qualitative research proposal example in education

Designing a Research Proposal in Qualitative Research

• First Online: 27 October 2022

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• Md. Ismail Hossain 4 ,
• Nafiul Mehedi 4 &
• Iftakhar Ahmad 4  

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The chapter discusses designing a research proposal in qualitative research. The main objective is to outline the major components of a qualitative research proposal with example(s) so that the students and novice scholars easily get an understanding of a qualitative proposal. The chapter highlights the major components of a qualitative research proposal and discusses the steps involved in designing a proposal. In each step, an example is given with some essential tips. Following these steps and tips, a novice researcher can easily prepare a qualitative research proposal. Readers, especially undergraduate and master’s students, might use this as a guideline while preparing a thesis proposal. After reading this chapter, they can easily prepare a qualitative proposal.

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Designing a qualitative research project.

What is Qualitative in Research

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Department of Social Work, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh

Md. Ismail Hossain, Nafiul Mehedi & Iftakhar Ahmad

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Centre for Family and Child Studies, Research Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

M. Rezaul Islam

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Niaz Ahmed Khan

Department of Social Work, School of Humanities, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

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About this chapter

Hossain, M.I., Mehedi, N., Ahmad, I. (2022). Designing a Research Proposal in Qualitative Research. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_18

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7 Writing a proposal

• Published: May 2018
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When researchers plan to undertake qualitative research with a pilot or full RCT they write a proposal to apply for funding, seek ethical approval, or as part of their PhD studies. These proposals can be published in journals. Guidance for writing a proposal for the qualitative research undertaken with RCTs has been published, and there is existing guidance for writing proposals in related areas such as mixed methods research. In this chapter, existing guidance is introduced and built upon to offer comprehensive and detailed guidance for writing a proposal for the qualitative research undertaken with an RCT. There are challenges to writing these proposals and these are discussed and potential solutions proposed.

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17 Research Proposal Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

A research proposal systematically and transparently outlines a proposed research project.

The purpose of a research proposal is to demonstrate a project’s viability and the researcher’s preparedness to conduct an academic study. It serves as a roadmap for the researcher.

The process holds value both externally (for accountability purposes and often as a requirement for a grant application) and intrinsic value (for helping the researcher to clarify the mechanics, purpose, and potential signficance of the study).

Key sections of a research proposal include: the title, abstract, introduction, literature review, research design and methods, timeline, budget, outcomes and implications, references, and appendix. Each is briefly explained below.

Watch my Guide: How to Write a Research Proposal

Get your Template for Writing your Research Proposal Here (With AI Prompts!)

Research Proposal Sample Structure

Title: The title should present a concise and descriptive statement that clearly conveys the core idea of the research projects. Make it as specific as possible. The reader should immediately be able to grasp the core idea of the intended research project. Often, the title is left too vague and does not help give an understanding of what exactly the study looks at.

Abstract: Abstracts are usually around 250-300 words and provide an overview of what is to follow – including the research problem , objectives, methods, expected outcomes, and significance of the study. Use it as a roadmap and ensure that, if the abstract is the only thing someone reads, they’ll get a good fly-by of what will be discussed in the peice.

Introduction: Introductions are all about contextualization. They often set the background information with a statement of the problem. At the end of the introduction, the reader should understand what the rationale for the study truly is. I like to see the research questions or hypotheses included in the introduction and I like to get a good understanding of what the significance of the research will be. It’s often easiest to write the introduction last

Literature Review: The literature review dives deep into the existing literature on the topic, demosntrating your thorough understanding of the existing literature including themes, strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in the literature. It serves both to demonstrate your knowledge of the field and, to demonstrate how the proposed study will fit alongside the literature on the topic. A good literature review concludes by clearly demonstrating how your research will contribute something new and innovative to the conversation in the literature.

Research Design and Methods: This section needs to clearly demonstrate how the data will be gathered and analyzed in a systematic and academically sound manner. Here, you need to demonstrate that the conclusions of your research will be both valid and reliable. Common points discussed in the research design and methods section include highlighting the research paradigm, methodologies, intended population or sample to be studied, data collection techniques, and data analysis procedures . Toward the end of this section, you are encouraged to also address ethical considerations and limitations of the research process , but also to explain why you chose your research design and how you are mitigating the identified risks and limitations.

Timeline: Provide an outline of the anticipated timeline for the study. Break it down into its various stages (including data collection, data analysis, and report writing). The goal of this section is firstly to establish a reasonable breakdown of steps for you to follow and secondly to demonstrate to the assessors that your project is practicable and feasible.

Budget: Estimate the costs associated with the research project and include evidence for your estimations. Typical costs include staffing costs, equipment, travel, and data collection tools. When applying for a scholarship, the budget should demonstrate that you are being responsible with your expensive and that your funding application is reasonable.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: A discussion of the anticipated findings or results of the research, as well as the potential contributions to the existing knowledge, theory, or practice in the field. This section should also address the potential impact of the research on relevant stakeholders and any broader implications for policy or practice.

References: A complete list of all the sources cited in the research proposal, formatted according to the required citation style. This demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the relevant literature and ensures proper attribution of ideas and information.

Appendices (if applicable): Any additional materials, such as questionnaires, interview guides, or consent forms, that provide further information or support for the research proposal. These materials should be included as appendices at the end of the document.

Research Proposal Examples

Research proposals often extend anywhere between 2,000 and 15,000 words in length. The following snippets are samples designed to briefly demonstrate what might be discussed in each section.

1. Education Studies Research Proposals

See some real sample pieces:

• Assessment of the perceptions of teachers towards a new grading system
• Does ICT use in secondary classrooms help or hinder student learning?
• Digital technologies in focus project
• Urban Middle School Teachers’ Experiences of the Implementation of
• Restorative Justice Practices
• Experiences of students of color in service learning

Consider this hypothetical education research proposal:

The Impact of Game-Based Learning on Student Engagement and Academic Performance in Middle School Mathematics

Abstract: The proposed study will explore multiplayer game-based learning techniques in middle school mathematics curricula and their effects on student engagement. The study aims to contribute to the current literature on game-based learning by examining the effects of multiplayer gaming in learning.

Introduction: Digital game-based learning has long been shunned within mathematics education for fears that it may distract students or lower the academic integrity of the classrooms. However, there is emerging evidence that digital games in math have emerging benefits not only for engagement but also academic skill development. Contributing to this discourse, this study seeks to explore the potential benefits of multiplayer digital game-based learning by examining its impact on middle school students’ engagement and academic performance in a mathematics class.

Literature Review: The literature review has identified gaps in the current knowledge, namely, while game-based learning has been extensively explored, the role of multiplayer games in supporting learning has not been studied.

Research Design and Methods: This study will employ a mixed-methods research design based upon action research in the classroom. A quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test control group design will first be used to compare the academic performance and engagement of middle school students exposed to game-based learning techniques with those in a control group receiving instruction without the aid of technology. Students will also be observed and interviewed in regard to the effect of communication and collaboration during gameplay on their learning.

Timeline: The study will take place across the second term of the school year with a pre-test taking place on the first day of the term and the post-test taking place on Wednesday in Week 10.

Budget: The key budgetary requirements will be the technologies required, including the subscription cost for the identified games and computers.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: It is expected that the findings will contribute to the current literature on game-based learning and inform educational practices, providing educators and policymakers with insights into how to better support student achievement in mathematics.

2. Psychology Research Proposals

See some real examples:

• A situational analysis of shared leadership in a self-managing team
• The effect of musical preference on running performance
• Relationship between self-esteem and disordered eating amongst adolescent females

Consider this hypothetical psychology research proposal:

The Effects of Mindfulness-Based Interventions on Stress Reduction in College Students

Abstract: This research proposal examines the impact of mindfulness-based interventions on stress reduction among college students, using a pre-test/post-test experimental design with both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods .

Introduction: College students face heightened stress levels during exam weeks. This can affect both mental health and test performance. This study explores the potential benefits of mindfulness-based interventions such as meditation as a way to mediate stress levels in the weeks leading up to exam time.

Literature Review: Existing research on mindfulness-based meditation has shown the ability for mindfulness to increase metacognition, decrease anxiety levels, and decrease stress. Existing literature has looked at workplace, high school and general college-level applications. This study will contribute to the corpus of literature by exploring the effects of mindfulness directly in the context of exam weeks.

Research Design and Methods: Participants ( n= 234 ) will be randomly assigned to either an experimental group, receiving 5 days per week of 10-minute mindfulness-based interventions, or a control group, receiving no intervention. Data will be collected through self-report questionnaires, measuring stress levels, semi-structured interviews exploring participants’ experiences, and students’ test scores.

Timeline: The study will begin three weeks before the students’ exam week and conclude after each student’s final exam. Data collection will occur at the beginning (pre-test of self-reported stress levels) and end (post-test) of the three weeks.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: The study aims to provide evidence supporting the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing stress among college students in the lead up to exams, with potential implications for mental health support and stress management programs on college campuses.

3. Sociology Research Proposals

• Understanding emerging social movements: A case study of ‘Jersey in Transition’
• The interaction of health, education and employment in Western China
• Can we preserve lower-income affordable neighbourhoods in the face of rising costs?

Consider this hypothetical sociology research proposal:

The Impact of Social Media Usage on Interpersonal Relationships among Young Adults

Abstract: This research proposal investigates the effects of social media usage on interpersonal relationships among young adults, using a longitudinal mixed-methods approach with ongoing semi-structured interviews to collect qualitative data.

Introduction: Social media platforms have become a key medium for the development of interpersonal relationships, particularly for young adults. This study examines the potential positive and negative effects of social media usage on young adults’ relationships and development over time.

Literature Review: A preliminary review of relevant literature has demonstrated that social media usage is central to development of a personal identity and relationships with others with similar subcultural interests. However, it has also been accompanied by data on mental health deline and deteriorating off-screen relationships. The literature is to-date lacking important longitudinal data on these topics.

Research Design and Methods: Participants ( n = 454 ) will be young adults aged 18-24. Ongoing self-report surveys will assess participants’ social media usage, relationship satisfaction, and communication patterns. A subset of participants will be selected for longitudinal in-depth interviews starting at age 18 and continuing for 5 years.

Timeline: The study will be conducted over a period of five years, including recruitment, data collection, analysis, and report writing.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: This study aims to provide insights into the complex relationship between social media usage and interpersonal relationships among young adults, potentially informing social policies and mental health support related to social media use.

4. Nursing Research Proposals

• Does Orthopaedic Pre-assessment clinic prepare the patient for admission to hospital?
• Nurses’ perceptions and experiences of providing psychological care to burns patients
• Registered psychiatric nurse’s practice with mentally ill parents and their children

Consider this hypothetical nursing research proposal:

The Influence of Nurse-Patient Communication on Patient Satisfaction and Health Outcomes following Emergency Cesarians

Abstract: This research will examines the impact of effective nurse-patient communication on patient satisfaction and health outcomes for women following c-sections, utilizing a mixed-methods approach with patient surveys and semi-structured interviews.

Introduction: It has long been known that effective communication between nurses and patients is crucial for quality care. However, additional complications arise following emergency c-sections due to the interaction between new mother’s changing roles and recovery from surgery.

Literature Review: A review of the literature demonstrates the importance of nurse-patient communication, its impact on patient satisfaction, and potential links to health outcomes. However, communication between nurses and new mothers is less examined, and the specific experiences of those who have given birth via emergency c-section are to date unexamined.

Research Design and Methods: Participants will be patients in a hospital setting who have recently had an emergency c-section. A self-report survey will assess their satisfaction with nurse-patient communication and perceived health outcomes. A subset of participants will be selected for in-depth interviews to explore their experiences and perceptions of the communication with their nurses.

Timeline: The study will be conducted over a period of six months, including rolling recruitment, data collection, analysis, and report writing within the hospital.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: This study aims to provide evidence for the significance of nurse-patient communication in supporting new mothers who have had an emergency c-section. Recommendations will be presented for supporting nurses and midwives in improving outcomes for new mothers who had complications during birth.

5. Social Work Research Proposals

• Experiences of negotiating employment and caring responsibilities of fathers post-divorce
• Exploring kinship care in the north region of British Columbia

Consider this hypothetical social work research proposal:

The Role of a Family-Centered Intervention in Preventing Homelessness Among At-Risk Youthin a working-class town in Northern England

Abstract: This research proposal investigates the effectiveness of a family-centered intervention provided by a local council area in preventing homelessness among at-risk youth. This case study will use a mixed-methods approach with program evaluation data and semi-structured interviews to collect quantitative and qualitative data .

Introduction: Homelessness among youth remains a significant social issue. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of family-centered interventions in addressing this problem and identify factors that contribute to successful prevention strategies.

Literature Review: A review of the literature has demonstrated several key factors contributing to youth homelessness including lack of parental support, lack of social support, and low levels of family involvement. It also demonstrates the important role of family-centered interventions in addressing this issue. Drawing on current evidence, this study explores the effectiveness of one such intervention in preventing homelessness among at-risk youth in a working-class town in Northern England.

Research Design and Methods: The study will evaluate a new family-centered intervention program targeting at-risk youth and their families. Quantitative data on program outcomes, including housing stability and family functioning, will be collected through program records and evaluation reports. Semi-structured interviews with program staff, participants, and relevant stakeholders will provide qualitative insights into the factors contributing to program success or failure.

Timeline: The study will be conducted over a period of six months, including recruitment, data collection, analysis, and report writing.

Budget: Expenses include access to program evaluation data, interview materials, data analysis software, and any related travel costs for in-person interviews.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: This study aims to provide evidence for the effectiveness of family-centered interventions in preventing youth homelessness, potentially informing the expansion of or necessary changes to social work practices in Northern England.

Research Proposal Template

Get your Detailed Template for Writing your Research Proposal Here (With AI Prompts!)

This is a template for a 2500-word research proposal. You may find it difficult to squeeze everything into this wordcount, but it’s a common wordcount for Honors and MA-level dissertations.

Your research proposal is where you really get going with your study. I’d strongly recommend working closely with your teacher in developing a research proposal that’s consistent with the requirements and culture of your institution, as in my experience it varies considerably. The above template is from my own courses that walk students through research proposals in a British School of Education.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples

8 thoughts on “17 Research Proposal Examples”

Very excellent research proposals

very helpful

Very helpful

Dear Sir, I need some help to write an educational research proposal. Thank you.

Hi Levi, use the site search bar to ask a question and I’ll likely have a guide already written for your specific question. Thanks for reading!

very good research proposal

Thank you so much sir! ❤️

Very helpful 👌

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Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches

Student resources, research proposal tools and sample student proposals.

Sample research proposals written by doctoral students in each of the key areas covered in Research Design --quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods—are provided as a useful reference. A Research Proposal checklist also serves to help guide your own proposal-writing.

›   Morales Proposal_Qualitative Study

›   Kottich Proposal_Quantitative Study

›   Guetterman Proposal_Mixed Methods Study

›   Research Proposal Checklist  

Designing a Research Proposal in Qualitative Research

• October 2022
• In book: Principles of Social Research Methodology (pp.263-277)

• Shahjalal University of Science and Technology
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5 Examples of Qualitative Data in Education

Qualitative data is a game-changer in education, unlocking valuable insights into students’ experiences, perspectives, and behaviors. Capturing the richness and depth of human experiences empowers educators to make informed decisions, revamp teaching strategies, and shape impactful school policies.

In this article, we’ll explore five examples of qualitative data in education, unraveling their significance and tackling potential challenges along the way. Let’s dive in!

• Understanding Qualitative Data in Education
• Examples of Qualitative Data in Education
• The Role of Qualitative Data in Educational Improvement
• Challenges in Collecting and Analyzing Qualitative Data

1.  Understanding Qualitative Data in Education

Before we delve into the examples, let’s first define what qualitative data entails. In education, qualitative data refers to non-numerical and descriptive information gathered through interviews, observations, surveys, or the analysis of documents and artifacts. Its purpose is to understand the nuances and complexities of educational phenomena, going beyond surface-level statistics.

Qualitative data encompasses a wide range of sources, such as open-ended survey responses, transcripts of interviews, and field notes from classroom observations. It provides detailed accounts of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and experiences, shedding light on the why and how of educational processes.

For example, in a study on student motivation, qualitative data may include interviews with students where they express their personal goals, aspirations, and challenges. These insights can help educators understand the underlying factors that drive or hinder student engagement and achievement.

Read next: How data analytics is reshaping the education industry

The Importance of Qualitative Data in Education

Qualitative data complements quantitative data , providing a holistic view of students’ learning journeys. It helps educators understand the contextual factors influencing student performance, identify patterns and trends, and gain deeper insights into the effectiveness of educational interventions.

For instance, when analyzing the impact of a new teaching method, qualitative data can reveal the specific strategies or activities that resonate with students, leading to improved learning outcomes. This information can guide educators in refining their instructional practices and tailoring their approaches to meet the diverse needs of their students.

Moreover, qualitative data allows us to give voice to marginalized groups, acknowledging their unique perspectives and experiences. It fosters inclusivity and helps educators create equitable learning environments.

For example, through qualitative research, educators can explore the experiences of students from underrepresented communities and gain a deeper understanding of the barriers they face. This knowledge can inform the development of targeted interventions and support systems to address these challenges and promote educational equity.

2.  Examples of Qualitative Data in Education

In this section, we’ll take a look at five examples of qualitative data in education.

• Observational data in classroom settings
• Interview and survey responses from students
• Teachers’ reflective journal entries
• Parent-teacher meeting notes
• Student artifacts and portfolios

Each of these types of data in education tell us something different. Let’s take a closer look!

Observational Data in Classroom Settings

Observational data involves systematically observing students’ behaviors and interactions within the classroom. It provides valuable insights into students’ engagement levels, social dynamics, and learning styles. By observing how students respond to different teaching strategies, educators can refine their approaches and tailor instruction to individual needs.

For example, observing a student struggling with a particular concept can prompt educators to provide targeted support or adapt instructional materials, ensuring every student has a fair chance to succeed.

Furthermore, through careful observation, educators can also identify patterns of behavior that may indicate underlying issues affecting student learning. For instance, noticing that a group of students consistently disengages during a specific activity may prompt educators to investigate potential barriers to their participation and implement strategies to address them.

Observational data can also shed light on the social dynamics within the classroom. By observing students’ interactions, educators can gain insights into the formation of peer groups, the emergence of leadership roles, and the impact of these dynamics on learning outcomes. This information can inform educators’ decisions on group assignments, seating arrangements, and fostering a positive classroom culture.

Interview and Survey Responses from Students

Conducting interviews and collecting survey responses directly from students allows educators to understand their opinions, beliefs, and experiences. This qualitative data provides a nuanced understanding of student motivation, attitudes towards learning, and the impact of educational practices on their lives.

Through interviews and surveys, educators can identify students’ strengths and challenges, gather feedback on classroom experiences, and tailor their teaching to better meet students’ needs. It also encourages student agency, as they feel heard and valued in shaping their own educational journey.

Moreover, interviews and surveys can uncover valuable insights about students’ interests and aspirations beyond the classroom. By understanding their extracurricular activities, hobbies, and future goals, educators can make connections between students’ personal interests and the curriculum, creating more meaningful and engaging learning experiences.

Additionally, interviews and surveys can be used to explore students’ perspectives on broader social issues, such as diversity, equity, and inclusion. By giving students a platform to share their thoughts and experiences, educators can foster empathy, understanding, and a sense of belonging within the classroom.

Teachers’ Reflective Journal Entries

Reflective journals, written by teachers, provide a unique window into their thoughts, emotions, and reflections on their teaching practices. These personal accounts offer valuable qualitative data that helps educators examine their teaching strategies and goals, analyze the impact of their actions, and make informed decisions to improve student learning.

By critically reflecting upon their own practice, teachers can identify areas for growth, address challenges, and share successful strategies with colleagues. Reflective journals foster a culture of continuous professional development and collaboration among educators.

In addition to self-reflection, teachers’ reflective journal entries can also capture the evolving nature of the teaching profession. They can document the changing educational landscape, the integration of technology, and the impact of policy decisions on classroom practices. These insights can contribute to broader discussions on educational reform and inform decision-making at the institutional level.

Furthermore, teachers’ reflective journal entries can serve as a source of inspiration and support for other educators. By sharing their experiences, challenges, and triumphs, teachers can create a community of practice that promotes innovation, resilience, and growth.

Parent-Teacher Meeting Notes

During parent-teacher meetings, qualitative data is gathered through conversations and notes taken by educators. These insights highlight parents’ perspectives on their child’s learning, their concerns, and aspirations. Understanding parental views is essential in fostering effective home-school partnerships.

By actively listening and engaging with parents, educators can tailor their support, provide resources, and build trust. Collaborating with parents helps create a holistic understanding of students’ needs and enables educators to create learning environments that align with students’ home lives.

Parent-teacher meeting notes can also reveal valuable information about students’ learning preferences, family dynamics, and cultural backgrounds. This knowledge can guide educators in designing culturally responsive instruction and creating inclusive classroom environments that celebrate diversity.

Furthermore, parent-teacher meetings provide an opportunity for educators to share insights and strategies for supporting student learning at home. By establishing open lines of communication, educators and parents can work together to reinforce learning goals, address challenges, and celebrate student achievements.

Student Artifacts and Portfolios

Student artifacts, such as essays, artwork, or projects, provide qualitative evidence of students’ learning and growth. Portfolios, in particular, are collections of student work that showcase their progress over time. These tangible representations illustrate students’ knowledge, skills, and creativity.

By analyzing student artifacts and portfolios, educators can gain insights into individual strengths, challenges, and areas for improvement. They can also identify patterns across multiple students, informing instructional decisions and shaping curriculum design.

Moreover, student artifacts and portfolios can serve as a catalyst for self-reflection and goal-setting. By reviewing their own work, students can identify areas of growth, set targets for improvement, and take ownership of their learning journey. This metacognitive process enhances students’ self-awareness and empowers them to become active participants in their education.

Student artifacts and portfolios can also be used as a means of assessment beyond traditional tests and quizzes. By evaluating the quality and depth of students’ work, educators can gain a more comprehensive understanding of their learning outcomes and provide targeted feedback for further improvement.

Furthermore, student artifacts and portfolios can be shared with peers, parents, and the wider community, fostering a sense of pride and accomplishment. This public display of students’ work promotes a positive learning culture and encourages students to strive for excellence.

3.  The Role of Qualitative Data in Educational Improvement

Informing teaching strategies.

Qualitative data helps educators tailor their teaching strategies to meet students’ diverse needs. By understanding students’ preferences, learning styles, and perceptions of their classroom experiences, educators can create engaging and inclusive learning environments.

For instance, qualitative data might reveal that students respond well to hands-on activities or small group discussions. Armed with this knowledge, educators can integrate these strategies into their lessons, maximizing student engagement and learning outcomes.

Enhancing Student Engagement

Qualitative data allows educators to uncover factors that influence student engagement, such as classroom environment, relationships with peers and teachers, and the relevance of the curriculum to students’ lives. This information enables educators to create meaningful and culturally responsive learning experiences.

By actively involving students in the design of their educational journey and incorporating their voices and interests, educators can promote a sense of ownership and foster intrinsic motivation, leading to increased student engagement and achievement.

Shaping School Policies

Qualitative data has a powerful role to play in shaping school policies and decision-making processes. It provides rich insights into students’ experiences, perceptions of the learning environment, and the impact of educational practices on their overall well-being.

By utilizing qualitative data, educators and policymakers can identify areas of improvement, address systemic inequities, and advocate for change. By considering multiple perspectives and experiences, schools can create policies that meet the needs of all students.

To learn more, read our complete guide to using qualitative data to improve student outcomes.

4.  Challenges in Collecting and Analyzing Qualitative Data

Ensuring data authenticity.

One of the challenges with qualitative data is ensuring its authenticity and credibility. Researchers and educators must be vigilant when collecting and analyzing data, employing rigorous methodologies and strategies to minimize bias and subjectivity.

By implementing clear protocols, involving multiple data sources, and engaging in reflexivity, educators can enhance the trustworthiness and reliability of qualitative data, leading to more accurate insights into students’ experiences.

Dealing with Subjectivity

Qualitative data, by its nature, is subjective. It relies on individual interpretations and perspectives. While this subjectivity can provide rich insights, it also poses challenges when comparing or generalizing findings across different contexts or individuals.

To address this challenge, researchers and educators employ triangulation, seeking multiple corroborating sources of evidence, such as interviews, observations, and documents. This helps build a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of complex educational phenomena.

Time and Resource Constraints

Collecting and analyzing qualitative data can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. Conducting interviews, observations, or analyzing reflective journals requires careful planning, organization, and sufficient resources.

Despite these constraints, the value of qualitative data in education cannot be understated. Administrators must prioritize allocating time and resources to support educators in collecting and analyzing qualitative data, recognizing its significant contribution to educational improvement.

Examples of qualitative data in education provide crucial insights into students’ experiences, perspectives, and needs. By embracing qualitative data in research and practice, educators can create transformative educational experiences that empower students, foster their academic and personal growth, and build inclusive learning communities.

Understanding qualitative data is only half the battle; presenting it in a manner that drives decision-making is equally crucial. After exploring these five examples, why not take the next step with our Inno™ Starter Kits ? They’re tailored for educators looking to seamlessly plug in their student data , offering clear visual representations that illuminate student experiences and insights. Dive deeper, connect the dots, and use your data to shape the future of education with the Inno™ Starter Kits.

Thank you for sharing!

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Qualitative Research Proposal

Proposal maker.

Writing a qualitative research proposal is just like writing any other research proposals. The only thing is that you are writing specifically designed to provide non-numerical data, concepts and the like. You are more likely to follow a specific format since it is a type of academic writing.

6+ Qualitative Research Proposal Examples

1. qualitative research proposal gantt chart template.

2. Sample Qualitative Research Proposal

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3. Proposal in Qualitative Research Template

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4. Individual Qualitative Research Proposal

5. Qualitative Research Proposal Format

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6. Elements of Research Proposal Qualitative Design

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7. Qualitative Research Workshop Proposal

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What is a Qualitative Research Proposal?

A qualitative research proposal gives the detailed summary of your research study. It is a type of research proposal that only involves qualitative methods of gathering a certain data such as an interview, observation, questionnaire, or case studies . Qualitative research can be applied in the field of psychology, social sciences and the like.

How to Write a Qualitative Research Proposal?

Think of a unique topic for you to provide a good research title.

Example: A Qualitative Study on Coping up with the Different Levels of Anxiety among Students

Develop Research Questions

Your research questions will be your guide in your research study. It contains the research design, research methodology and the technique you used in collecting data.

Example: What do the architecture and engineering students with anxiety do to cope up with their studies in the university?

For qualitative research, we can use the SPIDER method which stands for Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation and Research type.

Sample refers to your target population that is included in your study.

Example: The population consisted of a community of architecture and engineering students of the oldest university in the city of Manila, Philippines.

Phenomenon of Interest refers to an event or an object. What could be their experience in the university?

Design refers to the methods you used in conducting the study.

•         Interview – refers to the one on one interaction with the participant.
•       Observation – refers to observing the participants whether or not they are fully aware of the thought that you are observing them.
•     Questionnaire – refers to the process of distributing survey questionnaires to gather answers from your participants. It ends with tallying the answers to see what the participants choose the most.
•         Case study – refers to an intensive study about a specific person or group of people.

Ensure That Some Ethical Standards are Met

This refers to protecting the privacy or confidentiality of the data you have gathered and the rights of the participants.

“There were more ethical considerations in almost all aspects for drug trials and clinical studies compared with proposals for epidemiological studies. Clinical research studies usually directly involve human subjects, either with preventive, therapeutic, or non-therapeutic procedures. In general, the study procedures in such study designs put human subjects at higher risks, thus there are more ethical concerns. The primary ethical considerations of clinical studies are competent medical treatment and care, alongside an acceptable risk–benefit balance. However, many laboratory research studies use stored specimens, with less invasive procedures, and epidemiology studies usually employ data collection through medical records, CRFs or questionnaires. Ethical issues for the latter, therefore, mainly concern confidentiality and privacy of the study participants. However, it was found that studies that collect new specimens received more comments on ethical issues. There remains debate among RECs about solutions for issues around sample export, storage, and reuse. However, it is recommended that in order to ensure adequate protection of human research subjects participating in scientific research, RECs bear the responsibility of guaranteeing that participants are provided with sufficient detail to be able to provide informed consent as well as to understand the reality of genetic research as it is practiced.”

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Consider writing a plan to be used for the whole duration of your research. this includes the timeline and budget..

Timeline – refers to the target length of time to complete your research.

Budget – refers to the estimation of how much your research would cost. All items that you think might be included in the budgeting must be included.

Don’t Forget to Include Your Reference

This contains the list of the sources that you should cite on the last page of your research. It usually follows the APA format.

How long should a qualitative research proposal be?

Every research proposal should be at least 4 to 7 pages long or depending on the requirement of your professor.

Do we still have to write for the definition of terms in the research proposal?

Yes. You have the option to do so to introduce and define words that are difficult for the readers to understand.

What can be considered as a good topic in writing qualitative research?

Your topic will either be given by your professor or you may look into unique topics into the internet.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

Generate a proposal for a new school recycling program

Compose a proposal for a school field trip to a science museum.

• Open access
• Published: 13 September 2024

A qualitative analysis of health service problems and the strategies used to manage them in the COVID-19 pandemic: exploiting generic and context-specific approaches

• Hania Rahimi-Ardabili 1 ,
• Farah Magrabi 1 ,
• Brenton Sanderson 1 , 2 ,
• Thilo Schuler 1 , 3 &
• Enrico Coiera 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  1067 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted health systems around the globe. Lessons from health systems responses to these challenges may help design effective and sustainable health system responses for future challenges. This study aimed to 1/ identify the broad types of health system challenges faced during the pandemic and 2/ develop a typology of health system response to these challenges.

Semi-structured one-on-one online interviews explored the experience of 19 health professionals during COVID-19 in a large state health system in Australia. Data were analysed using constant comparative analysis utilising a sociotechnical system lens.

Participants described four overarching challenges: 1/ System overload, 2/ Barriers to decision-making, 3/ Education or training gaps, and 4/ Limitations of existing services. The limited time often available to respond meant that specific and well-designed strategies were often not possible, and more generic strategies that relied on the workforce to modify solutions and repair unexpected gaps were common. For example, generic responses to system overload included working longer hours, whilst specific strategies utilised pre-existing technical resources (e.g. converting non-emergency wards into COVID-19 wards).

During the pandemic, it was often not possible to rely on mature strategies to frame responses, and more generic, emergent approaches were commonly required when urgent responses were needed. The degree to which specific strategies were ready-to-hand appeared to dictate how much a strategy relied on such generic approaches. The workforce played a pivotal role in enabling emergent responses that required dealing with uncertainties.

Peer Review reports

The COVID-19 pandemic has posed a significant challenge to health systems worldwide, and many have struggled to cope, especially in the early stages [ 1 ]. The global consequences of COVID-19 on health systems are measured in loss or impairment of lives [ 2 ], healthcare professional burnout [ 3 ], reduced services, and delayed care [ 4 , 5 ].

Unfortunately, it is highly probable that health systems will confront many more such crises, with climate change risks amongst these [ 6 ]. Understanding what was common to successful COVID-19 strategies, and what was shared amongst failed ones could be instructive as we prepare for the future. The pandemic affected every aspect of operations from planning and procurement to care delivery [ 7 , 8 ]. Services, processes and tools were repurposed or created ad hoc, often from the ground up [ 9 , 10 ]. Hospitals for instance, responded by repurposing existing facilities and wards, and implementing strategies to cope with sudden rises in patient numbers that overwhelmed existing critical care services such as intensive care units [ 11 , 12 ]. The initial phase of the pandemic witnessed immediate actions, some of which succeeded such as the development of mRNA vaccines [ 13 ] and others that failed such as certain COVID-19 contact tracing applications [ 14 ].

The challenges healthcare professionals experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic has had some attention in the research literature. For example, a 2021 systematic review examining the COVID-19 burden on healthcare workers from nine different countries identified four main challenges of inadequate preparedness; emotional challenges; insufficient equipment and information; and work burnout [ 15 ].

This study goes beyond describing the challenges faced, and examines the responses to these problems using the lens of sociotechnical system theory (STS) [ 16 ]. STS thinking sees system processes as the emergent outcome of interactions between people and technology [ 16 ].

Using first-hand stories from healthcare professionals, this study first describes the different health service problems experienced by health professionals during the pandemic. Next, we attempt to categorise the different strategies they employed to deal with these problems, exploring how people and technologies came together to craft responses to these problems during the pandemic. We develop a typology of responses that identifies the different roles for generic (general-purpose strategies), and specific (local or health service-specific) approaches. Identifying the circumstances in which each of these strategy types was used may assist in preparedness and guide future crisis responses.

A series of semi-structured interviews explored the firsthand experiences of healthcare professionals in either developing or making COVID-19 pandemic responses. We utilised a qualitative and interpretive approach, which aims to generate new hypotheses by exploring emergent relationships between descriptions of phenomena [ 17 , 18 ]. This manuscript follows the COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) guidelines (See Additional file 1 for the checklist).

Participants and setting

Health system staff from a variety of professional groups and levels of seniority were recruited. Health professionals who had been involved in the pandemic response in New South Wales (NSW) were eligible for interviews. These included medical specialists (e.g. respiratory physicians), nurses and midwives, general practitioners (GPs), allied health workers (e.g. physiotherapists working in ICUs), health service executives and administrative staff, and paramedics. Participants were selected from a diverse range of health professions and services, including hospitals, public health organisations, and laboratories, in both public and private sectors as well as rural and urban settings. Our target sample size of 20 was informed by a systematic review of 14 qualitative studies that explored the experiences of healthcare professionals during the pandemic and concluded that on average, past studies reached data saturation with approximately 15 participants [ 19 ].

NSW is an Australian state with over eight million people. It includes about 9,600 full-time equivalent GPs [ 20 ] and 2000 registered pharmacies [ 21 ] governed by the federal government [ 22 ]. Further, NSW Health is the public health system for the state and includes NSW Ambulance, NSW Health Pathology, eHealth NSW, Health Protection NSW (public health legislation and surveillance), and Local Health Districts (LHDs) [ 23 ]. LHDs encompass hospitals, home hospitals, hospital pharmacies, aged health and disabilities, mental health, aboriginal health, drug health, and public health including immunisation [ 24 ]. During 2020-21, NSW had a total of 228 public hospitals and 210 private hospitals [ 25 ], and over 150 pathology collection centres [ 26 ]. Participants in this study were from general practices and community pharmacies, as well as NSW Health, including NSW Ambulance, Health Pathology (including COVID-19 testing centres), eHealth NSW, hospitals, hospital pharmacies, and immunisation services.

The research team (E.C., B.S., T.S., F.M.) initiated purposive recruitment with a convenience sample [ 27 , 28 ], identifying potential participants within their health system networks. Once enrolled, we used snowballing where participants were asked to forward the study invitation email to others who might be interested. Participants did not have any pre-existing relationship with the interviewer (H.R.-A.) who invited them via email. Transcripts were deidentified by H.R.-A. before sharing them with the other core analysis team (E.C., F.M).

Ethics and consent

Ethics approval was obtained from the Macquarie University Ethics Committee (ID: 11187) prior to commencing the study. Participants provided written informed consent prior to data collection.

Data collection

Data were collected between April and September 2022. At the time of the interview, the COVID-19 vaccine was freely available to the community, and health services in NSW have been providing in-person services in addition to tele-consultation. One-on-one interviews were conducted online using videoconferencing software (Zoom Video Communications, Inc. 2023) with each session lasting an average of 51 min (range: 27–73 min). One of the researchers (H.R-A.) with experience in qualitative interviews was responsible for conducting the interviews. Interviews were transcribed using an AI-based transcription tool (rev.com). A subset of four transcripts were manually checked for transcription accuracy (H.R-A.). Data collection and preliminary analysis were concurrent, with emerging themes from initial analysis reshaping subsequent interview questions and recruitment. Emerging themes about the use of different types of strategies led to new probe questions about strategy and whether such responses were new to the setting. The bulk of the analysis was conducted after data collection.

After the interviewer introduced herself and the reasons for conducting the research (identifying potential approaches for a crises ready health system) participants were asked about: (1) The challenges they faced while providing clinical services during the entire stages of the pandemic; (2) Specific health service responses that they were involved with and (3) what they did differently to pre COVID-19 practices (See Additional file 2 for the initial version of the interview guide).

Data analysis

Data were analysed using constant comparative analysis [ 29 ]. Two early transcripts were open-coded line-by-line to identify emerging concepts and themes (By H.R-A.). To ensure generalisability, these early codes were discussed and refined with a second analyst (E.C.). Codes were further refined and extended during the study by comparing similar categories across participants. An axial coding approach was taken, looking at connections between categories in terms of causation, strategies, consequences, context, and related conditions [ 29 ]. This process continued until all transcripts were coded. Both inductive and deductive approaches were utilised for coding and conceptualising the themes and frameworks.

Data coding was supported by QRS International NVivo ® 12 Software. Visualisation of code connections, codes and data was undertaken using Microsoft Excel. Some codes were grouped into more general constructs, and others were separated into several distinct codes. H.R-A. created memos of each transcript including key quotes, cross-indexed back to the transcripts and documented all process changes in an audit trail.

Reflexivity

Authors (E.C., B.S., T.S.; males) have a clinical background (medical doctors) and two are currently in clinical practice (B.S., T.S.). E.C. (PhD), F.M. (PhD, female) and H.R-A. (PhD, female) were academic researchers at the time of the study. All authors are experienced health system researchers, with prior experience in qualitative research. The interviewer and principal analyst (H.R.-A.) who had no previous contact with any of the participants, deidentified the transcripts before sharing them with other team members. Three participants were willing to provide feedback on the initial analyses.

Analytic framework

We analysed data to identify the types of (1) problems faced by participants or their health services during the COVID-19 pandemic; and (2) the type of health service responses employed to manage these problems. The analysis of health service responses was undertaken using the lens of STS theory which emphasises that system processes are the inevitable consequence of interaction between the people and technology, and that studying either in isolation leads to reductionism that fails to explain how the real world works adequately [ 16 ]. Thus, technological processes were analysed alongside human processes, each shaping the other in a continuous process of human-technology interaction [ 30 , 31 ]. For example, if a participant discussed technology, we probed for human processes related to the technology. We sought to understand the context that led to different social and technical response patterns with specific attention to human and technology interactions. Two researchers (H. R-A. and E.C.) analysed the health service responses reported by interviewees, and differences in interpretation were resolved by discussion.

Participant characteristics

Of 28 invited health professionals, 19 participated in our study. Participants who were involved in the pandemic response were GPs ( n  = 2), pharmacists ( n  = 2), specialists (e.g. emergency physician and respiratory physician), ( n  = 3), nurses and midwives ( n  = 3), allied health workers (e.g. physiotherapist and social worker working in ICU) ( n  = 3), pathologists ( n  = 2), a paramedic ( n  = 1), a clerical officer ( n  = 1) and public health implementation officer/ managers ( n  = 2).

Health service problem types

Participants identified four broad classes of challenges faced by their health services during COVID-19. A summary of challenges is provided below, and a detailed description with example quotes from participants available in Additional File 3 .

Health system overload . The ability for health services to meet the needs of the population as the pandemic unfolded was often compromised because of an imbalance between the supply and demand for resources. System overload was often the result.

Barriers to decision-making : In the rapidly unfolding pandemic, evidence was not being generated and distributed as quickly as health services required, and the communication pathways to share information were sometimes suboptimal.

Education and training gaps : The need to train the public and health service staff as services responded to the pandemic was triggered both by the arrival of new evidence and best-practice guidance needing to be shared widely, or by staff working in roles that were new to them.

Limitations of existing services : Faced with multiple and concurrent challenges, many existing services or care models were found to be inadequate.

Health service response types

Respondents provided a rich account of the different strategies employed to meet the problems faced during the early years of the pandemic, with multiple examples across all four problem types (Additional file 4 ).

High-level analysis of these responses identified that human organisational responses were apparently shaped by the degree of technology maturity and availability. We observed differences in the use of generic responses (applicable to many settings) and specific responses (designed to serve a given service, its unique characteristics and the problems it faced). In this section below, we contrast examples of general and specific responses, presented for each problem type to explore why these strategic differences might have been adopted. Example responses are cross-referenced to relevant quote IDs in brackets, indicating each code’s cell address and item number in the Excel sheet - Additional file 4 as “([Cell address]#[item number when available])”.

Health system overload

Generic overload management strategies: Respondents described increasing the hours worked by staff (quote IDs H03#1, H20, H21), redeploying staff to critical services (quote ID H03#2), hiring new staff (quote IDs H03#3, H20#2, H21#4) or retraining existing staff (quote IDs H14#3, H15#2) to address imbalances between service supply and demand. Work pattern changes included delaying non-urgent care (quote IDs H03#9, H13#7, H66), altering staff/patient ratios in hospitals (quote IDs H03#12, H35#2,6,7), and fast-tracking patient discharge in tandem with home monitoring and support packs for COVID-19 patients (quote ID H03#11). Clinical staff working under difficult circumstances or longer hours were supported with access to accommodation, peer and mental health support (quote IDs H15#7, H21#3, H27#2, H35#5).

The choice of generic responses appeared to be driven by time constraints necessitating immediate solutions (quote ID H20#2). For example, outsourcing recruitment was more expedient than developing new internal processes: “ they hired an external company to I guess source more [staff who] didn’t have the experience that we had it was yeah that’s what effectively led for those long [vaccine] lines… the expectation was the training would come in the same day… the workforce was ignored… it would be much helpful to know that like in two months we’re wrapping up to be 1500 [vaccinations] yeah we would have tried extra hard to train more people [Pharmacist – 14].”

Specific overload management strategies: Overload strategies were sometimes quite specific to the health service experiencing stress. Batch testing of pooled samples for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests was undertaken to improve the throughput of otherwise overloaded laboratory services (quote ID H07#1). Rapid antigen tests (RATs) were used in hospitals to reduce the number of PCR tests for likely-negative individuals and for symptomatic positive patients, and allow ill patients to receive COVID-19 treatment without delay (quote ID H07#2):

What a rapid test would do with someone who is symptomatic would be that if you turn positive on a RAT you are COVID positive , so what that would end up doing was then that would decrease the amount of PCR that we were doing… If we had access to them [RATs] in Delta [variant phase] a testing capacity for PCRs would have dropped , identification of COVID positive patients who have been much faster , and that would have changed our treatment or discharge plans for these patients a lot quicker [ICU Nurse – 13].

Other specific responses were increasing hospital capacity by converting non-emergency wards into COVID-19 wards (quote ID H08#1), creating temporary wards (e.g. tents in hospital car parks) (quote ID H18), and facilitating hospital discharge by providing bus services to take patients home (quote ID H55). Emergency co-ordination centres assisted in identifying beds for patients across a region (quote ID H03#10), and respiratory clinics were set up in the community to support keeping patients at home (quote ID H60#2).

Barriers to decision-making

Generic decision-making strategies: Health services adopted several generic strategies to improve data capture, and dissemination of new evidence and local data. A respondent explained how a generic electronic medical record system (EMR) was customised to capture COVID-19 specific information (quote ID H56). “ We had to make EMR kind of work for us [Emergency physician – 09].” The respondent and their colleagues “ had to sort of come up with a process … to mark that you’ve had COVID and then not test you .” General purpose strategies required staff to be vigilant for problems during their application: “people were good at that. It was just realising that it [problem] was coming. So sort of working out. Oh hang on this is going to be a problem as we go forward. So what do we do? [Emergency physician – 09] . ”

Non-specific technologies such as email, Zoom, and Microsoft Teams were often used to enhance team communication. Communication processes were also enhanced by scheduling regular daily staff meetings at hospitals (quote IDs H09#1, H14#11), and weekly meetings for GPs to speak directly with those involved in pandemic management from the public health system (quote ID H09#4). Microsoft SharePoint was used to gather information about staff activities, such as where and when they treated COVID-19 patients, to assist with infection control and for patient managements (quote IDs H47, H48#2, H49).

Specific decision-making strategies: To provide local best practice guidance, expert support teams were created to assist with troubleshooting (quote ID H09#3), local protocols were developed and updated potentially daily (quote IDs H09#2, H68#1,), and interdisciplinary collaborations (e.g. pharmacists working with nurses) developed local workflow models (quote ID H17#1). Such activities required significant effort (quote ID H09#2): “ a working group that met like daily seven days a week for months and months and months to put together the [local protocol and updates] response [Transplant nephrologist – 18]. ”

Education and training gaps

Generic training strategies: Virtual training packages were used to maximise the dissemination of educational materials where local training was not feasible (quote ID H57). Peer support networks were developed to support information sharing where training was not available (quote IDs H03#4, H34 #5, H15#2). Adaptations of such solutions required significant human effort e.g. peer support meant senior staff had to be “there every step of the way [Emergency nurse – 13]. ”

Specific training strategies: Many of the responses designed to educate the health system workforce and the community were highly targeted (quote ID H15#2). Specific training programs were instituted to meet urgent needs, e.g. training clinicians in the use of PPE and hand hygiene. Consumers received highly targeted educational messages, such as requests to avoid unnecessary calling of ambulances, and simple social distancing rules and masking advice (quote IDs H22, H25, H26). Pharmacies provided in-house RATs for members of the public who did not understand the testing process (quote ID H25).

Limitations of existing services

Generic service strategies: The early stages of the pandemic saw a flurry of new or extended health services, often implemented under significant time and resource limitations. Periods of public health mandated lockdowns and work-from-home arrangements relied upon general purpose technologies (quote IDs H3#13, H14#5). Virtual consultations were delivered over channels of varying sophistication from telephone to online telecare products (quote IDs H13#3, H44#2, H52#1, H62#1). When there was lack of supply or limited access to manufactured PCR kits for COVID-19, specialised experts using general PCR techniques “try and put together a rapid PCR type of [solution/reagent] which they didn’t have [Pathology manager – 26] ” (quote ID H64#2).

Specific service strategies: Context-specific responses to service limitations included massive expansion of contact tracing capabilities, new measures such as routine COVID-19 surveillance of clinical staff (quote ID H14#6), and the use of QR (quick response) codes in public venues to support rapid contact tracing (quote ID H14#15). COVID-19 focussed respiratory clinics (quote ID H60#2) and PCR testing facilities appeared in the community for the first time. Specialist vaccination hubs and expanded community pharmacy services such as home delivery of medications were other specific responses. Hospital emergency services expanded their triage functions by creating specialised COVID-19 assessment areas with staff in full PPE, either using repurposed hospital space or in carparks outside the emergency departments or clinics (quote ID H03#11, H13#1,2, H14#13). Laboratories took advantage of manufactured PCR kits when available (quote ID H064#4): “you just opened the box and you put it together and you go [Pathology manager – 26].”

General to specific strategies . Many early responses to the pandemic involved the use of general strategies that sought to optimise responses from existing services (such as reconfiguring rostering or using general-purpose software):

The use of general solutions seemed to coincide with urgency and lack of time or resources to craft a more specific local solution (e.g. quote ID H20#2).

General solutions also could thus be seen to “buy time” whilst uncertainty remained about the best way forward, and better more specific solutions were being developed (e.g. quote IDs H03#13, H14#5). Pre-existing SARS infection control protocols were widely used early on and adapted to local circumstances or evolving knowledge. Generic information and communication tools were used to patch together information processes whilst more sophisticated solutions could be developed (e.g. quote IDs H13#3, H44#2, H52#1, H62#1) [ 32 ].

It is the nature of such generic responses that they are never a perfect fit to a specific task or context. Consequently, some adaptation or localisation is required to better meet these local needs. Such “fitting work” [ 33 ] often fell to local staff, and could take the form of workarounds (e.g. to make standard computer systems work in a new setting) or the addition of local changes (e.g. to a PPE protocol [ 34 ]) (e.g. quote IDs H47, H48#2, H49, H56).

The need for fitting work imposes additional load on staff (e.g. quote IDs H03#1, H20, H21) to “ make things work here right now ” and could be a contributor to the high levels of staff burnout reported through the pandemic.

Specific to general strategies . Highly local solutions to pandemic challenges were often needed where services provided highly specialised services. For example, the details of changes to the workflow for laboratory processing of high volumes of PCR tests would not have wide applicability beyond the laboratory setting.

The use of specific solutions appeared to coincide with unique local problems, or some capacity to develop new specific solutions whilst generic solutions “ held the fort ” (quote ID H64 #2).

Nonetheless, general lessons from such specific responses can sometimes be drawn e.g. in the approach taken to agree upon the specific solution and how it is subsequently communicated. For example, public health services had to rapidly expand their workforce in support of contact tracing, and their use of external recruitment agencies could be adopted by very different parts of the health system.

This study has examined the challenges faced during the COVID-19 pandemic, and health system responses to those challenges in Australia.

Clearly the challenges faced during the pandemic were not uniform, and different health services found themselves better or less well prepared or capable of responding than others [ 35 ]. Our analysis of these responses identified what appeared to be two quite different response pathways that played distinct roles in crisis management – the adoption of general strategies which could be used across a wide variety of settings, or the use or creation of highly targeted context specific responses.

What lessons can be learned from these broad responses? Given the nature of crises, each will bring novel and likely unanticipated challenges.

When faced with requirements to dramatically alter the duties and workflows of existing health services, especially when constrained by time, resource or knowledge, health services can turn to general-purpose strategies to reconfigure their existing workforce, and adopt ready to hand general purpose technologies. Whilst not ideal, these strategies support quick responses and buy time for more targeted solutions to emerge.

Crisis preparedness could thus focus on understanding the range of general-purpose tools and processes that can quickly be brought to hand. Adaptation protocols might provide guidance on localisation processes that optimise speed, quality, impact on staff, or cost. For example, protocols might describe processes of problem identification, workaround development, and team communication approaches that facilitate these tasks. In developing such protocols, we should not forget that while some services must develop highly localised solutions, they nevertheless can be a rich source of lessons about general approaches to identifying issues, designing solutions, and enacting them effectively. During the pandemic, innovations commonly involved combining pre-existing services.

Theoretical frameworks for system resilience describe the importance of flexibility and adaptability to respond to unexpected and escalating situations [ 36 , 37 ]. Generic competencies are often team-based and include information management, communication and coordination, decision-making, and effect control [ 36 ]. Responses when managing the early phase of health emergencies should be simple and generic, such as using generic international guidance [ 38 ]. The Interactive Systems Framework (ISF) for dissemination and implementation distinguishes innovation-specific capacity and general capacity [ 39 ]. Various implementation frameworks suggest general organisational capacity building is an essential step in the early phase of implementation [ 40 ]. Such approaches emphasise that stabilising a situation and maintaining organizational function are key to managing uncertainty while developing specific responses.

Limitations

The problems and system responses reported in this study may lack representativeness because of the small sample size of interviewees, the focus on a single albeit large health system in Australia, and the potential for recruitment biases introduced by convenience and snowballing sampling. Different nations had distinct experiences during COVID-19, such as variations in public health measures adopted, access to vaccines, lockdowns, government policy, and health impacts of the virus on their population. Thus, these findings may not be generalisable to other health system settings. Respondents detailed challenges and system responses with many examples. We anticipated achieving theoretical saturation with 20 participants but during the analysis phase did not do so. This may be due to the richness of innovations during COVID-19 or the diverse selection of participants [ 41 , 42 ]. Failure to saturate suggests that interviewing additional participants could likely identify new examples and issues that might have uncovered additional issues. However, the concept of data saturation in qualitative studies is currently under debate [ 43 ].

Health services have a range of different response strategies available to them when faced with novel challenges, and selection of a strategy can be guided by the circumstances and the availability of ready-to-hand specific strategies. The workforce is pivotal in enabling emergent responses that require dealing with uncertainties. Recognising the important role that general purpose strategies play when time is short (e.g. emergencies) and specific solutions are not yet available suggests that health services can invest in formalising protocols for solution design and focus on workforce support, including team communication and supporting solution implementation. Such capabilities should enhance health system preparedness for crises such as new pandemics or climate-change triggered events. Much can also be learnt about the construction of context-specific solutions, a deeper exploration of when to employ such approaches and how to support them to best prepare for future crises.

Data availability

The complete datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available because consent was not obtained from study participants for data to be made public but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request subject to approval from the Macquarie University Ethics Committee. Part of the deidentified data is provided as a supplementary file.

Abbreviations

Electronic medical record system

General practitioner

Intensive care unit

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Personal protective equipment, RAT: Rapid antigen tests

Sociotechnical system

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank K-lynn Smith and Yvonne Zurynski for their valuable feedback on the manuscript.

The project was conducted with funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council: Partnership Centre for Health System Sustainability; and Centre of Research Excellence in Digital Health (APP1134919).

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Centre for Health Informatics, Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Syndey, NSW, 2109, Australia

Hania Rahimi-Ardabili, Farah Magrabi, Brenton Sanderson, Thilo Schuler & Enrico Coiera

Department of Anaesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia

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Department of Radiation Oncology, Northern Sydney Cancer Centre, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia

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Contributions

E.C., B.S., T.S. and F.M. conceptualised the study. H.R.-A. developed the study protocol and collected data, E.C. and H.R.-A. analyzed the data. E.C. and H.R.-A. prepared the original draft, and all authors contributed to the final drafts of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Enrico Coiera .

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Rahimi-Ardabili, H., Magrabi, F., Sanderson, B. et al. A qualitative analysis of health service problems and the strategies used to manage them in the COVID-19 pandemic: exploiting generic and context-specific approaches. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 1067 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11499-7

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Received : 07 March 2024

Accepted : 28 August 2024

Published : 13 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11499-7

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