problem solving and decision making mcq

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Decision Making MCQs Quiz Multiple Choice Questions & Answers

Test Your Skills in Decision Making Quiz Online

Embark on a journey into the realm of Decision Making with our comprehensive collection of multiple-choice questions and answers. Whether you're a business professional honing your decision-making skills, a student exploring the intricacies of decision science, or an individual seeking to enhance your ability to make informed choices, our repository offers invaluable insights. Explore various aspects of decision making including decision models, cognitive biases, risk analysis, problem-solving techniques, and ethical considerations. Each multiple-choice question is meticulously crafted to challenge your understanding and stimulate critical thinking about the complexities of decision making. From understanding the decision-making process to mastering effective decision-making strategies, our MCQs provide a comprehensive exploration of all facets of Decision Making. Start exploring today to deepen your knowledge and excel in making sound decisions in various aspects of life and business!

Decision Making Questions with Answers

1. A decision which is taken to meet unexpected situation............

• problem decision.
• certainty decisions.
• crisis decision.
• organizational decision.

2. Decision making helps in the smooth function of the...........

• organization.

3. Decision making is an exclusive right of the following:

• Top management
• middle management
• lower level management
• none of these

4. Decision-making is involved in the following function:

• Controlling
• All of the above

5. Elements of delegation.........

• responsibility, authority, accountability.
• authority, delegation, accountability.
• responsibility, decentralization, centralization.
• controlling, responsibility, authority

6. Non programmed decisions have all the following features except:

• Deal with Unique and novel problems
• Established procedures and practices not available
• The conditions are highly uncertain
• Repetitive in nature

7. Programmed decisions have all the following features except:

• Deal with Routine and repetitive problems
• Readymade solutions available
• The conditions are highly certain
• Made by top management people

8. Selecting a best course of action among the alternatives is called as...........

• decision making.
• organizing.
• controlling.

9. The criteria for making the right choice among available alternatives involves all the following except:

• Weighing the risk of each alternative
• Whether alternative will lead to economy of effort
• Whether the alternative is best fitted to take note of organisational strengths
• Whether the alternative is in sync with the mood of top management

10. The decisions which are frequent and repetitive in as............nature are called

• non-programmed decisions.
• programmed decisions.
• major decisions.
• operative decisions.

11. The extent to which power and authority are retained at the top is called as...........

• centralization.
• decentralization.
• responsibility.
• accountability

12. The right of a person to give instructions to his subordinates is known as.............

• accountability.
• line authority.

13. The study relating to the movement of a machine operwhile performing the job is ator and his machine called.............

• time study.
• work study.
• motion study.
• fatigue study.

14. The transmission of thoughts from person to another is.............

• communication.
• consultative.

15. What deals with appointing people and placing them at the appropriate jobs.

• Human resources.
• Recruitment.

16. Column1

Multiple Choice Questions and Answers on Decision Making

Decision making multiple choice questions and answers, decision making trivia quiz, decision making question and answer pdf online.

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Decision Making and Problem Solving

Last updated on December 10, 2023 by Alex Andrews George

ClearIAS.com is dedicated to providing aspirants with essential tools to successfully navigate the UPSC Civil Services Prelims .

One such tool is the ability to think decisively, which is critical for effectively tackling the CSAT (Civil Services Aptitude Test) Paper .

This blog will delve into the importance of decision-making and problem-solving skills, further illuminated through Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) examples with detailed solutions.

Table of Contents

Importance of Decision Making & Problem Solving

Decision making and problem-solving are pivotal skills tested in the CSAT paper . As future civil servants, aspirants need to develop these skills to address complex, multifaceted problems efficiently and ethically.

1. Decision Making

Decision making is the process of making choices by evaluating alternatives. It requires analytical and critical thinking skills, alongside an understanding of the implications and consequences of each option.

2. Problem Solving

Problem-solving entails identifying, analyzing, and resolving problems in a systematic manner. It often requires innovative thinking and the ability to apply learned concepts to novel situations.

MCQ Examples of Decision-Making Questions

Below are MCQ examples that demonstrate decision-making skills:

Scenario: An area is affected by severe flooding. You, as a district magistrate, have limited resources. Which of the following should be your immediate priority?

• A. Repairing roads
• B. Distributing food and water
• C. Rebuilding houses
• D. Organizing entertainment to lift people’s spirits

Answer: B. Distributing food and water

Solution: Immediate needs like food and water are crucial for survival in disaster scenarios, making them the top priority.

Scenario: You are working on a project with a tight deadline. Your team member is consistently delivering work late, affecting the timeline. What should be your immediate step?

• A. Report the member to higher authorities
• B. Remove the member from the team
• C. Discuss the issue with the member
• D. Ignore the issue and adjust the project timeline

Answer: C. Discuss the issue with the member

Solution: Communication is key in resolving team disputes. Before taking drastic measures, understanding the member’s perspective and finding a solution collaboratively is advisable.

Scenario: Your city is facing a significant rise in COVID-19 cases. As an officer, you are assigned to create awareness. Which approach is most effective?

• A. Distribute pamphlets
• B. Organize large public awareness events
• C. Implement awareness through social media and local networks
• D. Ignore the situation, assuming people are already aware

Answer: C. Implement awareness through social media and local networks

Solution: Social media and local networks provide wide reach without risking further spread through large gatherings.

Scenario: There is a proposal for a new dam which will provide water and electricity but will displace a local tribe. What should you consider first?

• A. Proceed with the construction immediately
• B. Reject the proposal outright
• C. Assess alternative solutions and engage with the tribe for their input
• D. Delay the decision indefinitely

Answer: C. Assess alternative solutions and engage with the tribe for their input

Solution: It is essential to balance development and the welfare of all stakeholders involved, necessitating a thorough assessment and inclusive decision-making process.

Scenario: As a civil servant, you receive two projects. Project A will benefit a large number of people slightly. Project B will significantly benefit a smaller group. Which project should be prioritized?

• A. Project A
• B. Project B

Answer: C. Both

Solution: Civil services work for the welfare of all. An ideal approach would be finding a way to implement both projects effectively, balancing the broader good with significant impact where needed.

Scenario: You have a limited budget for a healthcare initiative. What is the crucial factor to consider when deciding which health programs to fund?

• A. Popularity of the program
• B. Political backing
• C. Program’s potential impact on public health
• D. The novelty of the program

Answer: C. Program’s potential impact on public health

Solution: The primary consideration for any healthcare initiative should be its potential positive impact on public health, ensuring that it addresses the community’s most pressing health needs efficiently.

John needs to choose between two job offers. Offer A has a higher salary but is located in a city with a high cost of living. Offer B has a lower salary but is situated in a town with a lower cost of living. Which job offer should John choose?

• D. Cannot be determined

Answer: D. Cannot be determined

Solution : This question requires decision-making skills. Without knowing John’s priorities and values, the answer cannot be determined. Each offer has its pros and cons, and the decision rests on John’s personal preferences and circumstances.

MCQ Examples of Problem-Solving Questions

What is the next number in the series: 2, 6, 12, 20?

Answer: B. 30

Solution : This is a series problem. The series is progressing by adding consecutive even numbers (4, 6, 8, etc.). Thus, 20 + 10 = 30.

If all Ps are Qs, and some Qs are Rs, which of the following must be true?

• A. All Ps are Rs
• B. Some Ps are Rs
• C. No Ps are Rs
• D. None of the above

Answer: D. None of the above

Solution : Without definite information, we cannot confirm any of the given options. It is possible that some Ps are Rs, but it is not necessarily true.

Three individuals have to be selected from a group of 6 people. How many different combinations are possible?

Answer: C. 20

Solution : This is a combination problem. The number of ways to choose 3 individuals from 6 is given by the combination formula: 6C3 = 6! / (3!*(6-3)!) = 20.

If a shirt costs Rs.40 after a 20% discount, what was its original price?

Answer: B. Rs.50

Solution : Let the original price be X. The shirt is sold for 80% of its original price after a 20% discount. So, 0.80X = Rs.40. Solving for X gives X = Rs.50.

A train covers a distance of 150 km in 2.5 hours. What is its average speed?

Answer: A. 60 km/h

Solution : Average speed is obtained by dividing the total distance by the total time taken. So, 150 km / 2.5 hours = 60 km/h.

How to study Decision Making and Problem Solving for CSAT?

Students may note that this article on Decision Making and Problem Solving is just an overview of the topic. There is a lot more to learn about Decision Making and Problem Solving in the CSAT paper.

We recommend the below sources to learn the subject.

• Join the ClearIAS CSAT Course .
• Join ClearIAS Prelims Test Series .
• Join ClearIAS Prelims cum Mains Course.
• Go through ClearIAS YouTube Classes on CSAT.
• Read books on CSAT .

Also read:   CSAT Course: UPSC Prelims Paper 2 Program

Decision-making and problem-solving are vital skills for the UPSC CSAT Prelims and for effective functioning as a civil servant .

As you have seen the decision-making and problem-solving section is not limited to scenario-based questions!

Aspirants should keep in mind that any questions which are problem-solving or decision-making in nature can be asked from this section.

Further, questions may not be limited to the Class X level, as is the case with the basic numeracy section or data interpretation.

Practising decision-making and problem-solving questions not only improves these skills but also boosts your confidence in tackling the diverse set of problems presented in the examination.

For more resources and practice questions, continue exploring ClearIAS.com. Happy studying!

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Alex Andrews George is a mentor, author, and social entrepreneur. Alex is the founder of ClearIAS and one of the expert Civil Service Exam Trainers in India.

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A trusted mentor and pioneer in online training , Alex's guidance, strategies, study-materials, and mock-exams have helped many aspirants to become IAS, IPS, and IFS officers.

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Test: Decision Making & Problem Solving - UPSC MCQ

15 questions mcq test - test: decision making & problem solving, all, except one of the following are important strategies that a manager can use to create a more effective decision making environment. which one is not.

Encourage others to make decisions

Be ready to try new things

Relying solely upon himself/herself

Recognise the importance of quality information

To get effective decision making environment, manager should encourage others to make decisions as well as should recognise the importance of quality information. Manager is also expected to try new things to improvise the outcome of decision. So, manager should encourage for participative/ democratic process of decision making rather relying solely upon himself/herself.

Errors in decision making occur because we use decision making heuristics

in an unplanned manner

haphazardly

beyond the range for which they are intended

without taking care of other aspects

• Heuristics are simple, efficient rules based on experiences which people often use to form judgements and make decisions. This usually involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others.
• Although, these rules work well under many circumstances, but they can lead to systematic deviation from logic or rationality resulting errors in decision making.

A manager’s steps in a decision making process are given below. Arrange them in correct sequence and choose the correct answer.  1. Define the problem. 2. Identify the limiting factors. 3. Develop potential alternatives. 4. Establish a control and evaluation system.

Option (b) satisfies the framing of decision. So, it is the correct sequence.

A group effort of generating alternative ideas that can help a manager to solve a problem is called

The Delphi technique

Out of the box thinking

The nominal group technique

Brain storming

• The Delphi technique is used in structured communication technique to reach the correct response through consensus.
• Out of box thinking generates unconventional ideas.
• Nominal group technique is the decision making process which prevents the domination of discussion by single person, encourage the more passive group members to participate.
• In brain storming, individuals work alone and then groups were asked to brainstorm a list of ideas using procedures that encouraged creativity and discouraged criticism and evaluation. The scores of the individuals who worked alone were combined, averaged and compared with the scores of the groups.

A quantitative technique for decision making that shows a complete picture of potential alternative decision paths is called

A decision tree

Pay back analysis

Decision tree, a schematic tree-shaped diagram used to determine a course of action or show a statistical probability. Each branch of the decision tree represents a possible decision or occurrence. The tree structure shows how one choice leads to the next and the use of branches indicates that each option is mutually exclusive. This technique is used as quantitative technique decision making.

In decision making, judging a sample on the basis of similarity and random looking appearance is known as

Representativeness heuristic

Availability heuristic

Anchoring heuristic

Adjustment heuristic

Representativeness heuristic, a mental shortcut that helps us in making a decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes. e.g. if someone was to describe an older woman as warm and caring with a great love of children, most of us would assume that the older woman is a grandmother. She fits our mental representation of a grandmother, so we automatically classify her into that category.

While addressing people in an open ground, it begins to rain. Your address is important and you cannot afford to postpone it. What will you do? You would

ask some one to arrange an umbrella

stop your address for a while

continue the address without bothering the rain

postpone it for a day

Asking some one to arrange an umbrella as mentioned in option (a) will not be appropriate while options (b) and (d) do not serve the purpose as it is mentioned that it is important and you cannot afford to postpone it. Here, in this case continuing the address without bothering the rain as mentioned in option (c) will be the best course of action.

You are head of your office. Some media people come to your office and request you to brief them about the pension plan of your office. You will

aks the media people to come some another day

immediately accept the offer and brief them

get them turned out of your office

ask them to wait and to consult the officials concerned

Here, options (a) and (c) are not appropriate as these are not valid on ethical grounds while option (b) is also not valid as you are the head of the office and you have certain important tasks to accomplish. In this case, option (d) would be the best course of action as there are certain officials for each work in every office, so one has to consult them.

National Human Rights Commission took cognizance of a media report on the death of a lady by the wrong blood transfusion in a government hospital, issued a show cause notice as to why the monetary relief should not be given to the death’s kin. The notice was issued to the special secretary, health and family welfare of a district. Which of the following actions would solve the problem?

Special secretary should get confirmation from the medical superintendent whether it was transfusion reaction that caused the death, if is true the compensation should be paid

The lab technician should be removed from the post for giving wrong blood

Both ‘a’ and ‘b’

Do not reply to the notice given by the commission

Not replying to the Commission may lead to further undesirable situation as the truth is in the media report which made commission take cognizance. Thus, the option (c) will only solve the problem which led to death.

A district library in your town is facing numerous problems. The books are eating dust, it is too noisy and also dirty inside and outside the library. There is no staff to maintain the books or rooms to keep them in safe custody. You are a regular visitor to the library, but have stopped going to the library, because of above problems. Even after some days, when you saw the library it was under the same condition. Now, you will

write a detailed letter to the ministry of culture and ask the ministry to improve the library

not take any action as you know that no concerned authority is going to take care of it

write a letter to the local newspaper to make a detailed report on the problems faced by library

Both ‘a’ and ‘c’

Being a responsible citizen and a regular visitor to the library, you may not stop from taking some proper action to help improve the condition of the library. Informing newspaper reporter to make a report is the best way to tackle the problem besides this it is necessary to write to the concerned authority to take action. Thus, option (d) is the best answer.

As a citizen you have some work with a government department. The official calls you again and again and without directly asking you, sends out feelers for a bribe. You want to get your work done. You would

give a bribe

behave as, if you have not understood the feelers and persist with your application

go to the higher officer for help and verbally complaining about feelers

send in a formal complaint

Option (a) is not correct and ethically not permitted. Option (b) will not solve your problem giving a written complaint about the feeler as mentioned in option (d) is logically not correct. So, best course of action is to go to the higher officer for help and verbally complaining about feelers.

You are competing with your batchmate for a prestigious award to be decided based on an oral presentation. Ten minutes are allowed for each presentation. You have been asked by the committee to finish on time. Your friend, however, is allowed more than the stipulated time period. You would

lodge a complaint to the chairperson against the discrimination

not listen to any justification from the committee

ask for withdrawal of your name

protest and leave the place

Option (b) would not be moral as everyone has the right to give justification while option (c) is an escapist attitude. Protesting is correct, but lodging a complaint to the concerned authority will give the result, so, option (a) is the best course of action.

You are a District Collector and are going to approve a proposal for payment of subsidy under government rules to an industrialist. You approve it as a normal duty. The same industrialist attends a social gathering at your home and gifts you a packet, on opening which you find a costly diamond jewellery set. You are shocked for a few minutes. Which is the best among the following you consider?

Sell the diamond jewellery to get cash

Ask your wife to deposit the diamond jewellery in their bank locker

Keep in the house locker

Return it back to the industrialist

Option (a) shows you made the proposal to get cash in kind and (b) or (c) shows you are money minded and not honest to the work. Only option (d) shows that you are honest and not glutton for money or gifts.

You are a Senior Police Officer. You sent your subordinate on some work by jeep. The driver and the constable in the jeep are unarmed. On the way they happen to notice a jeep in broken condition. A few persons sitting inside it ask for their help. As your subordinate gets down to help those persons, he is attacked from behind by a gang of criminals. They loot him and escape quickly with the persons sitting inside the car. The officer is charged for his negligence, now you as a senior officer, will

suspend him for his lack of common sense

frame charge against him for stopping the jeep mid-way

not hold him responsible for this accidental happening

accuse him of not being precautious

Opting for (a), (b) and (d) are improper. The decisions will be without information and also lack in empathy. Thus, option (c) is the correct one as the incident was an accident and not the deliberate mistake or negligence in the performance of duty at the part of the subordinate.

You are a Police Commissioner and you notice that one of your subordinate was a good officer with good manners, but over a few months his appearances and ways have changed. He has changed his behaviour, looks shabby other officers have also complained about his ill-mannered behaviour. You fear something might be wrong and also worry the effect of his shabby looks that might affect his relationship adversely with his colleagues. How do you approach him?

You will meet him separately and talk at length and try to know the cause of his problem

You will call on him at his chamber and warn about his shabby appearance

Show him sympathy and ask him to seek his transfer

You will send him on leave to help recover himself

Option (a) will be most appropriate answer; option (b) will be negative approach whereas options (c) and (d) are irresponsible and negligence and show that you lack in coordination as a higher officer. So, option (a) suits to be a best option.

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Important Questions for Decision Making & Problem Solving

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Thinking and decision-making

11th - 12th grade, social studies.

9 questions

Introducing new   Paper mode

No student devices needed.   Know more

Which of the following statements is true about thinking, decision making and problem solving?

Decision making is a part of problem solving - and both decision making and problem solving are examples of thinking.

Decision making is an aspect of thinking - but not part of problem solving.

Problem solving is a part of decision making - but only decision making is a true example of thinking.

Thinking, decision making and problem solving are three distinct cognitive processes with no overlap in what they do.

Mary believes that she is an excellent math student. In fact, her favorite unit is statistics. However, when she is asked to critically evaluate the data of a experiment in psychology class, she does not know how to do it. How does the Dual Process model explain this?

She has developed the System 2 thinking necessary for math class, but not for psychology class.

Her knowledge from mathematics is interfering with her knowledge in psychology.

She is not able to transfer her understanding in mathematics to a new context (situation). So, her approach to solving the problem shows System 1 thinking.

Mary's self-esteem in psychology class is interfering with her ability to solve the problem. It has nothing to do with System 1 and System 2 thinking.

If I meet two students from your school and they are brilliant psychology students, I may then conclude that your school must have an amazing psychology program. This conclusion follows a simple “rule of thumb” or a mental short-cut called a

participant bias

matching bias

When are we more likely to use System 1 thinking?

When we have practiced something a lot.

When we have too much information to process.

When the problem is highly abstract.

When we need to transfer information from one situation to another.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of System 1 thinking?

It is dependent on context - that is, environmental cues - to solve the problem.

Is able to transfer information from one situation to another.

Requires little effort.

Results in creating impressions.

Which of the following statements is true about the Wason selection task?

When people are trained in how to do the task, they no longer make errors.

People tend to be able to explain their decisions to the researcher.

People get better at the task the older they get.

People make fewer errors when the task is put into a context which they understand, rather than an abstract task.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of System 2 thinking?

It is the basis for most of our day to day decision making.

It is slow and requires conscious effort.

Is logical and less prone to error.

According to Goel et al (2000), which part of the brain may be responsible for processing abstract problems?

The temporal lobe

The frontal lobe

The parietal lobe

The hypothalamus

Which of the following is not a limitation of the Dual Process Model?

It does not explain the interaction of the two systems.

There is no biological support for a two systems approach.

It is reductionist - it does not explain the role of emotion in decision making.

The descriptors of the different systems are not well operationalized - for example, not all fast processing is System 1.

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21 Important Decision Science MCQ With Answers

Given below is the list 21 important Decision Science MCQ With Answers useful for MBA, MMS, BBA, PGDM, and other management students. These Decision Science Multiple Choice Questions will help you for preparation for SET, UGC NET, UPSC, MPSC competitive and Ph D entrance exams. These MCQs are useful for Pune University, Mumbai University, Anna University and other universities in India.

Decision science approach is ___________

A. Intra disciplinary

B. Multi disciplinary

C. Uni disciplinary

For analyzing a problem decision-makers should generally study _______ aspects

A. Quantitative

B. Qualitative

C. Paranormal

D. Both A & B

Decision variables are _______

A. Independent

B. Uncontrollable

C. Controllable

D. Qualitative

C. Controllable ( See Explanation )  

Decision science is also called ______

A. management science

B. operation research

C. Quantitative analysis

D. All of the above

Decision science is an approach to decision making which utilizes extensively____

A. Qualitative analysis

B. Digital analysis

D. Informative analysis

Decision science is a _______ for solving management problems in order to help managers to make better decisions.

A. Pseudo scientific approach B. Artistic approach C. Scientific approach D. Astrological approach

C. Scientific approach

Decision science encompasses a number of mathematically oriented technique such as _____

A. Natural sciences B. Mathematics and statistics C. Engineering D. All of the above

_______ are those statistical and operations research for programming techniques which help in the decision making process

A. Qualitative techniques B. Quantitative techniques C. Assumptive techniques D. None of the ab

B. Quantitative techniques

_____ is the characteristic of quantitative technique.

A. Objective oriented approach B. Interdisciplinary approach C. Scientific approach D. All of the above

_________ are used to allocate resources to activities in such a way that some measure of effectiveness is optimized.

A. Queuing models B. Sequencing models C. allocation models D. simulation models

C. allocation models

________ deals with the problem of of determination of how much to order at a point in time and went to place an order

A. Waiting line model B. Sequencing model C. replacement model D. inventory model

D. inventory model

________ are used when one must decide the optimal time to replace equipment for one reason or the other

A. Replacement models B. allocation models C. decision making models D. waiting line models

A. Replacement models

_______ deals with the selection of an optimal course of action given the possible pay offs and their associated probability of occurrence

A. Simulation model B. competitive model C. network model D. decision making model

D. decision making model

_________ is used to characterize the behaviour of two or more opponent’s who compete for the achievement of conflicting goals

A. allocation model B. decision making model C. game theory model D. Simulation model

C. game theory model

______ is not an advantage of quantitative technique .

A. Facilitates optimum allocation of resources B. Facilitates forecasting C. Serve as a technique to optimise complexity D. Serve as a tool for scientific analysis

C. Serve as a technique to optimise complexity

The word ______ refers to to linear relationship among variables in a model .

A. Linear B. Programming C. Variability D. Sequencing

__________ is the technique of selecting the best possible strategy from a number of alternatives.

A. Linear strategy B. Strategic programming C. Linear programming D. Nonlinear programming

C. Linear programming

_______ is not a type of assignment problems.

A. Unbalanced assignment problems

B. maximization assignment problems

C. restricted assignments problems

D. matrix assignment problems

_______ is found to exist when the number of facilities is not equal to the number of jobs.

A. Maximization assignment problems

B. restricted assignment problems

C. unbalanced assignment problems

D. multiple assignment problems

Involves sales revenue and profit data _______

A. Restricted assignment problems

Restricted assignment problems is also known as _______

A. Limited assignment problems

B infinite assignment problems

C. constrained assignment problems

D. stagnated assignment problems

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Decision Analysis MCQs

Our experts have gathered these Decision Analysis MCQs through research, and we hope that you will be able to see how much knowledge base you have for the subject of Decision Analysis by answering these multiple-choice questions. Get started now by scrolling down!

1: The perceiver, the context, and ___________________ all impact perception.

A.   The target.

B.   Outliers.

C.   Stimuli.

D.   The situation.

E.   Limitations

2: The classical model of decision making is based on _____ assumptions.

A.   Philosophical

B.   Irrational

C.   Economic

D.   Uncertainty

E.   Technological

3: Unstructured problems are ________.

A.   Are easily solved

B.   Present familiar circumstances

C.   Force managers to deal with incomplete or ambiguous information

D.   Are routine

4: In a(n) _____, team members prepare to lunge at each other to achieve their objectives.

A.   Dodge

B.   Resequencing

C.   Scrum

D.   Adaptation

5: When you write an unsolicited cover letter, ________.

A.   Require more research than solicited letters.

B.   Irritate the personnel office staff.

C.   Are never read.

D.   Almost never result in a job offer

6: _____ refers to the process of identifying problems and then resolving them.

A.   Organizing

B.   Controlling

C.   Decision-making

D.   Planning

E.   Leading

7: A decision tree is ____.

A.   A structure of problem-solving ideas, with its roots based on the organization's mission

B.   The hierarchy that must be followed when getting decisions approved

C.   A graph of decisions and their possible consequences

D.   A location used by Chinese philosopher Confucius in times of intense pressure

E.   An organization's decision network

8: The essence of _____ is to choose the first solution available.

A.   Bounded rationality

B.   Creativity

C.   Decision maximization

D.   Satisficing

9: The gap between an existing state and a desired state is referred to as ________.

A.   A problem

B.   Heuristics

C.   Bounded rationality

D.   A decision

E.   Uncertainty

10: The rational model of decision making is also called the ________ model.

A.   Nonrational

B.   Classical

C.   Rational

11: When it comes to decision making, it is accurate to say that groups _____.

A.   Have higher decision-making accuracy when group members know a good deal about the relevant issues

B.   Group decision making

C.   Nonrational decision making

D.   Disadvantages of group decision making

12: With defensive avoidance, a manager can't find a good solution and follows by ____.

A.   Classical

B.   Confirmation

C.   Procrastinating, passing the buck, or denying the risk of any negative consequences

D.   Decision-making style

13: In defensive avoidance, when a manager can't find a good solution, the manager follows with ____.

A.   Doing nothing

B.   Taking the easiest way out

C.   Procrastination, passing the buck, or denying the risk of any negative consequences

D.   Finding the most cost-effective solution

E.   Frantically getting rid of the problem

14: An analysis that combines scenario analysis with sensitivity analysis is called _____ analysis.

A.   Forecasting.

B.   Combined.

C.   Complex.

D.   Simulation

15: A person who satisfices fails to ________.

A.   Maximize his or her decision

B.   Understand his or her position

C.   Accept the truth of a situation

D.   Make any kind of decision

16: A(n) _____ is a situation in which something is obviously wrong or has the potential to go wrong.

A.   Performance threat

B.   Root cause of the problem

C.   Confirmation error

D.   None of these

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14.3 Problem Solving and Decision Making in Groups

Learning objectives.

• Discuss the common components and characteristics of problems.
• Explain the five steps of the group problem-solving process.
• Describe the brainstorming and discussion that should take place before the group makes a decision.
• Compare and contrast the different decision-making techniques.
• Discuss the various influences on decision making.

Although the steps of problem solving and decision making that we will discuss next may seem obvious, we often don’t think to or choose not to use them. Instead, we start working on a problem and later realize we are lost and have to backtrack. I’m sure we’ve all reached a point in a project or task and had the “OK, now what?” moment. I’ve recently taken up some carpentry projects as a functional hobby, and I have developed a great respect for the importance of advanced planning. It’s frustrating to get to a crucial point in building or fixing something only to realize that you have to unscrew a support board that you already screwed in, have to drive back to the hardware store to get something that you didn’t think to get earlier, or have to completely start over. In this section, we will discuss the group problem-solving process, methods of decision making, and influences on these processes.

Group Problem Solving

The problem-solving process involves thoughts, discussions, actions, and decisions that occur from the first consideration of a problematic situation to the goal. The problems that groups face are varied, but some common problems include budgeting funds, raising funds, planning events, addressing customer or citizen complaints, creating or adapting products or services to fit needs, supporting members, and raising awareness about issues or causes.

Problems of all sorts have three common components (Adams & Galanes, 2009):

• An undesirable situation. When conditions are desirable, there isn’t a problem.
• A desired situation. Even though it may only be a vague idea, there is a drive to better the undesirable situation. The vague idea may develop into a more precise goal that can be achieved, although solutions are not yet generated.
• Obstacles between undesirable and desirable situation. These are things that stand in the way between the current situation and the group’s goal of addressing it. This component of a problem requires the most work, and it is the part where decision making occurs. Some examples of obstacles include limited funding, resources, personnel, time, or information. Obstacles can also take the form of people who are working against the group, including people resistant to change or people who disagree.

Discussion of these three elements of a problem helps the group tailor its problem-solving process, as each problem will vary. While these three general elements are present in each problem, the group should also address specific characteristics of the problem. Five common and important characteristics to consider are task difficulty, number of possible solutions, group member interest in problem, group member familiarity with problem, and the need for solution acceptance (Adams & Galanes, 2009).

• Task difficulty. Difficult tasks are also typically more complex. Groups should be prepared to spend time researching and discussing a difficult and complex task in order to develop a shared foundational knowledge. This typically requires individual work outside of the group and frequent group meetings to share information.
• Number of possible solutions. There are usually multiple ways to solve a problem or complete a task, but some problems have more potential solutions than others. Figuring out how to prepare a beach house for an approaching hurricane is fairly complex and difficult, but there are still a limited number of things to do—for example, taping and boarding up windows; turning off water, electricity, and gas; trimming trees; and securing loose outside objects. Other problems may be more creatively based. For example, designing a new restaurant may entail using some standard solutions but could also entail many different types of innovation with layout and design.
• Group member interest in problem. When group members are interested in the problem, they will be more engaged with the problem-solving process and invested in finding a quality solution. Groups with high interest in and knowledge about the problem may want more freedom to develop and implement solutions, while groups with low interest may prefer a leader who provides structure and direction.
• Group familiarity with problem. Some groups encounter a problem regularly, while other problems are more unique or unexpected. A family who has lived in hurricane alley for decades probably has a better idea of how to prepare its house for a hurricane than does a family that just recently moved from the Midwest. Many groups that rely on funding have to revisit a budget every year, and in recent years, groups have had to get more creative with budgets as funding has been cut in nearly every sector. When group members aren’t familiar with a problem, they will need to do background research on what similar groups have done and may also need to bring in outside experts.
• Need for solution acceptance. In this step, groups must consider how many people the decision will affect and how much “buy-in” from others the group needs in order for their solution to be successfully implemented. Some small groups have many stakeholders on whom the success of a solution depends. Other groups are answerable only to themselves. When a small group is planning on building a new park in a crowded neighborhood or implementing a new policy in a large business, it can be very difficult to develop solutions that will be accepted by all. In such cases, groups will want to poll those who will be affected by the solution and may want to do a pilot implementation to see how people react. Imposing an excellent solution that doesn’t have buy-in from stakeholders can still lead to failure.

Group problem solving can be a confusing puzzle unless it is approached systematically.

Muness Castle – Problem Solving – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Group Problem-Solving Process

There are several variations of similar problem-solving models based on US American scholar John Dewey’s reflective thinking process (Bormann & Bormann, 1988). As you read through the steps in the process, think about how you can apply what we learned regarding the general and specific elements of problems. Some of the following steps are straightforward, and they are things we would logically do when faced with a problem. However, taking a deliberate and systematic approach to problem solving has been shown to benefit group functioning and performance. A deliberate approach is especially beneficial for groups that do not have an established history of working together and will only be able to meet occasionally. Although a group should attend to each step of the process, group leaders or other group members who facilitate problem solving should be cautious not to dogmatically follow each element of the process or force a group along. Such a lack of flexibility could limit group member input and negatively affect the group’s cohesion and climate.

Step 1: Define the Problem

Define the problem by considering the three elements shared by every problem: the current undesirable situation, the goal or more desirable situation, and obstacles in the way (Adams & Galanes, 2009). At this stage, group members share what they know about the current situation, without proposing solutions or evaluating the information. Here are some good questions to ask during this stage: What is the current difficulty? How did we come to know that the difficulty exists? Who/what is involved? Why is it meaningful/urgent/important? What have the effects been so far? What, if any, elements of the difficulty require clarification? At the end of this stage, the group should be able to compose a single sentence that summarizes the problem called a problem statement . Avoid wording in the problem statement or question that hints at potential solutions. A small group formed to investigate ethical violations of city officials could use the following problem statement: “Our state does not currently have a mechanism for citizens to report suspected ethical violations by city officials.”

Step 2: Analyze the Problem

During this step a group should analyze the problem and the group’s relationship to the problem. Whereas the first step involved exploring the “what” related to the problem, this step focuses on the “why.” At this stage, group members can discuss the potential causes of the difficulty. Group members may also want to begin setting out an agenda or timeline for the group’s problem-solving process, looking forward to the other steps. To fully analyze the problem, the group can discuss the five common problem variables discussed before. Here are two examples of questions that the group formed to address ethics violations might ask: Why doesn’t our city have an ethics reporting mechanism? Do cities of similar size have such a mechanism? Once the problem has been analyzed, the group can pose a problem question that will guide the group as it generates possible solutions. “How can citizens report suspected ethical violations of city officials and how will such reports be processed and addressed?” As you can see, the problem question is more complex than the problem statement, since the group has moved on to more in-depth discussion of the problem during step 2.

Step 3: Generate Possible Solutions

During this step, group members generate possible solutions to the problem. Again, solutions should not be evaluated at this point, only proposed and clarified. The question should be what could we do to address this problem, not what should we do to address it. It is perfectly OK for a group member to question another person’s idea by asking something like “What do you mean?” or “Could you explain your reasoning more?” Discussions at this stage may reveal a need to return to previous steps to better define or more fully analyze a problem. Since many problems are multifaceted, it is necessary for group members to generate solutions for each part of the problem separately, making sure to have multiple solutions for each part. Stopping the solution-generating process prematurely can lead to groupthink. For the problem question previously posed, the group would need to generate solutions for all three parts of the problem included in the question. Possible solutions for the first part of the problem (How can citizens report ethical violations?) may include “online reporting system, e-mail, in-person, anonymously, on-the-record,” and so on. Possible solutions for the second part of the problem (How will reports be processed?) may include “daily by a newly appointed ethics officer, weekly by a nonpartisan nongovernment employee,” and so on. Possible solutions for the third part of the problem (How will reports be addressed?) may include “by a newly appointed ethics commission, by the accused’s supervisor, by the city manager,” and so on.

Step 4: Evaluate Solutions

During this step, solutions can be critically evaluated based on their credibility, completeness, and worth. Once the potential solutions have been narrowed based on more obvious differences in relevance and/or merit, the group should analyze each solution based on its potential effects—especially negative effects. Groups that are required to report the rationale for their decision or whose decisions may be subject to public scrutiny would be wise to make a set list of criteria for evaluating each solution. Additionally, solutions can be evaluated based on how well they fit with the group’s charge and the abilities of the group. To do this, group members may ask, “Does this solution live up to the original purpose or mission of the group?” and “Can the solution actually be implemented with our current resources and connections?” and “How will this solution be supported, funded, enforced, and assessed?” Secondary tensions and substantive conflict, two concepts discussed earlier, emerge during this step of problem solving, and group members will need to employ effective critical thinking and listening skills.

Decision making is part of the larger process of problem solving and it plays a prominent role in this step. While there are several fairly similar models for problem solving, there are many varied decision-making techniques that groups can use. For example, to narrow the list of proposed solutions, group members may decide by majority vote, by weighing the pros and cons, or by discussing them until a consensus is reached. There are also more complex decision-making models like the “six hats method,” which we will discuss later. Once the final decision is reached, the group leader or facilitator should confirm that the group is in agreement. It may be beneficial to let the group break for a while or even to delay the final decision until a later meeting to allow people time to evaluate it outside of the group context.

Step 5: Implement and Assess the Solution

Implementing the solution requires some advanced planning, and it should not be rushed unless the group is operating under strict time restraints or delay may lead to some kind of harm. Although some solutions can be implemented immediately, others may take days, months, or years. As was noted earlier, it may be beneficial for groups to poll those who will be affected by the solution as to their opinion of it or even to do a pilot test to observe the effectiveness of the solution and how people react to it. Before implementation, groups should also determine how and when they would assess the effectiveness of the solution by asking, “How will we know if the solution is working or not?” Since solution assessment will vary based on whether or not the group is disbanded, groups should also consider the following questions: If the group disbands after implementation, who will be responsible for assessing the solution? If the solution fails, will the same group reconvene or will a new group be formed?

Once a solution has been reached and the group has the “green light” to implement it, it should proceed deliberately and cautiously, making sure to consider possible consequences and address them as needed.

Jocko Benoit – Prodigal Light – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Certain elements of the solution may need to be delegated out to various people inside and outside the group. Group members may also be assigned to implement a particular part of the solution based on their role in the decision making or because it connects to their area of expertise. Likewise, group members may be tasked with publicizing the solution or “selling” it to a particular group of stakeholders. Last, the group should consider its future. In some cases, the group will get to decide if it will stay together and continue working on other tasks or if it will disband. In other cases, outside forces determine the group’s fate.

“Getting Competent”

Problem Solving and Group Presentations

Giving a group presentation requires that individual group members and the group as a whole solve many problems and make many decisions. Although having more people involved in a presentation increases logistical difficulties and has the potential to create more conflict, a well-prepared and well-delivered group presentation can be more engaging and effective than a typical presentation. The main problems facing a group giving a presentation are (1) dividing responsibilities, (2) coordinating schedules and time management, and (3) working out the logistics of the presentation delivery.

In terms of dividing responsibilities, assigning individual work at the first meeting and then trying to fit it all together before the presentation (which is what many college students do when faced with a group project) is not the recommended method. Integrating content and visual aids created by several different people into a seamless final product takes time and effort, and the person “stuck” with this job at the end usually ends up developing some resentment toward his or her group members. While it’s OK for group members to do work independently outside of group meetings, spend time working together to help set up some standards for content and formatting expectations that will help make later integration of work easier. Taking the time to complete one part of the presentation together can help set those standards for later individual work. Discuss the roles that various group members will play openly so there isn’t role confusion. There could be one point person for keeping track of the group’s progress and schedule, one point person for communication, one point person for content integration, one point person for visual aids, and so on. Each person shouldn’t do all that work on his or her own but help focus the group’s attention on his or her specific area during group meetings (Stanton, 2009).

Scheduling group meetings is one of the most challenging problems groups face, given people’s busy lives. From the beginning, it should be clearly communicated that the group needs to spend considerable time in face-to-face meetings, and group members should know that they may have to make an occasional sacrifice to attend. Especially important is the commitment to scheduling time to rehearse the presentation. Consider creating a contract of group guidelines that includes expectations for meeting attendance to increase group members’ commitment.

Group presentations require members to navigate many logistics of their presentation. While it may be easier for a group to assign each member to create a five-minute segment and then transition from one person to the next, this is definitely not the most engaging method. Creating a master presentation and then assigning individual speakers creates a more fluid and dynamic presentation and allows everyone to become familiar with the content, which can help if a person doesn’t show up to present and during the question-and-answer section. Once the content of the presentation is complete, figure out introductions, transitions, visual aids, and the use of time and space (Stanton, 2012). In terms of introductions, figure out if one person will introduce all the speakers at the beginning, if speakers will introduce themselves at the beginning, or if introductions will occur as the presentation progresses. In terms of transitions, make sure each person has included in his or her speaking notes when presentation duties switch from one person to the next. Visual aids have the potential to cause hiccups in a group presentation if they aren’t fluidly integrated. Practicing with visual aids and having one person control them may help prevent this. Know how long your presentation is and know how you’re going to use the space. Presenters should know how long the whole presentation should be and how long each of their segments should be so that everyone can share the responsibility of keeping time. Also consider the size and layout of the presentation space. You don’t want presenters huddled in a corner until it’s their turn to speak or trapped behind furniture when their turn comes around.

• Of the three main problems facing group presenters, which do you think is the most challenging and why?
• Why do you think people tasked with a group presentation (especially students) prefer to divide the parts up and have members work on them independently before coming back together and integrating each part? What problems emerge from this method? In what ways might developing a master presentation and then assigning parts to different speakers be better than the more divided method? What are the drawbacks to the master presentation method?

Decision Making in Groups

We all engage in personal decision making daily, and we all know that some decisions are more difficult than others. When we make decisions in groups, we face some challenges that we do not face in our personal decision making, but we also stand to benefit from some advantages of group decision making (Napier & Gershenfeld, 2004). Group decision making can appear fair and democratic but really only be a gesture that covers up the fact that certain group members or the group leader have already decided. Group decision making also takes more time than individual decisions and can be burdensome if some group members do not do their assigned work, divert the group with self-centered or unproductive role behaviors, or miss meetings. Conversely, though, group decisions are often more informed, since all group members develop a shared understanding of a problem through discussion and debate. The shared understanding may also be more complex and deep than what an individual would develop, because the group members are exposed to a variety of viewpoints that can broaden their own perspectives. Group decisions also benefit from synergy, one of the key advantages of group communication that we discussed earlier. Most groups do not use a specific method of decision making, perhaps thinking that they’ll work things out as they go. This can lead to unequal participation, social loafing, premature decisions, prolonged discussion, and a host of other negative consequences. So in this section we will learn some practices that will prepare us for good decision making and some specific techniques we can use to help us reach a final decision.

Brainstorming before Decision Making

Before groups can make a decision, they need to generate possible solutions to their problem. The most commonly used method is brainstorming, although most people don’t follow the recommended steps of brainstorming. As you’ll recall, brainstorming refers to the quick generation of ideas free of evaluation. The originator of the term brainstorming said the following four rules must be followed for the technique to be effective (Osborn, 1959):

• Evaluation of ideas is forbidden.
• Wild and crazy ideas are encouraged.
• Quantity of ideas, not quality, is the goal.
• New combinations of ideas presented are encouraged.

To make brainstorming more of a decision-making method rather than an idea-generating method, group communication scholars have suggested additional steps that precede and follow brainstorming (Cragan & Wright, 1991).

• Do a warm-up brainstorming session. Some people are more apprehensive about publicly communicating their ideas than others are, and a warm-up session can help ease apprehension and prime group members for task-related idea generation. The warm-up can be initiated by anyone in the group and should only go on for a few minutes. To get things started, a person could ask, “If our group formed a band, what would we be called?” or “What other purposes could a mailbox serve?” In the previous examples, the first warm up gets the group’s more abstract creative juices flowing, while the second focuses more on practical and concrete ideas.
• Do the actual brainstorming session. This session shouldn’t last more than thirty minutes and should follow the four rules of brainstorming mentioned previously. To ensure that the fourth rule is realized, the facilitator could encourage people to piggyback off each other’s ideas.
• Eliminate duplicate ideas. After the brainstorming session is over, group members can eliminate (without evaluating) ideas that are the same or very similar.
• Clarify, organize, and evaluate ideas. Before evaluation, see if any ideas need clarification. Then try to theme or group ideas together in some orderly fashion. Since “wild and crazy” ideas are encouraged, some suggestions may need clarification. If it becomes clear that there isn’t really a foundation to an idea and that it is too vague or abstract and can’t be clarified, it may be eliminated. As a caution though, it may be wise to not throw out off-the-wall ideas that are hard to categorize and to instead put them in a miscellaneous or “wild and crazy” category.

Discussion before Decision Making

The nominal group technique guides decision making through a four-step process that includes idea generation and evaluation and seeks to elicit equal contributions from all group members (Delbecq & Ven de Ven, 1971). This method is useful because the procedure involves all group members systematically, which fixes the problem of uneven participation during discussions. Since everyone contributes to the discussion, this method can also help reduce instances of social loafing. To use the nominal group technique, do the following:

• Silently and individually list ideas.
• Create a master list of ideas.
• Clarify ideas as needed.
• Take a secret vote to rank group members’ acceptance of ideas.

During the first step, have group members work quietly, in the same space, to write down every idea they have to address the task or problem they face. This shouldn’t take more than twenty minutes. Whoever is facilitating the discussion should remind group members to use brainstorming techniques, which means they shouldn’t evaluate ideas as they are generated. Ask group members to remain silent once they’ve finished their list so they do not distract others.

During the second step, the facilitator goes around the group in a consistent order asking each person to share one idea at a time. As the idea is shared, the facilitator records it on a master list that everyone can see. Keep track of how many times each idea comes up, as that could be an idea that warrants more discussion. Continue this process until all the ideas have been shared. As a note to facilitators, some group members may begin to edit their list or self-censor when asked to provide one of their ideas. To limit a person’s apprehension with sharing his or her ideas and to ensure that each idea is shared, I have asked group members to exchange lists with someone else so they can share ideas from the list they receive without fear of being personally judged.

During step three, the facilitator should note that group members can now ask for clarification on ideas on the master list. Do not let this discussion stray into evaluation of ideas. To help avoid an unnecessarily long discussion, it may be useful to go from one person to the next to ask which ideas need clarifying and then go to the originator(s) of the idea in question for clarification.

During the fourth step, members use a voting ballot to rank the acceptability of the ideas on the master list. If the list is long, you may ask group members to rank only their top five or so choices. The facilitator then takes up the secret ballots and reviews them in a random order, noting the rankings of each idea. Ideally, the highest ranked idea can then be discussed and decided on. The nominal group technique does not carry a group all the way through to the point of decision; rather, it sets the group up for a roundtable discussion or use of some other method to evaluate the merits of the top ideas.

Specific Decision-Making Techniques

Some decision-making techniques involve determining a course of action based on the level of agreement among the group members. These methods include majority, expert, authority, and consensus rule. Table 14.1 “Pros and Cons of Agreement-Based Decision-Making Techniques” reviews the pros and cons of each of these methods.

Majority rule is a simple method of decision making based on voting. In most cases a majority is considered half plus one.

Becky McCray – Voting – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Majority rule is a commonly used decision-making technique in which a majority (one-half plus one) must agree before a decision is made. A show-of-hands vote, a paper ballot, or an electronic voting system can determine the majority choice. Many decision-making bodies, including the US House of Representatives, Senate, and Supreme Court, use majority rule to make decisions, which shows that it is often associated with democratic decision making, since each person gets one vote and each vote counts equally. Of course, other individuals and mediated messages can influence a person’s vote, but since the voting power is spread out over all group members, it is not easy for one person or party to take control of the decision-making process. In some cases—for example, to override a presidential veto or to amend the constitution—a super majority of two-thirds may be required to make a decision.

Minority rule is a decision-making technique in which a designated authority or expert has final say over a decision and may or may not consider the input of other group members. When a designated expert makes a decision by minority rule, there may be buy-in from others in the group, especially if the members of the group didn’t have relevant knowledge or expertise. When a designated authority makes decisions, buy-in will vary based on group members’ level of respect for the authority. For example, decisions made by an elected authority may be more accepted by those who elected him or her than by those who didn’t. As with majority rule, this technique can be time saving. Unlike majority rule, one person or party can have control over the decision-making process. This type of decision making is more similar to that used by monarchs and dictators. An obvious negative consequence of this method is that the needs or wants of one person can override the needs and wants of the majority. A minority deciding for the majority has led to negative consequences throughout history. The white Afrikaner minority that ruled South Africa for decades instituted apartheid, which was a system of racial segregation that disenfranchised and oppressed the majority population. The quality of the decision and its fairness really depends on the designated expert or authority.

Consensus rule is a decision-making technique in which all members of the group must agree on the same decision. On rare occasions, a decision may be ideal for all group members, which can lead to unanimous agreement without further debate and discussion. Although this can be positive, be cautious that this isn’t a sign of groupthink. More typically, consensus is reached only after lengthy discussion. On the plus side, consensus often leads to high-quality decisions due to the time and effort it takes to get everyone in agreement. Group members are also more likely to be committed to the decision because of their investment in reaching it. On the negative side, the ultimate decision is often one that all group members can live with but not one that’s ideal for all members. Additionally, the process of arriving at consensus also includes conflict, as people debate ideas and negotiate the interpersonal tensions that may result.

Table 14.1 Pros and Cons of Agreement-Based Decision-Making Techniques

“Getting Critical”

Six Hats Method of Decision Making

Edward de Bono developed the Six Hats method of thinking in the late 1980s, and it has since become a regular feature in decision-making training in business and professional contexts (de Bono, 1985). The method’s popularity lies in its ability to help people get out of habitual ways of thinking and to allow group members to play different roles and see a problem or decision from multiple points of view. The basic idea is that each of the six hats represents a different way of thinking, and when we figuratively switch hats, we switch the way we think. The hats and their style of thinking are as follows:

• White hat. Objective—focuses on seeking information such as data and facts and then processes that information in a neutral way.
• Red hat. Emotional—uses intuition, gut reactions, and feelings to judge information and suggestions.
• Black hat. Negative—focuses on potential risks, points out possibilities for failure, and evaluates information cautiously and defensively.
• Yellow hat. Positive—is optimistic about suggestions and future outcomes, gives constructive and positive feedback, points out benefits and advantages.
• Green hat. Creative—tries to generate new ideas and solutions, thinks “outside the box.”
• Blue hat. Philosophical—uses metacommunication to organize and reflect on the thinking and communication taking place in the group, facilitates who wears what hat and when group members change hats.

Specific sequences or combinations of hats can be used to encourage strategic thinking. For example, the group leader may start off wearing the Blue Hat and suggest that the group start their decision-making process with some “White Hat thinking” in order to process through facts and other available information. During this stage, the group could also process through what other groups have done when faced with a similar problem. Then the leader could begin an evaluation sequence starting with two minutes of “Yellow Hat thinking” to identify potential positive outcomes, then “Black Hat thinking” to allow group members to express reservations about ideas and point out potential problems, then “Red Hat thinking” to get people’s gut reactions to the previous discussion, then “Green Hat thinking” to identify other possible solutions that are more tailored to the group’s situation or completely new approaches. At the end of a sequence, the Blue Hat would want to summarize what was said and begin a new sequence. To successfully use this method, the person wearing the Blue Hat should be familiar with different sequences and plan some of the thinking patterns ahead of time based on the problem and the group members. Each round of thinking should be limited to a certain time frame (two to five minutes) to keep the discussion moving.

• This decision-making method has been praised because it allows group members to “switch gears” in their thinking and allows for role playing, which lets people express ideas more freely. How can this help enhance critical thinking? Which combination of hats do you think would be best for a critical thinking sequence?
• What combinations of hats might be useful if the leader wanted to break the larger group up into pairs and why? For example, what kind of thinking would result from putting Yellow and Red together, Black and White together, or Red and White together, and so on?
• Based on your preferred ways of thinking and your personality, which hat would be the best fit for you? Which would be the most challenging? Why?

Influences on Decision Making

Many factors influence the decision-making process. For example, how might a group’s independence or access to resources affect the decisions they make? What potential advantages and disadvantages come with decisions made by groups that are more or less similar in terms of personality and cultural identities? In this section, we will explore how situational, personality, and cultural influences affect decision making in groups.

Situational Influences on Decision Making

A group’s situational context affects decision making. One key situational element is the degree of freedom that the group has to make its own decisions, secure its own resources, and initiate its own actions. Some groups have to go through multiple approval processes before they can do anything, while others are self-directed, self-governing, and self-sustaining. Another situational influence is uncertainty. In general, groups deal with more uncertainty in decision making than do individuals because of the increased number of variables that comes with adding more people to a situation. Individual group members can’t know what other group members are thinking, whether or not they are doing their work, and how committed they are to the group. So the size of a group is a powerful situational influence, as it adds to uncertainty and complicates communication.

Access to information also influences a group. First, the nature of the group’s task or problem affects its ability to get information. Group members can more easily make decisions about a problem when other groups have similarly experienced it. Even if the problem is complex and serious, the group can learn from other situations and apply what it learns. Second, the group must have access to flows of information. Access to archives, electronic databases, and individuals with relevant experience is necessary to obtain any relevant information about similar problems or to do research on a new or unique problem. In this regard, group members’ formal and information network connections also become important situational influences.

The urgency of a decision can have a major influence on the decision-making process. As a situation becomes more urgent, it requires more specific decision-making methods and types of communication.

Judith E. Bell – Urgent – CC BY-SA 2.0.

The origin and urgency of a problem are also situational factors that influence decision making. In terms of origin, problems usually occur in one of four ways:

• Something goes wrong. Group members must decide how to fix or stop something. Example—a firehouse crew finds out that half of the building is contaminated with mold and must be closed down.
• Expectations change or increase. Group members must innovate more efficient or effective ways of doing something. Example—a firehouse crew finds out that the district they are responsible for is being expanded.
• Something goes wrong and expectations change or increase. Group members must fix/stop and become more efficient/effective. Example—the firehouse crew has to close half the building and must start responding to more calls due to the expanding district.
• The problem existed from the beginning. Group members must go back to the origins of the situation and walk through and analyze the steps again to decide what can be done differently. Example—a firehouse crew has consistently had to work with minimal resources in terms of building space and firefighting tools.

In each of the cases, the need for a decision may be more or less urgent depending on how badly something is going wrong, how high the expectations have been raised, or the degree to which people are fed up with a broken system. Decisions must be made in situations ranging from crisis level to mundane.

Personality Influences on Decision Making

A long-studied typology of value orientations that affect decision making consists of the following types of decision maker: the economic, the aesthetic, the theoretical, the social, the political, and the religious (Spranger, 1928).

• The economic decision maker makes decisions based on what is practical and useful.
• The aesthetic decision maker makes decisions based on form and harmony, desiring a solution that is elegant and in sync with the surroundings.
• The theoretical decision maker wants to discover the truth through rationality.
• The social decision maker emphasizes the personal impact of a decision and sympathizes with those who may be affected by it.
• The political decision maker is interested in power and influence and views people and/or property as divided into groups that have different value.
• The religious decision maker seeks to identify with a larger purpose, works to unify others under that goal, and commits to a viewpoint, often denying one side and being dedicated to the other.

In the United States, economic, political, and theoretical decision making tend to be more prevalent decision-making orientations, which likely corresponds to the individualistic cultural orientation with its emphasis on competition and efficiency. But situational context, as we discussed before, can also influence our decision making.

Personality affects decision making. For example, “economic” decision makers decide based on what is practical and useful.

One Way Stock – Tough Decisions Ahead – CC BY-ND 2.0.

The personalities of group members, especially leaders and other active members, affect the climate of the group. Group member personalities can be categorized based on where they fall on a continuum anchored by the following descriptors: dominant/submissive, friendly/unfriendly, and instrumental/emotional (Cragan & Wright, 1999). The more group members there are in any extreme of these categories, the more likely that the group climate will also shift to resemble those characteristics.

• Dominant versus submissive. Group members that are more dominant act more independently and directly, initiate conversations, take up more space, make more direct eye contact, seek leadership positions, and take control over decision-making processes. More submissive members are reserved, contribute to the group only when asked to, avoid eye contact, and leave their personal needs and thoughts unvoiced or give into the suggestions of others.
• Friendly versus unfriendly. Group members on the friendly side of the continuum find a balance between talking and listening, don’t try to win at the expense of other group members, are flexible but not weak, and value democratic decision making. Unfriendly group members are disagreeable, indifferent, withdrawn, and selfish, which leads them to either not invest in decision making or direct it in their own interest rather than in the interest of the group.
• Instrumental versus emotional. Instrumental group members are emotionally neutral, objective, analytical, task-oriented, and committed followers, which leads them to work hard and contribute to the group’s decision making as long as it is orderly and follows agreed-on rules. Emotional group members are creative, playful, independent, unpredictable, and expressive, which leads them to make rash decisions, resist group norms or decision-making structures, and switch often from relational to task focus.

Cultural Context and Decision Making

Just like neighborhoods, schools, and countries, small groups vary in terms of their degree of similarity and difference. Demographic changes in the United States and increases in technology that can bring different people together make it more likely that we will be interacting in more and more heterogeneous groups (Allen, 2011). Some small groups are more homogenous, meaning the members are more similar, and some are more heterogeneous, meaning the members are more different. Diversity and difference within groups has advantages and disadvantages. In terms of advantages, research finds that, in general, groups that are culturally heterogeneous have better overall performance than more homogenous groups (Haslett & Ruebush, 1999). Additionally, when group members have time to get to know each other and competently communicate across their differences, the advantages of diversity include better decision making due to different perspectives (Thomas, 1999). Unfortunately, groups often operate under time constraints and other pressures that make the possibility for intercultural dialogue and understanding difficult. The main disadvantage of heterogeneous groups is the possibility for conflict, but given that all groups experience conflict, this isn’t solely due to the presence of diversity. We will now look more specifically at how some of the cultural value orientations we’ve learned about already in this book can play out in groups with international diversity and how domestic diversity in terms of demographics can also influence group decision making.

International Diversity in Group Interactions

Cultural value orientations such as individualism/collectivism, power distance, and high-/low-context communication styles all manifest on a continuum of communication behaviors and can influence group decision making. Group members from individualistic cultures are more likely to value task-oriented, efficient, and direct communication. This could manifest in behaviors such as dividing up tasks into individual projects before collaboration begins and then openly debating ideas during discussion and decision making. Additionally, people from cultures that value individualism are more likely to openly express dissent from a decision, essentially expressing their disagreement with the group. Group members from collectivistic cultures are more likely to value relationships over the task at hand. Because of this, they also tend to value conformity and face-saving (often indirect) communication. This could manifest in behaviors such as establishing norms that include periods of socializing to build relationships before task-oriented communication like negotiations begin or norms that limit public disagreement in favor of more indirect communication that doesn’t challenge the face of other group members or the group’s leader. In a group composed of people from a collectivistic culture, each member would likely play harmonizing roles, looking for signs of conflict and resolving them before they become public.

Power distance can also affect group interactions. Some cultures rank higher on power-distance scales, meaning they value hierarchy, make decisions based on status, and believe that people have a set place in society that is fairly unchangeable. Group members from high-power-distance cultures would likely appreciate a strong designated leader who exhibits a more directive leadership style and prefer groups in which members have clear and assigned roles. In a group that is homogenous in terms of having a high-power-distance orientation, members with higher status would be able to openly provide information, and those with lower status may not provide information unless a higher status member explicitly seeks it from them. Low-power-distance cultures do not place as much value and meaning on status and believe that all group members can participate in decision making. Group members from low-power-distance cultures would likely freely speak their mind during a group meeting and prefer a participative leadership style.

How much meaning is conveyed through the context surrounding verbal communication can also affect group communication. Some cultures have a high-context communication style in which much of the meaning in an interaction is conveyed through context such as nonverbal cues and silence. Group members from high-context cultures may avoid saying something directly, assuming that other group members will understand the intended meaning even if the message is indirect. So if someone disagrees with a proposed course of action, he or she may say, “Let’s discuss this tomorrow,” and mean, “I don’t think we should do this.” Such indirect communication is also a face-saving strategy that is common in collectivistic cultures. Other cultures have a low-context communication style that places more importance on the meaning conveyed through words than through context or nonverbal cues. Group members from low-context cultures often say what they mean and mean what they say. For example, if someone doesn’t like an idea, they might say, “I think we should consider more options. This one doesn’t seem like the best we can do.”

In any of these cases, an individual from one culture operating in a group with people of a different cultural orientation could adapt to the expectations of the host culture, especially if that person possesses a high degree of intercultural communication competence (ICC). Additionally, people with high ICC can also adapt to a group member with a different cultural orientation than the host culture. Even though these cultural orientations connect to values that affect our communication in fairly consistent ways, individuals may exhibit different communication behaviors depending on their own individual communication style and the situation.

Domestic Diversity and Group Communication

While it is becoming more likely that we will interact in small groups with international diversity, we are guaranteed to interact in groups that are diverse in terms of the cultural identities found within a single country or the subcultures found within a larger cultural group.

Gender stereotypes sometimes influence the roles that people play within a group. For example, the stereotype that women are more nurturing than men may lead group members (both male and female) to expect that women will play the role of supporters or harmonizers within the group. Since women have primarily performed secretarial work since the 1900s, it may also be expected that women will play the role of recorder. In both of these cases, stereotypical notions of gender place women in roles that are typically not as valued in group communication. The opposite is true for men. In terms of leadership, despite notable exceptions, research shows that men fill an overwhelmingly disproportionate amount of leadership positions. We are socialized to see certain behaviors by men as indicative of leadership abilities, even though they may not be. For example, men are often perceived to contribute more to a group because they tend to speak first when asked a question or to fill a silence and are perceived to talk more about task-related matters than relationally oriented matters. Both of these tendencies create a perception that men are more engaged with the task. Men are also socialized to be more competitive and self-congratulatory, meaning that their communication may be seen as dedicated and their behaviors seen as powerful, and that when their work isn’t noticed they will be more likely to make it known to the group rather than take silent credit. Even though we know that the relational elements of a group are crucial for success, even in high-performance teams, that work is not as valued in our society as the task-related work.

Despite the fact that some communication patterns and behaviors related to our typical (and stereotypical) gender socialization affect how we interact in and form perceptions of others in groups, the differences in group communication that used to be attributed to gender in early group communication research seem to be diminishing. This is likely due to the changing organizational cultures from which much group work emerges, which have now had more than sixty years to adjust to women in the workplace. It is also due to a more nuanced understanding of gender-based research, which doesn’t take a stereotypical view from the beginning as many of the early male researchers did. Now, instead of biological sex being assumed as a factor that creates inherent communication differences, group communication scholars see that men and women both exhibit a range of behaviors that are more or less feminine or masculine. It is these gendered behaviors, and not a person’s gender, that seem to have more of an influence on perceptions of group communication. Interestingly, group interactions are still masculinist in that male and female group members prefer a more masculine communication style for task leaders and that both males and females in this role are more likely to adapt to a more masculine communication style. Conversely, men who take on social-emotional leadership behaviors adopt a more feminine communication style. In short, it seems that although masculine communication traits are more often associated with high status positions in groups, both men and women adapt to this expectation and are evaluated similarly (Haslett & Ruebush, 1999).

Other demographic categories are also influential in group communication and decision making. In general, group members have an easier time communicating when they are more similar than different in terms of race and age. This ease of communication can make group work more efficient, but the homogeneity may sacrifice some creativity. As we learned earlier, groups that are diverse (e.g., they have members of different races and generations) benefit from the diversity of perspectives in terms of the quality of decision making and creativity of output.

In terms of age, for the first time since industrialization began, it is common to have three generations of people (and sometimes four) working side by side in an organizational setting. Although four generations often worked together in early factories, they were segregated based on their age group, and a hierarchy existed with older workers at the top and younger workers at the bottom. Today, however, generations interact regularly, and it is not uncommon for an older person to have a leader or supervisor who is younger than him or her (Allen, 2011). The current generations in the US workplace and consequently in work-based groups include the following:

• The Silent Generation. Born between 1925 and 1942, currently in their midsixties to mideighties, this is the smallest generation in the workforce right now, as many have retired or left for other reasons. This generation includes people who were born during the Great Depression or the early part of World War II, many of whom later fought in the Korean War (Clarke, 1970).
• The Baby Boomers. Born between 1946 and 1964, currently in their late forties to midsixties, this is the largest generation in the workforce right now. Baby boomers are the most populous generation born in US history, and they are working longer than previous generations, which means they will remain the predominant force in organizations for ten to twenty more years.
• Generation X. Born between 1965 and 1981, currently in their early thirties to midforties, this generation was the first to see technology like cell phones and the Internet make its way into classrooms and our daily lives. Compared to previous generations, “Gen-Xers” are more diverse in terms of race, religious beliefs, and sexual orientation and also have a greater appreciation for and understanding of diversity.
• Generation Y. Born between 1982 and 2000, “Millennials” as they are also called are currently in their late teens up to about thirty years old. This generation is not as likely to remember a time without technology such as computers and cell phones. They are just starting to enter into the workforce and have been greatly affected by the economic crisis of the late 2000s, experiencing significantly high unemployment rates.

The benefits and challenges that come with diversity of group members are important to consider. Since we will all work in diverse groups, we should be prepared to address potential challenges in order to reap the benefits. Diverse groups may be wise to coordinate social interactions outside of group time in order to find common ground that can help facilitate interaction and increase group cohesion. We should be sensitive but not let sensitivity create fear of “doing something wrong” that then prevents us from having meaningful interactions. Reviewing Chapter 8 “Culture and Communication” will give you useful knowledge to help you navigate both international and domestic diversity and increase your communication competence in small groups and elsewhere.

Key Takeaways

• Every problem has common components: an undesirable situation, a desired situation, and obstacles between the undesirable and desirable situations. Every problem also has a set of characteristics that vary among problems, including task difficulty, number of possible solutions, group member interest in the problem, group familiarity with the problem, and the need for solution acceptance.

The group problem-solving process has five steps:

• Define the problem by creating a problem statement that summarizes it.
• Analyze the problem and create a problem question that can guide solution generation.
• Generate possible solutions. Possible solutions should be offered and listed without stopping to evaluate each one.
• Evaluate the solutions based on their credibility, completeness, and worth. Groups should also assess the potential effects of the narrowed list of solutions.
• Implement and assess the solution. Aside from enacting the solution, groups should determine how they will know the solution is working or not.
• Before a group makes a decision, it should brainstorm possible solutions. Group communication scholars suggest that groups (1) do a warm-up brainstorming session; (2) do an actual brainstorming session in which ideas are not evaluated, wild ideas are encouraged, quantity not quality of ideas is the goal, and new combinations of ideas are encouraged; (3) eliminate duplicate ideas; and (4) clarify, organize, and evaluate ideas. In order to guide the idea-generation process and invite equal participation from group members, the group may also elect to use the nominal group technique.
• Common decision-making techniques include majority rule, minority rule, and consensus rule. With majority rule, only a majority, usually one-half plus one, must agree before a decision is made. With minority rule, a designated authority or expert has final say over a decision, and the input of group members may or may not be invited or considered. With consensus rule, all members of the group must agree on the same decision.

Several factors influence the decision-making process:

• Situational factors include the degree of freedom a group has to make its own decisions, the level of uncertainty facing the group and its task, the size of the group, the group’s access to information, and the origin and urgency of the problem.
• Personality influences on decision making include a person’s value orientation (economic, aesthetic, theoretical, political, or religious), and personality traits (dominant/submissive, friendly/unfriendly, and instrumental/emotional).
• Cultural influences on decision making include the heterogeneity or homogeneity of the group makeup; cultural values and characteristics such as individualism/collectivism, power distance, and high-/low-context communication styles; and gender and age differences.
• Scenario 1. Task difficulty is high, number of possible solutions is high, group interest in problem is high, group familiarity with problem is low, and need for solution acceptance is high.
• Scenario 2. Task difficulty is low, number of possible solutions is low, group interest in problem is low, group familiarity with problem is high, and need for solution acceptance is low.
• Scenario 1: Academic. A professor asks his or her class to decide whether the final exam should be an in-class or take-home exam.
• Scenario 2: Professional. A group of coworkers must decide which person from their department to nominate for a company-wide award.
• Scenario 3: Personal. A family needs to decide how to divide the belongings and estate of a deceased family member who did not leave a will.
• Scenario 4: Civic. A local branch of a political party needs to decide what five key issues it wants to include in the national party’s platform.
• Group communication researchers have found that heterogeneous groups (composed of diverse members) have advantages over homogenous (more similar) groups. Discuss a group situation you have been in where diversity enhanced your and/or the group’s experience.

Adams, K., and Gloria G. Galanes, Communicating in Groups: Applications and Skills , 7th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2009), 220–21.

Allen, B. J., Difference Matters: Communicating Social Identity , 2nd ed. (Long Grove, IL: Waveland, 2011), 5.

Bormann, E. G., and Nancy C. Bormann, Effective Small Group Communication , 4th ed. (Santa Rosa, CA: Burgess CA, 1988), 112–13.

Clarke, G., “The Silent Generation Revisited,” Time, June 29, 1970, 46.

Cragan, J. F., and David W. Wright, Communication in Small Group Discussions: An Integrated Approach , 3rd ed. (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1991), 77–78.

de Bono, E., Six Thinking Hats (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1985).

Delbecq, A. L., and Andrew H. Ven de Ven, “A Group Process Model for Problem Identification and Program Planning,” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 7, no. 4 (1971): 466–92.

Haslett, B. B., and Jenn Ruebush, “What Differences Do Individual Differences in Groups Make?: The Effects of Individuals, Culture, and Group Composition,” in The Handbook of Group Communication Theory and Research , ed. Lawrence R. Frey (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999), 133.

Napier, R. W., and Matti K. Gershenfeld, Groups: Theory and Experience , 7th ed. (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), 292.

Osborn, A. F., Applied Imagination (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1959).

Spranger, E., Types of Men (New York: Steckert, 1928).

Stanton, C., “How to Deliver Group Presentations: The Unified Team Approach,” Six Minutes Speaking and Presentation Skills , November 3, 2009, accessed August 28, 2012, http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/group-presentations-unified-team-approach .

Thomas, D. C., “Cultural Diversity and Work Group Effectiveness: An Experimental Study,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 30, no. 2 (1999): 242–63.

Communication in the Real World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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5.3: Using Critical Thinking Skills- Decision Making and Problem Solving

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Introduction

In previous lessons, you learned about characteristics of critical thinkers and information literacy. In this module, you will learn how to put those skills into action through the important processes of decision making and problem solving.

As with the process of developing information literacy, asking questions is an important part of decision making and problem solving. Thinking is born of questions. Questions wake us up. Questions alert us to hidden assumptions. Questions promote curiosity and create new distinctions. Questions open up options that otherwise go unexplored. Besides, teachers love questions.

We make decisions all the time, whether we realize it or not. Even avoiding decisions is a form of decision making. The student who puts off studying for a test until the last minute, for example, might really be saying, “I’ve decided this course is not important” or “I’ve decided not to give this course much time.”

Decisions are specific and lead to focused action. When we decide, we narrow down. We give up actions that are inconsistent with our decision.

In addition to decision making, critical thinking skills are important to solving problems. We encounter problems every single day, and having a solid process in place is important to solving them.

At the end of the lesson, you will learn how to put your critical thinking skills to use by reviewing an example of how critical thinking skills can help with making those everyday decisions.

Using Critical Thinking Skills: Asking Questions

Questions have practical power. Asking for directions can shave hours off a trip. Asking a librarian for help can save hours of research time. Asking how to address an instructor—by first name or formal title—can change your relationship with that person. Asking your academic advisor a question can alter your entire education. Asking people about their career plans can alter your career plans.

You can use the following strategies to develop questions for problem solving and decision making:

Ask questions that create possibilities. At any moment, you can ask a question that opens up a new possibility for someone.

• Suppose a friend walks up to you and says, “People just never listen to me.” You listen carefully. Then you say, “Let me make sure I understand. Who, specifically, doesn’t listen to you? And how do you know they’re not listening?”
• Another friend tells you, “I just lost my job to someone who has less experience. That should never happen.” You respond, “Wow, that’s hard. I’m sorry you lost your job. Who can help you find another job?”
• A relative seeks your advice. “My mother-in-law makes me mad,” she says. “You’re having a hard time with this person,” you say. “What does she say and do when you feel mad at her? And are there times when you don’t get mad at her?”

These kinds of questions—asked with compassion and a sense of timing—can help people move from complaining about problems to solving them.

Discover new questions. Students sometimes say, “I don’t know what questions to ask.” Consider the following ways to create questions about any subject you want to study or about any

area of your life that you want to change:

• Let your pen start moving. Sometimes you can access a deeper level of knowledge by taking out your pen, putting it on a piece of paper, and writing down questions—even before you know what to write. Don’t think. Just watch the pen move across the paper. Notice what appears. The results might be surprising.
• Ask about what’s missing . Another way to invent useful questions is to notice what’s missing from your life and then ask how to supply it. For example, if you want to take better notes, you can write, “What’s missing is skill in note taking. How can I gain more skill in taking notes?” If you always feel rushed, you can write, “What’s missing is time. How do I create enough time in my day to actually do the things that I say I want to do?”
• Pretend to be someone else. Another way to invent questions is first to think of someone you greatly respect. Then pretend you’re that person. Ask the questions you think she would ask.
• What can I do when ... an instructor calls on me in class and I have no idea what to say? When a teacher doesn’t show up for class on time? When I feel overwhelmed with assignments?
• How can I ... take the kind of courses that I want? Expand my career options? Become much more effective as a student, starting today?
• When do I ... decide on a major? Transfer to another school? Meet with an instructor to discuss an upcoming term paper?
• What else do I want to know about ... my academic plan? My career plan? My options for job hunting? My friends? My relatives? My spouse?
• Who can I ask about ... my career options? My major? My love life? My values and purpose in life?

Many times you can quickly generate questions by simply asking yourself, “What else do I want to know?” Ask this question immediately after you read a paragraph in a book or listen to someone speak.

Start from the assumption that you are brilliant. Then ask questions to unlock your brilliance.

Using Critical Thinking Skills in Decision Making

As you develop your critical thinking skills, you can apply them as you make decisions. The following suggestions can help in your decision-making process:

Recognize decisions. Decisions are more than wishes or desires. There’s a world of difference between “I wish I could be a better student” and “I will take more powerful notes, read with greater retention, and review my class notes daily.” Deciding to eat fruit for dessert instead of ice cream rules out the next trip to the ice cream store.

Establish priorities. Some decisions are trivial. No matter what the outcome, your life is not affected much. Other decisions can shape your circumstances for years. Devote more time and energy to the decisions with big outcomes.

Base decisions on a life plan. The benefit of having long-term goals for our lives is that they provide a basis for many of our daily decisions. Being certain about what we want to accomplish this year and this month makes today’s choices more clear.

Balance learning styles in decision making. To make decisions more effectively, use all four modes of learning explained in a previous lesson. The key is to balance reflection with action, and thinking with experience. First, take the time to think creatively, and generate many options. Then think critically about the possible consequences of each option before choosing one. Remember, however, that thinking is no substitute for experience. Act on your chosen option, and notice what happens. If you’re not getting the results you want, then quickly return to creative thinking to invent new options.

Choose an overall strategy. Every time you make a decision, you choose a strategy—even when you’re not aware of it. Effective decision makers can articulate and choose from among several strategies. For example:

• Find all of the available options, and choose one deliberately. Save this strategy for times when you have a relatively small number of options, each of which leads to noticeably different results.
• Find all of the available options, and choose one randomly. This strategy can be risky. Save it for times when your options are basically similar and fairness is the main issue.
• Limit the options, and then choose. When deciding which search engine to use, visit many search sites and then narrow the list down to two or three from which to choose.

Use time as an ally. Sometimes we face dilemmas—situations in which any course of action leads to undesirable consequences. In such cases, consider putting a decision on hold. Wait it out. Do nothing until the circumstances change, making one alternative clearly preferable to another.

Use intuition. Some decisions seem to make themselves. A solution pops into your mind, and you gain newfound clarity. Using intuition is not the same as forgetting about the decision or refusing to make it. Intuitive decisions usually arrive after we’ve gathered the relevant facts and faced a problem for some time.

Evaluate your decision. Hindsight is a source of insight. After you act on a decision, observe the consequences over time. Reflect on how well your decision worked and what you might have done differently.

Think of choices. This final suggestion involves some creative thinking. Consider that the word decide derives from the same roots as suicide and homicide . In the spirit of those words, a decision forever “kills” all other options. That’s kind of heavy. Instead, use the word choice , and see whether it frees up your thinking. When you choose , you express a preference for one option over others. However, those options remain live possibilities for the future. Choose for today, knowing that as you gain more wisdom and experience, you can choose again.

Using Critical Thinking Skills in Problem Solving

Think of problem solving as a process with four Ps : Define the problem , generate possibilities ,

create a plan , and perform your plan.

Step 1: Define the problem. To define a problem effectively, understand what a problem is—a mismatch between what you want and what you have. Problem solving is all about reducing the gap between these two factors.

Tell the truth about what’s present in your life right now, without shame or blame. For example: “I often get sleepy while reading my physics assignments, and after closing the book I cannot remember what I just read.”

Next, describe in detail what you want. Go for specifics: “I want to remain alert as I read about physics. I also want to accurately summarize each chapter I read.”

Remember that when we define a problem in limiting ways, our solutions merely generate new problems. As Albert Einstein said, “The world we have made is a result of the level of thinking we have done thus far. We cannot solve problems at the same level at which we created them” (Calaprice 2000).

This idea has many applications for success in school. An example is the student who struggles with note taking. The problem, she thinks, is that her notes are too sketchy. The logical solution, she decides, is to take more notes; her new goal is to write down almost everything her instructors say. No matter how fast and furiously she writes, she cannot capture all of the instructors’ comments.

Consider what happens when this student defines the problem in a new way. After more thought, she decides that her dilemma is not the quantity of her notes but their quality . She adopts a new format for taking notes, dividing her notepaper into two columns. In the right-hand column, she writes down only the main points of each lecture. In the left-hand column, she notes two or three supporting details for each point.

Over time, this student makes the joyous discovery that there are usually just three or four core ideas to remember from each lecture. She originally thought the solution was to take more notes. What really worked was taking notes in a new way.

Step 2: Generate possibilities. Now put on your creative thinking hat. Open up. Brainstorm as many possible solutions to the problem as you can. At this stage, quantity counts. As you generate possibilities, gather relevant facts. For example, when you’re faced with a dilemma about what courses to take next semester, get information on class times, locations, and instructors. If you haven’t decided which summer job offer to accept, gather information on salary, benefits, and working conditions.

Step 3: Create a plan. After rereading your problem definition and list of possible solutions, choose the solution that seems most workable. Think about specific actions that will reduce the gap between what you have and what you want. Visualize the steps you will take to make this solution a reality, and arrange them in chronological order. To make your plan even more powerful, put it in writing.

Step 4: Perform your plan. This step gets you off your chair and out into the world. Now you actually do what you have planned.

Ultimately, your skill in solving problems lies in how well you perform your plan. Through the quality of your actions, you become the architect of your own success.

When facing problems, experiment with these four Ps, and remember that the order of steps is not absolute. Also remember that any solution has the potential to create new problems. If that happens, cycle through the four Ps of problem solving again.

Critical Thinking Skills in Action: Thinking About Your Major, Part 1

One decision that troubles many students in higher education is the choice of a major. Weighing the benefits, costs, and outcomes of a possible major is an intellectual challenge. This choice is an opportunity to apply your critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving skills. The following suggestions will guide you through this seemingly overwhelming process.

The first step is to discover options. You can use the following suggestions to discover options for choosing your major:

Follow the fun. Perhaps you look forward to attending one of your classes and even like completing the assignments. This is a clue to your choice of major.

See whether you can find lasting patterns in the subjects and extracurricular activities that you’ve enjoyed over the years. Look for a major that allows you to continue and expand on these experiences.

Also, sit down with a stack of 3 × 5 cards and brainstorm answers to the following questions:

• What do you enjoy doing most with your unscheduled time?
• Imagine that you’re at a party and having a fascinating conversation. What is this conversation about?
• What kind of problems do you enjoy solving—those that involve people? Products? Ideas?
• What interests are revealed by your choices of reading material, television shows, and other entertainment?
• What would an ideal day look like for you? Describe where you would live, who would be with you, and what you would do throughout the day. Do any of these visions suggest a possible major?

Questions like these can uncover a “fun factor” that energizes you to finish the work of completing a major.

Consider your abilities. In choosing a major, ability counts as much as interest. In addition to considering what you enjoy, think about times and places when you excelled. List the courses that you aced, the work assignments that you mastered, and the hobbies that led to rewards or recognition. Let your choice of a major reflect a discovery of your passions and potentials.

Use formal techniques for self-discovery. Explore questionnaires and inventories that are designed to correlate your interests with specific majors. Examples include the Strong Interest Inventory and the Self-Directed Search. Your academic advisor or someone in your school’s career planning office can give you more details about these and related assessments. For some fun, take several of them and meet with an advisor to interpret the results. Remember inventories can help you gain self-knowledge, and other people can offer valuable perspectives. However, what you do with all this input is entirely up to you.

Critical Thinking Skills in Action: Thinking About Your Major, Part 2

As you review the following additional suggestions of discovering options, think about what strategies you already use in your own decision-making process. Also think about what new strategies you might try in the future.

Link to long-term goals. Your choice of a major can fall into place once you determine what you want in life. Before you choose a major, back up to a bigger picture. List your core values, such as contributing to society, achieving financial security and professional recognition, enjoying good health, or making time for fun. Also write down specific goals that you want to accomplish 5 years, 10 years, or even 50 years from today.

Many students find that the prospect of getting what they want in life justifies all of the time, money, and day-to-day effort invested in going to school. Having a major gives you a powerful incentive for attending classes, taking part in discussions, reading textbooks, writing papers, and completing other assignments. When you see a clear connection between finishing school and creating the life of your dreams, the daily tasks of higher education become charged with meaning.

Ask other people. Key people in your life might have valuable suggestions about your choice of major. Ask for their ideas, and listen with an open mind. At the same time, distance yourself from any pressure to choose a major or career that fails to interest you. If you make a choice solely on the basis of the expectations of other people, you could end up with a major or even a career you don’t enjoy.

Gather information. Check your school’s catalog or website for a list of available majors. Here is a gold mine of information. Take a quick glance, and highlight all the majors that interest you. Then talk to students who have declared these majors. Also read the descriptions of courses required for these majors. Do you get excited about the chance to enroll in them? Pay attention to your gut feelings.

Also chat with instructors who teach courses in a specific major. Ask for copies of their class syllabi. Go to the bookstore and browse the required texts. Based on all of this information, write a list of prospective majors. Discuss them with an academic advisor and someone at your school’s career-planning center.

Invent a major. When choosing a major, you might not need to limit yourself to those listed in your school catalog. Many schools now have flexible programs that allow for independent study. Through such programs, you might be able to combine two existing majors or invent an entirely new one of your own.

Consider a complementary minor. You can add flexibility to your academic program by choosing a minor to complement or contrast with your major. The student who wants to be a minister could opt for a minor in English; all of those courses in composition can help in writing sermons. Or the student with a major in psychology might choose a minor in business administration, with the idea of managing a counseling service some day. An effective choice of a minor can expand your skills and career options.

Think critically about the link between your major and your career. Your career goals might have a significant impact on your choice of major.

You could pursue a rewarding career by choosing among several different majors. Even students planning to apply for law school or medical school have flexibility in their choice of majors. In addition, after graduation, many people tend to be employed in jobs that have little relationship to their major. And you might choose a career in the future that is unrelated to any currently available major.

Critical Thinking Skills in Action: Thinking About Your Major, Part 3

Once you have discovered all of your options, you can move on to the next step in the process— making a trial choice.

Make a Trial Choice

Pretend that you have to choose a major today. Based on the options for a major that you’ve already discovered, write down the first three ideas that come to mind. Review the list for a few minutes, and then choose one.

Evaluate Your Trial Choice

When you’ve made a trial choice of major, take on the role of a scientist. Treat your choice as a hypothesis, and then design a series of experiments to evaluate and test it. For example:

• Schedule office meetings with instructors who teach courses in the major. Ask about required course work and career options in the field.
• Discuss your trial choice with an academic advisor or career counselor.
• Enroll in a course related to your possible major. Remember that introductory courses might not give you a realistic picture of the workload involved in advanced courses. Also, you might not be able to register for certain courses until you’ve actually declared a related major.
• Find a volunteer experience, internship, part-time job, or service-learning experience related to the major.
• Interview students who have declared the same major. Ask them in detail about their experiences and suggestions for success.
• Interview people who work in a field related to the major and “shadow” them—that is, spend time with those people during their workday.
• Think about whether you can complete your major given the amount of time and money that you plan to invest in higher education.
• Consider whether declaring this major would require a transfer to another program or even another school.

If your “experiments” confirm your choice of major, celebrate that fact. If they result in choosing a new major, celebrate that outcome as well.

Also remember that higher education represents a safe place to test your choice of major—and to change your mind. As you sort through your options, help is always available from administrators, instructors, advisors, and peers.

Choose Again

Keep your choice of a major in perspective. There is probably no single “correct” choice. Your unique collection of skills is likely to provide the basis for majoring in several fields.

Odds are that you’ll change your major at least once—and that you’ll change careers several times during your life. One benefit of higher education is mobility. You gain the general skills and knowledge that can help you move into a new major or career field at any time.

Viewing a major as a one-time choice that determines your entire future can raise your stress levels. Instead, look at choosing a major as the start of a continuing path that involves discovery, choice, and passionate action.

As you review this example of how you can use critical thinking to make a decision about choosing your major, think about how you will use your critical thinking to make decisions and solve problems in the future.

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Critical Thinking and Decision-Making  - What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking and decision-making  -, what is critical thinking, critical thinking and decision-making what is critical thinking.

Critical Thinking and Decision-Making: What is Critical Thinking?

Lesson 1: what is critical thinking, what is critical thinking.

Critical thinking is a term that gets thrown around a lot. You've probably heard it used often throughout the years whether it was in school, at work, or in everyday conversation. But when you stop to think about it, what exactly is critical thinking and how do you do it ?

Watch the video below to learn more about critical thinking.

Simply put, critical thinking is the act of deliberately analyzing information so that you can make better judgements and decisions . It involves using things like logic, reasoning, and creativity, to draw conclusions and generally understand things better.

This may sound like a pretty broad definition, and that's because critical thinking is a broad skill that can be applied to so many different situations. You can use it to prepare for a job interview, manage your time better, make decisions about purchasing things, and so much more.

The process

As humans, we are constantly thinking . It's something we can't turn off. But not all of it is critical thinking. No one thinks critically 100% of the time... that would be pretty exhausting! Instead, it's an intentional process , something that we consciously use when we're presented with difficult problems or important decisions.

Improving your critical thinking

In order to become a better critical thinker, it's important to ask questions when you're presented with a problem or decision, before jumping to any conclusions. You can start with simple ones like What do I currently know? and How do I know this? These can help to give you a better idea of what you're working with and, in some cases, simplify more complex issues.  

Real-world applications

Let's take a look at how we can use critical thinking to evaluate online information . Say a friend of yours posts a news article on social media and you're drawn to its headline. If you were to use your everyday automatic thinking, you might accept it as fact and move on. But if you were thinking critically, you would first analyze the available information and ask some questions :

• What's the source of this article?
• Is the headline potentially misleading?
• What are my friend's general beliefs?
• Do their beliefs inform why they might have shared this?

After analyzing all of this information, you can draw a conclusion about whether or not you think the article is trustworthy.

Critical thinking has a wide range of real-world applications . It can help you to make better decisions, become more hireable, and generally better understand the world around you.

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• Government Exam Articles
• Decision Making Concept & Questions

Decision Making Concept & Questions

Decision Making Questions are a part of Verbal Reasoning and a common topic for all major Government exams conducted in the country.

Logical analysis and reviewing the questions carefully are the key factors to answer questions based on this topic. The weightage of marks, however from this section varies between 3-5 marks.

In this article, we shall discuss at length the concept of decision making, tips to answer decision making questions and some sample questions for candidates assistance.

To know the detailed syllabus for logical or verbal reasoning and the exams in which this section is included, candidates can visit the logical reasoning page. 

Decision Making Questions and Answers PDF:- Download PDF Here

The Concept of Decision Making 

Under the decision making questions, candidates need to analyse and review the given information and based on the same need to answer the question. 

There two types of questions which may be asked as a part of decision making. These include:

• Direct Questions: In such questions, a condition may be given and based on the same the final decision has to be made
• Complex Questions: In such questions, a set of eligibility criteria are given. Candidates need to analyse the eligibility details given and based on it, answer what candidates can qualify/ appear/ register for an exam or a post

With the increased competition, the complex variety of questions have become more common. These type of questions are lengthy but if reviewed carefully, they are easy to answer. 

Candidates can go through the video on decision making to understand the concept better-

Candidates can also check the Tips to Solve Decision Making Questions in UPSC CSAT at the linked article.

Decision Making Questions & Answers

Given below are sample questions based on decision making. Candidates can practise them and analyse the types of questions and the format in which they may be asked. 

Directions (Q1 – Q2): Refer to the information given below and answer the following questions:

In a school in New Delhi, a panel of three senior teachers has been formed to elect the Head Boy of the school. Thre probable candidates have been selected by the students: Ajay, Veer and Nitin. Each teacher has to vote either in against or for each student. 

The following criteria are known to us about the selection:

• Exactly two teachers vote for Ajay
• Exactly one teacher votes for Veer
• Exactly one teacher votes for Nitin
• Teacher 1 votes for Ajay 
• Teacher 2 votes against Ajay and Nitin
• Teacher 3 votes against Nitin

Q 1. Which of the given statements is definitely true?

• Teacher 2 votes against Nitin
• Teacher 3 is in support of Ajay but against Nitin
• Teacher 1 is against Ajay
• Teacher 3 is against Veer
• None of the above

Q 2. Based on the given information, which of the statements is completely false?

• If Teacher 3 votes against Veer, then Teacher 2 would have voted for Veer
• Teacher 1 was against making Veer the Head Boy of the school
• Teacher 3 voted for Ajay
• Veer was not supported by Teacher 1

Directions (Q3 – Q4): Analyse the information given below about an election campaign strategy and answer the following questions:

You are supposed to prepare a strategy for election campaigning which is going to start in 6 months time. This is to be done at multiple constituencies involving many agencies. There would be a huge amount of logistical support which would be required once the format has been decided. The Minister has called for a meeting to hear your action plan and you need to be prepared for it.

Q 3. What would be the most effective answer?

• Concentrate on coordinating with the different agencies and having them approve the strategy
• Concentrate on setting deadlines, targets and checkpoints in order to meet the deadlines.
• Concentrate on getting an immediate feel for the contents design and layout of the strategy.
• Concentrate on logistics: how to move people and equipment from one place to another smoothly

Q 4. What would be the least effective answer?

• Concentrate on logistics: how to move people and equipment from one place to another smoothly.

Direction Q5: You have been using a certain computer system to perform your role for years and it has proved to be stable and reliable. Recently, you were informed that it is to be updated next month with new functionality and applications. You are concerned about the time it would take to have a trouble free system as the current system took six months to become trouble free. You now need to decide your response to this news. 

Q 5. What would be the least effective answer?

• Find out all you can about the system and volunteer to be the first to trial run it.
• Voice your concern to your superior and recommend that all possible upgrades be delayed until all possible issues have been identified and resolved.
• Ask All other colleagues to run the new systems for errors so that the quality of your work is not compromised, but seek their reviews.
• Believe that the appropriate checks have been carried out and wait for the introduction of the upgrade so that you can assess its functionality.

Q 6. As a relatively small part of your role, you are responsible for the maintenance of a database of statistical information regarding meteorological data and its link to road traffic levels at the Indian met department. This is drawn upon every three months for analysis, although for the past few years the results have been consistent and predictable and some people have questioned the need for such detailed data. In order to compile the information, you rely on daily input of information from a number of people in different localities. One day, one of these individuals comes to you to request that data be submitted on a weekly rather than daily basis, to save time. Your boss is on holiday and you are left to make the decision. Which of the given options must not be considered by the employee?

• Inform them that you cannot authorize it until your boss is back from leave.
• Make the change as it seems more sensible, and inform your boss when he returns.
• Inform him that there is no chance of any change in the reporting pattern.
• Ask the other person involved in it and what is their take and tell this to your boss once he comes back.

Q 7. You are new to your department and your boss has handed you a brief for a presentation that covers what you should tell your department about the new IT system that is being introduced. Your boss would have done it himself, but he has annual leave for the next few days. It contains a lot of facts and you are aware that your boss prefers a more factual dry presentation style. However, you are concerned that the audience would find the content dull and you want to make a good first impression on them. What would be the least effective answer?

• Respect the approach that your superior would have taken and present just the facts, but try to do so quickly so that the audience doesn’t get too bored.
• Introduce a range of interactive, entertaining elements to the briefing that increase audience engagement with the content prepared by your boss, but might not reflect the style of your boss.
• Send a brief around in email form prior to the meeting and then engage in a two-way discussion with the audience about the system.
• Suggest to your boss that he may like to present the content when he returns, as this will ensure that it is delivered in the way he intended.

Q 8. You have been asked by your boss to meet with a representative from another unit to present the findings from your team’s latest piece of research. After giving you the briefing, your boss advises you to ‘tone down’ your ‘usual style’ as she thinks this will work better. You are not quite sure what she meant by this and feel a little offended: your style has always worked well in the past. How would you respond? What would be the most effective answer?

• Make your boss understand that your tone is good for the presentation.
• Ask your boss for more detail on what they meant by the comment.
• Ask your colleagues what they meant by the comment.
• Self-reflect upon what your boss meant then change your behaviour accordingly.

Q 9. The public sector where you are working for is to be included for a major restructure. Some posts will vanish, some roles will change and there will be some new opportunities created. The announcement has created some concern within the PSU, especially as it has been performing well up to this point. Your CMD has arranged for a one on one meeting with everyone to discuss the restructuring. You need to decide how best to prepare for the meeting. Which of the given statements must definitely be followed with reference to the information?

• Spend time planning how accurately to convey your strengths so that your position is safe within the firm.
• Plan to ask questions about what new opportunities are available and how you can position yourself to take advantage of it.
• Aim to get as much information from your CMD about the restructure: timescale and impact.
• Prepare a convincing case concerning why the company should not be included in the restructuring.

Q 10. You work in an office where the work being carried out in different departments is visible. You have noticed that an engineering trainee in another department spends most of the time ‘lost’ with little work to do. You have already brought this issue to the notice of your head of the department but nothing seems to have happened to solve the situation. In addition, the boss is often out of office so does not see it himself. What would be the least effective answer?

• Go over to the person in question and set them tasks to complete for your department.
• Speak to someone else in the department and ask them if there is any work the person could complete for them.
• Speak to the person in question and tell him to find some work to do as they are currently giving a bad impression.
• Schedule a meeting for tomorrow with the person’s head of the department where you can suggest some work for him.

Q 11. You have sent a survey to multiple units in order to gauge levels of job satisfaction as part of a wide internal survey across the organization. When the results arrive back, you see that by far the biggest cause of dissatisfaction seems to be the pay levels. However, your manager has suggested that in reality staff are content with their pay: this survey is just seen as an opportunity to ask for more. There is no time or budget to repeat the survey and you need to decide how to proceed. What would be the most effective answer?

• Conduct some online research into other surveys of this nature to see whether this is a common pattern: include this observation in the report and recommendations.
• Accept your manager’s views and highlight this in your summary report and recommendations
• Accept the original data and avoid including your manager’s interpretation when collating the summary report and recommendations.
• Declare the results of the survey around pay levels to be ‘ambiguous’ and instead concentrate on the second most important area of the survey.

Q 12. A new director was recently appointed to manage your directorate after being managed by the previous person for a couple of years. In her introductory speech, the new director states that there will be a number of changes to be made now she has arrived: some will happen quickly and others will be introduced over the next few months. She does not give more detail than this but reassures everyone that people will be informed as soon as possible about the changes. Which of the following is the best step that any employee working under her must take?

• Request a meeting straight away with the new director and say that you need to know more about the planned changes.
• Wait a few weeks and then request a meeting with the new director and find out more about the planned changes.
• Be alert to the news about the changes, but continue to work as usual until more is announced.
• Try to find out more about the changes that the new director made in other parts of the organization in order to gain an insight into what she might be planning for your area.

Q 13. You are working on a complex project when one of the members of your department gives you some negative feedback about your way of working that comes as a complete surprise to you. You have never received feedback on this area before and you had previously considered it a moderate strength of yours. It has been playing on your mind for the past week as you are keen to be seen in a positive way by others. Choose the most effective answer.

• Try to improve your image in the eyes of the person who gave you the feedback by describing to them why you acted in the way you did and how it has brought you success in the past.
• Ask the person who provided the original feedback for more detail about why they think the way they do.
• Ask a selection of other people for feedback on the area concerned to see if this corroborates the original negative feedback.
• Self-reflect some more and read up on how to develop in the area identified.

Q 14. You are in the middle of speaking to an audience about some work that had a successful outcome and that you are very proud of about ten minutes into your speech, you notice that a couple of the audience members are yawning and looking at their watches. Choose the most effective answer.

• Pause at an appropriate point and ask for audience feedback on what you have covered so far.
• Look directly at them and ask ‘am I keeping you awake?’ in order to embarrass them and make them pay more attention.
• Speed up your pace of talking and vary your tone in order to re-engage your interest.
• Make greater use of visual aids and props in order to stimulate their interest.

Q 15. You have been given two weeks in which to review a large body of data, spot certain types of errors and inconsistencies and then produce a corrected and improved version as a result. Your Superior has asked to meet with you after four days to review your progress. Three days into your review you realize that there are also several other types of errors and inconsistencies in the data and you will not have the time to review it all in two weeks, let alone in time for your meeting with your Superior tomorrow. You feel a more realistic timescale would be four weeks. However, you know that a lot of people are awaiting the outcome of your review and corrections and if it is delayed this will hold up the work of other Units. Pick the least effective answer.

• Use the two weeks to focus on correcting those types of errors that the original assignment called for and complete the assignment on time.
• Use the meeting with your Superior to argue for an extension of the deadline so that you can correct the further errors you discovered as well.
• Start correcting all discovered errors and complete as much as you can in two weeks.
• Start correcting all discovered errors but arrange to feed the results of your review through in stages to other units so that they can begin work.

Candidates can check the answers to these questions in the PDF given below and check how correctly they have answered all the questions:

For clarity on the strategies to take Reasoning Decision Making Questions in the exam, aspirants should go through the following video-

Emphasizing on each and every topic under the reasoning ability section will help candidates score more not just in one subject but also increase the overall marks. 

Aspirants can also check the detailed Preparation Strategy for Competitive Exams at the linked article.

For any further updates regarding the upcoming Government exams, candidates can visit BYJU’S and keep themselves updated with the latest exam information, preparation tips and study material. 

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Strategies for Decision Making and Problem Solving MCQ

To have a better outcome for your group goal, you have to assure that the maintenance and the ______ are completed..

Correct Answer: Tasks

Note: This Question is unanswered, help us to find answer for this one

When groups online separate to gather information, then come together to share this information, they are interacting via a ______ pattern.

Correct Answer: Pulsing star

Men analyze problems in a linear fashion looking for cause and effect, but women are more apt to analyze problems by looking at the whole. The women’s approach is called a ______ approach.

Correct Answer: Holistic

Decisions are made based on three kinds of questions. Which of the following is not one?

Correct Answer: Question of belief

______ group decision model uses few discussions and secret voting.

Correct Answer: Nominal

In a ______ goal structure, members do not share resources and work against other’s efforts to achieve the goal.

Correct Answer: Competitive

Viola is warm, receptive and responsive to others, and helps the group to move forward easily. She is serving a ______ role.

Correct Answer: Maintenance

People who refuse to negotiate and allow others’ ideas to come forward are to blame for this disadvantage of small group interaction.

Correct Answer: Refusal to compromise

All of these are advantages of working with a group EXCEPT ______.

Correct Answer: Goal conflicts

The group that Charlotte works with has a supportive vibe. This is an example of ______.

Correct Answer: Climate

Radcliff is the leader of his group. This is an example of group ______.

Correct Answer: Structure

______ type of group is composed of people with diverse talents acting collaboratively.

Correct Answer: Team

A person who, when faced with a conflict, overvalued the maintenance of relationships and undervalues the achievement of his or her own goals is called

Correct Answer: Accommodator

A type of group composed of people with a strong sense of their collective identity acting collaboratively is called

Roles that help a group realize its goals is task-oriented roles.

Correct Answer: True

Group roles that impede the functioning of a group by preventing members from working together effectively is self-serving roles

Autonomous groups of employees empowered to make decisions and supervise themselves is self-directed teams, a system for decision making and problem solving that is designed to encourage critical inquiry is reflective-thinking framework, questions involving subjective judgments.

Correct Answer: Question of value

Questions designed to help determine future actions

Correct Answer: Question of policy

Questions involving the truth or falsity of a statement

Correct Answer: Question of fact

Small groups of employees who meet regularly to discuss organizational life and the quality of their work environment is called

Correct Answer: Quality circles

Maintenance roles designed to ensure the smooth running of a group

Comments that stop the flow of ideas is killer phrases, looks that discourage or inhibit the generation of ideas is ____ looks.

Correct Answer: Killer

The taking of existing data and twisting it or looking at it from another angle is called

Correct Answer: Kaleidoscope thinking

____ positions and roles performed is called group structure

Correct Answer: Group member

A model that describes functions participants should seek to assume and to avoid in groups is called

Correct Answer: Group role-classification model

Patterns of message flow in a group is called group patterns of communication

____ rules for interaction in a group is called group norms.

Correct Answer: Informal

A group’s motivation for existing is called

Correct Answer: Group goals

The ____ atmosphere of a group is called group climate

Correct Answer: Emotional

A collection of individuals who interact verbally and nonverbally, occupy certain roles with respect to one another, and cooperate to accomplish a goal Is called group

Behavior that occurs when one perceives a threat is called.

Correct Answer: Defensive behavior

A goal structure in which the members of a group work together to achieve their objectives is called non cooperative goal structure

Correct Answer: False

A goal structure in which members hinder one another’s ____ to obtain a goal

Correct Answer: Efforts

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Soft Skills Training Modules: Problem Solving and Critical Thinking

Problem Solving and Critical Thinking: Cultivating analytical and creative thinking for effective decision-making.

Problem solving and critical thinking.

Problem Solving and Critical Thinking are two interlinked skills that form the backbone of decision-making, both personally and professionally. They combine our ability to analyze situations or problems, consider alternatives, and choose the most appropriate course of action.

Let us explore these skills in more depth.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking refers to the ability to objectively analyze information and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information gathered from observation, experience, or communication.

For example, suppose you are a project manager faced with a project delay due to a sudden shortage of resources. Critical thinking would involve analyzing the cause and extent of the resource shortage, understanding how it affects the project timeline, and considering various options to address the problem.

Problem Solving

Problem solving, on the other hand, is a cognitive process focused on finding solutions to difficult or complex issues. It involves identifying problems, developing potential solutions, making decisions about the best solutions, and implementing them. Divergent thinking (generating many unique ideas) and convergent thinking (combining those ideas into the best result) are central to the problem-solving process.

For instance, continuing with the previous example, after your critical analysis, you might identify several solutions such as reallocating resources from another project, hiring temporary resources, or negotiating for an extended deadline. The problem-solving skill would then involve selecting the best solution and implementing it effectively.

Techniques for Effective Decision-Making

The ability to problem solve and think critically are fundamental to making decisions.  Decision-making  is a process of making choices from alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision maker.

Let’s take an example of a business deciding to enter a new market. Critical thinking might involve analyzing the market opportunity, understanding competitors and identifying any regulatory constraints. Problem-solving might entail devising marketing strategies, securing funds, and preparing the business plan.

Pearson’s RED Critical Thinking Model 🔴

Pearson’s Recognize Assumptions, Evaluate Arguments and Draw conclusions (RED) model is a valuable tool for enhancing critical thinking.

• Recognize Assumptions : This involves identifying unstated beliefs and values that affect our thinking and actions. For instance, the assumption that the new market operates the same way as the current one could be flawed.
• Evaluate Arguments : Once assumptions are recognized, the next step involves examining any arguments or propositions to determine their reliability. For example, evaluating the pros and cons of the proposed marketing strategies.
• Draw Conclusions : Finally, after all assumptions and arguments have been analyzed, conclusions are drawn based on this evaluation. For example, deciding whether to enter the new market or not.

In conclusion, mastering problem-solving and critical thinking are integral to efficient and effective decision-making. These skills can be developed and honed, significantly amplifying our personal and professional mastery. For every problem encountered, remember to inspect, reflect, and direct to a solution using critical thinking, problem-solving, and effective decision-making skills.

Root cause analysis techniques

“Did you know that Einstein once said: ‘If I had an hour to solve a problem, I’d spend 55 minutes thinking about the problem and 5 minutes thinking about the solution?’ This quote highlights the importance of deeply understanding a problem before jumping to solutions. One of the most effective ways to do this is through  Root Cause Analysis . 🎯

What is Root Cause Analysis?

Root Cause Analysis (RCA)  is a method used to identify the underlying cause of a problem rather than addressing the obvious symptoms. Its goal is to eradicate problems by removing the risk of the same issue repeating in the future. A root cause is the deepest underlying cause that can be resolved to forestall future recurrence of a problem.

Let’s explore the various techniques and steps involved in Root Cause Analysis.

Techniques of Root Cause Analysis  🛠

There are a few popular techniques that practitioners use in Root Cause Analysis:

1. The 5 Whys method:  The 5 Whys uses counter measures through root cause identification. Its straightforward approach involves asking ‘Why?’ five times, each question building on the answer to the previous one.

2. The Fishbone Diagram (Ishikawa Diagram):  Developed by Professor Kaoru Ishikawa in the 1960s, this technique is used to categorize potential causes of problems in an organized way and is a visual way to look at cause and effect.

3. The Pareto Chart:  This is a simple graphical synopsis of how significant your problems are. The Pareto Chart helps you focus on the problems that offer the greatest potential for improvement by showing which issues have the largest effect on a problem, and thus which solutions will have the most impact.

📌 These are the main techniques but others like Fault Tree Analysis or Failure Mode and Effects Analysis are also applied based on the nature and criticality of the problem.

How to Conduct Root Cause Analysis

Now let’s have a look at the practical aspects of performing root cause analysis

Step 1: Identify the problem.  The first step in performing a root cause analysis is to clearly defining what the problem is. Try to be as specific as possible.

Step 2: Collect data.  Data pertinent to the issue needs to be collected. This can involve records, documents, or individuals with knowledge about the problem.

Step 3: Identify potential root causes.  Using one of the above mentioned techniques, potential root causes are identified.

Step 4: Analyze & Identify the root cause.  After collecting all data and potential root causes, the team should work together to analyze and identify the underlying root cause.

Step 5: Develop, implement and monitor corrective actions.  Once the root cause has been identified, a potential solution can be developed, implemented and monitored.

Just keep in mind that RCA is only as good as the actions taken based on its findings. Without applying corrective measures, the value of the analysis is drastically diminished.

Root cause analysis encourages a long-term perspective and a preventative mindset. It strives for a culture where problems are not hidden or ignored, but are seen as opportunities for essential system improvements. ” So, are you ready to discover the truth under the surface of your problems?

To do: Apply root cause analysis techniques to identify and address underlying issues in the project workflow.

Short step-by-step plan:

• Identify the Problem : Select a specific issue to apply root cause analysis, such as frequent delays in project timelines.
• Gather Data : Collect relevant data and information regarding the issue, including project schedules, team communication logs, and any relevant feedback or complaints.
• Generate Possible Causes : Brainstorm potential reasons for the delays, like unclear project priorities, inadequate resources, or miscommunication among team members.
• Narrow Down Causes : Review the list of potential causes and prioritize them based on their likelihood and impact on the issue at hand.
• Investigate Root Causes : Analyze each potential cause in detail, looking for connections or patterns that may point to the underlying root cause.
• Confirm Root Cause : Validate the identified root cause through additional data analysis or team discussions, ensuring that the focus is on addressing the core issue.
• Develop Solutions : Based on the identified root cause, create specific action plans to address and resolve the issue, such as implementing clearer communication protocols or reallocating resources.
• Implement and Monitor : Put the proposed solutions into action and monitor their effectiveness, using measurable indicators to track progress and ensure sustained improvement.

🍏  As a deliverable for this task, create a detailed report outlining the chosen issue, the identified root cause, and the implemented solutions, supported by relevant data and analysis.

Data-driven decision making

Did you know that a stunning 84% of business leaders expect data to inform all or most of their decisions? Yes, that’s right,  data-driven decision making (DDD)  📈 is a critical aspect of successful business strategy in every industry today! Let’s dive into the world of DDD, unpack its meaning, and explore its profound implications.

Understanding Data-Driven Decision Making

The heart and soul of DDD is using facts, metrics, and data to guide strategic business decisions, rather than going by intuition or observation alone. This unique intersection of statistical methods with predictive algorithms fuels the engine of DDD. Not only does it enhance accuracy, it also speeds up decision-making while reducing the influence of cognitive biases.

To make this a bit clearer, let’s imagine you’re the manager of an online retail store. Instead of deciding an advertising strategy based on your gut feeling, you look at data on which ads have generated the most traffic in the past. Now, you can make decisions informed by evidence and drive truly impactful business outcomes!

The Benefits of a Data-Driven Approach 📊

With DDD, you’re able to make more strategic, educated decisions. Here are a few benefits:

• Increased Efficiency:  By understanding patterns in your data, you can identify areas where your strategies are effective and areas where improvements could be made.
• Enhanced Accuracy:  Data reduces guesswork. It presents a more precise, nuanced view of what’s truly going on.
• Optimized Customer Strategy:  Consumer behavior data can help you understand customer needs better, and tweak your product or service offerings to match these needs.

The Steps in Data-Driven Decision Making

1. Identify the Decision:  The first question you need to answer is – what decision do you need to make? Clearly define what you are trying to achieve. Remember, your goal should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound)!

2. Gather Relevant Data:  Once you know what you’re trying to achieve, start gathering data relevant to your decision. This might include sales data, website analytics, market research, or any other information that can inform your decision.

3. Analyze the Data:  After gathering the data, it’s time to analyze it. Look for patterns or trends. You might find it helpful to use software or other tools to make this process easier.

4. Make the Decision:  Based on your analysis, make your decision. Remember, the purpose of DDD isn’t to make the decision for you. Rather, it provides you with more information so you can make a more informed decision.

5. Evaluate the Decision:  After the decision has been implemented, gather more data to determine if the decision was effective. If not, use what you’ve learned to make a better decision next time.

Applying these steps to our previous example, imagine you’re trying to improve your online store’s advertising strategy (Step 1). You start gathering data on previous ad campaigns and website traffic (Step 2). You analyze this (Step 3) and realize that Video A generated more click-throughs than Video B. You decide to invest more in advertising like Video A (Step 4). Later, you evaluate the results of this change to assess its impact (Step 5).

Now, consider how you can implement these steps into your own decision-making process. Remember, the goal isn’t to let data make your decisions, but to use data to make more informed decisions. That’s the power of  Data-Driven Decision Making  📈.

Aligning your decisions with hard data can undoubtedly transform your decision-making process, strengthen your problem-solving abilities, and more importantly, bring massive success to your business!

To do: Conduct a data-driven decision making process for a marketing campaign.

• Define the decision to be made: Determine the specific marketing challenge and the decision that needs to be made, such as choosing between different advertising channels for an upcoming campaign.
• Gather relevant data: Collect data on past campaign performance, customer demographics, market trends, and competitor activities that can inform the decision.
• Analyze the data: Use statistical methods and data visualization tools to identify patterns, correlations, and insights within the collected data.
• Make a decision based on the data analysis: Use the findings from the data analysis to make an informed decision on the most effective marketing approach for the campaign, considering factors like return on investment, target audience engagement, and market trends.
• Monitor the decision’s outcomes: Implement the chosen marketing strategy and continually track its performance using key performance indicators, such as sales, website traffic, and customer engagement metrics.

🍏  After analyzing the data, I found that focusing on social media advertising for this specific campaign yielded the highest return on investment based on past performance and current market trends.

Creative problem solving methods

Let’s dive right into the world of  creative problem-solving methods . 🧠🌟 This style of problem-solving encourages unique, innovative solutions to issues, helping you step out of your comfort zone and think outside the box.

Creative Problem-Solving Methods 💭💡

Creative problem solving is a fantastic skill to develop. It allows us to approach challenges from a new perspective, and is especially useful when we’re faced with problems where traditional methods have fallen short.

Brainstorming 🌩️✍️

One of our first techniques, Brainstorming, is possibly something you’ve run into before. It’s all about creating a safe space where as many ideas as possible are encouraged – no matter how out-of-the-box they may seem! The goal is quantity over quality in this initial stage because even the most outrageous idea can spark inspiration.

For instance, in a brainstorming session, a person might suggest an impractical method to clean up pollution. However, this might inspire another participant to think up an out-of-the-box yet feasible solution.

Reverse Thinking 🔄💭

Want to change it up? Reverse Thinking might be your ticket. Instead of asking how to solve the problem, ask how you could  cause  it. This method flips our standard logic on its head, allowing us to explore the problem from a totally new angle!

Imagine if you’re trying to increase customer satisfaction. Using reverse thinking, you would ask, “How could we make our customers unsatisfied?” The answers to this question may point out your current mistakes or weaknesses that need addressing.

Mind Mapping 🧠🌐

Another fantastic problem-solving method is Mind Mapping. This approach is visually based and starts with a central concept. From the center, you draw lines or ‘branches’ out to major ideas connected to your main concept, and continue branching out into subtopics.

Let’s say your problem is improving communication within a team. Your “central concept” would then be “communication.” Branches might be “email,” “team meetings,” “one-on-one chats.” Subbranches under “email” could be “response times,” ” clarity,” “tone of voice,” and so on. In this way, you can visually break down complex problems and see potential solutions.

The Six Thinking Hats 🎩🧢

Last, but certainly not least, is the Six Thinking Hats technique, developed by Edward de Bono. This method encourages you to tackle problems from six distinct perspectives or ‘hats’: white (facts), red (feelings), black (negatives), yellow (positives), green (creativity), and blue (management).

Suppose you’re launching a new product. By “wearing each hat,” you force yourself to consider all angles: What are the facts and data regarding the market? What are customers likely to feel about this product? What could the negatives be? The positives? How can the product be improved creatively?

In conclusion, creative problem-solving techniques are a fantastic way of generating innovative solutions. By brainstorming, reverse thinking, mind mapping, and switching ‘thinking hats,’ you can uncover unique and effective methods to address any challenge. 🚀🌠

To do: Practice using the SCAMPER method for creative problem solving.

• Example: Take a problem you’re facing and think of a substitute or alternative solution that could work instead of the current approach.
• Example: Think about how you could combine different ideas or elements to develop a novel solution to a problem you’re currently working on.
• Example: Identify an existing solution and adapt it to better fit the current problem you’re trying to solve.
• Example: Take an existing product or idea and modify it to better suit the needs of your project or the problem you’re addressing.
• Example: Consider how you could put an existing tool or resource to use in a completely different context to solve a problem you’re encountering.
• Example: Take a look at an existing process or approach and consider what steps or elements could be eliminated to streamline the overall solution.
• Example: Consider reversing the order of a particular process or the function of a tool to come up with a fresh perspective on solving a current problem.

🍏  Practice using the SCAMPER method by applying each of its steps to address a specific problem you’re currently facing.

Overcoming cognitive biases

Did you know that every day, your brain is constantly making decisions based on information it receives? Often, these decisions are influenced by cognitive biases. These biases can significantly sway your judgment and lead you to make illogical conclusions. Understanding these biases and learning how to overcome them is paramount in enhancing your problem-solving and critical thinking abilities for effective decision-making.

🧠  What are Cognitive Biases?

Cognitive biases are systematic errors in our thinking that affect the decisions we make. They occur when we rely on our mental shortcuts, known as heuristics, to process information quickly. While these shortcuts can be beneficial in some situations, they often lead us to make irrational decisions in others.

Some common examples of cognitive biases include  Confirmation Bias 💡, where we favor information that confirms our preexisting beliefs and ignore contradictory evidence, and  Hindsight Bias 👁‍🗨, the tendency to overestimate our ability to have predicted an event after it has already occurred.

⛔  The Impact of Cognitive Biases on Decision Making

Cognitive biases can have a significant and harmful impact on our decision-making abilities. They can cause us to make irrational decisions, lead us to believe we are more informed or in control than we actually are, and contribute to groupthink, a phenomenon where individuality and dissent are discouraged in group decision-making processes. This can lead to poor decisions and reduced problem-solving abilities.

👥  Ways to Overcome Cognitive Biases

Overcoming cognitive biases is not an easy task, especially since they are often hardwired into our brains as a result of evolutionary adaptations. However, understanding these biases and knowing how they influence our decision-making abilities can help in mitigating their effects. Below are some strategies that can be used:

Awareness  🚦

Knowledge of the existence of cognitive biases is the first step towards overcoming them. By understanding how they work and their possible impacts, one can begin to identify when these biases are influencing their decision-making process.

Seeking Diverse Perspectives 🔭

Overcoming cognitive biases also involves seeking multiple perspectives. Diversifying the opinions and viewpoints you consider when making a decision can reduce bias and result in more balanced decision-making.

Critical Thinking 🔍

Engaging in critical thinking can also help combat cognitive biases. This involves questioning assumptions, verifying facts and evidence, and being open to changing your viewpoints based on new information.

Using Analytical Tools 🛠️

Analytical tools, such as decision trees, pro-con lists, and SWOT analysis, can help make decision-making more objective and balanced. These tools can assist in logically analyzing the decision at hand and reducing the influence of biases.

In conclusion, overcoming cognitive biases can significantly improve your decision-making and problem-solving abilities. By developing your understanding of these biases, seeking diverse perspectives, practicing critical thinking, and utilizing analytical tools, you can begin to mitigate their detrimental effects on your decisions.

To do: Identify and address cognitive biases in decision making.

• Example: Research and identify common cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, anchoring bias, and availability heuristic.
• Example: Reflect on a recent decision you made and consider if any cognitive biases influenced your thinking or choices.
• Example: Engage with colleagues or friends to gain diverse viewpoints on a decision you need to make, helping to counteract potential biases.
• Example: Apply decision-making frameworks like SWOT analysis or decision trees to structure your thinking and reduce the impact of biases.
• Example: Actively question your assumptions and beliefs when making decisions, thus reducing the influence of biases.
• Example: Regularly assess how your cognitive biases may be affecting your judgment and work on addressing them through self-reflection.
• Example: Incorporate mindfulness techniques to increase self-awareness and reduce the impact of cognitive biases on decision making.
• Example: Seek guidance from a mentor or coach to help identify and address cognitive biases in your decision-making process.

🍏  Make use of the step-by-step plan, and customize it as per your specific requirements and cognitive bias challenges.

Developing an analytical mindset

Sure, let’s move on to a very intriguing topic that deals with enhancing our cognitive capabilities. Have you ever considered why some individuals are able to decipher complex problems with apparent ease while others struggle with straightforward tasks? The distinction is often come down to one thing: having an analytical mindset. So, what exactly does it mean and how can we perfect it? Let’s deep dive into this fascinating subject.

🧠 What is an Analytical Mindset?

An Analytical Mindset  is an individual’s ability to identify, scrutinize and evaluate an issue in order to reach a logical conclusion. It’s the thinking style that helps us make sense of complex problems by breaking them down into smaller, manageable components. This sort of mindset is not just advantageous, but often crucial in many professional environments, especially in data-driven industries.

🧩 The building blocks of an Analytical Mindset

Before diving into the development process, let’s understand the main components of this type of thinking:

• 🔎 Critical Thinking : The ability to objectively analyze and evaluate a situation or problem, understanding its various components and their interdependencies.
• 💡 Problem-Solving : The process of identifying solutions to specific problems.
• 📊 Data Analysis : Involved in examining and interpreting data to reach conclusions.

🛠 Developing an Analytical Mindset

So, how can we develop or improve our analytical mindset? Here are some steps to help in this journey.

📖 Educating Oneself about Analytical Thinking

Start by gaining a solid understanding of what analytical thinking entails. Read books, attend workshops, or enroll in courses to understand the theoretical aspects of analytical thinking.

🚀 Practice Makes Perfect

Just like any other skill, improving your analytical thinking abilities takes practice. Start by analysing small, day-to-day issues as an exercise. Try breaking the problem down into smaller parts and scrutinise each part.

🌐 Expanding Horizons

Expose yourself to diverse ideas, perspectives, and disciplines. The broader your knowledge base, the better equipped you’ll be to think analytically.

🎯 Setting clear goals

Without clear objectives, it’s hard to achieve anything. When it comes to developing your analytical mindset, set specific goals that are actionable and measurable.

🚦Identifying and Overcoming Obstacles

There will inevitably be barriers in your path to cultivate an analytical mindset. It may be a lack of resources, time constraints, or cognitive biases. Identify these obstacles and devise strategies to overcome them.

Developing an analytical mindset cannot be achieved overnight. It is a lifelong journey that requires persistent effort, curiosity, and learning. However, with these steps, you’ll be well on your way to honing this skill. Good luck on your voyage towards becoming a more analytical thinker!

To do: Practice developing an analytical mindset by solving a real-life problem using data-driven decision making.

• Identify a real-life problem:  For example, analyze the sales data of a product to identify factors impacting its performance.
• Gather relevant data:  Collect sales figures, customer feedback, and market trends related to the product.
• Conduct data analysis:  Utilize statistical tools to identify trends, correlations, and outliers within the gathered data.
• Identify potential causes:  Based on the analysis, pinpoint potential factors influencing the product’s performance.
• Generate hypotheses:  Formulate possible explanations for the observed patterns in the data.
• Test hypotheses:  Gather additional data or conduct experiments to validate or refute the formulated hypotheses.
• Make data-driven decisions:  Use the results of the analysis and testing to make informed decisions on how to improve the product’s performance.

🍏  This practical task involves using analytical thinking and data-driven techniques to address a specific problem, allowing for the application of analytical mindset in a real-life context.

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Essential Soft Skills for HR Professionals

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Human Resources (HR) professionals play a pivotal role in shaping the workplace environment and influencing the organizational culture. Their ability to manage, support, and guide employees significantly impacts the overall success of the company. In this role, soft skills—personal attributes that enable effective and harmonious interpersonal interactions—are just as crucial as technical skills. These soft skills help HR professionals navigate complex interpersonal dynamics, foster employee development, and ensure a productive and positive workplace.

This article explores the essential soft skills every HR professional should master.

1. Communication Skills

Effective communication is fundamental for HR professionals. It involves clear articulation of ideas, active listening, and timely and appropriate responses. HR is often required to communicate policies, handle sensitive information, and mediate between conflicting parties. Enhancing communication skills ensures that messages are not only delivered but also understood and appreciated across all levels of the organization. Techniques such as empathetic listening, non-verbal communication cues, and feedback loops are vital. Regular training sessions and communication workshops can also help HR professionals refine these skills.

2. Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is critical in HR for managing interpersonal relationships judiciously and empathetically. It enables HR professionals to read the emotional and underlying needs of employees, respond to their concerns effectively, and handle sensitive situations with tact. This skill is particularly beneficial in areas such as conflict resolution, employee counseling, and organizational change management. Pursuing an online Masters in Human Resources Management can provide deeper insights into developing emotional intelligence, offering strategies that improve self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills, all of which are indispensable in the HR field.

3. Conflict Resolution

Conflict in the workplace is inevitable, making conflict resolution a vital skill for HR professionals. Effective conflict resolution ensures that disputes are handled in a way that maintains relationships and fosters a positive work environment. HR professionals must be adept at identifying the root causes of conflict, facilitating open communication between parties, and finding a middle ground that respects everyone’s perspectives. Training in negotiation and mediation techniques can enhance an HR professional’s ability to manage workplace disputes constructively.

Empathy allows HR professionals to understand and share the feelings of another, which is crucial for addressing employee concerns and fostering an inclusive workplace. An empathetic HR manager can better support individual employee needs and build stronger teams by acknowledging diverse perspectives and backgrounds. Developing empathy involves active listening, being present in conversations, and showing genuine interest and concern for employees' wellbeing. Workshops focused on emotional intelligence often emphasize empathy as a core component, helping HR professionals practice and deepen this skill.

5. Adaptability

The ability of HR professionals to adapt to changing circumstances and expectations is essential, especially in today’s fast-paced work environments. Adaptability in HR might involve implementing new technologies, adjusting to changes in workplace laws, or developing new policies that reflect the evolving needs of the workforce. HR professionals who exhibit adaptability are better equipped to manage change effectively, ensuring that the organization remains compliant and competitive. Enhancing this skill can involve staying informed about industry trends, being open to new ideas, and having a willingness to learn and apply new practices.

6. Problem-Solving Skills

Problem-solving is indispensable in HR as issues ranging from interpersonal conflicts to organizational inefficiencies must be addressed promptly and effectively. HR professionals with strong problem-solving skills can identify problems quickly, analyze the underlying factors, and implement solutions that benefit both the individual and the organization. Developing this skill involves practicing analytical thinking and adopting a methodical approach to addressing challenges. It is also helpful for HR professionals to stay updated on best practices and innovative problem-solving techniques by participating in workshops and training sessions. This continuous learning helps them remain adept at navigating complex workplace situations.

7. Decision-Making Ability

Decision-making is a critical soft skill for HR professionals as they often make choices that affect individuals and the organization as a whole. Effective decision-making requires a balance of intuition, critical analysis, and ethical judgment. HR professionals must assess the potential impacts of their decisions on the company culture, employee morale, and the business's legal standing. To improve this skill, HR professionals can engage in scenario-based training, which provides practical experience in making tough decisions under various circumstances. Decision-making skills are honed through experience and by understanding the outcomes of past decisions to better inform future choices.

8. Leadership

Leadership within HR involves more than managing a team; it includes inspiring trust, advocating for employee needs, and driving strategic initiatives that impact the entire organization. HR professionals are often looked upon as role models in ethical behavior and organizational commitment. Developing leadership skills can involve mentoring from senior leaders, attending leadership development programs, and actively participating in strategic planning. Effective HR leaders also need to be visionary , seeing beyond day-to-day operations to drive future growth and innovation within the organization.

9. Teamwork and Collaboration

HR professionals often work in teams and must collaborate with various departments to achieve organizational goals. Effective teamwork involves communicating clearly, sharing responsibilities, and supporting colleagues. HR's role in fostering a collaborative culture is crucial, as it helps to break down silos and encourage cross-functional cooperation. Participating in team-building activities and developing interpersonal skills can enhance an HR professional's ability to work collaboratively. Additionally, HR can lead by example, promoting teamwork through organizational policies and team dynamics that prioritize collective success over individual achievement.

10. Continuous Learning

The field of Human Resources is constantly evolving, influenced by changes in laws, technology, and workforce dynamics. HR professionals must therefore embrace continuous learning to stay relevant and effective. This can involve pursuing further formal education, such as certifications or advanced degrees, attending industry conferences, and keeping up to date with the latest HR technologies and practices. An ongoing commitment to learning not only enriches the HR professional's knowledge base but also enhances their credibility and value within the organization.

The soft skills discussed are essential for HR professionals who aim to effectively support and lead their organizations. From communication and emotional intelligence to leadership and continuous learning, each skill plays a crucial role in navigating the complexities of human resources management. HR professionals who cultivate these skills are better equipped to foster a positive work environment, enhance employee satisfaction, and contribute to the overall success of their organization. By prioritizing these soft skills, HR professionals can ensure they remain adaptable and influential in their ever-evolving field.

About the Author

Ronald is an enthusiastic writer who enjoys sharing his work in a variety of domains, including business, healthcare, and education. He is devoted to the ideas he shares online and always contributes something noteworthy.

Continue to: What Sort of Leader are You? Managing Appraisals and Performance Reviews

See also: Essential Skills Every Human Resources Manager Should Have Why Emotional Intelligence is Crucial for HR Professionals in Leadership Roles The Role of HRMS Solutions in Personal Development

Critical Thinking

Ai generator.

In today’s dynamic and fast-paced world, critical thinking stands out as an essential competency, seamlessly bridging the gap between soft and hard skills . As we navigate complex challenges and make informed decisions, the ability to think critically enhances our overall skill set. Critical thinking stands at the core of effective decision-making and problem-solving in today’s complex world. It involves analyzing information, evaluating evidence, and considering multiple perspectives to make informed judgments. In a society flooded with information, the ability to think critically ensures that individuals can distinguish between credible sources and misinformation. It empowers people to approach challenges logically and creatively, fostering innovation and resilience. By honing critical thinking skills, individuals enhance their capacity to navigate personal and professional landscapes with clarity and confidence.

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the process of actively and skillfully analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information gathered from various sources, including observations , experiences, and communication. It involves using logic and reasoning to identify connections, draw conclusions, and make informed decisions, while remaining open-minded and aware of potential biases.

Critical Thinking Examples

• Analyzing News Reports : Evaluating the credibility of sources, checking for biases, and verifying facts before accepting news stories as true.
• Problem-Solving in the Workplace : Identifying the root cause of a problem, considering multiple solutions, and weighing the pros and cons before deciding on the best course of action.
• Scientific Research : Formulating hypotheses, designing experiments to test them, analyzing data objectively, and drawing conclusions based on evidence.
• Budgeting : Assessing income and expenses, prioritizing spending, and making informed decisions to stay within budget while saving for future needs.
• Reading Literature : Interpreting themes, symbols, and character motivations in a novel or poem, and considering how they relate to broader societal issues.
• Debating : Constructing logical arguments, anticipating counterarguments, and using evidence to support one’s position while also listening to and understanding opposing views.
• Medical Diagnosis : Doctors evaluating symptoms, considering possible conditions, ordering tests, and interpreting results to make accurate diagnoses and treatment plans.
• Educational Assessment : Teachers designing fair and effective assessments that measure student understanding and skills, and using the results to improve teaching strategies.
• Ethical Decision-Making : Weighing the moral implications of actions, considering the impact on stakeholders, and making choices that align with ethical principles.
• Legal Analysis : Lawyers analyzing case law, statutes, and evidence to build strong legal arguments and anticipate the strategies of opposing counsel.
• Marketing Strategy : Analyzing market trends, customer needs, and competitor actions to develop effective marketing campaigns that resonate with target audiences.
• Programming : Writing efficient code by understanding the problem, breaking it into smaller parts, and testing and debugging to ensure it works correctly.
• Urban Planning : Evaluating the needs of a community, considering environmental impact, and planning sustainable and functional urban spaces.
• Historical Analysis : Examining historical events, considering the context, and understanding the causes and effects while avoiding presentism (judging the past by today’s standards).
• Personal Decision-Making : Weighing the benefits and drawbacks of significant life choices, such as career changes or moving to a new city, and making decisions based on careful consideration and long-term goals.

For Students

• Activity : Organize debates on current events or controversial topics.
• Example : Have students debate the pros and cons of renewable energy sources versus fossil fuels.
• Activity : Present students with complex problems to solve in groups.
• Example : Task students with designing a plan to reduce plastic waste in their school.
• Activity : Analyze case studies relevant to their subjects.
• Example : In a business class, analyze a company’s decision-making process during a crisis.
• Activity : Conduct Socratic seminars where students discuss philosophical or ethical questions.
• Example : Discuss the ethical implications of artificial intelligence in society.
• Activity : Facilitate brainstorming sessions to generate creative solutions to problems.
• Example : Brainstorm ideas for a community service project to help local residents.
• Activity : Assign research projects requiring critical analysis of sources.
• Example : Research the impact of social media on teenage mental health and present findings.
• Activity : Engage students in role-playing exercises to explore different perspectives.
• Example : Role-play a historical event, with each student taking on the role of a key figure.
• Activity : Use logic puzzles and games to develop reasoning skills.
• Example : Solve Sudoku puzzles or play strategy games like chess.
• Activity : Encourage students to write reflectively about their learning experiences.
• Example : Write an essay on how their views on a topic have changed after a class discussion.
• Activity : Analyze the techniques used in advertisements to influence consumers.
• Example : Evaluate an advertisement’s claims and discuss the strategies used to persuade the audience.

In the Workplace

• Problem Solving : Analyzing the root cause of a recurring issue in production and developing a sustainable solution.
• Decision Making : Evaluating the pros and cons of two potential suppliers based on cost, quality, and reliability.
• Strategic Planning : Assessing market trends to develop a new product line that meets future consumer demands.
• Conflict Resolution : Mediating a disagreement between team members by understanding both perspectives and finding common ground.
• Process Improvement : Reviewing workflow inefficiencies and implementing new procedures to increase productivity.
• Risk Management : Identifying potential risks in a project and devising strategies to mitigate them.
• Customer Service : Addressing a customer complaint by understanding the underlying issue and providing a satisfactory resolution.
• Innovation : Brainstorming and evaluating new ideas for improving a product or service.
• Performance Evaluation : Analyzing employee performance data to provide constructive feedback and development plans.
• Budgeting : Reviewing and adjusting the department budget to ensure financial efficiency without compromising quality.

In the Classroom

• Critical Reading : Analyzing a text to understand the author’s argument, purpose, and use of evidence.
• Scientific Inquiry : Designing and conducting experiments to test hypotheses and draw conclusions based on data.
• Mathematical Problem Solving : Applying logical reasoning to solve complex math problems and explaining the solution process.
• Historical Analysis : Evaluating historical events and their impact from multiple perspectives.
• Debate : Constructing and defending arguments on various topics using evidence and reasoning.
• Project-Based Learning : Developing a research project by identifying a problem, gathering information, and presenting findings.
• Creative Writing : Critiquing peers’ work to provide constructive feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Ethical Dilemmas : Discussing moral questions and justifying decisions based on ethical principles.
• Literary Analysis : Interpreting themes, symbols, and character development in literature.
• Collaborative Learning : Working in groups to solve problems, share ideas, and reach consensus.

In Everyday Life

• Financial Planning : Creating a budget to manage expenses, savings, and investments.
• Nutrition and Health : Analyzing dietary choices to improve overall health and wellness.
• Time Management : Prioritizing tasks and activities to make efficient use of time.
• Consumer Decisions : Comparing product reviews and prices before making a purchase.
• Home Maintenance : Troubleshooting and fixing household issues, such as plumbing or electrical problems.
• Travel Planning : Researching destinations, comparing travel options, and creating itineraries.
• Parenting : Making informed decisions about children’s education, health, and activities.
• Conflict Resolution : Resolving disputes with family or friends by understanding different viewpoints and finding compromises.
• Personal Development : Setting and pursuing personal goals, such as learning a new skill or improving fitness.
• Community Involvement : Analyzing community issues and participating in local initiatives to address them.

In Healthcare

• Diagnosis : Interpreting patient symptoms and medical history to diagnose conditions accurately.
• Treatment Planning : Developing individualized treatment plans based on patient needs and evidence-based practices.
• Ethical Decision-Making : Addressing ethical dilemmas in patient care, such as end-of-life decisions.
• Patient Communication : Explaining complex medical information to patients and families clearly and compassionately.
• Interdisciplinary Collaboration : Working with other healthcare professionals to provide comprehensive care.
• Medical Research : Designing and conducting research studies to advance medical knowledge and treatments.
• Healthcare Policy Analysis : Evaluating healthcare policies and their impact on patient care and outcomes.
• Clinical Judgment : Assessing and prioritizing patient care needs in emergency situations.
• Quality Improvement : Implementing strategies to improve patient safety and care quality.
• Continuing Education : Staying updated on medical advancements and integrating new knowledge into practice.

In Business

• Market Analysis : Evaluating market trends and consumer behavior to make informed business decisions.
• Strategic Planning : Developing long-term goals and strategies to achieve business objectives.
• Financial Management : Analyzing financial statements to make sound investment and budgeting decisions.
• Risk Assessment : Identifying and mitigating potential business risks.
• Negotiation : Using persuasive arguments and data to negotiate contracts and deals.
• Product Development : Assessing customer needs and market gaps to create new products.
• Customer Feedback Analysis : Collecting and analyzing customer feedback to improve products and services.
• Supply Chain Management : Optimizing supply chain processes to reduce costs and increase efficiency.
• Leadership : Making decisions that motivate and guide employees toward achieving company goals.
• Corporate Social Responsibility : Evaluating the social and environmental impact of business practices and implementing sustainable strategies.
• Research Projects : Conducting independent research, analyzing data, and presenting findings.
• Critical Essays : Writing essays that critically analyze texts, arguments, and ideas.
• Group Projects : Collaborating with classmates to complete assignments and solve problems.
• Class Discussions : Participating in discussions by presenting well-reasoned arguments and listening to others.
• Case Studies : Analyzing real-world scenarios to understand complex issues and propose solutions.
• Exam Preparation : Developing study plans and strategies to prepare for exams effectively.
• Internships : Applying classroom knowledge to real-world situations during internships and reflecting on experiences.
• Time Management : Balancing academic, social, and personal responsibilities.
• Library Research : Using library resources to find credible sources for research papers.
• Extracurricular Activities : Engaging in activities that develop leadership, teamwork, and problem-solving skills.

Critical Thinking scenarios

Here are some critical thinking scenarios along with questions and answers to help you practice and enhance your critical thinking skills:

Scenario 1: Workplace Conflict

Scenario: You are a manager at a company. Two of your team members, John and Lisa, have been having frequent disagreements. These conflicts are starting to affect the team’s productivity and morale.

• What steps would you take to address the conflict between John and Lisa?
• How would you ensure that the resolution is fair and satisfactory for both parties?
• What strategies would you implement to prevent similar conflicts in the future?
• Schedule a private meeting with John and Lisa to discuss the issue.
• Listen to both sides without taking sides to understand the root cause of the conflict.
• Facilitate a mediation session where both parties can express their concerns and work towards a resolution.
• Agree on specific actions that both parties will take to avoid future conflicts.
• Ensure that both John and Lisa feel heard and respected during the mediation process.
• Identify common ground and mutual interests to build a foundation for resolution.
• Set clear expectations and follow-up actions for both parties.
• Monitor the situation and provide support to ensure the conflict does not resurface.
• Foster an open and inclusive team culture where concerns can be raised early.
• Provide regular team-building activities to strengthen relationships.
• Implement conflict resolution training for all team members.
• Establish clear communication channels and protocols for addressing grievances.

Scenario 2: Ethical Dilemma

Scenario: You are a journalist working on a high-profile story. You discover that one of your sources has provided you with information that could harm their reputation if published. However, this information is crucial to your story and serves the public interest.

• What factors would you consider before deciding whether to publish the information?
• How would you balance the public interest with the potential harm to your source?
• What steps would you take to verify the accuracy of the information before publication?
• The significance of the information to the public interest.
• The potential consequences for the source if the information is published.
• The ethical guidelines and professional standards of journalism.
• Any possible legal implications of publishing the information.
• Evaluate whether the public’s right to know outweighs the potential harm to the source.
• Consider anonymizing the source or redacting sensitive details to protect their identity.
• Seek advice from colleagues or an ethics committee to make an informed decision.
• Cross-check the information with other reliable sources.
• Review any documentation or evidence provided by the source.
• Conduct interviews with other individuals who can corroborate the information.
• Ensure that the information is presented in context to avoid misrepresentation.

Scenario 3: Environmental Impact

Scenario: Your company is planning to build a new factory in a rural area. This project promises economic growth and job creation but also raises concerns about environmental impact and the displacement of local wildlife.

• What are the potential environmental impacts of the new factory?
• How would you address the concerns of the local community and environmental groups?
• What measures would you implement to minimize the environmental impact of the factory?
• Air and water pollution from factory emissions and waste.
• Habitat destruction and displacement of local wildlife.
• Increased traffic and noise pollution in the area.
• Strain on local resources such as water and energy.
• Organize community meetings to discuss the project and listen to concerns.
• Collaborate with environmental groups to assess the impact and find solutions.
• Provide transparent information about the factory’s operations and mitigation plans.
• Offer compensation or relocation assistance to affected residents if necessary.
• Implement eco-friendly technologies and practices to reduce emissions and waste.
• Develop a comprehensive environmental management plan.
• Create buffer zones and wildlife corridors to protect local habitats.
• Invest in renewable energy sources to power the factory.
• Improved Problem Solving: Critical thinking helps in analyzing problems systematically and making better decisions.
• Enhanced Communication: It allows for clear expression and understanding of ideas.
• Better Decision Making: Critical thinking leads to more informed and logical choices.
• Adaptability: It enables individuals to adapt to new situations and challenges effectively.
• Informed Opinions: Critical thinkers can form well-grounded opinions and defend them logically.

What are the critical thinking skills?

• Analysis: Breaking down complex information into smaller parts to understand it better.
• Interpretation: Understanding and explaining the meaning of information or an event.
• Inference: Drawing logical conclusions from available information.
• Evaluation: Assessing the credibility and relevance of information and arguments.
• Explanation: Clearly and concisely articulating your reasoning and evidence.
• Self-Regulation: Reflecting on and adjusting one’s own thought processes and biases.

Concepts of critical thinking

• Clarity: Ensuring that the information and arguments are clear and understandable.
• Accuracy: Ensuring that information is true and free from errors.
• Precision: Providing enough detail to understand the specific context.
• Relevance: Ensuring that information and arguments are directly related to the issue at hand.
• Depth: Addressing the complexities and underlying factors of an issue.
• Breadth: Considering different perspectives and alternatives.
• Logic: Ensuring that the reasoning is coherent and follows a logical sequence.
• Fairness: Being open-minded and impartial in evaluating information and arguments.
• Identify the Problem or Question: Clearly define what you are trying to solve or understand.
• Gather Information: Collect relevant data, evidence, and viewpoints.
• Analyze the Information: Break down the information to understand the relationships and implications.
• Evaluate the Evidence: Assess the quality, credibility, and relevance of the evidence.
• Formulate Conclusions: Draw reasoned conclusions based on the analysis and evaluation.
• Communicate the Conclusion: Clearly express your findings and reasoning.
• Reflect and Reassess: Continuously reflect on the process and outcomes to improve your critical thinking skills.

Basics of critical thinking

• Open-Mindedness: Being willing to consider new ideas and perspectives.
• Curiosity: Having a strong desire to learn and understand.
• Skepticism: Questioning the validity of information and not taking things at face value.
• Objectivity: Striving to remain unbiased and impartial.
• Rationality: Basing decisions on logical reasoning rather than emotions.
• Socratic Questioning: Asking a series of probing questions to explore complex ideas and uncover underlying assumptions.
• Mind Mapping: Visually organizing information to see connections and relationships.
• Brainstorming: Generating a wide range of ideas and solutions without immediate judgment.
• Role Playing: Considering different perspectives by imagining oneself in another person’s position.
• SWOT Analysis: Evaluating the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to a particular situation or decision.
• Thought Experiments: Imagining hypothetical scenarios to explore potential outcomes and implications.

How to Practice and Use Critical Thinking

The critical thinking process incorporates various other logical soft skills that will help you analyze and interpret all the information to create an informed decision. These soft skills include observational skills, problem-solving, communication skills, and analytical thinking. If you sharpen all of these elements and characteristics you will inadvertently enhance your critical thinking.

Step 1: Practice One’s Observational and Perception Skills

We use our senses to perceive the world around us, whether it would be sight, smell, a, and sensations. One should practice utilizing these senses to create logical inferences and deductions that will help out brain unconsciously absorb and analyze these types of information. The more one practices their senses the better their thinking process will be.

Step 2: Enhance One’s Problem-Solving Skills

Logic and problem-solving allow the person to deduce and connect information that the environment or circumstance presents to the said person. You need to practice your problem-solving skills via puzzles, logical reasoning tests, and ethical dilemmas. Practicing one’s problem-solving skills will allow the person to efficiently establish cause-and-effect  reasoning or properly create logical decisions.

Step 3: Prepare and Practice One’s Communication Skills

Communication is a pivotal skill we often use when interacting with other people. This type of skill includes body language , assertive communication , concise language, and other communication skills. In critical thinking, a person must be able to properly communicate their thoughts and thinking process to other people, which will create a collaborative environment. Other times, the perfect solution might not be present without the need for communication.

Step 4: Practice Analysis of the Situation

One’s analytical thinking skills allow the person to take note of various elements and characteristics of the situation and analyze these elements’ contribution to the current situation or circumstance. You need to practice your analytical thinking to properly process the current situation or circumstance you find yourself in.

Why Do Employers Value Critical Thinking Skills?

Employers value critical thinking skills because they enable employees to analyze situations, make informed decisions, and solve problems effectively. Critical thinkers can evaluate information from various sources, identify logical connections, and foresee potential consequences, which leads to better strategic planning and innovation. These skills also enhance communication and collaboration, as critical thinkers can present their ideas clearly and consider different perspectives. Ultimately, critical thinking contributes to improved productivity, adaptability, and competitiveness in the workplace.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information to make reasoned, logical decisions, and judgments. It emphasizes evidence-based reasoning and problem-solving.

Why is critical thinking important?

Critical thinking enhances decision-making, problem-solving, and the ability to analyze complex situations. It is crucial for personal and professional growth.

How can I improve my critical thinking skills?

Improve critical thinking by questioning assumptions, seeking diverse perspectives, practicing problem-solving, and engaging in reflective thinking regularly.

What are the key components of critical thinking?

Key components include analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation. These skills help in understanding and assessing arguments and evidence.

How does critical thinking benefit students?

Students benefit from critical thinking by improving academic performance, enhancing research skills, and fostering independent thinking and creativity.

What role does critical thinking play in the workplace?

In the workplace, critical thinking aids in decision-making, innovation, conflict resolution, and improving productivity and efficiency.

Can critical thinking be taught?

Yes, critical thinking can be taught through targeted educational programs, exercises, and practice that focus on developing analytical and evaluative skills.

What is an example of critical thinking in everyday life?

An example is evaluating news sources for credibility before accepting information as true. This involves analyzing evidence and assessing biases.

How does critical thinking relate to problem-solving?

Critical thinking is integral to problem-solving as it involves analyzing the problem, evaluating options, and making reasoned decisions based on evidence.

What are common barriers to critical thinking?

Common barriers include cognitive biases, emotional influences, lack of relevant information, and social pressures. Overcoming these requires awareness and deliberate practice.

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RRB Technician Chapter Wise Test for Decision Making

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