water quality parameters assignment pdf

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• Dr. Peter Shanahan

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• Civil and Environmental Engineering

As Taught In

• Aquatic Sciences and Water Quality Control
• Hydrology and Water Resource Systems

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Water and wastewater treatment engineering, l02_water_qualit.pdf.

This resource includes lecture handouts of the Instructor on the topic: Why Treat Water and Wastewater? Water Quality Parameters and Standards.

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Assessment of Drinking Water Quality Using Water Quality Index: A Review

• Review Paper
• Published: 30 January 2023
• Volume 8 , article number  6 , ( 2023 )

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• Atanu Manna 1 &
• Debasish Biswas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8747-0934 2  

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Nowadays, declining water quality is a significant concern for the world because of rapid population growth, agricultural and industrial activity enhancement, global warming, and climate change influencing hydrological cycles. Assessing water quality becomes necessary by using a suitable method to reduce the risk of geochemical contaminants. Water’s physical and chemical properties are compared to a standard guideline to determine its quality. The water quality index (WQI) model is a commonly helpful technique for evaluating surface and groundwater quality. The model mainly employs aggregation techniques to diminish large amounts of data to a sole value. The WQI model has been used across the globe to assess ground and surface water using regional standards. The model has become popular for its ease of use and general structure. Typically, WQI models include five stages: (1) choosing water quality indicators, (2) generating sub-parameters for each variable, (3) calculating variable weighting numbers, (4) aggregating sub-parameters to finding the total WQI value, and (5) classification of WQI value to highlight the category of water quality. In addition, the model creates ambiguity when converting vast volumes of data into a single value. The study considered 2011–2021 blinded peer-reviewed articles and book chapters to assess WQI models and their application in evaluating drinking water quality. This study mainly concentrated on the comparison of WQI models and their applications. The study also focused on the selection of parameters and problems associated with the accuracy of the models.

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Manna, A., Biswas, D. Assessment of Drinking Water Quality Using Water Quality Index: A Review. Water Conserv Sci Eng 8 , 6 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41101-023-00185-0

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• Published: 05 March 2024

Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index and principal component analysis in the Achnera block, Agra district, Uttar Pradesh, Northern India

• Shahjad Ali 1 ,
• Sitaram Verma 2 ,
• Manish Baboo Agarwal 1 ,
• Raisul Islam 3 ,
• Manu Mehrotra 1 ,
• Rajesh Kumar Deolia 4 ,
• Jitendra Kumar 5 ,
• Shailendra Singh 6 ,
• Ali Akbar Mohammadi 7 ,
• Deep Raj 8 ,
• Manoj Kumar Gupta 9 ,
• Phuyen Dang 10 , 11 &
• Mehdi Fattahi 10 , 11  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  5381 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental monitoring

The qualitative and quantitative assessment of groundwater is one of the important aspects for determining the suitability of potable water. Therefore, the present study has been performed to evaluate the groundwater quality for Achhnera block in the city of Taj, Agra, India, where groundwater is an important water resource. The groundwater samples, 50 in number were collected and analyzed for major ions along with some important trace element. This study has further investigated for the applicability of groundwater quality index (GWQI), and the principal component analysis (PCA) to mark out the major geochemical solutes responsible for origin and release of geochemical solutes into the groundwater. The results confirm that, majority of the collected groundwater samples were alkaline in nature. The variation of concentration of anions in collected groundwater samples were varied in the sequence as, HCO 3−  > Cl −  > SO4 2−  > F − while in contrast the sequence of cations in the groundwater as Na > Ca > Mg > K. The Piper diagram demonstrated the major hydro chemical facies which were found in groundwater (sodium bicarbonate or calcium chloride type). The plot of Schoellar diagram reconfirmed that the major cations were Na + and Ca 2+ ions, while in contrast; major anions were bicarbonates and chloride. The results showed water quality index mostly ranged between 105 and 185, hence, the study area fell in the category of unsuitable for drinking purpose category. The PCA showed pH, Na + , Ca 2+ , HCO 3− and fluoride with strong loading, which pointed out geogenic source of fluoride contamination. Therefore, it was inferred that the groundwater of the contaminated areas must be treated and made potable before consumption. The outcomes of the present study will be helpful for the regulatory boards and policymaker for defining the actual impact and remediation goal.

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Introduction.

Quality of life is associated with quality of water we consume. Out of all water resource, groundwater is one of the important drinking water resources 1 , 2 . In the arid and semi-arid regions, especially for the developing countries like India and Bangladesh, the rapid population growth associated with intensive developmental activities results in a severe increase in water demand 1 , 2 , 3 . The day-to-day degradation of groundwater quality has now become one of the serious challenges in the world. Billions of people across the globe are compelled to consume the polluted water due to the scarcity of potable water, and therefore the scarcity of groundwater is an alarming threat to the humans. It has now been well established that groundwater is at higher risk, in terms of its purity 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 . In remote areas, the situation of groundwater is even more miserable, due to over withdrawal of groundwater. The residents of urban areas have to walk several kilometers to fetch potable water 5 , 6 . The government and various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are working hard enough to provide contaminants free potable water to every individual 7 . It has been reported in previous literatures that, contaminants like heavy metals, pesticides, organic and inorganic pollutant are causing the serious human health disease such as hypertension, hypocalcaemia, kidney stones, gastro-renal discomfort, arterial calcification, thrombosis 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 . Apart from the availability of heavy metals in drinking water, the presence of nitrogen has also been proven as the strong potential threat to the quality of drinking water 13 , 14 , 15 . With the increasing groundwater pollution, it is essential to analyze groundwater chemical characteristics and evaluate groundwater quality for water supply purpose. In this regard, methods like groundwater quality index (GWQI), the fuzzy comprehensive method and the health risk weight method (HRWM) have been widely used by researchers. Among these methods, the water quality index (WQI) has been more commonly used by international researcher due to its simple calculation, practicality, and versatile applications 16 , 17 , 18 .

GWQI is a mathematical expression that can be used to determine the quality of groundwater in different locations globally. The idea of GWQI has been kept to assess the water quality throughout diverse world-wide areas 19 , 20 . It is an important tool for the decision-makers to choose the best method for pre-remediation goal 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 . As a result, it has become a crucial component in the evaluation of water quality. In India, multiples research in different areas indicated that the sources of drinking water contain heavy metals like cadmium, lead, mercury, arsenic, and manganese. Also, research findings have shown elevated levels of fluoride, which exceed World Health Organization (WHO), limits of 1.5 ppm 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 . In a study on the Ramganga aquifer of Bareilly District in Uttar Pradesh (India), it was found that the groundwater which were extracted from shallow aquifer contain high percentage of zinc and nickel, whereas the samples collected from deep aquifer consists of heavy metals like copper, cobalt, nickel, manganese, cadmium, and zinc 32 . Previous research revealed that the quality of drinkable water in several regions of northern India is unfit for drinking. About 35 districts are reported to have been found variously affected with arsenic toxicity 31 , 32 , 33 .

Considering the above mention highlights, this study was undertaken to achieve the following objectives: (a) the primary aim of the present research work was to explore the level of contamination in one of the unexplored parts of northern India, which has not been marked before in the previous studies, i.e., the city of Taj Mahal, Agra, India, (b) Further, qualitative of groundwater has been estimated by hydro-chemical analysis and GWQI estimation respectively, (c) to use PCA for the determination of the components that influence the discharge of hydro chemical solutes into the groundwater, (d) to investigate the correlation between hydro chemical parameters and their common source of origin.

Materials and methods

Study area and its geology.

The present study was focused on one of the blocks of city of Taj-Mahal, Agra, India. This city is located on the bank of river Yamuna, Uttar Pradesh, India, between 27°11′ N and 78°02’ E (Fig.  1 ). With a rapid pace of population increase, it is one of biggest city in northern India. There are 15 administrative blocks, 904 villages, and six tehsils in the Agra district. With reference to the 2011 India’s Census, the Agra district has over 7 million households, with a population of 44, 18,797 of which 53.52% are males and 46.48% are females. The weather of the sampled area was semi-arid to sub-tropic type, with an average annual precipitation of 687 mm and evaporation of 1466 mm/year. The average temperature range varies from21.9 to 45 °C in hot days and 3.9–32.2 °C in cold days. Annually, the rainfall averages to about 687.2 mm due to the southwest monsoon, and consequently the daily relative humidity ranges from 30 to 100% 34 .

Locations of Achhnera block in Agra, North India.

The study area occupies a part of Indo-Gangetic plain and its major part is underlined by alluvial sediments of quaternary age encompasses primarily a sequence of clay, silt, sand of different grades, gravels and kankar in different magnitude. In this study region, over 90% of the population use groundwater for drinking purposes thus, investigations of quality of groundwater are among the highest priorities. In this study, ArcGIS (version 10.8.2) was used for geographical data processing and visualization. ArcGIS is a product of Esri and more details about the software can be found on their official website ( https://www.esri.com ).

Sample collection and hydro-geochemical analysis

The samples were collected from the selected area via tube wells, hand pumps and wells. All samples were collected in a time interval of one year from February 2022 to January 2023. A total of 50 groundwater samples from 10 villages (5 × 10) were collected and preserved in polypropylene bottles at 4ºC. The sampling locations have been plotted through ArcGIS 10.2 (Fig.  1 ). To stabilize the pH, conductivity and temperature of the sampling area, the hand pumps were used for some time before collection of samples. All chemical used were of analytical grade (Merck Darmstadt, Germany). During the analysis of samples standard methods were used as given in APHA 2012. Concentration of fluoride (F − ), sulphate (SO 4 2− ) and nitrate (NO 3− ) ions were determined by using spectrophotometer. Mohr’s method (AgNO 3 ) was used to determine chloride (Cl − ) content in the samples. Titration and flame photometry method was used to determine hardness, alkalinity, Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , Na + , and K + ions in the water samples. Total dissolved solids (TDS) and pH were analyzed by multi-parameter kit 35 . The results were counter checked by the calculation of cation and anion balance. The estimated error was less than ± 5% for all the collected samples.

Calculation of the WQI of the samples

The WQI model is an interested tool for assessing groundwater and surface water quality. It uses aggregation techniques that allow conversion of extensive water quality data into a single value or index. Globally, the WQI model has been applied to evaluate water quality according to local criteria. The guidelines laid by WHO for drinking water are illustrated in (Table 1 ).

Calculation of the unit weight (Wn)

The following equations refer to the calculation Wn (Eq.  1 ).

where \(K = \frac{1}{{\sum {Xs} }}\) , Wn: unit weight parameter 36 , 37 ; Xs: suggested standard for parameter, K: Proportionality Constant; n = number of different water quality parameters.

Calculation of groundwater quality rating

Quality rating scale Qn was computed according to WHO guidelines using the relation of Eq. ( 2 ).

Xn—actual concentration of water quality parameters; Xi—ideal value of different water quality parameters (0 for all parameters except pH 7 ppm).

Estimation of Water Quality Index (WQI)

Various researchers have followed the above method to calculate WQI. Generally, the water quality index (WQI) differentiates potable water into different classes, as shown below in Table 2 36 , 38 , 39 , 40 .

Principal component analysis (PCA)

A well-reported statistical approach in ground water research, the principal component analysis. The data clarification is obtained along the hidden factor created by original factors such as water quality indicators by regard at the key source of variance in the data. The hidden parameters from a matrix composed of factor loading (weight of principal variable) and factor score (prediction of sampling location on the principal component axis). The PCA has been executed in this study to determine homologous behavior and common origin of different physicochemical properties of groundwater. Further PCA was carried out to identify the various factors responsible for release of contaminants into groundwater 41 , 42 .

Statistics used and Data analysis

The data was analyzed using SPSS 16.0 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, USA) and Microsoft Excel 2013. Through SPSS 16.0 spearman correlation was calculated to know the inter-relationship between various hydro-chemical solutes 25 . Further Spatial distribution map has been drawn using arc GIS-10.2 by ESR to evaluate the spatial distribution of fluoride from samples collected from different parts of villages.

Result and discussion

Hydrochemistry of groundwater of achhnera block, agra.

The physiochemical properties of groundwater samples have been presented in Table 3 . The alkalinity of the groundwater sample has been found in the range from 187 to 493.8 ppm, with an average value of 343 ppm, which is within the permissible limit of 600 ppm 39 . TDS of the samples was very high from 801 to 2065 ppm with the average value of 1327 ppm, which is higher than prescribed limit 39 . The concentration of chloride ranged from 226 to 814 ppm with the average value of 470 ppm. The concentration of sodium, potassium, sulphate, and nitrate ions were found in the range of 165–680 ppm, 12–67 ppm, 37–114 ppm, and 4.6–11 ppm, respectively. The hardness was observed between the ranges of 155 to 485 ppm with an average value of 320 ppm, and correspondingly, the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions was ranged from 64–160 ppm to 6.8–32 ppm, respectively. The most prominent anion found in underground water samples was HCO 3− , but some samples had Cl − ions as the most prominent anion. Out of all the samples collected, about 50% of them have pH values above the permissible limit of WHO and BIS standards (IS: 10500, 2012) i.e., 6.5–8.5 38 , 39 . The concentration of fluoride in the sampled water was found in the range of 0.910 to 2.46 ppm, with the average value of 1.628 ppm as shown as in Fig.  2 . The result demonstrated that the concentration of fluoride ion was on elevated side, crossing the permissible limit of WHO (1.5 ppm) 38 .

Fluoride concentration in Achhnera block.

In Korea area, Kim et al. studied the co-contamination of arsenic and fluoride in the groundwater of an alluvial aquifer and reported that the concentrations of fluoride ions among the total 50 samples collected, 35 samples have increased level, which indicated that the soil and the rock of that region contain fluoride-rich minerals 43 . In a similar kind of study carried out by Ali et al.2021, also showed the elevated groundwater fluoride in some blocks of the Agra district and it was observed that the concentration of fluoride in the range of0.14 to 4.88 mg/L 3 . Another study carried out by Ansari and Umar (2019), found very much similar results in Unnao, Uttar Pradesh (India), and the concentration of fluoride was reported in the range between 0.06 to 1.83 44 . A very similar study performed by Chaurisiaya et al. (2018) observed the concentration of fluoridebetween0.28 to 2.01 in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. Similarly, in some other previous research, the concentration of fluoride ions was ranged from 0.32 to 3.5 in Banda, Uttar Pradesh 45 . Tiwari et al. (2016) reported the elevated range of fluoride concentration i.e., between 0.41 and 3.99 in Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh, India 46 . Dev and Raju (2014) found the fluoride concentration between0.08 to 6.7 in Sonbadra, Uttar Pradesh 47 . Hence, it may be inferred that the major portion of northern India is endemic to elevated fluoride concentration (Table 4 ).

Geochemical characterization of Achhnera block

For all groundwater samples, the primary dissolved ions were shown through Piper trilinear diagrams and Schoellar diagrams to comprehend the geochemical progression of groundwater. AqQa v1.X, a Rock ware program, was used to plot the diagrams. Separate ternary plots revealed the cations and anions in the piper diagram. Magnesium, calcium, and sodium, potassium was the apex of cation plot while chloride, sulphate, and carbonate, and bicarbonate ions were the apexes of anions plot (Fig.  3 ). The predominant cation present in the samples was sodium. As a result, the water quality of Achhnera region was classified as either Na + /HCO 3− or Na + /Cl − type, and Ca 2+/ HCO 3− type. When fluorite get dissolves in water containing sodium bicarbonate, there is often a moderate correlation between increased fluoride levels due to the presence of bicarbonates 48 . Ionic components of groundwater samples have been displayed in Schoellar diagram (Fig.  4 ). The primary ionic components of groundwater are SO 4 2− , HCO 3− , Cl − , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , Na + , and K + , and their concentrations are shown in the semi-logarithmic Schoellar diagram as equivalents per million per kilogram of solution (meq/kg). Each ion's concentration in each sample was shown by points on six evenly spaced lines, and those points were linked by a line.

Piper plots for groundwater samples at Achhnera block, Agra, North India.

Schoeller diagram Achhnera block, Agra, North India.

In one of the studies on Poyang Lake, China, the presence of nitrogen-nitrate was reported as major threat to the lake with the extensive ongoing agricultural practices 49 , 50 . In the study, the multi-methods which include grey correlation analysis, Pearson correlation, mathematical statistics, and human health risk assessment were used for the investigation of spatiotemporal variations and potential risks of nitrogen.

The PCA has been executed in this study to determine homologous behavior and common origin of different physicochemical properties of groundwater. The values of different Principal Components (PCs) can be considered under strong, moderate, and weak loadings, if their value ranges from 1–0.75, 0.75–0.50 to 0.50–0.30, respectively. The application of PCA in the present study is to obtain correlations between the hydro-chemical components of the groundwater samples.

The PCA of the groundwater samples revealed that the variables are inter-correlated with 38.29% of the total variance. As per Kaiser Criterion, the PCs values, whose eigen values were found more than one, can be considered in factor analysis 51 . After varimax rotation, only three PCs values were found more than one, as shown in the scree plot Fig.  5 , and the rest can be ignored as their eigen values have been found less than one. Hence, three principal components have been extracted for the consideration. Table 5 showed the variance in the three PC values which is 38%, 32% and 10.85% reasonable correspondingly; hence, the rest of the components can be ignored. Principal component one (PC-1) comprised TDS, NO 3− , HCO 3− , Na + , TA, and fluoride with moderate to strong loading. Fluoride ion in PCA-1 showing the moderate to strong loading with TDS, NO 3− , HCO 3− , Na + and Ca 2+ , which appeared to be linked with geological origin fluoride in the present block, and their origin has been significantly correlated. The changes in the concentration of fluoride were directly related with the TDS, NO 3− , HCO 3− , Na + , Total Alkalinity, which can be explained due to the evolution of the fluoride from the fluoride bearing minerals present in host rocks and their interaction with groundwater. Therefore, it is concluded that there are no human sources of fluoride in groundwater, indicating that it is obtained geologically. Principal component two (PC-2) includes TH, Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ showing high positive factor loadings while in case of principal component three (PC-3) includes pH, Cl − , moderate to weak loading. Thus, it can be predicted from the PCA that the component one represents the controlling factors, which is responsible for rerelease of fluoride ions, as all sensitive parameters (TDS, NO 3− , HCO 3− , Na + and Ca 2+ ) of groundwater have moderate to strong loading with respect to all other principal components (Fig.  6 ). While other sensitive parameters (TDS, NO 3− , HCO 3− , Na + and Ca 2+ ) of groundwater show moderate to strong loading with respect to all other principal components.

Scree plot of PCA of Achhnera block, Agra, Northern India.

Component plot in rotated space of physico-chemical components of Achhnera block, Agra, North India.

Correlation analysis of Achhnera block

The correlation coefficient data of rural parts of Achhnera block, Agra region, North India are tabulated in Table 6 . Alkalinity was found to increase due to the replacement of fluoride with hydroxide ions. A positive correlation of concentration of hydrogen ion and sodium ion is observed with fluoride ion. The region may be due to high pH. Many researchers have found in their experimental work that there is a strong correlation ship between F − and H + ions as they have a strong tendency of combining and forming HF 52 , 53 , 54 . The concentration of sodium and bicarbonates have shown positive correlation with fluoride, which can be explained due to the high alkalinity in the sampled water, resulting in the dissolution of fluoride in groundwater 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 .

A strong correlation coefficient between different water quality parameters is seen at those places where the climatic conditions are humid like Assam (India). The fluoride content in these water samples are increasing in these arid and semi-arid climate regions because of the slow rate of water percolation through the ground 43 , 55 . Increase in concentration of OH − , HCO 3− , and CO 3 2− results in increase in alkalinity of water sample. Various studies carried out in different regions of the world show that desorption of as ion and F − from metallic oxide surface causes higher pH of the sampled water which is also confirmed by various experimental studies 30 , 43 , 65 . Table 7 provides a result of the impact of these variables on release of two pollutants separately and on the conductive environment for co-occurrence.

WQI and spatial distribution

In the area under investigation, it has been observed that water quality index ranges from 105 to 185, delineated as per the Table 8 . Therefore, ‘special treatment’ is needed in the study area, to qualify in ‘fit water’ category. It was found that the ions like F − , Cl − , Na + and alkalinity were above the permissible limit, resulting high total dissolved solids (TDS) value, which might be the cause of geogenic activities.

Through (Inverse Distance Weighted) IDW methods, the spatial distribution of factor scores was interpolated (Fig.  7 ). The graphical presentation of the WQI of the Achhnera block is illustrated in Fig.  7 a. Based on the measurement of physiochemical aspects of different samples, taken from different locations and the WQI range of the sampled region is shown in the pie chart (Fig.  7 b). From the analysis of the different water quality parameters, it was found that all the calculated values surpass the permissible limits suggested by WHO & BIS 38 , 39 , which results in a high level of TDS values. It is concluded from the experimental results that the high percentage of fluoride in the samples of Achhnera block, Agra district may be due to its geological conditions and the water of this region is unfit for drinking and cannot be used for various other purposes.

( a ) Spatial distribution of WQI in the study area and ( b ) graphical data representation of WQI classifications of Achhnera block, Agra region, Uttar Pradesh, North India.

Comparative study of the rural and urban areas using water quality parameters

It showed the comparative study done on the extent of pollution in drinking water between urban areas and the rural areas of Agra district of northern India. Study on GWQI of urban areas was previously carried out by Ali et al. 56 and current study is based on rural areas of Agra district of northern India (Fig.  8 ). Twelve important water quality parameters were compared in groundwater quality analysis (GWQI). The GWQI of urban area were ranged from 50.01 to 130.62, which reveals that more than half of the urban region was found in the category unfit for drinking (64%), nearly one fourth of the region lies in the poor category range (21.42%) and the remaining region lies in the very poor category range (14.28%). Figure  8 a, showed that no samples lie in the category of good or excellent. It was inferred that the large value of water quality index at urban regions was due to the geogenic as well as with some anthropogenic source (outlet of fertilizer industry).

Bar chart of WQI comparative study with standard deviation of urban ( a ) and rural ( b ) areas of Agra region, Uttar Pradesh, Northern India.

Present study in, Achhnera block, shows that the WQI ranges from 185 to 105, delineated in Fig.  8 b. The analysis of WQI revealed that the sampled area lies in the unfit category for the drinking purpose. Therefore, it is advised that the drinking water should be treated before making it suitable for drinking in Achhnera block of Agra region, Northern India. It can be concluded from the comparative analysis that potable water of the rural areas is comparatively more polluted than that of the urban areas, which may be due to geogenic as well as anthropogenic activities (use of fluoride laden fertilizer in the field, leeches into the groundwater) 13 , 14 , 15 .

Conclusions

The present study has been performed to evaluate the groundwater quality for Achhnera block in the city of Taj, Agra, India, where groundwater is an important water resource. Therefore, this study was designed to the applicability of GWQI, and the PCA to mark out the major geochemical solutes responsible for origin and release of geochemical solutes into the groundwater. This study confirms that, majority of the groundwater samples in the study areas were mostly alkaline in nature. Elevated values of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solid, total hardness, fluoride and chloride in groundwater samples were mainly due to rock water interaction and high rate of evaporation. The results conclude that the water quality index belongs to unfit category for potable use in the study area, hence, almost all sampling tube-wells of the study area fell in the category of unsuitable for drinking purpose. Further, hydrochemistry of groundwater confirms that, most of the collected groundwater samples in the study area were comparatively saltier than freshwater. The Piper diagram concludes that, the major hydro chemical facies found in groundwater were sodium bicarbonate type or calcium chloride type. Finally, the PCA shows the pH, Na + , Ca 2+ and fluoride with high loading, suggests geogenic source of fluoride contamination. Therefore, it is recommended that the water of Achhnera block of Agra region Northern India, should be treated properly before use as potable water. It can be concluded from the comparative analysis that regions of the rural areas are comparatively more polluted than that of urban areas, which may be due to geogenic as well as anthropogenic activities (use of fluoride laden fertilizer in the field, leeches into the groundwater). Complete distribution of physico-chemical characteristics of water is shown in this study which can be used as a tool to improve the water quality for drinking purposes.

Data availability

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study were available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

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Conceived and designed the experiments: S.A. and A.A.M. performed the experiments: S.V., R.K.D., R.I., M.B.A., M.M., analyzed and interpreted the data; D.R., J.K., contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data: M.K.G. and M.F. wrote the paper: R.I., M.B.A., M.M., M.K.G., P.D. and M.F.

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Ali, S., Verma, S., Agarwal, M.B. et al. Groundwater quality assessment using water quality index and principal component analysis in the Achnera block, Agra district, Uttar Pradesh, Northern India. Sci Rep 14 , 5381 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56056-8

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Home > Books > Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy

Water Quality Parameters

Submitted: 15 August 2019 Reviewed: 10 September 2019 Published: 16 October 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.89657

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Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.

• water quality
• physical parameters
• chemical parameters
• biological parameters
• radioactive substances
• toxic substances
• indicator organisms

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Nayla hassan omer *.

• Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Water and Environmental Engineering, Sudan University for Science and Technology, Khartoum, Sudan

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Water is the second most important need for life to exist after air. As a result, water quality has been described extensively in the scientific literature. The most popular definition of water quality is “it is the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water” [ 1 , 2 ]. Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose [ 3 , 4 ].

2. Classification of water

Based on its source, water can be divided into ground water and surface water [ 5 ]. Both types of water can be exposed to contamination risks from agricultural, industrial, and domestic activities, which may include many types of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, hazardous chemicals, and oils [ 6 ].

Potable water: It is safe to drink, pleasant to taste, and usable for domestic purposes [ 1 , 7 ].

Palatable water: It is esthetically pleasing; it considers the presence of chemicals that do not cause a threat to human health [ 7 ].

Contaminated ( polluted) water: It is that water containing unwanted physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substances, and it is unfit for drinking or domestic use [ 7 ].

Infected water: It is contaminated with pathogenic organism [ 7 ].

3. Parameters of water quality

There are three types of water quality parameters physical, chemical, and biological [ 8 , 9 ]. They are summarized in Table 1 .

3.1 Physical parameters of water quality

3.1.1 turbidity.

Turbidity is the cloudiness of water [ 10 ]. It is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water. It is caused by suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other particulate materials in water [ 2 ].

It can increase the cost of water treatment for various uses [ 11 ].

The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby shield them from the disinfection process [ 12 ].

Suspended materials can clog or damage fish gills, decreasing its resistance to diseases, reducing its growth rates, affecting egg and larval maturing, and affecting the efficiency of fish catching method [ 13 , 14 ].

Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as mercury, chromium, lead, cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides [ 15 ].

The amount of available food is reduced [ 15 ] because higher turbidity raises water temperatures in light of the fact that suspended particles absorb more sun heat. Consequently, the concentration of the dissolved oxygen (DO) can be decreased since warm water carries less dissolved oxygen than cold water.

Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which expresses turbidity in terms of NTU or TU. A TU is equivalent to 1 mg/L of silica in suspension [ 10 ].

Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person while turbidity in muddy water, it exceeds 100 NTU [ 10 ]. Groundwater normally has very low turbidity because of the natural filtration that occurs as the water penetrates through the soil [ 9 , 16 ].

3.1.2 Temperature

Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are influenced by temperature [ 10 ]. Thereby, the sedimentation and chlorination processes and biological oxygen demand (BOD) are temperature dependent [ 11 ]. It also affects the biosorption process of the dissolved heavy metals in water [ 17 , 18 ]. Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C most palatable [ 10 , 19 ].

3.1.3 Color

Materials decayed from organic matter, namely, vegetation and inorganic matter such as soil, stones, and rocks impart color to water, which is objectionable for esthetic reasons, not for health reasons [ 10 , 20 ].

Color is measured by comparing the water sample with standard color solutions or colored glass disks [ 10 ]. One color unit is equivalent to the color produced by a 1 mg/L solution of platinum (potassium chloroplatinate (K 2 PtCl 6 )) [ 10 ].

Apparent color is the entire water sample color and consists of both dissolved and suspended components color [ 10 ].

True color is measured after filtering the water sample to remove all suspended material [ 19 ].

Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 color units. Pure water is colorless, which is equivalent to 0 color units [ 10 ].

3.1.4 Taste and odor

Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses [ 19 ]. These materials may come from natural, domestic, or agricultural sources [ 21 ].

The numerical value of odor or taste is determined quantitatively by measuring a volume of sample A and diluting it with a volume of sample B of an odor-free distilled water so that the odor of the resulting mixture is just detectable at a total mixture volume of 200 ml [ 19 , 22 ]. The unit of odor or taste is expressed in terms of a threshold number as follows:

where TON is the threshold odor number and TTN is the threshold taste number.

3.1.5 Solids

Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension [ 22 ]. These two types of solids can be identified by using a glass fiber filter that the water sample passes through [ 22 ]. By definition, the suspended solids are retained on the top of the filter and the dissolved solids pass through the filter with the water [ 10 ].

If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish and then evaporated, the solids as a residue. This material is usually called total dissolved solids or TDS [ 10 ].

freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;

brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;

saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.

The residue of TSS and TDS after heating to dryness for a defined period of time and at a specific temperature is defined as fixed solids. Volatile solids are those solids lost on ignition (heating to 550°C) [ 10 ].

Total solids:

Interrelationship of solids found in water [ 22 ].

Total dissolved solids:

Total suspended solids:

Fixed and volatile suspended solids:

where VSSA = weight of residue + dish and filter before ignition, mg and VSSB = weight of residue + dish and filter after ignition, mg.

3.1.6 Electrical conductivity (EC)

The electrical conductivity (EC) of water is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry or conduct an electrical current [ 22 ]. Since the electrical current is carried by ions in solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration [ 10 ] of ions increases. Therefore, it is one of the main parameters used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation and firefighting.

U.S. units = micromhos/cm

S.I. units = milliSiemens/m (mS/m) or dS/m (deciSiemens/m)

Ultra-pure water: 5.5 × 10 −6  S/m;

Drinking water: 0.005–0.05 S/m;

Seawater: 5 S/m.

The electrical conductivity can be used to estimate the TDS value of water as follows [ 10 , 22 ]:

TDS can be used to estimate the ionic strength of water in the applications of groundwater recharging by treated wastewater [ 22 ]. The normal method of measurement is electrometric method [ 10 ].

3.2 Chemical parameters of water quality

pH is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration [ 9 , 12 ]. It is a dimensionless number indicating the strength of an acidic or a basic solution [ 23 ]. Actually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is [ 19 , 20 ]. Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H + ) and basic water contains extra hydroxyl (OH − ) ions [ 2 ].

As shown in Figure 2 , pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution [ 2 , 24 ]. Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric carbon dioxide gas [ 10 ]. Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living organisms need [ 24 ].

pH of water.

A change of 1 unit on a pH scale represents a 10-fold change in the pH [ 10 ], so that water with pH of 7 is 10 times more acidic than water with a pH of 8, and water with a pH of 5 is 100 times more acidic than water with a pH of 7. There are two methods available for the determination of pH: electrometric and colorimetric methods [ 10 ].

Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of water. A high pH makes the taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine [ 21 ]. The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances [ 10 ].

Pollution can modify the pH of water, which can damage animals and plants that live in the water [ 10 ].

Most aquatic animals and plants have adapted to life in water with a specific pH and may suffer from even a slight change [ 15 ].

Even moderately acidic water (low pH) can decrease the number of hatched fish eggs, irritate fish and aquatic insect gills, and damage membranes [ 14 ].

Water with very low or high pH is fatal. A pH below 4 or above 10 will kill most fish, and very few animals can endure water with a pH below 3 or above 11 [ 15 ].

Amphibians are extremely endangered by low pH because their skin is very sensitive to contaminants [ 15 ]. Some scientists believe that the current decrease in amphibian population throughout the globe may be due to low pH levels induced by acid rain.

Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more easily in highly acidic water (lower pH). This is important because many heavy metals become much more toxic when dissolved in water [ 21 ].

A change in the pH can change the forms of some chemicals in the water. Therefore, it may affect aquatic plants and animals [ 21 ]. For instance, ammonia is relatively harmless to fish in neutral or acidic water. However, as the water becomes more alkaline (the pH increases), ammonia becomes progressively more poisonous to these same organisms.

3.2.2 Acidity

Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution. The acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to neutralize a strong base to a selected pH level [ 10 ]. Acidity in water is usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates [ 10 ]. Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions and biological activities [ 10 ].

Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic organisms causes acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ). The level of acidity is determined by titration with standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N) using phenolphthalein as an indicator [ 10 , 20 ].

3.2.3 Alkalinity

The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the total of all titratable bases [ 10 ]. The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the amount of lime and soda needed for water softening (e.g., for corrosion control in conditioning the boiler feed water) [ 22 ]. Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH − ), bicarbonate ions (HCO 3− ), and carbonate ions (CO 3 2− ), or a mixture of two of these ions in water. As stated in the following equation, the possibility of OH − and HCO 3 − ions together are not possible because they react together to produce CO 3 2− ions:

Alkalinity is determined by titration with a standard acid solution (H 2 SO 4 of 0.02 N) using selective indicators (methyl orange or phenolphthalein).

The high levels of either acidity or alkalinity in water may be an indication of industrial or chemical pollution. Alkalinity or acidity can also occur from natural sources such as volcanoes. The acidity and alkalinity in natural waters provide a buffering action that protects fish and other aquatic organisms from sudden changes in pH. For instance, if an acidic chemical has somehow contaminated a lake that had natural alkalinity, a neutralization reaction occurs between the acid and alkaline substances; the pH of the lake water remains unchanged. For the protection of aquatic life, the buffering capacity should be at least 20 mg/L as calcium carbonate.

3.2.4 Chloride

Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of relatively high chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate wastewater pollution [ 7 ]. Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources including chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater.

Chloride ions Cl − in drinking water do not cause any harmful effects on public health, but high concentrations can cause an unpleasant salty taste for most people. Chlorides are not usually harmful to people; however, the sodium part of table salt has been connected to kidney and heart diseases [ 25 ]. Small amounts of chlorides are essential for ordinary cell functions in animal and plant life.

Sodium chloride may impart a salty taste at 250 mg/L; however, magnesium or calcium chloride are generally not detected by taste until reaching levels of 1000 mg/L [ 10 ]. Standards for public drinking water require chloride levels that do not exceed 250 mg/L. There are many methods to measure the chloride concentration in water, but the normal one is the titration method by silver nitrate [ 10 ].

3.2.5 Chlorine residual

Chlorine (Cl 2 ) does not occur naturally in water but is added to water and wastewater for disinfection [ 10 ]. While chlorine itself is a toxic gas, in dilute aqueous solution, it is not harmful to human health. In drinking water, a residual of about 0.2 mg/L is optimal. The residual concentration which is maintained in the water distribution system ensures good sanitary quality of water [ 11 ].

Chlorine can react with organics in water forming toxic compounds called trihalomethanes or THMs, which are carcinogens such as chloroform CHCl 3 [ 11 , 22 ]. Chlorine residual is normally measured by a color comparator test kit or spectrophotometer [ 10 ].

3.2.6 Sulfate

Sulfate ions (SO 4 2− ) occur in natural water and in wastewater. The high concentration of sulfate in natural water is usually caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt) or magnesium sulfate (Epson salt) [ 11 , 26 ]. If high concentrations are consumed in drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative effects [ 26 ], but there is no significant danger to public health.

3.2.7 Nitrogen

There are four forms of nitrogen in water and wastewater: organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen [ 10 ]. If water is contaminated with sewage, most of the nitrogen is in the forms of organic and ammonia, which are transformed by microbes to form nitrites and nitrates [ 22 ]. Nitrogen in the nitrate form is a basic nutrient to the growth of plants and can be a growth-limiting nutrient factor [ 10 ].

A high concentration of nitrate in surface water can stimulate the rapid growth of the algae which degrades the water quality [ 22 ]. Nitrates can enter the groundwater from chemical fertilizers used in the agricultural areas [ 22 ]. Excessive nitrate concentration (more than 10 mg/L) in drinking water causes an immediate and severe health threat to infants [ 19 ]. The nitrate ions react with blood hemoglobin, thereby reducing the blood’s ability to hold oxygen which leads to a disease called blue baby or methemoglobinemia [ 10 , 19 ].

3.2.8 Fluoride

A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F − ) in drinking water contributes to good dental health [ 10 , 19 ]. About 1.0 mg/L is effective in preventing tooth decay, particularly in children [ 10 ].

Excessive amounts of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental fluorosis [ 11 , 19 , 26 ]. The maximum allowable levels of fluoride in public water supplies depend on local climate [ 26 ]. In the warmer regions of the country, the maximum allowable concentration of fluoride for potable water is 1.4 mg/L; in colder climates, up to 2.4 mg/L is allowed.

There are four methods to determine ion fluoride in water; the selection of the used method depends on the type of water sample [ 10 ].

3.2.9 Iron and manganese

Although iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) do not cause health problems, they impart a noticeable bitter taste to drinking water even at very low concentration [ 10 , 11 ].

These metals usually occur in groundwater in solution as ferrous (Fe 2+ ) and manganous (Mn 2+ ) ions. When these ions are exposed to air, they form the insoluble ferric (Fe 3+ ) and manganic (Mn 3+) forms making the water turbid and unacceptable to most people [ 10 ].

These ions can also cause black or brown stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures [ 7 ]. They are measured by many instrumental methods such as atomic absorption spectrometry, flame atomic absorption spectrometry, cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry, electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) [ 10 ].

3.2.10 Copper and zinc

Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are nontoxic if found in small concentrations [ 10 ]. Actually, they are both essential and beneficial for human health and growth of plants and animals [ 25 ]. They can cause undesirable tastes in drinking water. At high concentrations, zinc imparts a milky appearance to the water [ 10 ]. They are measured by the same methods used for iron and manganese measurements [ 10 ].

3.2.11 Hardness

Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters [ 10 ]. The dissolved minerals in water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water pipes and difficulty in producing lather with soap [ 11 ].

Calcium (Ca 2+ ) and magnesium (Mg 2+ ) ions cause the greatest portion of hardness in naturally occurring waters [ 9 ]. They enter water mainly from contact with soil and rock, particularly limestone deposits [ 10 , 27 ].

Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates and bicarbonates can be removed by boiling, and

Permanent hardness which is remaining after boiling is caused mainly by sulfates and chlorides [ 10 , 21 , 22 ]

Water with more than 300 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be hard, and more than 150 mg/L of hardness is noticed by most people, and water with less than 75 mg/L is considered to be soft.

From health viewpoint, hardness up to 500 mg/L is safe, but more than that may cause a laxative effect [ 10 ]. Hardness is normally determined by titration with ethylene diamine tetra acidic acid or (EDTA) and Eriochrome Black and Blue indicators. It is usually expressed in terms of mg/L of CaCO 3 [ 10 , 19 ].

An accepted water classification according to its hardness is as in Table 2 [ 19 ].

Parameters of water quality.

Classification of water according to its hardness.

3.2.12 Dissolved oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution [ 10 ]. The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.

Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and very sensitive to temperature. For example, the saturation concentration at 20°C is about 9 mg/L and at 0°C is 14.6 mg/L [ 22 ].

The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on pressure, temperature, and salinity of the water. Dissolved oxygen has no direct effect on public health, but drinking water with very little or no oxygen tastes unpalatable to some people.

There are three main methods used for measuring dissolved oxygen concentrations: the colorimetric method—quick and inexpensive, the Winkler titration method—traditional method, and the electrometric method [ 10 ].

3.2.13 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they metabolize organic material, they consume oxygen [ 10 , 22 ]. The organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as CO 2 and H 2 O, and the microbes use the energy released for growth and reproduction [ 22 ].

When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO in the water. If oxygen is not continuously replaced by natural or artificial means in the water, the DO concentration will reduce as the microbes decompose the organic materials. This need for oxygen is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The more organic material there is in the water, the higher the BOD used by the microbes will be. BOD is used as a measure of the power of sewage; strong sewage has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD [ 22 ].

The complete decomposition of organic material by microorganisms takes time, usually 20 d or more under ordinary circumstances [ 22 ]. The quantity of oxygen used in a specified volume of water to fully decompose or stabilize all biodegradable organic substances is called the ultimate BOD or BOD L .

BOD is a function of time. At time = 0, no oxygen will have been consumed and the BOD = 0. As each day goes by, oxygen is used by the microbes and the BOD increases. Ultimately, the BOD L is reached and the organic materials are completely decomposed.

A graph of the BOD versus time is illustrated as in Figure 3 . This is called the BOD curve, which can be expressed mathematically by the following equation:

BOD curve [ 22 ].

where BOD t  = BOD at any time t, mg/L; BOD L  = ultimate BOD, mg/L; k = a constant representing the rate of the BOD reaction; t = time, d.

The value of the constant rate k depends on the temperature, the type of organic materials, and the type of microbes exerting the BOD [ 22 ].

3.2.14 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics: the biodegradable and the non-biodegradable substances [ 22 ]. It is a chemical test using strong oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat, and the result can be available in just 2 h [ 10 ]. COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same sample [ 22 ].

3.2.15 Toxic inorganic substances

Metallic compounds: This group includes some heavy metals that are toxic, namely, cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), arsenic (As), barium (Ba), thallium (Tl), and selenium (Se) [ 22 , 28 ]. They have a wide range of dangerous effects that differ from one metal to another. They may be acute fatal poisons such as (As) and (Cr 6+ ) or may produce chronic diseases such as (Cd, Hg, Pb, and Tl) [ 21 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ]. The heavy metals concentration can be determined by atomic absorption photometers, spectrophotometer, or inductively coupled plasma (ICP) for very low concentration [ 10 ].

Nonmetallic compounds: This group includes nitrates (NO 3 − ) and cyanides (CN − ), nitrate has been discussed with the nitrogen in the previous section. Regarding cyanide, as Mackenzie stated [ 11 ] it causes oxygen deprivation by binding the hemoglobin sites and prevents the red blood cell from carrying the oxygen [ 11 ]. This causes a blue skin color syndrome, which is called cyanosis [ 33 ]. It also causes chronic effects on the central nervous system and thyroid [ 33 ]. Cyanide is normally measured by colorimetric, titrimetric, or electrometric methods [ 10 ].

3.2.16 Toxic organic substances

There are more than 100 compounds in water that have been listed in the literature as toxic organic compounds [ 11 , 22 ]. They will not be found naturally in water; they are usually man-made pollutants. These compounds include insecticides, pesticides, solvents, detergents, and disinfectants [ 11 , 21 , 22 ]. They are measured by highly sophisticated instrumental methods, namely, gas chromatographic (GC), high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC), and mass spectrophotometric [ 10 ].

3.2.17 Radioactive substances

Potential sources of radioactive substances in water include wastes from nuclear power plants, industries, or medical research using radioactive chemicals and mining of uranium ores or other radioactive materials [ 11 , 21 ]. When radioactive substances decay, they release beta, alpha, and gamma radiation [ 34 ]. Exposure of humans and other living things to radiation can cause genetic and somatic damage to the living tissues [ 34 , 35 ].

Radon gas is of a great health concern because it occurs naturally in groundwater and is a highly volatile gas, which can be inhaled during the showering process [ 35 ]. For drinking water, there are established standards commonly used for alpha particles, beta particles, photons emitters, radium-226 and -228, and uranium [ 34 , 35 ].

The unit of radioactivity used in water quality applications is the picocurie per liter (pCi/L); 1 pCi is equivalent to about two atoms disintegrating per minute. There are many sophisticated instrumental methods to measure it [ 35 ].

3.3 Biological parameters of water quality

One of the most helpful indicators of water quality may be the presence or lack of living organisms [ 10 , 15 ]. Biologists can survey fish and insect life of natural waters and assess the water quality on the basis of a computed species diversity index (SDI) [ 15 , 19 , 36 , 37 ]; hence, a water body with a large number of well-balanced species is regarded as a healthy system [ 17 ]. Some organisms can be used as an indication for the existence of pollutants based on their known tolerance for a specified pollutant [ 17 ].

Microorganisms exist everywhere in nature [ 38 ]. Human bodies maintain a normal population of microbes in the intestinal tract; a big portion of which is made up of coliform bacteria [ 38 ]. Although there are millions of microbes per milliliter in wastewater, most of them are harmless [ 37 ]. It is only harmful when wastewater contains wastes from people infected with diseases that the presence of harmful microorganisms in wastewater is likely to occur [ 38 ].

3.3.1 Bacteria

Bacteria are considered to be single-celled plants because of their cell structure and the way they ingest food [ 10 , 37 ]. Bacteria occur in three basic cell shapes: rod-shaped or bacillus, sphere-shaped or coccus, and spiral-shaped or spirellus [ 19 ]. In less than 30 min, a single bacterial cell can mature and divide into two new cells [ 39 ].

Under favorable conditions of food supply, temperature, and pH, bacteria can reproduce so rapidly that a bacterial culture may contain 20 million cells per milliliter after just 1 day [ 22 , 37 ]. This rapid growth of visible colonies of bacteria on a suitable nutrient medium makes it possible to detect and count the number of bacteria in water [ 39 ].

There are several distinctions among the various species of bacteria. One distinction depends on how they metabolize their food [ 38 ]. Bacteria that require oxygen for their metabolism are called aerobic bacteria, while those live only in an oxygen-free environment are called anaerobic bacteria. Some species called facultative bacteria can live in either the absence or the presence of oxygen [ 37 , 38 , 39 ].

At low temperatures, bacteria grow and reproduce slowly. As the temperature increases, the rate of growth and reproduction doubles in every additional 10°C (up to the optimum temperature for the species) [ 38 ]. The majority of the species of bacteria having an optimal temperature of about 35°C [ 39 ].

A lot of dangerous waterborne diseases are caused by bacteria, namely, typhoid and paratyphoid fever, leptospirosis, tularemia, shigellosis, and cholera [ 19 ]. Sometimes, the absence of good sanitary practices results in gastroenteritis outbreaks of one or more of those diseases [ 19 ].

3.3.2 Algae

Algae are microscopic plants, which contain photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll [ 37 , 39 ]. They are autotrophic organisms and support themselves by converting inorganic materials into organic matter by using energy from the sun, during this process they take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen [ 38 , 39 ]. They are also important for wastewater treatment in stabilization ponds [ 22 ]. Algae are primarily nuisance organisms in the water supply because of the taste and odor problems they create [ 2 , 16 ]. Certain species of algae cause serious environmental and public health problems; for example, blue-green algae can kill cattle and other domestic animals if the animals drink water containing those species [ 37 , 39 ].

3.3.3 Viruses

Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all genetic information necessary for their own reproduction [ 19 ]. They can only be seen by a powerful electronic microscope [ 39 ]. Viruses are parasites that need a host to live [ 39 ]. They can pass through filters that do not permit the passage of bacteria [ 37 ]. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis [ 19 , 25 , 37 ]. Most of the waterborne viruses can be deactivated by the disinfection process conducted in the water treatment plant [ 19 ].

3.3.4 Protozoa

Protozoa are single-celled microscopic animal [ 19 ], consume solid organic particles, bacteria, and algae for food, and they are in turn ingested as food by higher level multicellular animals [ 37 ]. Aquatic protozoa are floating freely in water and sometimes called zooplankton [ 37 ]. They form cysts that are difficult to inactivate by disinfection [ 19 ].

3.3.5 Indicator organisms

A very important biological indicator of water and pollution is the group of bacteria called coliforms [ 20 ]. Pathogenic coliforms always exist in the intestinal system of humans, and millions are excreted with body wastes [ 37 ]. Consequently, water that has been recently contaminated with sewage will always contain coliforms [ 19 ].

A particular species of coliforms found in domestic sewage is Escherichia coli or E. coli [ 22 ]. Even if the water is only slightly polluted, they are very likely to be found. There are roughly 3 million of E. coli bacteria in 100 mL volume of untreated sewage [ 10 ]. Coliform bacteria are aggressive organisms and survive in the water longer than most pathogens. There are normally two methods to test the coliform bacteria—the membrane filter method and multiple-tube fermentation method [ 10 , 37 ]. Since the test of coliform bacteria is very important for public health, the first method will be described in details in the coming section.

3.3.5.1 Testing for coliforms: membrane filter method

A measured volume of sample is filtered through a special membrane filter by applying a partial vacuum [ 10 , 39 ].

The filter, a flat paper-like disk, has uniform microscopic pores small enough to retain the bacteria on its surface while allowing the water to pass through. The filter paper is then placed in a sterile container called a petri dish, which contains a special culture medium that the bacteria use as a food source [ 39 ].

Then, the petri dish is usually placed in an incubator, which keeps the temperature at 35°C, for 24 h. After incubation, colonies of coliform bacteria each containing millions of organisms will be visible [ 10 ]. The coliform concentration is obtained by counting the number of colonies on the filter; each colony counted represents only one coliform in the original sample [ 10 , 39 ].

Coliform concentrations are expressed in terms of the number of organisms per 100 mL of water as follows:

4. Water quality requirements

Water quality requirements differ depending on the proposed used of water [ 19 ]. As reported by Tchobanoglous et al. [ 19 ], “water unsuitable for one use may be quite satisfactory for another and water may be considered acceptable for a particular use if water of better quality is not available.”

Water quality requirements should be agreed with the water quality standards, which are put down by the governmental agency and represent the legislation requirements. In general, there are three types of standards: in-stream, potable water, and wastewater effluent [ 19 ], each type has its own criteria by using the same methods of measurement. The World Health Organization (WHO) has established minimum standards for drinking water that all countries are recommended to meet [ 25 ].

5. Conclusion

The physical, chemical, and biological parameters of water quality are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods. The classification of water according to its quality is also covered with a specific definition for each type.

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County project aims to control flooding, improve water quality in North Canton, Plain area

• The basin is located on property owned by the county next to the Redwood Apartments.

Continued development upstream in the years since has exacerbated the need for an expanded basin.

• The contract was awarded to United Earthworks of Deerfield.

PLAIN TWP. − A major expansion of the detention basin on Mount Pleasant Street NW is the latest effort to ease flooding in the Zimber Ditch area near North Canton.

The basin, located on property owned by the county next to the Redwood Apartments, was built in 2006. Its construction was first in a series of moves to mitigate downstream flooding.

The county took another step in 2015, when the Stark County Park District bought and demolished five homes in the Zimber Ditch flood area and turned it to greenspace.

"There have been quite a few major rain events," County Administrator Brant Luther said. "It seemed to everyone that if the basin was just a little bit longer and larger, and held that rainwater back a little bit longer to allow it to drain out slower, it would really help downstream flooding."

The project, which will begin soon, will expand the basin by one-third and convert it into a water quality basin. The basin has capacity to hold 14,388,592 gallons of water. The expansion will add an additional 878,900 gallons.

Mount Pleasant Street Detention Basin expansion project | PDF

The county has been looking to expand the detention basin for several years, ever since the county bought additional nearby land in 2017.

"It's taken us eight years, but we're finally getting it done," Stark County Commissioner Richard Regula said at a recent county commissioners meeting.

The upcoming expansion will include deepening the existing basin an additional 3 to 4 feet and expanding it to the south.

'A small additional cost to make a big impact'

Stark County is designated as an area that has impaired streams with high pollution. Because of this, the EPA has required the county to convert a water quantity basin into a water quality basin.

Since the county was already interested in expanding the Mount Pleasant one, Subdivision Engineer Curtis Bungard approached commissioners about doing the conversion at the same time.

"[The EPA] said we only have to do this for a one-acre site, but we're choosing this large site that treats over 300 acres," he said. "When I learned that the commissioners were doing this big expansion project anyhow, so there's already a big investment ... It is a small additional cost to make a big impact, so it was just good timing."

Crews will excavate, allowing storm water sediments to settle to the bottom before the water drains from the basin, improving water quality downstream. The areas will also have plants to help with water filtration.

The county plans to adjust how fast water leaves the basin, ensuring there is enough drainage to improve flooding but also enough time for sediments to settle.

In the past, heavy rains and debris caused the basin to overflow, Bungard said.

"There was one event a year or so ago where these [openings] got clogged up with some construction debris, and the whole basin filled up and went over the road," he said.

The contract was awarded to United Earthworks of Deerfield. Bungard said the county was able to get a favorable bid significantly under the estimate.

"We knew that there was going to be a wide range of bids depending on how close the bidder could take the soil, and this bidder happened to have a site that was within, he says, one minute of driving," he said at a recent commissioners meeting.

The county engineer estimated the project to cost $2,194,951. United Earthworks was awarded the contract at $1,585,860.

The project will be funded through a tax increment financing agreement (TIF). The TIF was established during a 2016 renovation for the Venue at Belden commercial plaza at Everhard Road and Whipple Avenue NW. The county TIF allowed the commissioners to collect 75% of the taxes from the improved value of the property for 10 years. The money was set aside for road improvements or drainage improvements in the area.

The site is downstream from the basin, so the commissioners are able to use the TIF funding on the project.

Reach Grace at 330-580-8364 or [email protected]. Follow her on X @GraceSpringer16.