentences).
• Purpose  - The abstract should also set out the purpose of your research, in other words, what is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present).
• Methods - The methods section should contain enough information to enable the reader to understand what was done, and how. It should include brief details of the research design, sample size, duration of study, and so on.
• Results - The results section is the most important part of the abstract. This is because readers who skim an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. The results section should therefore contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits.
• Conclusion - This section should contain the most important take-home message of the study, expressed in a few precisely worded sentences. Usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcomes of the study. However, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned. It is also customary, but not essential, to express an opinion about the theoretical or practical implications of the findings, or the importance of their findings for the field. Thus, the conclusions may contain three elements:
• The primary take-home message.
• Any additional findings of importance.
• Implications for future studies.

Example Abstract 2: Engineering Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone.

Abstract from: Dalstra, M., Huiskes, R. and Van Erning, L., 1995. Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone. Journal of biomechanical engineering, 117(3), pp.272-278.

And finally...  A word on abstract types and styles

Abstract types can differ according to subject discipline. You need to determine therefore which type of abstract you should include with your paper. Here are two of the most common types with examples.

Informative Abstract

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgements about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarised. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.

Adapted from Andrade C. How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation. Indian J Psychiatry. 2011 Apr;53(2):172-5. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.82558. PMID: 21772657; PMCID: PMC3136027 .

Share this:

• Click to print (Opens in new window)
• Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)

Click here to cancel reply.

• Email * (we won't publish this)

Write a response

Navigating the dissertation process: my tips for final years

Imagine for a moment... After months of hard work and research on a topic you're passionate about, the time has finally come to click the 'Submit' button on your dissertation. You've just completed your longest project to date as part...

8 ways to beat procrastination

Whether you’re writing an assignment or revising for exams, getting started can be hard. Fortunately, there’s lots you can do to turn procrastination into action.

My takeaways on how to write a scientific report

If you’re in your dissertation writing stage or your course includes writing a lot of scientific reports, but you don’t quite know where and how to start, the Skills Centre can help you get started. I recently attended their ‘How...

Role of an Abstract in Research Paper With Examples

Why does one write an abstract? What is so intriguing about writing an abstract in research paper after writing a full length research paper? How do research paper abstracts or summaries help a researcher during research publishing? These are the most common and frequently pondered upon questions that early career researchers search answers for over the internet!

Table of Contents

What does Abstract mean in Research?

In Research, abstract is “a well-developed single paragraph which is approximately 250 words in length”. Furthermore, it is single-spaced single spaced. Abstract outlines all the parts of the paper briefly. Although the abstract is placed in the beginning of the research paper immediately after research title , the abstract is the last thing a researcher writes.

Why Is an Abstract Necessary in Research Paper?

Abstract is a concise academic text that –

• Helps the potential reader get the relevance of your research study for their own research
• Communicates your key findings for those who have time constraints in reading your paper
• And helps rank the article on search engines based on the keywords on academic databases.

Purpose of Writing an Abstract in Research

Abstracts are required for –

• Submission of articles to journals
• Application for research grants
• Completion and submission of thesis
• Submission of proposals for conference papers.

Aspects Included in an Abstract

The format of your abstract depends on the field of research, in which you are working. However, all abstracts broadly cover the following sections:

Reason for Writing

One can start with the importance of conducting their research study. Furthermore, you could start with a broader research question and address why would the reader be interested in that particular research question.

Research Problem

You could mention what problem the research study chooses to address. Moreover, you could elaborate about the scope of the project, the main argument, brief about thesis objective or what the study claims.

• Methodology

Furthermore, you could mention a line or two about what approach and specific models the research study uses in the scientific work. Some research studies may discuss the evidences in throughout the paper, so instead of writing about methodologies you could mention the types of evidence used in the research.

The scientific research aims to get the specific data that indicates the results of the project. Therefore, you could mention the results and discuss the findings in a broader and general way.

Finally, you could discuss how the research work contributes to the scientific society and adds knowledge on the topic. Also, you could specify if your findings or inferences could help future research and researchers.

Types of Abstracts

Based on the abstract content —, 1. descriptive.

This abstract in research paper is usually short (50-100 words). These abstracts have common sections, such as –

• Focus of research
• Overview of the study.

This type of research does not include detailed presentation of results and only mention results through a phrase without contributing numerical or statistical data . Descriptive abstracts guide readers on the nature of contents of the article.

2. Informative

This abstract gives the essence of what the report is about and it is usually about 200 words. These abstracts have common sections, such as –

• Aim or purpose

This abstract provides an accurate data on the contents of the work, especially on the results section.

Based on the writing format —

1. structured.

This type of abstract has a paragraph for each section: Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Conclusion. Also, structured abstracts are often required for informative abstracts.

2. Semi-structured

A semi-structured abstract is written in only one paragraph, wherein each sentence corresponds to a section. Furthermore, all the sections mentioned in the structured abstract are present in the semi-structured abstract.

3. Non-structured

In a non-structured abstract there are no divisions between each section. The sentences are included in a single paragraph. This type of presentation is ideal for descriptive abstracts.

Examples of Abstracts

Abstract example 1: clinical research.

Neutralization of Omicron BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3 SARS-CoV-2 by 3 doses of BNT162b2 vaccine

Abstract: The newly emerged Omicron SARS-CoV-2 has several distinct sublineages including BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3. BA.1 accounts for the initial surge and is being replaced by BA.2, whereas BA.3 is at a low prevalence at this time. Here we report the neutralization of BNT162b2-vaccinated sera (collected 1 month after dose 3) against the three Omicron sublineages. To facilitate the neutralization testing, we have engineered the complete BA.1, BA.2, or BA.3 spike into an mNeonGreen USA-WA1/2020 SARS-CoV-2. All BNT162b2-vaccinated sera neutralize USA-WA1/2020, BA.1-, BA.2-, and BA.3-spike SARS-CoV-2s with titers of >20; the neutralization geometric mean titers (GMTs) against the four viruses are 1211, 336, 300, and 190, respectively. Thus, the BA.1-, BA.2-, and BA.3-spike SARS-CoV-2s are 3.6-, 4.0-, and 6.4-fold less efficiently neutralized than the USA-WA1/2020, respectively. Our data have implications in vaccine strategy and understanding the biology of Omicron sublineages.

Type of Abstract: Informative and non-structured

Abstract Example 2: Material Science and Chemistry

Breaking the nanoparticle’s dispersible limit via rotatable surface ligands

Abstract: Achieving versatile dispersion of nanoparticles in a broad range of solvents (e.g., water, oil, and biofluids) without repeatedly recourse to chemical modifications are desirable in optoelectronic devices, self-assembly, sensing, and biomedical fields. However, such a target is limited by the strategies used to decorate nanoparticle’s surface properties, leading to a narrow range of solvents for existing nanoparticles. Here we report a concept to break the nanoparticle’s dispersible limit via electrochemically anchoring surface ligands capable of sensing the surrounding liquid medium and rotating to adapt to it, immediately forming stable dispersions in a wide range of solvents (polar and nonpolar, biofluids, etc.). Moreover, the smart nanoparticles can be continuously electrodeposited in the electrolyte, overcoming the electrode surface-confined low throughput limitation of conventional electrodeposition methods. The anomalous dispersive property of the smart Ag nanoparticles enables them to resist bacteria secreted species-induced aggregation and the structural similarity of the surface ligands to that of the bacterial membrane assists them to enter the bacteria, leading to high antibacterial activity. The simple but massive fabrication process and the enhanced dispersion properties offer great application opportunities to the smart nanoparticles in diverse fields.

Type of Abstract: Descriptive and non-structured

Abstract Example 3: Clinical Toxicology

Evaluation of dexmedetomidine therapy for sedation in patients with toxicological events at an academic medical center

Introduction: Although clinical use of dexmedetomidine (DEX), an alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonist, has increased, its role in patients admitted to intensive care units secondary to toxicological sequelae has not been well established.

Objectives: The primary objective of this study was to describe clinical and adverse effects observed in poisoned patients receiving DEX for sedation.

Methods: This was an observational case series with retrospective chart review of poisoned patients who received DEX for sedation at an academic medical center. The primary endpoint was incidence of adverse effects of DEX therapy including bradycardia, hypotension, seizures, and arrhythmias. For comparison, vital signs were collected hourly for the 5 h preceding the DEX therapy and every hour during DEX therapy until the therapy ended. Additional endpoints included therapy duration; time within target Richmond Agitation Sedation Score (RASS); and concomitant sedation, analgesia, and vasopressor requirements.

Results: Twenty-two patients were included. Median initial and median DEX infusion rates were similar to the commonly used rates for sedation. Median heart rate was lower during the therapy (82 vs. 93 beats/minute, p < 0.05). Median systolic blood pressure before and during therapy was similar (111 vs. 109 mmHg, p = 0.745). Five patients experienced an adverse effect per study definitions during therapy. No additional adverse effects were noted. Median time within target RASS and duration of therapy was 6.5 and 44.5 h, respectively. Seventeen patients (77%) had concomitant use of other sedation and/or analgesia with four (23%) of these patients requiring additional agents after DEX initiation. Seven patients (32%) had concomitant vasopressor support with four (57%) of these patients requiring vasopressor support after DEX initiation.

Conclusion: Common adverse effects of DEX were noted in this study. The requirement for vasopressor support during therapy warrants further investigation into the safety of DEX in poisoned patients. Larger, comparative studies need to be performed before the use of DEX can be routinely recommended in poisoned patients.

Keywords: Adverse effects; Alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonist; Overdose; Safety.

Type of Abstract: Informative and structured .

How was your experience  writing an abstract? What type of abstracts have you written? Do write to us or leave a comment below.

Rate this article Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published.

Enago Academy's Most Popular Articles

• Reporting Research

Academic Essay Writing Made Simple: 4 types and tips

The pen is mightier than the sword, they say, and nowhere is this more evident…

• AI in Academia
• Trending Now

Simplifying the Literature Review Journey — A comparative analysis of 5 AI summarization tools

Imagine having to skim through and read mountains of research papers and books, only to…

Choosing the Right Analytical Approach: Thematic analysis vs. content analysis for data interpretation

In research, choosing the right approach to understand data is crucial for deriving meaningful insights.…

Comparing Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Studies: 5 steps for choosing the right approach

The process of choosing the right research design can put ourselves at the crossroads of…

• Career Corner

Unlocking the Power of Networking in Academic Conferences

Embarking on your first academic conference experience? Fear not, we got you covered! Academic conferences…

Choosing the Right Analytical Approach: Thematic analysis vs. content analysis for…

Comparing Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Studies: 5 steps for choosing the right…

Research Recommendations – Guiding policy-makers for evidence-based decision making

Sign-up to read more

Subscribe for free to get unrestricted access to all our resources on research writing and academic publishing including:

• 2000+ blog articles
• 50+ Webinars
• 10+ Expert podcasts
• 50+ Infographics
• 10+ Checklists
• Research Guides

We hate spam too. We promise to protect your privacy and never spam you.

• Industry News
• Publishing Research
• Promoting Research
• Diversity and Inclusion
• Infographics
• Expert Video Library
• Other Resources
• Enago Learn
• Upcoming & On-Demand Webinars
• Peer Review Week 2024
• Open Access Week 2023
• Conference Videos
• Enago Report
• Journal Finder
• Enago Plagiarism & AI Grammar Check
• Editing Services
• Publication Support Services
• Research Impact
• Translation Services
• Publication solutions
• AI-Based Solutions
• Thought Leadership
• Call for Articles
• Call for Speakers
• Author Training
• Edit Profile

I am looking for Editing/ Proofreading services for my manuscript Tentative date of next journal submission:

Which among these features would you prefer the most in a peer review assistant?

• Langson Library
• Science Library
• Grunigen Medical Library
• Law Library
• Connect From Off-Campus
• Accessibility
• Gateway Study Center

Email this link

Writing a scientific paper.

• Writing a lab report

What is an abstract?

What is a "good" abstract, techniques to write an abstract, "abstract checklist" from: how to write a good scientific paper. chris a. mack. spie. 2018..

• INTRODUCTION
• LITERATURE CITED
• Bibliography of guides to scientific writing and presenting
• Peer Review
• Presentations
• Lab Report Writing Guides on the Web

There are as many kinds as abstracts as there are types of research papers.  The classic abstract is usually a "Informative" abstract. This kind of abstract communicates compressed information and include the purpose, methods, and scope of the article. They are usually short (250 words or less) and allow the reader to decide whether they want to read the article.

The goal is to communicate:

• What was done?
• Why was it done?
• How was it done?
• What was found?
• What is the significance of the findings?
• Self contained. Uses 1 or more well developed paragraphs
• Uses introduction/body/conclusion structure
• Presents purpose, results, conclusions and recommendations in that order
• Adds no new information
• Is understandable to a wide audience
• Write the abstract last
• Reread the article looking specifically for the main parts: Purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendations
• Write a first rough draft without looking at the original article
• Edit your draft by correcting organization, improving transitions, dropping unnecessary information and words, and adding important information you left out

The abstract should be a concise (200 words or less), standalone summary of the paper, with 1–2 sentences on each of these topics:

• Background: What issues led to this work? What is the environment that makes this work interesting or important?
• Aim: What were the goals of this work? What gap is being filled?
• Approach: What went into trying to achieve the aims (e.g., experimental method, simulation approach, theoretical approach, combinations of these, etc.)? What was actually done?
• Results: What were the main results of the study (including numbers, if appropriate)?
• Conclusions: What were the main conclusions? Why are the results important? Where will they lead?

The abstract should be written for the audience of this journal: do not assume too much or too little background with the topic.

Ensure that all of the information found in the abstract also can be found in the body of the paper.

Ensure that the important information of the paper is found in the abstract.

Avoid: using the first paragraph of the introduction as an abstract; citations in the abstract; acronyms (but if used, spell them out); referring to figures or tables from the body of the paper; use of the first person; use of words like “new” or “novel,” or phrases like “in this paper,” “we report,” or “will be discussed.” 

• << Previous: TITLE
• Next: INTRODUCTION >>
• Last Updated: Aug 4, 2023 9:33 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uci.edu/scientificwriting

Off-campus? Please use the Software VPN and choose the group UCIFull to access licensed content. For more information, please Click here

Software VPN is not available for guests, so they may not have access to some content when connecting from off-campus.

• MAY 16, 2024

How to Write a Research Paper Abstract in 2024: Guide With Examples

by Imed Bouchrika, Phd

Co-Founder and Chief Data Scientist

Jalalian (2012) states that writing an abstract is a vital part of any academic paper. Though it prefaces the whole research, it is the last section of an academic paper that researchers write last. That is because it serves as a summary of the study. Since that is the case, it should be easy. There are researchers who feel that way, while there are those who find it to be a daunting task. That trivializes their abstracts and leads them to commit a number of mistakes or inconsistencies with the text (Turner, 2009).

This article addresses the difficulty in writing an abstract, including those mentioned above, and imparts knowledge on how to write an abstract for a research paper. We have segmented the article into different sections, including the components and style of an abstract, for a step-by-step process. This guide aims to walk the reader through the process of making a cohesive and effective research abstract.

Writing a Research Paper Abstract Table of Contents

• Abstract Definition and Overview
• Sections of an Abstract
• Writing Style
• Types and Examples

1. Abstract Definition and Overview

Before we define what is abstract in research paper, let us trace the term’s roots. An abstract is derived from the Latin abstractus , which means “drawn away." This etymology also applies to art movements and music, including abstract expressionism, which means the revelation of the will of the artist (Drake, 1922).

From this, you can surmise what is an abstract in research: a takeaway from the research itself. Unlike a research proposal or even a research proposal sample that encapsulates the outline of the entire of research project yet to be conducted, an abstract is self-contained, independent of the corpus of the study. A research abstract, however, should describe the problem, the methods used to explore the problem, and the results of these processes. The exact components of the work will vary, depending on the field (Jalalian, 2012), but all in all, it should be a concise summary of the entire paper (Slade, 1997). It is also similar to an executive summary in a business report (Koopman, 1997).

An abstract is also typically written last, after you’ve learned how to write a conclusion for a research paper , although it prefaces the paper. In general, your abstract should be able to:

• Describe the paper.
• State the problem or the key issue.
• Carry the reader through the research methodology, what it has found, and what conclusion you have reached from these findings.
• Contain keywords to your method and content.

In addition, your abstract should not :

• Evaluate, review, or defend the paper or your position.
• Propose what you intend to study, accomplish, or find out.
• Be lengthy and superfluous.

Finally, after reading an abstract, a reader should know why the study was conducted to begin with, what the research has concluded, and how it can be applied or how it can be useful. This role in any academic paper means the abstract is the single most-read part of any research article. As such, it should cover all major points of the paper (Winker, 1999).

What Is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Writing an abstract is mostly a requirement for research papers, but it is not a requirement without a purpose or merely for tradition. An abstract facilitates scanning the paper to determine whether the reader finds it relevant to their own research or study. Using an abstract, a researcher doesn’t need to pore through your entire paper to find the content they’re looking for; they simply have to look at your abstract—conveniently placed before the article—to see if your study can provide them additional information.

Abstract writing is also important for indexing. Internet repositories of academic papers use abstracts to index to the full text of academic papers. Similar to meta descriptions in regular Google results, abstracts should contain keywords to help the researcher find what they’re looking for. This has made abstracting and indexing services (A&I) essential for the scientific, technical, and medical (STM) fields.

Who is the abstract for?

As mentioned earlier, searching a database is a highly time-consuming task. Therefore, most researchers rely on abstracts so they can spend their time wisely looking for supporting data or information. An abstract is thus useful for those who are also conducting research.

In addition, certain professionals, such as librarians or database administrators, also welcome great abstracts. Keyword usage and succinct abstract writing help them to organize their indexes much better. A well-written abstract can aid in the accurate categorization of your paper.

Furthermore, a review panel (such as for a conference) is also one of the audiences of an abstract. As they would not be able to read your entire paper in one sitting, they can choose to look at your abstract first to see if it is worth their time.

2. What are the Sections of an Abstract?

A good abstract is concise and straightforward; it needs to impart as much information as possible in the space of one paragraph. This is why sectioning it or writing its components piecemeal can be effective. Writing a good one is essential in a track as a researcher, such as in philosophy careers . Before one focuses on how to make an abstract in research, a researcher must first know its four parts: the introduction, the methodology, the results, and the conclusion.

We explain them in more detailed terms below.

Introduction

The introduction answers the question, “What?" It consists of about two to three sentences that summarize the article.

When writing the introduction, the first sentence should mention the core content of the paper, while the second should be the background or context of the issue.

The introduction should state the research focus and define the importance of the research. If you know how to write a thesis for a research paper , this is the part where you highlight your research purpose. The researcher can do this by defining the gap in knowledge that the article aims to address or the limitations or restrictions of previous studies. The introduction tackles the most important part of the research in as economical a way as possible.

Additionally, ask yourself a few things when writing the introduction:

• What problems does this study solve?
• What is the main gap in knowledge that your study intends to fill?
• Why are the results of this study important?

Third Sentence of the Introduction

The introduction also contains the third sentence, which addresses the significance of the research. This statement answers the question “Why?" This element of the abstract is one of the most important aspects that draw readers in the first place.

This section details the objective of the research, or what it aims to do, in the form of a hypothesis. You can be more specific here as needed. You should also mind writing the significance of the research in a way that is appropriate to your variables and data.

Funding agencies often look at the hypothesis and the significance of the research to judge whether the study merits their attention or, most importantly, a grant. As more research is done to open up new vistas of knowledge, so do funding, as visualized by the chart below.

Methodology

This section answers the question “How?" This part details the processes and the methods used to answer the “What" (Introduction) and the “Why" (Significance of the Research) questions stated earlier.

You should dedicate about three to four sentences to your methodology section. Here, you should describe the following:

• How the research was designed
• Population (or subject) of the study
• Setting of the study and other variables that might have influenced the results
• How you chose the subject
• Tools and techniques you used to arrive at your conclusion
• How the findings were validated, defined as “the results of any external review, comparison with guidelines developed by other groups, or clinical testing of guideline use (Hayward, 1993)."

The results section, also known as the findings, is the climax of the abstract. This, in general terms, answers the main thrust of the study. As such, it will contain, apart from the results, a statement of its significance (and how it is so) and how it has changed (if at all) from the hypotheses put forth in the third sentence.

In addition, the results should always be written in the past tense. While it will vary depending on the methods you have used and the amount of data you have generated, it should never mention anything beyond the scope of the study or what you yourself have found.

Make sure that you are only stating the results. Interpreting it should be in the next section, where you can give the reader what the results mean and how it can affect the field of knowledge you are researching in.

The conclusion is the final section of the abstract. It answers the question “So what?" This section interprets what you have found in the previous section and states the overall implications of your results. The conclusion describes what these findings mean for the long-term or the field in question. It can also contain your recommendations based on your findings.

To write this section effectively, you can ask yourself a few more things, such as:

• Can your results apply to other situations?
• Did the results fill the gap in knowledge as described in the Introduction?
• How are your findings similar to or different from related studies?
• Would your results lead to another hypothesis?

That said, it’s easy to over-generalize or exaggerate the implications and significance of your results. Avoid this by sticking to the data that the reader can actually find on the paper. Outline the key findings and then string them together using a rational statement.

3. What is the Proper Abstract Writing Style?

Writing an abstract has several conventions on style. What further complicates things is that certain publications have their own in-house style, confusing writers on how to proceed with writing. To make it as simple as possible, we have chosen to follow the 7th edition of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2020) as will be discussed further below.

In general, observe these guidelines:

• Write in complete sentences and avoid informal or colloquial word choices.
• Avoid writing from a personal point of view or offering your opinion.
• Do not include information that the reader cannot find in your paper.
• Minimize acronyms or jargon unless you explain them first.
• Steer clear of tautological arguments and restating the paper’s title.
• Do not stoop to condescension by pointing out common knowledge.

Here is a checklist of requirements as far as the APA-recommended abstract writing style is concerned.

Composition

• When writing your abstract, your biggest focus is to write as clearly and as concisely as possible. Economy of words thus takes on a more crucial role. Writing it in a declarative tone (or active voice) can thus cut down on words while conveying the same meaning.
• When you are writing about institutions or organizations in a language other than English, use their full names in their native language.
• Write titles (such as book or film titles) in their original language, followed by an English translation in parentheses if the reader is unlikely to know what it is.
• Cite sources in in-text APA format (author’s last name, year).
• When stating objectives or hypotheses, it is ideal to use infinitives.
• The APA recommends legible and accessible fonts. You can use any of the following: 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode, 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, or 10-point Computer Modern.
• On the first line, centered and in bold, write “Abstract" (without the quotes).
• One line below it, write the text as a single paragraph, double-spaced.
• Set a 1-inch (2.54 centimeter) margin on all sides.
• The running head should be aligned to the left at the top of the page.
• The abstract should be on the second page of the paper (the first one is reserved for the title).
• Avoid indentations, unless you must include a keywords section at the end of the abstract. In this case, indent the first line and italicize the section label (keywords) while leaving the contents themselves without formatting.

Abstracts should at least be 150 words long but never exceed 250 words. However, account for the length of the study and the data collected and analyzed. A whole dissertation will take up to 250 words, while a shorter one may merit about 150-160 words. The type of abstract will also play a role in length considerations.

If you are writing a paper as a student, your institution or professor may require a specific word count requirement.

Breaking down an abstract into its constituent parts and the composition of an abstract can best be described by the chart below:

Keywords, like in search engines, help indexers (like the aforementioned librarian) find the relevant paper. If your abstract misuses—or worse, does not use—keywords, the database will not be able to look your paper up no matter how great or ground-breaking your research. This is why it pays to use the relevant keywords to help readers find your manuscript and allow it to be cited.

Choosing keywords is a study in itself. In general, however, effective keywords should represent the content of your paper and be specific to your discipline or industry. Mahboobi et al. (2010) recommend that keyword selection should be no less than three and no more than 10.

The APA recommends the formatting for your keywords:

• Use the same font choice, spacing, and page placement as the abstract.
• Place the “Keywords" (without the quotes) label one line below the abstract, in italic but not in bold.
• Indent the first line of the keywords, written one line below the label.
• Write in lowercase, except proper nouns.
• Separate keywords with a comma and space.
• List keywords in any order you choose.
• If the keywords run into a second line, you need not indent the second line.

These instructions are for the abstract only but can be applicable to other parts of your research paper. However, you can make certain you are following the right format by checking the full APA format guidelines .

4. Abstract Types and Examples

Most researchers and studies use one of the two major types of abstracts: descriptive and informative (Kilborn, 1998). We look at how they differ below.

Descriptive

Descriptive abstracts, as you can glean from its name, describes the type of information about the work. Of the two major types, descriptive abstracts are infrequently used in research papers because of their dearth of information. It may, however, contain keywords and some information about the purpose, scope, and methodology of the research.

This type is very short, often just a few lines, or about 100 words or less. It makes no pretensions on the veracity of the work nor does it provide results and/or conclusions and implications of the research. Jalalian (2012), in his paper “Writing an eye-catching and evocative abstract for a research article: A comprehensive and practical approach," uses a descriptive abstract. Here is his example of abstract in research:

“It is an important and difficult job to write an eye catching abstract. A large percentage of the manuscripts that are submitted to academic journals are rejected because their abstracts are poorly written. This paper provides a new and step by step approach for writing a good structured abstract."

Informative

Most people who write abstracts (and those who read them) encounter the other type, called an informative abstract. This type does more than just describe a paper; it expresses and explains the arguments, evidence, and results of the study. Like a descriptive abstract, it contains the scope and questions, but it also includes the findings and the implications of the research.

Here is a research paper abstract example based on an experiment by Palmquist, M., & Young, R. (1992).

“Research reported by Daly, Miller, and their colleagues suggests that writing apprehension is related to a number of factors we do not yet fully understand. This study suggests that included among those factors should be the belief that writing ability is a gift. Giftedness, as it is referred to in the study, is roughly equivalent to the Romantic notion of original genius. Results from a survey of 247 postsecondary students enrolled in introductory writing courses at two institutions indicate that higher levels of belief in giftedness are correlated with higher levels of writing apprehension, lower self-assessments of writing ability, lower levels of confidence in achieving proficiency in certain writing activities and genres, and lower self-assessments of prior experience with writing instructors. Significant differences in levels of belief in giftedness were also found among students who differed in their perceptions of the most important purpose for writing, with students who identified “to express your own feelings about something" as the most important purpose for writing having the highest mean level of belief in giftedness. Although the validity of the notion that writing ability is a special gift is not directly addressed, the results suggest that belief in giftedness may have deleterious effects on student writers."

Informative abstracts take on a more important role in medicine as well, whereas some physicians and clinicians refer to it as structured abstracts (Haynes, 1990). With a structured abstract, authors are required to systematically “disclose the objective, basic research design, clinical setting, participants, interventions (if any), main outcome measurements, results, and conclusions; and for literature reviews the objective, data sources, methods of study selection, data extraction and synthesis, and conclusions." In this context, research design meaning refers to the overall strategy or plan that researchers employ to address their research questions or objectives.

A structured abstract in research paper may also help cut down on bibliographic utility expenses that academic libraries, which are common research repositories, maintain for these papers. These expenses, while small compared to their operating costs, are still remarkably high, as you can see below.

How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

The abstract is a brief summary of your paper, but it is one of the most important—if not the most. However, writing one is never easy. Some amateurs often write it first, thinking that it “teases" what follows (the paper itself), but it should instead be treated as a spoiler (Halpern and Phelan, 2017). Fortunately, there are now technologies you can utilize, such as paper writing software , to help you come up with a good research abstract.

The pithy, straightforward style of the abstract lends itself well to a well-written, well-researched study. If your paper does not have definitive results or the objective of the research itself is questionable, so would your abstract. Therefore, write only the abstract after you have seen your findings and interpreted them in a larger context.

Careful attention and detail can help you on your way to writing an effective, interesting abstract. Not only could you appeal to scientific journals, but you could also make a favorable impression on faculties when applying for Ph.D. degrees .

Key Insights

• An abstract summarizes the key points of a research paper, helping readers quickly determine the paper's relevance.
• It is critical for indexing and retrieval in academic databases, aiding in the organization and searchability of research.
• Introduction: Outlines the research problem and its significance.
• Methodology: Describes the research design, participants, and techniques used.
• Results: Summarizes the findings and their significance.
• Conclusion: Interprets the results and discusses their implications.
• Use clear, concise language and avoid informal or colloquial expressions.
• Follow APA style guidelines, ensuring proper formatting and structure.
• Abstracts should be between 150 to 250 words, depending on the length of the study and specific requirements.
• Descriptive Abstracts: Briefly describe the purpose, scope, and methodology but do not include results or conclusions.
• Informative Abstracts: Provide detailed information, including the research findings and their implications.
• Researchers looking for relevant studies.
• Librarians and database administrators for indexing purposes.
• Review panels, such as those for conferences or grant applications.

Why is writing an abstract considered challenging by some researchers?

Writing an abstract can be challenging because it requires summarizing complex research succinctly and clearly. Researchers must convey the essence of their study without omitting critical details or being overly verbose, which requires a careful balance.

What are the primary functions of an abstract in a research paper?

An abstract serves to summarize the key points of the research, making it easier for readers to determine the paper's relevance. It also helps with indexing and retrieval in academic databases, and it provides a quick overview for review panels and other professionals.

How should the introduction section of an abstract be structured?

The introduction should address the research problem and its significance in two to three sentences. It should mention the core content of the paper, provide background or context, and highlight the research focus and its importance.

What should be included in the methodology section of an abstract?

The methodology section should detail the research design, the population or subjects studied, the setting and variables, the tools and techniques used, and how the findings were validated. This section should be about three to four sentences long.

How do descriptive and informative abstracts differ?

Descriptive abstracts briefly describe the purpose, scope, and methodology without including results or conclusions. Informative abstracts provide a detailed summary of the research, including the findings and their implications.

What are the key style guidelines for writing an abstract according to APA standards?

According to APA standards, abstracts should be written in complete sentences with clear and concise language. They should avoid informal expressions, personal viewpoints, and information not found in the paper. Abstracts should be formatted with specific font choices, margins, and structure as outlined by the APA.

Why is keyword selection important in an abstract, and how should it be formatted?

Keywords are crucial for indexing and retrieving the paper in academic databases. They should accurately represent the content of the paper and be specific to the discipline. Keywords should be formatted according to APA guidelines: placed one line below the abstract, italicized but not bold, and separated by commas and spaces.

References:

• American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000
• Drake, W. (1922). Poetry Lore 33. The Life and Deeds of Dada. Retrieved from  https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9781349077908
• Halpern, F. and Phelan, J. (2017). Inside Higher Ed. Writing an Effective Abstract: An Audience-Based Approach.  Retrieved from   https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2017/02/23/importance-writing-effective-abstract-when-you-submit-journal-article-essay
• Haynes, B., et al. (1990). Annals of Internal Medicine. More Informative Abstracts Revisited. Retrieved from  https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-113-1-69
• Hayward, R., et al. (1993). Annals of Internal Medicine. More Informative Abstracts of Articles Describing Clinical Practice Guidelines. Retrieved from  https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-118-9-199305010-00012
• Jalalian, M. (2012). Electronic Physician, 2012;4(3). Writing an eye-catching and evocative abstract for a research article: A practical approach. (p. 520-524). Retrieved from http://www.ephysician.ir/2012/520-524.pdf
• Kilborn, J. (1998). St. Cloud University, LEO. Writing Abstracts.  Retrieved from http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/bizwrite/abstracts.html
• Koopman, P. (1997). Carnegie Mellon University.  How to Write an Abstract. Retrieved from  http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html
• Mahboobi, H. et al. (2010), Australasian Medical Journal. 2010;1:1802. Designing a research mentorship program (RMP) to enhance research productivity at Ebne-Sina Psychiatric hospital . Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4066/AMJ.2010.192
• Palmquist, M., & Young, R. (1992). Written Communication, 9(1). The Notion of Giftedness and Student Expectations About Writing. (pp. 137-168). Retrieved from  https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741088392009001004
• Slade, C. (1997). Form and Style: Research Papers, Reports, Theses. Retrieved from  https://openlibrary.org/books/OL1019215M/Form_and_style
• Turner, A. (2009) English Solutions for Engineering and Sciences Research Writing: A guide for English learners to publish in international journals. Retrieved from  http://www.hanyangowl.org/media/textbook/engsciresearchwritingbook.pdf
• Winker, M. (1999). JAMA 281(12). The Need for Concrete Improvement in Abstract Quality.  (pp. 1129-1130). Retrieved from  https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.281.12.1129

Related Articles

How to Cite a PowerPoint Presentation in APA in 2024

Definition of Academic Research in 2024

How to Write Research Methodology in 2024: Overview, Tips, and Techniques

How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Research Paper in 2024: Steps and Examples

Datasets for Computer Vision and Image Processing on CVonline

H-Index : How to create a Google Scholar profile

Needs Analysis in 2024: Definition, Importance & Implementation

How to Write a Research Paper for Publication: Outline, Format & Types in 2024

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper: Effective Tips and Strategies in 2024

How to Write a Research Proposal in 2024: Structure, Examples & Common Mistakes

Guide2Research Becomes Research.com – New Disciplines, Tools & Layout

How to Write a Research Question in 2024: Types, Steps, and Examples

Best Online RN to MSN-PMHNP Programs for 2024

How to Become a Preschool Teacher in Pennsylvania: Requirements & Certification in 2024

How to Become a Middle School Math Teacher in Montana: Requirements & Certification in 2024

How to Become a Middle School Math Teacher in West Virginia: Requirements & Certification in 2024

How to Become a Middle School Math Teacher in Maryland: Requirements & Certification in 2024

How to Become a Middle School Math Teacher in North Carolina: Requirements & Certification in 2024

Most Affordable CACREP Accredited Counseling Programs Online for 2024

How to Become a Middle School Math Teacher in Idaho: Requirements & Certification in 2024

How to Become a Middle School Math Teacher in New York: Requirements & Certification in 2024

Recently published articles.

2024 Fastest Online Master's in Public Health Degree Programs Ranking in Florida

2024 Most Valuable Online Healthcare Degree Programs Ranking in Milledgeville, GA

2024 Fastest Online Speech Pathology Degree Programs Ranking in the Midwest

2024 Fastest Online Nursing Degree Programs Ranking in Moon Township, PA

2024 Most Valuable Online Doctorate in Nursing Degree Programs Ranking in Arizona

2024 Most Affordable Online Master's in Healthcare Degree Programs Ranking in Gorham, ME

2024 Most Affordable Online Healthcare Degree Programs Ranking in Duluth, MN

2024 Most Affordable Online Bachelor's in Healthcare Degree Programs Ranking in Orlando, FL

2024 Most Affordable Online Healthcare Degree Programs Ranking in Livonia, MI

2024 Fastest Online Doctorate in Healthcare Degree Programs Ranking in Anderson, SC

2024 Most Valuable Online Master's in Nursing Degree Programs Ranking in North Carolina

2024 Most Affordable Online Bachelor's in Healthcare Degree Programs Ranking in Green Bay, WI

2024 Most Valuable Online Bachelor's in Human Resources Degree Programs Ranking in New York

2024 Most Affordable Online Master's in Psychology Degree Programs Ranking in Muncie, IN

2024 Fastest Online Bachelor's in Public Health Degree Programs Ranking in Texas

2024 Most Valuable Online Bachelor's in Marketing Degree Programs Ranking in Florida

2024 Most Valuable Online Human Resources Degree Programs Ranking in Joliet, IL

2024 Best Online Master's in Healthcare Degree Programs Ranking in Tucson, AZ

2024 Best Online Healthcare Degree Programs Ranking in Fayetteville, AR

2024 Most Valuable Online Master's in Human Resources Degree Programs Ranking in California

2024 Most Valuable Online Social Work Degree Programs Ranking in Kentucky

Newsletter & conference alerts.

Research.com uses the information to contact you about our relevant content. For more information, check out our privacy policy .

Thank you for subscribing!

Confirmation email sent. Please click the link in the email to confirm your subscription.

Assessing the Dynamics of Ecological Footprint in Relation to Economic and Energy Factors: A Comparative Analysis of Finland and Japan

• Open access
• Published: 25 September 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Simona-Vasilica Oprea 1 ,
• Adela Bâra 1 &
• Irina Alexandra Georgescu 1  

The ecological footprint (EF) has a complex relationship with several key factors, including economic growth, nuclear energy, urban population, and renewables. The scope of this paper is to analyze the effect of renewables (REN), GDP per capita, urbanization (URB), and nuclear energy (NUK) on EF by means of the ARDL model for Finland and Japan. The ARDL long-run estimated coefficients are validated by supplementary tests, such as FMOLS, DOLS, and CCR. While Finland and Japan share similarities in education, technology, and quality of life, they differ significantly in geography, population density, cultural practices, economic structure, and historical backgrounds. The main results indicate that in the long term, REN and NUK exhibit a negative impact on EF, while GDP and URB exhibit a positive impact on EF for Finland. Additionally, REN, URB, and NUK exert a negative impact on EF, while GDP exerts a positive impact on EF for Japan. The ECT of − 1.96 for Finland indicates a very fast and strong correction towards equilibrium in the EF following any short-term disturbances. Furthermore, an ECT of − 1.01 in the ARDL model for Japan indicates a very fast adjustment of the EF to its long-term equilibrium following any short-term disturbances caused by changes in REN, GDP, URB, or NUK. Our research proposes some policy implications for both economies. Its main contributions enhance the understanding of the complex relationships between economic growth, energy sources, urbanization, and environmental impact, providing guidance for sustainable development policies.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

The EF, a measure of human impact on the environment, exhibits a complex relationship with several key factors, including GDP, nuclear energy (NUK), urban population (URB), and renewable energy consumption (REN). Generally, as GDP increases, so does resource consumption, leading to a larger EF. Higher economic activity often correlates with increased production and consumption of goods and services, which can strain natural resources and contribute to environmental degradation. The energy industry significantly influences the sustainability of economies, affecting job creation, resource efficiency, and environmental impact (L. M. Batrancea & Tulai, 2022 ). Regional development includes initiatives aimed at boosting economic growth and improving living standards through strategic investment. Given that economic growth and well-being are closely linked in EU policies, the relationship between well-being-related infrastructure and economic growth across the EU-28 member states during the period from 2001 to 2020 was investigated (L.M. Batrancea et al., 2023a , b ). Regional analyses related to carbon emissions and GDP were further provided in Georgescu et al., ( 2024a , b ). However, advancements in technology and efficiency can mitigate some of these impacts, potentially decoupling GDP growth from EF expansion (Alruweili, 2023 ) (Nate et al., 2021 ). Nuclear energy’s influence on the EF is multifaceted. On one hand, the nuclear power generation emits minimal greenhouse gases during operation, making it a relatively low-carbon energy source compared to fossil fuels (Hassan et al., 2023 ). As such, increased reliance on nuclear energy reduces carbon emissions and mitigates ecological damage associated with climate change. However, the nuclear power also presents risks related to radioactive waste disposal, accidents, and uranium mining, which can have ecological implications (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2022 ). Moreover, the relationship between the EF and key variables such as GDP, NUK, URB, and REN can vary between countries like Finland and Japan.

Urbanization often correlates with higher resource consumption and environmental impact per capita due to factors such as increased energy demand, transportation emissions, and infrastructure development. As the urban populations grow, so does the EF associated with providing essential services and amenities to urban residents. However, cities also offer opportunities for sustainable practices, such as efficient public transportation systems, green building initiatives, and urban planning strategies that prioritize conservation and biodiversity (Nathaniel et al., 2019 ), (Ahmed et al., 2020 ). The adoption of renewable energy sources (RES), such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, significantly reduces the EF by decreasing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating environmental pollution. RES-based technologies generally have lower ecological impacts during operation compared to conventional energy sources. However, the EF of RES also depends on factors such as land use, habitat disruption, and resource extraction associated with their production and deployment (Raza et al., 2023 ).

In Finland, a high GDP per capita is often associated with significant resource consumption, driven by a strong industrial base and export-oriented economy. However, Finland has made substantial efforts towards sustainable development, with a focus on energy efficiency and RES adoption. Nuclear energy plays a significant role in Finland’s energy mix, contributing to its relatively low carbon footprint compared to GDP (Dursun, 2022 ). The urban population in Finland is relatively small compared to other European countries, with a significant portion of the population living in rural areas or smaller towns (Midttun & Olsson, 2018 ). RES, particularly biomass and hydropower, are actively promoted in Finland’s energy transition strategy, aiming to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and mitigate environmental impact. As a northern country, Finland is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including increased temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events affecting forestry, agriculture, and biodiversity (Esposito, 2023 ). The economy is significantly dependent on forestry, which poses sustainability challenges, especially in balancing economic benefits with ecological conservation. The loss of biodiversity in native species and habitats is a concern, especially in the face of expanding urban and industrial areas (I. Georgescu & Kinnunen, 2023 ). While Finland has a robust profile in RES, transitioning fully away from fossil fuels requires addressing economic, technical, and social factors, especially in rural areas.

In contrast, Japan has a highly developed and densely populated urban landscape, with a large portion of its population residing in metropolitan areas. The country’s GDP per capita is among the highest globally, driven by advanced technology, manufacturing, and export-oriented industries. However, Japan faces challenges related to resource scarcity and environmental sustainability, exacerbated by its limited land area and natural resources. Nuclear energy was historically a significant contributor to Japan’s energy supply, but the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011 led to increased scrutiny and a shift towards RES. Japan has ambitious goals for RES expansion, particularly in solar and offshore wind power, as part of its efforts to reduce carbon emissions and mitigate climate change (Ikram et al., 2021 ). Frequent earthquakes, tsunamis, and typhoons pose significant risks to life and infrastructure, complicating environmental management and sustainable development. Following the Fukushima disaster, both nuclear energy safety and waste disposal have become critical issues, with significant public and environmental health implications. High population density and industrial activity contribute to air quality issues, particularly in urban areas like Tokyo and Osaka. Efficient waste management is essential in Japan due to limited land available for disposal and the high volume of waste generated by a dense population (Liu et al., 2018 ).

While both Finland and Japan face unique challenges and opportunities in managing their EF, their approaches to sustainable development are shaped by their economic structures, energy policies, urbanization patterns, and cultural contexts. By prioritizing RES adoption, promoting energy efficiency and implementing urban planning strategies that prioritize sustainability, both countries aim to achieve a more environmentally sustainable future. Both Finland and Japan are advanced economies with distinct environmental challenges shaped by their geographic locations, economic structures, and social policies (Wang et al., 2023 ), (Aydin et al., 2023 ).

The scope of this paper is to analyze the effect of REN, GDP per capita, URB, and NUK on EF by means of the ARDL model for the two countries: Finland and Japan. Considering the above context, the analysis of how NUK, REN, economic growth (GDP), and URB impact the EF in Finland and Japan is particularly pertinent given these environmental challenges. Our study helps reveal how each country’s unique challenges and policies impact its EF and identify strategies to mitigate environmental impacts while promoting sustainable growth.

Based on this context, the research hypotheses are formulated as follows:

H1 : Increased GDP per capita is positively associated with the EF in both Finland and Japan as higher GDP per capita generally leads to increased resource consumption and environmental impact due to greater production and consumption of goods and services;

H2 : Increased use of NUK is negatively associated with the EF in both Finland and Japan as nuclear energy emits minimal greenhouse gases during operation, reducing carbon emissions and mitigating ecological damage compared to fossil fuels;

H3 : Higher levels of URB are positively associated with the EF in both Finland and Japan as URB typically correlates with higher resource consumption and environmental impact due to increased energy demand, transportation emissions and infrastructure development;

H4 : Increased REN is negatively associated with the EF in both Finland and Japan as RES generally have lower ecological impacts during operation compared to conventional energy sources, thus reducing the overall EF;

H5 : The relationship between GDP per capita, NUK, URB, and REN with the EF differs significantly between Finland and Japan due to their unique geographical, cultural, and economic contexts. The distinct differences in geography, population density, cultural practices, economic structures, and historical backgrounds between Finland and Japan are expected to influence how these factors impact the EF.

These hypotheses will be tested using the ARDL model, FMOLS, and DOLS to analyze the long-term and short-term relationships between these variables and the EF in both countries.

The contribution of our research is summarized as follows: (1) The research provides a comparative analysis of the effects of several key factors (renewables, GDP per capita, urbanization, and nuclear energy) on the ecological footprint in two distinct countries, Finland and Japan. This comparison highlights how different geographical, cultural, and economic contexts influence environmental outcomes. (2) By employing the ARDL model and validating the long-run estimated coefficients with supplementary tests like FMOLS, DOLS, and CCR, the current research ensures reliable results. This methodological approach can serve as a reference for future research on environmental impact analysis. (3) The findings indicate that renewables and nuclear energy have a negative impact on the ecological footprint in both countries, suggesting that promoting these energy sources could be beneficial for environmental sustainability. Conversely, the positive impact of GDP and urbanization on the ecological footprint suggests that economic growth and urban expansion need to be managed carefully to mitigate their environmental impact. (4) Our research provides insights into the speed and strength of adjustment towards long-term equilibrium in response to short-term disturbances, as evidenced by the error correction terms (ECTs) for Finland and Japan. This information is essential for policymakers to understand how quickly environmental policies can take effect. (5) Based on the results, the study proposes customized policy recommendations for Finland and Japan. They may assist policymakers in both countries design strategies that balance economic growth with environmental sustainability. (6) By focusing on the ecological footprint and its determinants in the context of Finland and Japan, the research adds to the existing literature on environmental economics and sustainability, offering new empirical evidence and insights.

Literature Review

The National Footprint Accounts (NFA), using data from 1961 to 2014 and based on UN datasets, is a key dataset for calculating the EF for countries and globally (Lin et al., 2018 ). The researchers evaluated the evolution of the NFA, detailed the impact of enhancements since the 2012 edition, and discussed recent global trends. Despite numerous improvements—four major and over thirty minor—analysis across six NFA editions revealed stable global time-series trends. Notably, the global EF for 2008 rose by 6% following these adjustments. The latest 2018 NFA edition showed humanity’s EF at 1.7 Earths for 2014, with the ecological overshoot continuing to increase. Although enhanced management and higher agricultural yields had boosted Earth’s biocapacity since 1961, the global EF was rising more rapidly, especially in Asia, where both total and per capita footprints were outpacing other regions.

The EF model is a quantitative tool used to translate human consumption of biological resources and waste output into bio-productive land area, evaluating the sustainability of regional development against ecological carrying capacity. Despite its utility, the model does not account for ecological inequality across regions due to trade, prompting revisions towards a consumptive and productive footprint model. The researchers assessed the trends in Xiamen City, China’s productive and consumptive EF and deficit from 2010 to 2019, examining the sustainability and equity of its development (Dai et al., 2023 ). The findings indicated a significant increase in Xiamen’s productive ecological surplus (from − 0.0084 in 2010 to 0.1165 in 2019) and its consumptive ecological deficit (from 0.0228 in 2010 to 0.3338 in 2019). While Xiamen achieved regional sustainability, it is nationally unsustainable due to resource consumption from other regions.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) identify key threats to human well-being, highlighting both non-RES and RES, as well as an increasing environmental deficit. These concerns are reflected in the objectives of SDG-7 and SDG-13. The researchers examined the impact of environmental technologies, financial growth, and energy consumption on the EF and green growth in the ten countries with the largest EF from 1990 to 2019 (Saqib et al., 2024 ). The findings indicated that while environmental innovations and RES positively influence the environment, financial growth and non-RES usage adversely affect it. The study also found that financial expansion, ecological impact, and non-RES usage hindered green growth, but environmental innovation and RES promoted it. Additionally, a bidirectional causal relationship was identified between environmental innovations, green growth and energy types, along with the EF. A unidirectional causality from financial development to EF and green growth was observed as well.

Recent years have seen a surge in empirical research focusing on the EF, a burgeoning area of interest among environmental scholars. Despite its growing importance, several critical determinants of the EF remain underexplored. Another research investigated the relationship between economic complexity, human capital, RES generation, urbanization, economic growth, export quality, and trade, specifically in the top ten economically complex countries (Rafique et al., 2022 ). Employing panel data estimators like fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS), dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS), and system-GMM for the period from 1980 to 2017, the study revealed that economic complexity, economic growth, export quality, trade, and urbanization tend to increase the EF. Conversely, human capital and RES generation appeared to reduce it.

The global economic expansion has paralleled a significant rise in the EF. The interplay between human capital, urbanization, and EF using data from 110 economies between 1990 and 2016 was examined (Chen et al., 2022 ). The findings revealed that globally, human capital initially exacerbated, then mitigated the EF. Analysis of sub-groups showed that in high-income countries, human capital reduced EFs, whereas in low-income and populous nations, it increased them. Furthermore, urbanization moderated the influence of human capital on EFs linearly; the more urbanized a country, the higher the level of human capital required to positively affect environmental quality. Additionally, under similar urbanization levels, larger populations or greater EFs raised the threshold of human capital necessary for environmental improvement. Therefore, countries were advised to enhance human capital to foster industrial upgrading, green technology innovation, and energy-saving lifestyle changes, while also addressing the adverse impacts of large populations and rapid urbanization on environmental quality.

The ASEAN-4 countries, namely Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand, face growing EFs and diminishing biocapacity due to high urbanization rates, a dependence on traditional innovations, and extensive fossil fuel use. Urban areas in these countries are essential for economic activities and resource consumption. The researchers explored the non-linear effects of urbanization on EFs from 1980 to 2017, considering the distinct impacts of indigenous and foreign innovations (Salman et al., 2022 ). The ARDL test indicated that urbanization and EFs did not follow an inverted U-shaped curve in either the short or long term within the ASEAN-4. Urbanization particularly affected EFs in Indonesia and Thailand. Both indigenous and foreign innovations failed to reduce EFs in these regions. Control variables such as population growth, economic development, and non-RES usage exacerbate EFs, while RES had a rebound effect. The analysis, supported by FMOLS and DOLS tests, confirmed bidirectional causality between urbanization and EFs. Batrancea et al., ( 2023a , b ) showed that corruption is harmful to long-term economic development, investment, and growth as it disrupts fair competition and undermines the credibility of government institutions.

In recent years, the EF has become a prevalent metric for environmental depletion, capturing the deteriorating state of ecosystems. The influence of economic complexity and natural resources on Bangladesh’s EF from 1995 to 2018 was examined (Kibria, 2023 ). Utilizing a nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) model, the study found that increased economic complexity significantly raises the EF over the long term. Specifically, a 1 unit increase in economic complexity led to a 0.13 unit rise in the EF, while a 1% decrease in economic complexity led to a 0.41% reduction. Additionally, changes in natural resources also affect environmental quality; a 1% increase in natural resources decreased the EF by 0.14%, whereas a 1% decrease exacerbated it by 0.59%. An asymmetric Granger causality test confirmed a unidirectional causal relationship from EF to a positive partial sum of natural resources and vice versa for a negative sum. The findings also indicated a bidirectional causal link between the size of the EF and economic complexity. Moreover, Bangladesh’s rapid economic growth has escalated human demand for natural resources, contributing to climate change, biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and environmental hazards. The researchers explored the determinants of EF and air quality (PM2.5) in Bangladesh from 1990 to 2016, including an examination of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis (Gupta et al., 2022 ). Employing a single structural break analysis to determine breakpoint integration for each variable, the study then used an ARDL bound testing approach and Bayer and Hanck joint co-integration test to establish long-term relationships among urbanization, natural resources, population density, economic growth, EF, and PM2.5. The results indicated that urbanization, population density, and energy consumption significantly drive both the EF and PM2.5 levels. Conversely, technological innovation and effective management of natural resources contributed to reducing these impacts. Both models confirmed the EKC hypothesis’s validity for Bangladesh.

Economic growth is an essential indicator of sustainable development for any region. The European Union enacts regional policies to reduce socio-economic disparities between the newer and more established members (L. M. Batrancea, 2023 ). How economic growth and inflation affected economic sentiment and household consumption in 28 EU nations from December 2019 to October 2020 was investigated. Using panel data methods, the findings revealed that economic sentiment and household consumption were significantly influenced by these factors. Inflation had a stronger negative impact on economic sentiment than the positive effect of economic growth, while the opposite was true for household consumption. The study suggested strategies to boost national economies during challenging times (Batrancea 2021a ). Another research investigated the impacts of technological innovation, economic growth, RES, and financial inclusion on the EF in emerging economies from 1990 to 2019 (Saqib et al., 2023 ). Additionally, it explored how financial inclusion moderates these effects. Employing advanced panel estimation methods to manage structural shifts, disguised cointegration, and breaks in the data, the study revealed that technological innovations and RES substantially decrease EFs. Conversely, economic growth and financial inclusion increased them. Significantly, the integration of innovative technologies and RES had the potential to mitigate the negative impacts of financial inclusion by facilitating the adoption of green technologies and reducing EFs. The findings suggested that emerging economies should synergize innovative technology with RES and financial inclusion strategies to sustainably reduce environmental damage and promote growth.

The focus of Hussain et al. ( 2023 ) was to evaluate the impact of public sector transport infrastructure spending on the EF in India, considering factors such as urbanization, mobile usage, electricity consumption, and economic growth between 1990 and 2018. Utilizing the ARDL bounds testing approach for cointegration, the study established short-run and long-run relationships between these variables and the EF. The findings confirmed a long-term association, indicating that transport infrastructure expenditure and economic growth potentially reduce the EF, whereas urbanization, mobile usage, and electricity consumption exacerbate it, both in the short and long term. Based on these results, the study recommended increasing transport infrastructure investments and fostering sustainable economic growth. It also highlighted the importance of promoting sustainable urbanization, eco-friendly mobile usage, and electricity consumption from RES in India to address ecological concerns effectively.

In recent years, the EF has become a popular indicator for measuring environmental deterioration. However, existing studies often explored symmetric relationships, leaving gaps in understanding the dynamics fully. Addressing this, the research (Ahmed et al., 2021 ) adopted both symmetric and asymmetric approaches to analyze the relationship between EF, economic globalization, economic growth, financial development, population density, and energy consumption in Japan. Using advanced unit root tests, including Narayan-Popp and CMR with two breaks, this research established the unit root properties of the variables. Both symmetric and asymmetric ARDL models were employed to examine cointegration and long-run relationships. Findings revealed that economic globalization and financial development generally increase Japan’s EF, as shown by the symmetric ARDL. However, asymmetric ARDL findings differed, showing that both positive and negative shifts in economic globalization can decrease the footprint. Moreover, a positive change in financial development significantly increased the footprint, more so in the long run, while negative changes had a milder effect. Energy consumption also increased the footprint, while an unexpected decrease in footprint was associated with higher population density. The presence of an inverted U-shaped relationship confirmed the EKC in Japan.

The exploration of EFs and their determinants has been a critical topic among policy analysts, with some key factors still underexplored. Another research examined the impact of real income, RES, urbanization, and natural resource rent on the EF across BRICS economies, employing panel data estimators like FMOLS and DOLS from 1992 to 2016 (Danish et al., 2020 ). The empirical results indicated that natural resource rent, RES, and urbanization contribute positively to environmental quality by reducing the EF. These findings supported the EKC hypothesis in BRICS countries when using the EF as an indicator of environmental degradation.

Another research leveraged estimates of the ecological gap, global GDP, recent growth rates, and the decline in natural capital to address several pivotal questions. Using 2019 as the base year, this analysis adopted a global perspective but can be scaled down to smaller regions or countries (Dasgupta et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, the impact of environmental policy on reducing the EF, considering the roles of RES and innovation across 29 OECD countries from 1990 to 2020 was assessed (Appiah et al., 2023 ). Using a cross-sectional ARDL model to analyze panel data, findings showed that environmental policy effectively reduced the EF in these countries, influenced by their bio-capacity surplus/deficit and industrialization level. RES contributed positively to reducing the EF and innovation enhanced environmental quality. Conversely, population density increased, while industrialization decreased the EF. The study identified bi-directional causality between the EF and all examined variables except for economic growth, demonstrating robustness under short-run heterogeneity, long-run homogeneity, and cross-sectional dependence conditions. Furthermore, Batrancea et al., ( 2023a , b ) analyzed determinants of economic growth for the last half of century using a panel data analysis on 50 countries. Their results indicated that increased investments and green policies are essential for achieving sustainable economic growth across the 50 nations. Also, Batrancea et al., ( 2023a , b investigated determinants of economic growth in seven non-Basel Committee of Banking Supervision countries using a panel data analysis. They demonstrated that over the past three decades, economic growth, indicated by the gross domestic product growth rate, was largely driven by the bank capital to assets ratio.

Another study focused on the USA from 1995 to 2018, analyzing the influence of economic globalization, transportation, coal rents, and electricity consumption on the EF (Wenlong et al., 2023 ). Utilizing data from the Global Footprint Network, Swiss Economic Institute, and World Development Indicators, the study incorporated the flexible Fourier form nonlinear unit root test to check the stationarity of variables. Employing the quantile ARDL model, the study identified nonlinear relationships and evaluated the long-term stability of these factors across quantiles. Results revealed that coal rents, transportation, and globalization significantly exacerbated the EF in both the short and long term at various quantiles. Electricity consumption significantly impacted the EF in the lower quantiles over the long term but was not significant in the short term. Recommendations included reducing the transport sector’s reliance on fossil fuels, increasing hydroelectric power use and enforcing strict measures to limit coal consumption to mitigate these impacts on the USA’s EF.

The concept of sustainable development highlighted the importance of preserving natural resources and the environment, particularly under conditions of resource scarcity and environmental constraints (Li et al., 2022 ). Another research explored the effects of EF on sustainable development in China’s resource-abundant yet imbalanced Yangtze River Economic Belt. Using fixed-effect and panel threshold regression models to analyze data from 108 prefecture-level cities from 2006 to 2018, the research uncovered complex relationships between the EF’s breadth and depth and sustainable development. Specifically, EF breadth exhibited a double threshold effect, promoting sustainability between thresholds of 0.2802 and 0.7997. In contrast, EF depth showed a single threshold effect, fostering sustainability when less than 2.5404. EF breadth supported sustainability by rationalizing and advancing the industrial structure, while depth promoted sustainability through similar mechanisms.

The research on environmental efficiency was proposed by introducing new key performance indicators (KPIs) that provide more comprehensive and reliable measures of EF indices (Khezri et al., 2023 ). Employing the data envelopment analysis (DEA) model with three inputs: energy consumption, labor force and capital stock and one desirable output (GDP), along with various undesirable outputs like CO 2 emissions and other EF indicators, the analysis covered 27 OECD countries from 2000 to 2017. Results showed that Norway, Luxembourg, and the UK rank as the most environmentally efficient countries. Conversely, Lithuania, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, and the USA displayed the lowest environmental and EF efficiencies. These countries also showed poor performance in carbon footprint and farmland efficiency. Specific concerns were noted in fishing ground efficiency in Lithuania, South Korea, Portugal, and Spain and forest area efficiency in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Czech Republic.

The impact of technological innovation, natural resource consumption, globalization, economic growth, human capital development, and financial development on EFs across 73 developing countries from 1990 to 2016 was assessed (Jahanger et al., 2022 ). Utilizing sub-samples from Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean, the study employed second-generation panel unit root and long-run cointegration tests to ensure robust and reliable results. Findings revealed mixed integration orders and confirmed cointegration. Long-run results indicated that natural resource consumption escalated EFs, whereas technological innovation mitigated them and moderated the adverse environmental impacts of natural resource use. Globalization notably reduced the EF in African and Latin American nations. The EKC hypothesis held true for Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean, but not for Asia. Financial development generally decreased EFs, particularly in Asia, though not in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Additionally, Batrancea ( 2021b ) considered that financial performance and financial equilibrium are essential for business longevity and crisis resilience. Using panel data modelling, the authors showed that financial performance indicators significantly impacted short-term and long-term financial equilibria, measured by current ratio, quick ratio, and debt to equity ratio. The SMEs financing sources and their impact on economic growth across the EU, extracting insights from a panel data study spanning 16 years, were also examined in (L. M. Batrancea et al., 2022a , b ).

The ARDL approach with a structural break was employed (Danish et al., 2019 ), analyzing data from 1971 to 2014, to explore the relationship between economic growth, biocapacity, human capital, and the EF. The results demonstrated that economic growth and biocapacity both increased the EF, contributing to environmental degradation. Causality analysis revealed no causal relationship between economic growth and the EF, highlighting the complexity of these interactions and suggesting the need for integrated approaches.

A tabular comparison based on the following elements: objective, interval, methods, results, country/region for the selected studies is provided in Table  1 .

The novelty of our research compared to previous works is highlighted by several key aspects: (a) unlike many previous studies that emphasize renewable energy, this paper uniquely examines the impact of nuclear energy on the ecological footprint; (b) it focuses specifically on Finland and Japan, providing a detailed comparative analysis between two distinct nations with different energy profiles and urbanization levels. This contrasts with many studies that either focus on single countries or broader regional analyses; (c) while previous works have examined factors like GDP per capita, urbanization, and renewables separately, this study integrates these variables along with nuclear energy into a single model, offering a comprehensive view of their combined effects on the EF.

Overall, the novelty lies in the unique combination of variables analyzed, the specific focus on nuclear energy, the detailed country-specific analysis, and the application of the ARDL model, along with FMOLS, DOLS, and CCR, to explore these relationships in both the short and long term.

Methodology

The autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model is an econometric tool introduced by Pesaran and Shin ( 1999 ) and Pesaran et al. ( 2001 ) and used for analyzing the relationship between variables in both short and long run, especially when the data series are of different integration orders (I(0) or I(1)). The ARDL bounds testing approach, developed by Pesaran et al. ( 2001 ), is used to test for the existence of a long-term relationship between the variables. This involves comparing the F -statistic from the model to critical value bounds. The ARDL model allows for the simultaneous estimation of short-run dynamics and long-run equilibrium relationships.

Error correction model (ECM) can be derived from ARDL to examine the speed of adjustment back to equilibrium. The relationship between EF and its determinants is expressed as:

In Eq. ( 1 ), \({a}_{i},i=1,\dots ,5\) represent constants and \({\varepsilon }_{t}\) is the error term.

The time series data were converted to natural logarithms. This transformation helps to smooth out sudden fluctuations and stabilize the variance within the series, as highlighted by Lütkepohl and Xu ( 2012 ). Equation ( 1 ) can be written as an ARDL ( n,p,q,r,s ) model:

where Δ is the first difference operator and \({\varepsilon }_{t}\) is the noise, n , p , q , r , and s are lag lengths which will be determined later.

The investigation of the cointegration relationship between EF, REN, GDP, URB, and NUK utilizes the joint cointegration test introduced by Bayer and Hanck (Bayer & Hanck, 2013 ). This test provides robust results by integrating four cointegration methods: (Engle & Granger, 1987 ), (Johansen, 1988 ), (Peter Boswijk, 1994 ), and (Banerjee et al., 1998 ), denoted as EG, JOH, BO, and BDM, respectively. The test employs Fisher F -statistics to provide evidence of cointegration.

According to the Fisher formula, the test expressions are as follows:

PEG, PJOH, PBO, and PBDM represent the probabilities of the EG, JOH, BO, and BDM tests, respectively. To determine the long-term relationship among the variables, the Fisher statistic is calculated. If the Fisher statistic exceeds the critical value specified by Bayer and Hanck ( 2013 ), the null hypothesis of no cointegration is rejected.

The ARDL cointegration bounds test proposed by Pesaran et al. ( 2001 ) corroborates the findings. The null hypothesis of the ARDL test posits no cointegration, while the alternative suggests cointegration. This assessment uses F -statistics, comparing them with critical values from Pesaran et al. ( 2001 ). If the F -statistic surpasses the upper bound (I(1)), the null hypothesis is rejected, indicating cointegration. If it falls below the lower bound (I(0)), the null is accepted. Values between I(0) and I(1) are inconclusive. When cointegration is confirmed, ECM is used to analyze short-term dynamics and adjustments towards long-term equilibrium.

Γ is the coefficient representing short-term dynamics in the ECM. The error correction term (ECT) should be statistically significant and negative, with a value not lower than − 2 (Samargandi et al., 2015 ). A negative ECT indicates the speed of adjustment to long-term equilibrium. The ECM equation in the ARDL model is used to analyze how variables adjust following deviations from their long-term equilibrium relationship.

The fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) by Phillips and Hansen ( 1990 ) is a method developed to provide optimal estimates of cointegrating regressions. It corrects for endogeneity and serial correlation in the errors of a cointegration equation. The dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) by Stock and Watson ( 1993 ) is another estimation technique for cointegrating relationships that adjusts for endogeneity and serial correlation by including leads and lags of the first differences of the explanatory variables.

The canonical cointegration regression (CCR) by Park ( 1992 ) is designed to provide efficient parameter estimates by transforming the cointegrating equation to eliminate the endogeneity and serial correlation in the errors. These three methods are used to validate the long-term coefficients obtained from the ARDL model.

Various diagnostic tests were performed to ensure the robustness of the ARDL model. Specifically, the normality test, Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test, ARCH test, LM test, and Ramsey-Reset test were conducted to verify the model’s normal distribution, the absence of autocorrelation, and the stability of the results.

The proposed methodology consists of several models applied to a dataset downloaded from variate open data sources (Global Footprint Network, World Bank). The flowchart is showcased in Fig.  1 .

Methodology flowchart

The dataset includes several variables for two countries (Finland and Japan) across multiple years, beginning from 1990 until 2022. The scatter plot of EF versus GDP per capita for Finland and Japan (as in Fig.  2 ) showed how economic output correlates with environmental impacts. For both countries, the trend lines were not very steep, indicating a mild relationship between GDP and the EF. In Finland, the trend line showed a slight upward trajectory, suggesting that as GDP per capita increases, the EF also tends to increase slightly. However, the relationship does not appear to be strongly positive, suggesting other factors also play significant roles. In Japan, the trend line was more horizontal, suggesting a very weak relationship between GDP and EF, indicating that economic growth in Japan has been accompanied by relatively stable EF levels over the years. The EF includes factors like carbon emissions, resource use, and waste production, which can increase with higher GDP due to greater production and consumption. However, technological advances, efficiency improvements, and environmental regulations can mitigate these effects. Finland’s slight upward trend could reflect the balance between economic growth and environmental sustainability practices. As a smaller economy with substantial natural resources, economic growth phases might more directly impact its environment compared to more diversified economies. Japan’s stable trend suggests effective environmental management practices and technological innovations that allow for economic growth with minimal increases in the EF. Japan’s long-standing policies on energy efficiency and technological innovation in various sectors have contributed to decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation. These insights suggest that while GDP growth traditionally leads to higher resource use and environmental impact, effective policy frameworks, technological innovation, and sustainable practices can mitigate these effects, allowing for economic development with controlled EFs. The differences between Finland and Japan highlight the impact of national policies and the economic structure on the relationship between GDP and ecological sustainability.

EF versus GDP per capita and EF versus NUK for Finland and Japan

The trend lines EF vs. nuclear energy (NUK) for both countries are relatively flat, suggesting a weak relationship between the percentage of nuclear energy used and the EF. This indicates that nuclear energy, as a low-carbon energy source, does not have a strong direct correlation with the total EF when compared to other factors. Nuclear energy’s impact on the EF can be complex. While it reduces reliance on fossil fuels (thus potentially lowering carbon emissions), concerns about nuclear waste and other environmental impacts may mitigate these benefits in terms of total ecological sustainability. These suggest that while renewable and nuclear energy can influence a country’s EF, the relationships are complex and influenced by other socio-economic factors, including technology, policy, and public acceptance. Urbanization presents both challenges and opportunities for managing EFs, depending on how urban growth is managed.

For both Finland and Japan, the trend lines EF vs renewable energy (REN) suggest a slight downward trajectory, indicating that as the percentage of renewable energy consumption increases, the EF may decrease (as in Fig.  3 ). This implies that greater reliance on RES is associated with reduced environmental impact. Countries investing in RES might be mitigating their EFs, aligning with global efforts to reduce carbon emissions and other environmental impacts.

EF versus REN per capita and EF versus URB for Finland and Japan

The relationship EF vs. urbanization shows varied patterns. In Japan, there is a slight upward trend suggesting that increased urbanization could correlate with a higher EF. For Finland, the trend is not very pronounced, indicating a less direct or variable relationship. Urbanization often leads to increased resource consumption and waste production, which can increase the EF. However, the efficiency of urban infrastructure and the nature of urban growth (e.g., sustainable vs. non-sustainable development) can affect this relationship.

The violin plots in Fig.  4 show the distribution of various metrics: EF, GDP per capita, urbanization (URB), renewable energy consumption (REN), and nuclear energy consumption (NUK) for Finland and Japan. These plots provide insights into the spread and density of the data for each variable. Areas where the violin plot is wider indicate higher density of data points, showing where most of the values lie. The extent of the plot shows the range of the data, and points outside the main body of the plot might indicate outliers. These plots are useful for comparing how concentrated or dispersed the measurements are between the two countries across different metrics.

Distribution of variables for Finland and Japan

The violin plots for REN and NUK consumption show distinct patterns for Finland and Japan, revealing their energy strategies and priorities. In REN, Finland displays a broad distribution, indicating significant variability year over year, which may reflect the country’s aggressive policies towards integrating RES across different sectors and times. In contrast, Japan has a very concentrated distribution with a much lower median, suggesting that despite its technological advancements, RES forms a smaller part of its energy mix compared to Finland. For NUK, Finland shows a low median with small variability, indicating a consistent but limited reliance on nuclear energy. Japan, however, exhibits a narrow but extremely skewed distribution, with a significant spike extending towards higher values. This likely reflects periods of high reliance on nuclear energy, which would have been significantly altered following the Fukushima disaster, leading to a dramatic reduction in nuclear energy use as policies shifted towards greater safety and public scrutiny.

The two correlation matrices in Fig.  5 a and b illustrate the correlation coefficients between various indicators. The diagonal displays the distribution of each variable. Below the diagonal, bivariate scatter plots with fitted lines illustrate the relationships between variables. Above the diagonal, the correlation values are shown alongside symbols indicating the significance level. The symbols correspond to p -values as follows: p -values (0, 0.001, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 1) <  =  > symbols (“***”, “**”, “*”, “.”, “”). For Finland, the high positive correlations among GDP, URB, REN, and NUK indicate that increases in GDP are associated with increases in URB, REN, and NUK usage. This suggests a model of development where economic growth is paralleled by urban development and a shift towards more sustainable energy sources. There are also negative correlations with EF, particularly REN showing a moderate negative correlation, suggesting that higher RES usage may help reduce Finland’s EF, aligning with sustainable practices. URB and NUK, though weaker, indicate a slight tendency for urbanization and nuclear energy usage to be associated with lower EFs, due to more efficient infrastructure and energy usage.

Correlation matrix for Finland ( a ). Correlation matrix for Japan ( b )

In Japan, strong negative correlations between EF and GDP, as well as EF and URB, indicate that higher GDP and greater urbanization are associated with a lower EF. This reflects efficient urban planning, advanced technology, and effective environmental policies that help reduce per capita ecological impact despite economic and urban growth. The strong negative correlation between EF and REN further underscores the role of RES in reducing Japan’s EF, highlighting effective integration of RES. The positive correlations among GDP, URB, and REN, similar to Finland, suggest a cohesive growth in economic, urban and RES sectors. Finland shows a balanced approach to growth and sustainability, with high positive interrelations among economic and energy variables but a more moderate connection between these factors and the EF. Japan demonstrates a more pronounced negative correlation between EF and economic/urban development, indicative of highly efficient resource use and advanced environmental management strategies.

Correlation analysis is meant to assess potential multicollinearity issues, important for ensuring unbiased empirical estimates. Along with examining pairwise correlations, variance inflation factors (VIFs) are calculated for all independent variables. The results indicated no multicollinearity concerns, as none of the correlation coefficients exceeded the 0.9 threshold (L. M. Batrancea et al., 2023c ). Additionally, all VIF values are below the acceptable threshold of 5, further confirming the absence of significant multicollinearity. Descriptive statistics for Finland and Japan are provided in Tables 2 and 3 .

EF shows a slight positive skewness (0.199545), indicating a few higher values in the distribution. The kurtosis value of EF is close to 2, suggesting a near-normal distribution. The data for EF is likely normally distributed, with minor deviations in skewness and kurtosis not being significant. GDP is negatively skewed (− 0.814615), implying a tail on the left side of the distribution. The kurtosis value of GDP is close to 2.15, indicating a distribution that is slightly flatter than the normal distribution. URB has a slight negative skew (− 0.248276), indicating a slight left tail. The kurtosis of URB is 1.892912, suggesting a distribution slightly flatter than normal. REN has a slight positive skew (0.229508), indicating a few higher values. The kurtosis of REN is 1.803304, showing a slightly flatter distribution. NUK is negatively skewed (− 0.906154), with a relatively more significant left tail. The kurtosis value of NUK is 2.575795, indicating a distribution slightly more peaked than normal. The Jarque–Bera test results for all variables show that none significantly deviate from a normal distribution.

EF in Japan shows a slight left skew, indicating that lower values are more common than higher ones. The probability from the Jarque–Bera test suggests that the EF data does not significantly deviate from a normal distribution, indicating that Japan’s EF data are relatively stable without extreme variations. The positive skew in REN suggests that there are more observations on the higher end of the data range. Although there is some deviation from normality, it is not statistically significant, indicating a gradual increase in REN in Japan over time. Japan’s GDP data is approximately normally distributed with slight left skewness, indicating a consistent economic performance without large fluctuations. URB in Japan shows slight negative skewness, suggesting that urbanization levels are generally high and consistent across the country. The probability value close to the 0.10 significance level indicates borderline normality. NUK data shows a strong negative skew, reflecting Japan’s historical reliance on nuclear power and the significant reduction following the Fukushima disaster. The Jarque–Bera test’s probability indicates significant non-normality, likely due to the abrupt policy shifts affecting nuclear energy use.

Empirical Results

The Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) test checks for the presence of a unit root in a time series, indicating whether the series is non-stationary (Dickey & Fuller, 1979 ). From Tables 4 and 5 , it follows that all time series are stationary at first difference.

In ARDL modelling, determining the optimal lag length is crucial for accurate estimation and inference. Proper lag selection avoids overfitting and underfitting, ensuring that the model is neither too complex nor too simplistic. From Tables 6 and 7 , it follows that the optimal lag length for ARDL model in case of Finland is 3, and in case of Japan is 2.

The Bayer-Hanck cointegration test (Bayer & Hanck, 2013 ) in Tables 8 and 9 synthesizes results from several traditional cointegration tests, including the Engle-Granger (Engle & Granger, 1987 ), Johansen (Johansen, 1988 ), Boswijk (Peter Boswijk, 1994 ), and Banerjee (Banerjee et al., 1998 ) tests. By combining these tests, the robustness and reliability of the cointegration results are stronger. Since the Fisher statistic is greater than the critical value specified by Bayer and Hanck ( 2013 ), the null hypothesis of no cointegration can be rejected. It follows that there exists a long-run causality among the variables, which is confirmed by the ARDL bounds tests in Tables 10 and 11 .

Since the F calculated in Tables 10 and 11 exceeds the upper critical bound I(1), it follows that there exists cointegration according to the ARDL bounds test. The selected model for Finland is ARDL(3,3,0,1,0) and for Japan is ARDL(2,1,1,0,0).

Table 12 contains the long-run estimated coefficients for Finland. A 1% increase in REN causes a 1.01% long-run decrease in EF. Renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power generate electricity with little to no carbon emissions. By increasing the share of renewables, Finland reduces its reliance on fossil fuels, which are major contributors to carbon emissions. Lower carbon emissions lead to a reduced EF. Renewable energy technologies often encourage improvements in energy efficiency. For instance, advancements in wind and solar technologies can lead to more efficient energy conversion and lower energy wastage. Increased energy efficiency means less energy is required to perform the same tasks, contributing to a lower EF. Renewable energy projects can have lower environmental impacts compared to fossil fuel extraction and consumption. For example, solar farms and wind turbines typically have a smaller EF than coal mines and oil rigs. By increasing renewable energy use, Finland can minimize land degradation, habitat destruction, and pollution, all of which contribute to a reduced EF (I. Georgescu & Kinnunen, 2024 ), (I. Georgescu et al., 2024a , b ).

A 1% increase in GDP contributes to a 0.48% long-term increase in EF. The relationship between GDP growth and an increase in the EF in Finland is driven by the combined effects of increased consumption, more resource-intensive production, higher energy demand, extensive infrastructure development, greater waste generation, increased transportation, and lifestyle changes that collectively put more strain on the environment. Economic growth generally leads to higher levels of consumption. As GDP rises, people and businesses have more disposable income, which often results in increased consumption of goods and services. This heightened consumption typically demands more natural resources and energy, leading to a higher EF. Higher GDP often correlates with increased industrial and agricultural production. These activities can be resource-intensive, requiring significant amounts of water, energy, and raw materials. The expansion of production activities contributes to greater environmental degradation and higher EF. Economic growth typically leads to increased energy demand as industries expand, transportation needs rise, and households consume more energy for heating, cooling, and electronic devices. If this increased energy demand is met primarily by fossil fuels, it results in higher carbon emissions and a larger EF. Economic expansion often involves extensive infrastructure development, such as building new roads, bridges, buildings, and other facilities. This construction requires substantial natural resources and energy, contributing to habitat destruction, pollution, and a higher EF.

A 1% increase in URB contributes to a 2.62% long-term increase in EF. Urban areas typically have higher energy consumption per capita compared to rural areas. This is due to the concentration of industries, commercial activities, and residential needs such as heating, cooling, and lighting. Increased urbanization leads to higher overall energy demand, often met by fossil fuels, contributing to a larger EF. Urbanization often results in more transportation infrastructure and increased vehicle usage. As people migrate to urban areas, the demand for public and private transportation rises, leading to more emissions from cars, buses, and other forms of transport. This increase in transportation emissions significantly contributes to the EF. Urban living tends to be more resource intensive. Urban residents may have higher consumption patterns, including greater use of electronic devices, higher water usage, and more waste generation. The demand for goods and services in urban areas can also drive-up resource extraction and production, increasing the EF. URB drives the need for new housing, commercial buildings, roads, and other infrastructure. The construction process is resource-intensive, requiring large amounts of materials such as steel, concrete, and asphalt, and is energy-intensive, further increasing the EF. Urban areas generate more waste, including solid waste, wastewater, and air pollution. Managing this waste requires significant resources and often leads to environmental pollution if not handled properly. Increased waste generation in urban areas contributes to a higher EF. Urban areas tend to have higher concentrations of pollution from industrial activities, vehicles, and residential sources. This concentrated pollution affects air and water quality and requires more resources to mitigate, contributing to a higher EF.

A 1% increase in NUK causes a 0.39% long-term decrease in EF. Nuclear power is a cornerstone of Finland’s energy policy, providing a significant portion of its electricity, supporting climate goals, and benefiting from advanced waste management and high safety standards. Nuclear energy produces electricity with minimal greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas. By increasing the share of nuclear energy, Finland reduces its carbon footprint, leading to a lower overall EF. Nuclear power plants have high-capacity factors, meaning they produce a large amount of energy relative to their size and the amount of fuel consumed. This high efficiency in energy production means that fewer resources are required to generate the same amount of electricity, contributing to a reduced EF. As nuclear energy increases, it can displace the use of fossil fuels in electricity generation. This displacement reduces the extraction, transportation, and combustion of fossil fuels, all of which are significant contributors to the EF due to their associated environmental impacts. Nuclear power provides a stable and reliable base load of energy, reducing the need for peaking power plants that often rely on fossil fuels. By providing consistent energy output, nuclear energy can support the integration of other renewable energy sources, further decreasing the EF. Nuclear power plants have a smaller land footprint compared to renewable energy sources like wind and solar farms, which require large areas to generate equivalent amounts of electricity. This reduced land use helps preserve natural habitats and reduces the impact on ecosystems, contributing to a lower EF. Besides carbon emissions, fossil fuel combustion releases pollutants like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, which contribute to air pollution and environmental degradation. Nuclear energy does not produce these pollutants, leading to improved air quality and a lower EF.

The ECT of − 1.96 for Finland (see Table  13 ) indicates a very fast and strong correction towards equilibrium in the EF following any short-term disturbances. This rapid adjustment highlights the dynamic nature of the relationships between EF and its determinants and suggests that EF is highly responsive to changes in these factors. A 1% increase in URB contributes to a 22.03% short-term decrease in EF. Urban areas in Finland might have highly efficient infrastructure compared to rural areas. This includes well-developed public transportation systems, energy-efficient buildings, and advanced waste management systems, which can lead to lower per capita ecological footprints. Urbanization can lead to a concentration of services and amenities, reducing the need for long travel distances. With more people living in cities, there might be a reduced need for energy-intensive transportation, leading to a lower EF. Urban areas often benefit from economies of scale in terms of energy use. For example, district heating systems are more common in urban settings and are more energy-efficient compared to individual heating systems used in rural areas. Higher population density in urban areas can lead to more efficient use of resources. For example, multi-story buildings use less land per capita than single-family homes, and shared facilities can reduce the overall resource use. This counterintuitive result highlights the potential benefits of well-managed urbanization in reducing environmental impacts, especially in a country like Finland with advanced infrastructure and strong environmental policies.

One can see that NUK does not influence EF in the short term. Nuclear energy projects have long development and construction phases. The benefits of new nuclear power plants, such as reduced carbon emissions, may not be immediately apparent. Once operational, the full environmental benefits are realized gradually over time rather than immediately. Finland already has a stable and substantial base of nuclear energy contributing to its electricity supply. Any incremental increases or changes in nuclear energy capacity might not create noticeable short-term shifts in the EF due to the already established infrastructure and energy mix.

From Table  14 , one sees that 1% increase in REN leads to 0.29% long-term decrease in EF for Japan. Renewable energy sources produce electricity with little to no greenhouse gas emissions. By increasing the share of renewables in the energy mix, Japan can reduce its carbon footprint, which is a significant component of the overall EF. Over the long term, this reduction in emissions translates into a decrease in EF. By substituting renewables for fossil fuels, Japan can reduce the environmental impacts associated with fossil fuel use, leading to a lower EF. The deployment of renewable energy technologies often comes with improvements in energy efficiency and advancements in technology. These improvements can lead to more efficient energy production and consumption, reducing waste and lowering the EF. Over time, as renewable technologies become more advanced and widely adopted, their environmental benefits become more pronounced. Renewable energy technologies generally have lower environmental impacts compared to fossil fuels. For example, solar panels and wind turbines produce energy without emitting pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, which are harmful to both human health and the environment. Reducing these pollutants leads to cleaner air and water, contributing to a lower EF.

A 1% increase in GDP contributes to a 0.41% long-term increase in EF. Economic growth typically leads to higher disposable incomes, which in turn increases consumption of goods and services. This heightened consumption often demands more natural resources and energy, leading to a larger EF. Higher GDP often correlates with increased industrial and agricultural production. These activities can be resource-intensive, requiring significant amounts of energy, water, and raw materials. The expansion of production activities contributes to greater environmental degradation and a higher EF. Economic growth generally leads to higher energy demand as industries expand, transportation needs rise, and households consume more energy for heating, cooling, and electronic devices. If this increased energy demand is primarily met by fossil fuels, it results in higher carbon emissions and a larger EF.

A 1% increase in URB contributes to a 0.73% long-term decrease in EF. Urban areas often benefit from more efficient infrastructure compared to rural areas. This includes well-developed public transportation systems, energy-efficient buildings, and advanced waste management systems. Such infrastructure reduces per capita resource consumption and waste generation, contributing to a decrease in the ecological footprint. URB is often associated with technological advancements and innovations. These advancements can lead to more sustainable practices, such as energy-efficient appliances, smart grid systems, and green building designs, all of which help reduce resource consumption and environmental impact. Well-planned urbanization includes the preservation and creation of green spaces, parks, and urban forests. These green spaces provide ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, air purification, and habitat for biodiversity, contributing to a decrease in the EF.

A 1% increase in NUK contributes to a 0.0007% long-term decrease in EF. Japan’s energy mix historically relies heavily on fossil fuels due to the limited availability of domestic energy resources. Integrating more nuclear energy into the mix can help diversify the sources of electricity generation, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating their environmental impacts. Nuclear energy relies on uranium, a relatively abundant resource, compared to finite fossil fuels like coal and oil. By using uranium more efficiently, nuclear energy can help optimize resource use and minimize the environmental impact associated with resource extraction and depletion, contributing to a slight decrease in the EF. Nuclear energy generation produces radioactive waste that requires careful management and disposal. While advancements in waste management technologies aim to minimize environmental impacts, concerns about long-term storage and disposal of nuclear waste can influence public acceptance and policy decisions regarding nuclear energy expansion. Japan’s commitment to transitioning towards renewable energy sources, particularly after the Fukushima disaster, may prioritize investments in renewables over nuclear energy. This focus on renewables could limit the growth of nuclear energy capacity and its potential impact on the EF.

An ECT of − 1.01 in the ARDL model for Japan (see Table  15 ) indicates a very fast adjustment of the EF to its long-term equilibrium following any short-term disturbances caused by changes in REN, GDP, URB, or NUK. This rapid correction underscores the dynamic and robust relationship between the EF and these economic and energy variables. URB and NUK do not exert a short-time influence on EF for Japan. As people move to urban areas, their consumption behaviors and lifestyle changes happen gradually. The transition from rural to urban living can take time, and the associated changes in energy use, waste generation, and resource consumption do not immediately manifest in the EF. In the short term, the environmental costs associated with URB, such as construction and increased demand for resources, might offset the potential benefits of urban efficiencies. These initial costs can obscure any short-term reduction in the EF. The transition to increased nuclear energy capacity is not instantaneous, and the benefits in terms of reduced carbon emissions and lower ecological footprint take time to materialize. The environmental benefits of nuclear energy, such as reduced reliance on fossil fuels, manifest indirectly. These benefits accumulate over time as nuclear energy gradually displaces fossil fuels in the energy mix. In the short term, the EF may not show noticeable changes due to these indirect effects. In Japan, public perception and policy shifts following events like the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster can influence the pace and extent of nuclear energy adoption. Short-term policy changes and public sentiment may not immediately impact the EF, as the transition to or from nuclear energy is a prolonged process.

Tables 16 and 17 display the results of the FMOLS, DOLS, and CCR tests, applied to ensure the robustness and consistency of the ARDL findings. Mainly the signs of these coefficients are similar to the ARDL long-term coefficients.

Diagnostic tests in Tables 18 and 19 are performed to verify the models’ stability. These tests indicate no presence of serial correlation or heteroskedasticity. The models also satisfy the functional form specification and normality assumptions. Additionally, the stability of the ARDL error correction model coefficients is assessed using the cumulative sum (CUSUM) and cumulative sum of squares (CUSUMSQ) tests developed by Brown et al. ( 1975 ). The results, shown in Figs.  6 , 7 , 8 , and 9 , demonstrate that the CUSUM and CUSUMSQ statistics remain within the 5% critical bounds, confirming the stability of the estimated coefficients.

CUSUM for coefficients’ stability of ARDL model at 5% level of significance-Finland

CUSUMSQ for coefficients’ stability of ARDL model at 5% level of significance-Finland

CUSUM for coefficients’ stability of ARDL model at 5% level of significance-Japan

CUSUMSQ for coefficients’ stability of ARDL model at 5% level of significance-Japan

Finland’s EF adjusts more aggressively to long-term equilibrium compared to Japan. Finland sees a more substantial long-term reduction in EF from increases in REN compared to Japan. Both countries show an increase in EF with rising GDP, conforming H1, but the effect is slightly larger in Finland. Urbanization leads to a long-term increase in EF in Finland, but a decrease in Japan, partially confirming H3, and the short-term impact of urbanization is significantly different, with a notable decrease in Finland, but no significant effect in Japan. The long-term decrease in EF from nuclear energy is more pronounced in Finland than in Japan, confirming H2, and in the short term, nuclear energy does not significantly affect EF in either country.

Investing in renewable energy can spur technological innovations that not only make renewables more efficient but also enhance other areas of the economy in environmentally friendly ways, confirming H4. For instance, advances in battery storage and smart grid technologies improve energy management and reduce wastage, further lowering the EF. Thus, the relationship between GDP per capita, NUK and REN with the EF does not significantly differ between Finland and Japan, except for URB, rejecting H5.

In case of Finland, emphasizing the development and integration of renewable energy sources can have substantial long-term environmental benefits. Policies should address the environmental impacts of urbanization and find ways to make urban areas more sustainable. Continuing to support nuclear energy as part of the energy mix can contribute to long-term reductions in the ecological footprint.

In case of Japan, renewable energy should be further promoted to enhance its impact on reducing the ecological footprint. Urbanization strategies should focus on maintaining and enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of urban areas. The marginal impact of nuclear energy on the ecological footprint suggests a need to evaluate and possibly optimize the role of nuclear power within the broader energy policy.

Data Availability

The data will be made available upon request.

Ahmed, Z., Asghar, M. M., Malik, M. N., & Nawaz, K. (2020). Moving towards a sustainable environment: The dynamic linkage between natural resources, human capital, urbanization, economic growth, and ecological footprint in China. Resources Policy . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2020.101677

Ahmed, Z., Zhang, B., & Cary, M. (2021). Linking economic globalization, economic growth, financial development, and ecological footprint: Evidence from symmetric and asymmetric ARDL. Ecological Indicators . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.107060

Alruweili, F. (2023). Impact of GDP growth on the ecological footprint: Theoretical and empirical evidence from Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences . https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2023.05.015

Andrei, M., Ioan, B., Maria, B., & Larissa, B. (2010). Financial ratio analysis used in the IT enterprises. Annals of the University of Oradea: Economic Science .

Appiah, M., Li, M., Naeem, M. A., & Karim, S. (2023). Greening the globe: Uncovering the impact of environmental policy, renewable energy, and innovation on ecological footprint. Technological Forecasting and Social Change . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122561

Aydin, M., Degirmenci, T., Gurdal, T., & Yavuz, H. (2023). The role of green innovation in achieving environmental sustainability in European Union countries: Testing the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. Gondwana Research . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2023.01.013

Bandyopadhyay, A., Rej, S., Villanthenkodath, M. A., & Mahalik, M. K. (2022). The role of nuclear energy consumption in abatement of ecological footprint: Novel insights from quantile-on-quantile regression. Journal of Cleaner Production . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132052

Banerjee, A., Dolado, J. J., & Mestre, R. (1998). Error-correction mechanism tests for cointegration in a single-equation framework. Journal of Time Series Analysis . https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9892.00091

Batrancea, L. (2021a). Empirical evidence regarding the impact of economic growth and inflation on economic sentiment and household consumption. Journal of Risk and Financial Management . https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14070336

Batrancea, L. (2021b). The nexus between financial performance and equilibrium: Empirical evidence on publicly traded companies from the global financial crisis up to the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Risk and Financial Management . https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14050218

Batrancea, L. M. (2023). The hard worker, the hard earner, the young and the educated: Empirical study on economic growth across 11 CEE countries. Sustainability . https://doi.org/10.3390/su152215996

Batrancea, L. M., & Tulai, H. (2022). Thriving or surviving in the energy industry: Lessons on energy production from the European economies. Energies . https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228532

Batrancea, L. M., Balcı, M. A., Chermezan, L., Akgüller, Ö., Masca, E. S., & Gaban, L. (2022a). Sources of SMEs financing and their impact on economic growth across the European Union: Insights from a panel data study spanning sixteen years. Sustainability (Switzerland) . https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215318

Batrancea, L., Rathnaswamy, M. K., & Batrancea, I. (2022b). A panel data analysis on determinants of economic growth in seven non-BCBS countries. Journal of the Knowledge Economy . https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-021-00785-y

Batrancea, L. M., Nichita, A., Balcı, M. A., & Akgüller, Ö. (2023a). Empirical investigation on how wellbeing-related infrastructure shapes economic growth: Evidence from the European Union regions. PLoS ONE . https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283277

Batrancea, L. M., Rathnaswamy, M. M., Rus, M. I., & Tulai, H. (2023b). Determinants of economic growth for the last half of century: A panel data analysis on 50 countries. Journal of the Knowledge Economy . https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-022-00944-9

Batrancea, L. M., de Jesús Bello Gómez, F., Nichita, A., & Dragolea, L. L. (2023c). Crunching numbers in the quest for spotting bribery acts: A cross-cultural rundown. In The ethics of bribery: Theoretical and empirical studies . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17707-1_19

Bayer, C., & Hanck, C. (2013). Combining non-cointegration tests. Journal of Time Series Analysis . https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9892.2012.00814.x

Brown, R. L., Durbin, J., & Evans, J. M. (1975). Techniques for testing the constancy of regression relationships over time. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Methodological) . https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1975.tb01532.x

Chen, Y., Lee, C. C., & Chen, M. (2022). Ecological footprint, human capital, and urbanization. Energy and Environment . https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X211008610

Dai, J., Ouyang, Y., Hou, J., & Cai, L. (2023). Long-time series assessment of the sustainable development of Xiamen City in China based on ecological footprint calculations. Ecological Indicators . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110130

Danish, Hassan, S. T., Baloch, M. A., Mahmood, N., & Zhang, J. W. (2019). Linking economic growth and ecological footprint through human capital and biocapacity. Sustainable Cities and Society . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101516

Danish, Ulucak, R., & Khan, S. U. D. (2020). Determinants of the ecological footprint: Role of renewable energy, natural resources, and urbanization. Sustainable Cities and Society . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101996

Dasgupta, P., Dasgupta, A., & Barrett, S. (2023). Population, ecological footprint and the sustainable development goals. Environmental and Resource Economics . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10640-021-00595-5

Dickey, D. A., & Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the estimators for autoregressive time series with a unit root. Journal of the American Statistical Association . https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1979.10482531

Dursun, E. (2022). The nexus among civil aviation, energy performance efficiency and GDP in terms of ecological footprint: Evidence from France and Finland. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy . https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.13399

Engle, R. F., & Granger, C. W. J. (1987). Co-integration and error correction: Representation, estimation, and testing [Co-integración y corrección de error: representación, estimación y prueba]. Econometrica .

Esposito, L. (2023). Renewable energy consumption and per capita income: An empirical analysis in Finland. Renewable Energy . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.03.139

Georgescu, I., & Kinnunen, J. (2023). The role of foreign direct investments, urbanization, productivity, and energy consumption in Finland’s carbon emissions: An ARDL approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28680-w

Georgescu, I. A., Oprea, S. V., & Bâra, A. (2024). Investigating the relationship between macroeconomic indicators, renewables and pollution across diverse regions in the globalization era. Applied Energy . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123077

Georgescu, I., Kinnunen, J., & Nica, I. (2024). Assessing forest conservation for Finland: An ARDL-based evaluation. Sustainability (Switzerland) . https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020612

Georgescu, I., & Kinnunen, J. (2024). Effects of FDI, GDP and energy use on ecological footprint in Finland: An ARDL approach. World Development Sustainability, 4 , 100157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wds.2024.100157

Article   Google Scholar  

Gupta, M., Saini, S., & Sahoo, M. (2022). Determinants of ecological footprint and PM2.5: Role of urbanization, natural resources and technological innovation. Environmental Challenges . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100467

Hassan, S. T., Batool, B., Wang, P., Zhu, B., & Sadiq, M. (2023). Impact of economic complexity index, globalization, and nuclear energy consumption on ecological footprint: First insights in OECD context. Energy . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125628

Hussain, M. M., Pal, S., & Villanthenkodath, M. A. (2023). Towards sustainable development: The impact of transport infrastructure expenditure on the ecological footprint in India. Innovation and Green Development . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.igd.2023.100037

Ikram, M., Xia, W., Fareed, Z., Shahzad, U., & Rafique, M. Z. (2021). Exploring the nexus between economic complexity, economic growth and ecological footprint: Contextual evidences from Japan. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101460

Jahanger, A., Usman, M., Murshed, M., Mahmood, H., & Balsalobre-Lorente, D. (2022). The linkages between natural resources, human capital, globalization, economic growth, financial development, and ecological footprint: The moderating role of technological innovations. Resources Policy . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102569

Johansen, S. (1988). Statistical analysis of cointegration vectors. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control . https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1889(88)90041-3

Khezri, M., Mamghaderi, M., Razzaghi, S., & Heshmati, A. (2023). Comprehensive environmental assessment index of ecological footprint. Environmental Management . https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-022-01747-z

Kibria, M. G. (2023). Ecological footprint in Bangladesh: Identifying the intensity of economic complexity and natural resources. Heliyon . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14747

Li, X., Xiao, L., Tian, C., Zhu, B., & Chevallier, J. (2022). Impacts of the ecological footprint on sustainable development: Evidence from China. Journal of Cleaner Production . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131472

Lin, D., Hanscom, L., Murthy, A., Galli, A., Evans, M., Neill, E., Mancini, M. S., Martindill, J., Medouar, F. Z., Huang, S., & Wackernagel, M. (2018). Ecological footprint accounting for countries: Updates and results of the national footprint accounts, 2012-2018. Resources . https://doi.org/10.3390/resources7030058

Liu, H., Kim, H., Liang, S., & Kwon, O. S. (2018). Export diversification and ecological footprint: A comparative study on EKC theory among Korea, Japan, and China. Sustainability (Switzerland) . https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103657

Lütkepohl, H., & Xu, F. (2012). The role of the log transformation in forecasting economic variables. Empirical Economics . https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-010-0440-1

Midttun, A., & Olsson, L. (2018). Eco-modernity nordic style: The challenge of aligning ecological and socio-economic sustainability. In Sustainable modernity: The Nordic model and beyond . https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315195964

Nate, S., Bilan, Y., Cherevatskyi, D., Kharlamova, G., Lyakh, O., & Wosiak, A. (2021). The impact of energy consumption on the three pillars of sustainable development. Energies . https://doi.org/10.3390/en14051372

Nathaniel, S., Nwodo, O., Adediran, A., Sharma, G., Shah, M., & Adeleye, N. (2019). Ecological footprint, urbanization, and energy consumption in South Africa: Including the excluded. Environmental Science and Pollution Research . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05924-2

Park, J. Y. (1992). Canonical cointegrating regressions. Econometrica . https://doi.org/10.2307/2951679

Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y. (1999). An autoregressive distributed lag modelling approach to cointegration analysis. Econometrics and Economic Theory in the 20th Century: The Ragnar Frisch Centennial Symposium.

Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics . https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616

Peter Boswijk, H. (1994). Testing for an unstable root in conditional and structural error correction models. Journal of Econometrics . https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(93)01560-9

Phillips, P. C. B., & Hansen, B. E. (1990). Statistical inference in instrumental variables regression with i(1) processes. Review of Economic Studies . https://doi.org/10.2307/2297545

Rafique, M. Z., Nadeem, A. M., Xia, W., Ikram, M., Shoaib, H. M., & Shahzad, U. (2022). Does economic complexity matter for environmental sustainability? Using ecological footprint as an indicator. Environment, Development and Sustainability . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01625-4

Raza, A., Habib, Y., & Hashmi, S. H. (2023). Impact of technological innovation and renewable energy on ecological footprint in G20 countries: The moderating role of institutional quality. Environmental Science and Pollution Research . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29011-9

Salman, M., Zha, D., & Wang, G. (2022). Interplay between urbanization and ecological footprints: Differential roles of indigenous and foreign innovations in ASEAN-4. Environmental Science and Policy . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2021.10.016

Samargandi, N., Fidrmuc, J., & Ghosh, S. (2015). Is the relationship between financial development and economic growth monotonic? Evidence from a sample of middle-income countries. World Development . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.11.010

Saqib, N., Ozturk, I., & Usman, M. (2023). Investigating the implications of technological innovations, financial inclusion, and renewable energy in diminishing ecological footprints levels in emerging economies. Geoscience Frontiers . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101667

Saqib, N., Usman, M., Ozturk, I., & Sharif, A. (2024). Harnessing the synergistic impacts of environmental innovations, financial development, green growth, and ecological footprint through the lens of SDGs policies for countries exhibiting high ecological footprints. Energy Policy . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2023.113863

Stock, J. H., & Watson, M. W. (1993). A simple estimator of cointegrating vectors in higher order integrated systems. Econometrica . https://doi.org/10.2307/2951763

Wang, J., Usman, M., Saqib, N., Shahbaz, M., & Hossain, M. R. (2023). Asymmetric environmental performance under economic complexity, globalization and energy consumption: Evidence from the world’s largest economically complex economy. Energy . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.128050

Wenlong, Z., Nawaz, M. A., Sibghatullah, A., Ullah, S. E., Chupradit, S., & Minh Hieu, V. (2023). Impact of coal rents, transportation, electricity consumption, and economic globalization on ecological footprint in the USA. Environmental Science and Pollution Research . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20431-7

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by a grant of the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitization, CNCS- UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P4-PCE-2021–0334, within PNCDI III.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Economic Informatics and Cybernetics, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, no. 6 Piaţa Romană, Bucharest, Romania

Simona-Vasilica Oprea, Adela Bâra & Irina Alexandra Georgescu

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Irina Alexandra Georgescu and Adela Bâra. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Simona-Vasilica Oprea, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Simona-Vasilica Oprea .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval.

Not applicable.

Consent to Participate

Consent for publication, competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Oprea, SV., Bâra, A. & Georgescu, I.A. Assessing the Dynamics of Ecological Footprint in Relation to Economic and Energy Factors: A Comparative Analysis of Finland and Japan. J Knowl Econ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-02312-1

Download citation

Received : 18 June 2024

Accepted : 14 August 2024

Published : 25 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-02312-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Macroeconomics
• Nuclear energy
• Urbanization
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research