42(3), 420–429
By Brendan SueSee, Shane Pill, Michael Davies, and John Williams
41(4), 640–649
By Dean Barker, Mikael Quennerstedt, Anna Johansson, and Peter Korp
40(4), 642–651
By Paul M. Wright, Karisa Fuerniss, and Nicholas Cutforth
39(3), 311–320
By John Cairney, Heather Clark, Dean Dudley, and Dean Kriellaars
38(2), 84–90
By Daniel B. Robinson, Lynn Randall, and Joe Barrett
37(3), 288–298
By Peter A. Hastie
36(1), 3–19
By Laura Azzarito, Mara Simon, and Risto Marttinen
35(1), 54–69
By Kevin Patton, Melissa Parker, and Erica Pratt
32(4), 441–459
By Kim C. Graber, Amelia Mays Woods, and Jamie A. O'Connor
31(2), 163–181
, and Yubing Wang,
, and Phillip Ward,
, and Tristan Wallhead,
, and Matthew Curtner-Smith,
, and Collin Webster,
Most Popular
© 2024 Human Kinetics
Powered by:
Character limit 500 /500
Home > USC Columbia > Education, College of > Physical Education > Physical Education Theses and Dissertations
Theses/dissertations from 2022 2022.
Elucidating the Interdependence of Motor-Cognitive Development and Performance , Thomas Cade Abrams
Evaluation of the Throw-Catch Assessment , Bryan Terlizzi
Develop or Diminish? An Exploration of Adolescent Athlete Flow Experiences , Hayes Mayfield Bennett
Three Studies Investigating Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program-Aligned Opportunities To Enhance Students’ Physical Education Learning , Jongho Moon
Relationship of General Athletic Performance Markers to Intra-Team Ranking Of Sport Performance , Steven Keith Scruggs II
Elementary Physical Education Teacher Perceptions of Motor Skill Assessment , Jenna Fisher
Motor Competence and Quality of Life in Youth with Cancer and Visual Impairments , Emily N. Gilbert
Two Studies of Inclusive and Augmented Physical Education , Matthew Patey
Functional Motor Competence and Physical Military Readiness , Kyle Silvey
The Tripartite Model of Efficacy Beliefs for Youth With Visual Impairments , Alexandra Stribing
United States Principals’ Involvement in Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs: A Social-Ecological Perspective , Karie Lee Orendorff
Multidimenstional Balance in Youth with Visual Impairments , Adam Pennell
Two Studies Conceptualizing Physical Literacy for Assessment of High School Students in the United States , Chelsee Shortt
New Insight For Activity Intensity Relativity: Metabolic Expenditure During Object Projection Skill Performance , Ryan S. Sacko
Three Studies Concerning Movement Integration In Low Socioeconomic Elementary School Classrooms , Gregory L. Stewart
The Effects of an Integrative Universally Designed Motor Skill Intervention across General, Inclusion, and Self-Contained Early Childhood Center Classrooms , Sally A. Taunton
Two Studies of Partnership Approaches to Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming: A Process Evaluation and a Case Study , Catherine A. Egan
Three Studies Of Service-Learning As An Approach To Movement Integration In Elementary Classrooms , Robert D. Michael, Jr.
Functional Motor Competence, Health-Related Fitness, and Injury in Youth Sport , Craig Elliott Pfeifer
Branded for Success: A Longitudinal Examination of Brand Associations as Drivers of Team Identification for a New Sport Brand , Henry Wear
Examing Supine-To-Stand As A Measure Of Functional Motor Competence And Health Across The Lifespan , Danielle Rene Nesbitt
Hypertension Health Behavior Change and Older Adults: the effect of an Appreciative Education Approach , Mary Katherine Benya
Preservice Physical Education Teacher’s Value Orientations across the Student Teaching Semester , Heesu Lee
The Subjective Warrant for Teaching Physical Education in South Carolina , Matthew Blake Lineberger
Integration of Impulse-Variability Theory and the Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off in Children's Multijoint Ballistic Skill Performance , Sergio Lupe Molina
Two Studies To Inform Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming: A Systematic Review of Program Effectiveness and the Development of an Observational Measure for Classroom-Based Physical Activity Promotion , Laura B. Russ
Impact of an Educational Gymnastics Course on the Motor Skills and Health-Related Fitness Components of Physical Education Teacher Education Students , Liana Webster
DESCRIPTION OF THE PRACTICE HISTORIES AND KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES OF HIGH SCHOOL BASEBALL PLAYERS , Benjamin Joseph Wellborn
A Case Study Seeking Indicators of Coherence in a PETE Program , Robert John Doan
The Effects of Attentional Focus Cues and Feedback On Motor Skill Learning In Children , Melanie Elizabeth Perreault
Retrospective Practice Histories of Division I and Division II Female Basketball Players in the Carolinas , Anthony Steven Smith
A Comparison of Selected Supervisory Skills of Content Specialist and Non-content Specialist University Supervisors , Kevin Paul Hunt
Developmental Trends In the Dance Performance of Children Age Six to Nine , Stephanie L. Little
Time to Sodium Absorption At Rest Between Three Different Beverages , Rachel Leanne Sharpe
Retrospective Practice Histories of Expert and Novice Baseball Pitchers , Robert M. Cathey
An Examination of Student Situational Interest and Contextual Variable Preference in Physical Education , Rachel Lynn Harvey
Teaching Behaviors, Student Motivation and Achievement In the Learning Domains of Physical Education , Jody Leigh Langdon
Comparison of Instruments to Assess Clinical Behavior In Athletic Training Education , Joseph M. Murphy
The Coach-Athlete Dyad and the Basic Psychological Needs In American Collegiate Athletics , Raylene Ross
The Effect of Uncompensable Heat Stress On Fatigue, Physiological, and Perceptual Measures , Charles C. Emerson
The Relationship Between Sodium Concentrations and Common Clinical Hydration Measures During Exercise , Dawn Marie Minton
Advanced Search
Home | About | FAQ | My Account | Accessibility Statement
Privacy Copyright
Education research, issn online : 2394-4056, issn print : 2394-4048, issn online : 2394-4056, issn print : 2394-4048, bring out the latest developments in the field of physical education, plant, animal and environmental sciences.
Journal of Physical Education Research (JOPER) is a scientific publication. It is a peer reviewed and referred journal, officially publishes original research articles on Physical Education and its allied sciences. The JOPER is an open access international journal has four annual issues (March, June, September and December), with its own issue number and supplements if necessary for each issue. JOPER publishes in both printed and online version. It is devoted to the promotion of physical education and allied sciences. The experiences of different countries are very important to share on a platform like this. Therefore, this international journal serves to bring scholars from diver's background interns of their domain of specialization and scholarships and will enrich our understanding of various issues related to the physical education and sports. It also provides an International forum for the communication and evaluation of data, methods and findings in physical education and allied sciences. Based on the international character of the Journal, the articles/research papers can be published by authors from all over the world. The journal is under the indexing phase in several international bodies and organizations. The journal publishes scientific publications according to the criteria listed in the Guidelines for the Authors. Everyone who has met the requirements of the journal and who takes full responsibility for all that is written in the publication has the right to publish their article with us. The review and the corrections made by the editorial board and its associates do not dismiss the author (the co-authors) from the responsibility for his/her publication, and they also do not change its originality.
JOPER welcomes research articles from physical educators, sports scientists, health educators, coaches, athlete trainers and research scholars profoundly involved in physical education researches from all over the world to report their research findings and experiences with us. Applications of the publications are open throughout the year.
Total Downloads
Total Views and Downloads
We are now entering the third decade of the 21st Century, and, especially in the last years, the achievements made by scientists have been exceptional, leading to major advancements in the fast-growing field of Sports and Active Living. To highlight the latest advancements, Frontiers has organized a ...
Keywords : Physical Education, Pedagogy
Important Note : All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements. Frontiers reserves the right to guide an out-of-scope manuscript to a more suitable section or journal at any stage of peer review.
Topic coordinators, recent articles, submission deadlines.
Submission closed.
Total views.
No records found
total views article views downloads topic views
Top referring sites, about frontiers research topics.
With their unique mixes of varied contributions from Original Research to Review Articles, Research Topics unify the most influential researchers, the latest key findings and historical advances in a hot research area! Find out more on how to host your own Frontiers Research Topic or contribute to one as an author.
Displaying 1 - 20 of 37 articles.
Alberto Filgueiras , CQUniversity Australia
David Grecic , University of Central Lancashire ; Alan Thomson , University of Central Lancashire , and Andrew Sprake , University of Central Lancashire
Matthieu P. Boisgontier , L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa and Boris Cheval , Université de Genève
Shrehan Lynch , University of East London
Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University ; Jessica Amy Sears , Charles Sturt University , and Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania
Jean-Philippe Ayotte-Beaudet , Université de Sherbrooke and Felix Berrigan , Université de Sherbrooke
Vicky Randall , University of Winchester and Gerald Griggs
Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania and Casey Peter Mainsbridge , University of Tasmania
Jora Broerse , Victoria University ; Cameron Van der Smee , Federation University Australia , and Jaimie-Lee Maple , Victoria University
Tom Gibbons , Teesside University and Kevin Dixon , Northumbria University, Newcastle
Marion Cossin , Université de Montréal
Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University and Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania
Taren Sanders , Australian Catholic University ; Chris Lonsdale , Australian Catholic University ; David Lubans , University of Newcastle ; Michael Noetel , The University of Queensland , and Philip D Parker , Australian Catholic University
Conor Heffernan , The University of Texas at Austin
David Grecic , University of Central Lancashire ; Andrew Sprake , University of Central Lancashire , and Robin Taylor , University of Central Lancashire
Katelyn Esmonde , Johns Hopkins University and Keshia Pollack Porter , Johns Hopkins University
Collin A. Webster , University of South Carolina
Gary Stidder , University of Brighton
Julie McCleery , University of Washington
Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania ; Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University , and Shane Pill , Flinders University
Senior Lecturer in Health and Physical Education, University of Tasmania
Lecturer in Physical Education & Sport / Course Leader MA in Physical Education and School Sport, University of Central Lancashire
Associate Professor of Health & Physical Education (Adj.), Charles Sturt University
Professor of Sport and Physical Education, University of Central Lancashire
Reader in Sports Science (Clinical Physiology), University of Essex
Assistant Professor of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political Science
Lecturer in Developmental Psychology, The University of Edinburgh
Senior University Lecturer in Dietary Public Health Research, University of Cambridge
Associate Professor in Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition, University of Stirling
Programme lead – Behavioural Epidemiology, University of Cambridge
Senior Lecturer, Motor Behaviour, University of Tasmania
Senior Lecturer in PE and Sports Studies, University of Central Lancashire
Senior Research and Evaluation Officer / Independent Research Consultant / PhD @ Swansea University, Swansea University
PhD Candidate in the Centre for Diet and Activity Research, University of Cambridge
Associate Professor, Mount Saint Mary's University
Presentations made painless
Inside This Article
Physical education is an important aspect of education that focuses on the development of physical fitness and skills through various physical activities. It helps students understand the importance of leading a healthy and active lifestyle while also promoting teamwork, sportsmanship, and discipline. When it comes to writing essays on physical education, there are a plethora of topics that students can explore. Here are 126 physical education essay topic ideas and examples to help you get started:
In conclusion, physical education is a crucial component of a well-rounded education that promotes physical fitness, mental health, social skills, and overall well-being. By exploring these physical education essay topics and examples, students can gain a deeper understanding of the importance of physical education and its impact on various aspects of their lives. Whether you choose to focus on the benefits of physical education for cognitive development, social skills, or physical fitness, there are endless possibilities for exploring this important subject in your essays.
Want to research companies faster?
Instantly access industry insights
Let PitchGrade do this for me
Leverage powerful AI research capabilities
We will create your text and designs for you. Sit back and relax while we do the work.
Explore More Content
© 2024 Pitchgrade
Warning: The NCBI web site requires JavaScript to function. more...
An official website of the United States government
The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.
The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.
NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.
Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.
Key messages.
Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.
Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.
Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.
State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).
Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).
When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).
Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.
The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).
Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).
Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).
Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).
Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.
Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.
State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).
Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).
In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).
In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.
In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.
The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.
In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.
A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.
Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).
Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.
Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).
Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .
Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.
For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.
Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.
A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).
Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)
It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.
Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).
After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.
A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).
Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.
In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.
It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).
To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.
From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.
The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.
Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).
Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.
Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.
Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).
With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.
Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.
In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.
In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.
Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).
Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.
Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.
In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.
Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.
Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).
Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.
Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.
A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.
Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.
Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.
Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.
Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.
Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.
From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.
Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.
Related information.
Your browsing activity is empty.
Activity recording is turned off.
Turn recording back on
Connect with NLM
National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894
Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure
Help Accessibility Careers
Education research in library databases, education databases, databases for childhood development.
Unsure where to start with a research assignment? Here are some steps to follow:
Need help? Make an appointment with the Education Librarian.
Education Source contains the largest and most complete collection of full-text education journals providing scholarly research and information to meet the needs of education students, professionals, and policy makers. It covers all levels of education — from early childhood to higher education — as well as all educational specialties.
Full-text documents for a variety of source types including journal articles, books, conference papers, curriculum guides, policy papers and more. In addition, it provides an education-specific thesaurus that includes controlled vocabulary to help users find what they need.
Indexing and abstracts for the most popular teacher and administrator journals and magazines. Includes full-text for many of the publications.
Quality e-books supporting students and faculty in the education discipline. Titles range from introductory texts for undergraduate coursework to more complex and detailed works for advanced students and scholars. Also included are support materials for teachers and professionals working in K-12 and higher education classrooms, covering topics from curriculum building to student behavior and dynamics.
Produced by the American Psychological Association, this resource contains peer-reviewed literature in behavioral science and mental health.
Essential tool for psychologists, counselors, researchers and students, providing extensive full-text coverage for a broad range of subjects in the fields of psychology, behavioral sciences and related disciplines.
Meet new prper associate editor ana sušac, july 8, 2024.
Dr. Ana Sušac is an Associate Professor in Physics at the University of Zagreb, Croatia. Alongside her brain research studies using neuroimaging methods, she is actively involved in physics education research.
January 16, 2024.
Short papers in Physical Review Physics Education Research (PRPER) were originally intended for articles that either extended a previous work (by the authors or someone else) or were initial results from a larger effort that were interesting enough to merit this type of publication.
December 14, 2023.
Artificial intelligence (AI) has increasingly found its way into more and more areas of our lives, including education. This focused collection aims to address opportunities, challenges, and issues around the use of a broad variety of AI tools in physics education and physics education research.
December 4, 2023.
In the year 2025, we will be celebrating the 100th anniversary of the formulation and development of quantum theory. The United Nations is working toward a declaration of 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology (IYQST). In the spring of 2025, Physical Review Physics Education Research (PRPER) will join the celebration by rolling out a special issue of the journal focused on investigating and improving quantum education.
Dynamics of productive confirmation framing in an introductory lab.
Successfully implementing curricula where students engage in doing science requires instructors attend to students and make sense of their behavior.
Ian Descamps et al. Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res. 20 , 020111 (2024)
Student confusion about certain aspects of the entropy concept often increase as instruction progresses.
Mary Jane Brundage, David E. Meltzer, and Chandralekha Singh Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res. 20 , 020110 (2024)
A short single-session workshop for lower secondary students can significantly increase girls self-reported intention to study physics.
Agata Lynch, Michael Cauchi, and Gráinne Walshe Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res. 20 , 020109 (2024)
A tutorial with inquiry-based learning sequences supports students to develop a functional understanding of quantum computing.
Peter Hu, Yangqiuting Li, and Chandralekha Singh Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res. 20 , 020108 (2024)
August 1, 2024.
The policy requires authors to explain where research data can be found starting Sept. 4.
The American Physical Society is conducting an international search for a new Chief Editor of Physical Review Physics Education Research (PRPER). A top ranked journal in its field, PRPER covers the full array of experimental and theoretical research relating to the teaching and learning of physics and astronomy. PRPER is also the only fully open access journal for physics education research.
May 21, 2024.
When determining the authorship list for your next paper, be generous yet disciplined.
APS congratulates Paula Heron, Associate Editor of PRPER and Professor of Physics at University of Washington, for winning the 2021 ICPE Medal for PER research. The full announcement from IUPAP is available online .
APS has selected 156 Outstanding Referees for 2024 who have demonstrated exceptional work in the assessment of manuscripts published in the Physical Review journals. A full list of the Outstanding Referees is available online .
Examining racial diversity and identity in physical review physics education research, july 1, 2020.
In the following special collection from Physical Review Physics Education Research , authors examine and highlight racial diversity, specifically how Black physicists and people of color navigate within the physics community at large.
November 22, 2022.
Lead Editor, Charles Henderson, announces PRPER’s development of the Statistical Modeling Review Committee (SMRC) to help support high-quality statistical modeling techniques.
April 11, 2022.
PRPER Lead Editor, Charles Henderson, and APS Editor in Chief, Michael Thoennessen, discuss the vital importance of offering an inclusive and welcoming environment to the physics community.
November 17, 2021.
Physics is an experimental science. Instructional laboratories where students conduct experiments, analyze data, arrive at conclusions, and communicate findings have been around for over a century. Every physics department has labs of different levels: from introductory to advanced, for majors and nonmajors, with real equipment or virtual.
August 4, 2021.
Physics Education Research (PER) uses various research methods classified under qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. These approaches help researchers understand physics education phenomena and advance our efforts to produce better PER. Over time, research questions and contexts have evolved, and so have our methods. We understand it has come the time for PER scholars to examine qualitative methods in our field critically. Therefore, we urge you to contribute to the Focused Collection on Qualitative Methods in PER.
This Physical Review Physics Education Research (PRPER) Focused Collection was curated to bring to light curriculum design decisions and the factors that shape them. By making decisions about design explicit, we can better understand the contexts behind our research claims, hold curricula up to informed critique, and support new scholars as they undertake curriculum development.
Vol. 20, Iss. 2 — July - December 2024
Sign up to receive regular email alerts from Physical Review Physics Education Research
AAPT APS FEd APS GPER
Clarivate Analytics has released the 2023 Journal Citation Reports, which provides journal impact factors and rankings for over 11,000 scholarly journals.
APS has selected 156 Outstanding Referees for 2024 who have demonstrated exceptional work in the assessment of manuscripts published in the Physical Review journals. A full list of the Outstanding Referees is available online.
Offer includes Journal Access and waived article publication charges to Scientists in 100+ Lower and Middle Income Countries
The journal Physical Review Physics Education Research and the Topical Group on Physics Education Research (GPER) are collaborating to host these events on recent, high-impact physics education research.
Articles appearing in this special collection highlight the current state of the field of physics education research as it relates to quantitative methods. Editorial
I am pleased to announce that PRST-PER will begin having focused collections. A focused collection is a selection of articles on a particular topic of interest to the PER community. Announcements of the first three focused collections will be made in the form of guest editorials in the coming months. It is expected that there will be one or two focused collections in PRST-PER published each year.
More Announcements
Special collection.
Paste a citation or doi, enter a citation.
Upload Date | Researcher | Guide(s) | |
---|---|---|---|
16-Aug-2024 | |||
3-Jan-2024 | |||
3-Jan-2024 | |||
5-Jan-2023 | |||
29-Dec-2022 | |||
29-Dec-2022 | |||
29-Dec-2022 | |||
29-Dec-2022 | |||
29-Dec-2022 | |||
28-Dec-2022 | |||
27-Dec-2022 | |||
23-Dec-2022 | |||
23-Dec-2022 | |||
22-Dec-2022 | |||
23-May-2022 | |||
23-May-2022 | |||
23-May-2022 | |||
23-May-2022 | |||
23-May-2022 | |||
23-May-2022 |
O cantinho de estudos deve ser silencioso, bem iluminado e organizado A rotina de estudos está presente na rotina de
Neste artigo, você descobre a importância de uma pesquisa prévia sobre a cultura e as línguas locais do destino da
Ensinar conceitos financeiros básicos de forma lúdica e prática pode ser a chave para desenvolver uma compreensão sólida sobre dinheiro
[trp_language language=”fr_FR”] Reformuleruntexte.com propose un service gratuit de réécriture de contenu, aidant les particuliers à réorganiser leur contenu en fonction
Saiba mais sobre as principais etapas do desenvolvimento infantil, desde o nascimento até os primeiros anos de vida Quando falamos
Modalidade de ensino abrange cursos livres, de curta a longa duração e com valores acessíveis para diferentes públicos A internet
Os jogos e as brincadeiras podem tornar o processo de aprendizagem divertido A infância é conhecida por ser a fase
No mundo digital de hoje, a habilidade de parafrasear textos de forma eficaz e eficiente é mais crucial do que
In der heutigen digitalen Welt ist das Internet mit Informationen überflutet. Daher ist es wie das Finden eines seltenen Juwels,
Criar vídeos para marketing no Facebook é diferente de criar vídeos para outras plataformas de streaming de vídeo. A diferença
Em um mundo em que as finanças pessoais estão cada vez mais entrelaçadas com os aspectos cotidianos da vida, é
Estudar fora exige planejamento e pesquisa. E algumas informações são necessárias para realizar o sonho do intercâmbio. Alguns estudantes sonham
Hábitos simples, como beber água, podem ajudar a manter o foco Escola, trabalho, tarefas de casa, redes sociais, vida pessoal…
Não faltam recursos tecnológicos utilizados pelo Google para melhorar a experiência do usuário ao longo de uma pesquisa no buscador
O conteúdo é a força vital da Internet e a qualidade é importante. Quando o seu conteúdo se destaca, atrai
A ascensão das criptomoedas trouxe consigo uma nova onda de inovação financeira. Neste cenário emergente, as exchanges de criptomoedas surgem
Escolha o presente ideal para encantar aquela pessoa que ama mergulhar fundo no universo dos livros Os apaixonados por livros
Tudo o que você precisa saber sobre a primeira vacina veterinária do Brasil e como isso foi um marco para
Com o término das férias e a chegada do segundo semestre do ano, surge o momento de os pequenos retornarem
A capacidade de escrever de forma clara, persuasiva e eficaz é uma habilidade fundamental em diversos aspectos da vida, seja
Nesse artigo vamos falar um pouco sobre a escola de inglês Englishbay e também compartilhar um curso completo de inglês
As férias escolares são um dos momentos mais aguardados por crianças e adolescentes. Eles querem aproveitar para brincar ou, no
A tecnologia move o mundo, todo mundo está o tempo inteiro conectado em alguma rede social, além disso, ela virou
A primeira infância é uma fase fundamental na vida do ser humano. Por isso, é indispensável que os pais invistam
share this!
August 21, 2024
This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:
fact-checked
reputable news agency
by Dennis Thompson
A quality physical education program involves more than just getting kids to move for a set amount of time during the school day, experts say.
PE classes can teach lessons not found in any other classroom, Erika Mundt, a PE teacher at Iowa West City High School in Iowa.
"A successful PE program can literally change the way a school functions as a whole," said Mundt, who was the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE) America High School PE Teacher of the Year in 2018.
"PE involves cooperative learning, acceptance of yourself and others, learning to try new things no matter how good you are, communication, and problem-solving," Mundt added in a news release from the National Education Association.
That's not to downplay the need for exercise. Physical activity during the school day is essential for student mental health, Mundt said, particularly following the pandemic.
"I just hope that school districts and administrators take into consideration PE when they are trying to catch up with the pandemic and realize that cutting PE and cutting activity time isn't the way to get students to learn more," Mundt said. "PE is an efficient way to help kids learn more."
Kids learn more and stress less when they take PE, said Cara Grant, president-elect of SHAPE America.
"As young as early elementary school, students discover how physical activity helps them feel better," said Grant, who is PreK-12 curriculum supervisor for health, PE and adapted PE for Montgomery County Public Schools in Maryland.
PE classes can provide a chance to check in on kids' emotional health, experts said.
For example, one sample PE lesson for elementary students involves asking the kids to select an emoji that represents how they feel at the beginning and end of class.
Often, kids who selected a sad or tired emoji at the beginning chose a happier or more excited one at the end of class, experts said.
"In younger grades, we ask students, 'Why are we moving? How does that help us when we don't feel great? When you don't feel great but go play at recess, you feel better. How does that apply to why we move?"' Grant said.
And as kids get older, PE classes can become more sophisticated, helping kids learn more about their physical abilities .
Good PE programs should all instill a feeling of confidence and competence in movement, rather than just teaching specific athletic skills, experts said.
"We want students to challenge themselves, and learn about what their bodies are capable of, no matter their ability or background," Grant said. "We want them to explore movement, to feel more successful over time and know that they are growing."
And this benefits mental health because it builds self-confidence , Grant added.
Quality PE programs also promote positive personal and social behaviors, experts said. Students learn how to communicate and resolve conflict—for example, by taking turns or agreeing on the rules of a game.
"I get to teach students valuable skills to stay healthy for lifelong activity," said Jim Hambel, an elementary school PE teacher in the Bronx, N.Y.
In 2022, Hambel's school launched a program for fifth graders in which they built their own bikes, then learned how to ride safely on the road.
The program thus taught children some mechanical ability as well as bike safety, and opened the door to more of them riding their bike to school, Hambel said.
"PE helps students understand by using critical thinking. PE is great at that because we are teaching them how to work with others, be safe and understand the mechanics of skills—the why, the what and the how," Hambel said.
Copyright © 2024 HealthDay . All rights reserved.
Explore further
Feedback to editors
10 hours ago
Aug 23, 2024
Relevant physicsforums posts, incandescent bulbs in teaching.
Aug 21, 2024
Aug 18, 2024
Aug 17, 2024
Jul 21, 2024
Jul 19, 2024
Jul 4, 2024
More from STEM Educators and Teaching
Nov 3, 2022
Sep 21, 2021
Mar 8, 2022
Mar 27, 2024
Oct 17, 2018
Feb 23, 2024
Aug 14, 2024
Aug 7, 2024
Aug 6, 2024
Jul 31, 2024
Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).
Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request
Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.
Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.
Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.
Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.
More information Privacy policy
We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.
IMAGES
COMMENTS
100 Physical Education Research Paper Topics. Exploring the diverse facets of physical education through research papers offers a unique opportunity to delve deeper into the field and contribute to the growing body of knowledge. To assist you in this endeavor, we have compiled a comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics.
Topic 1: Modern Physical Education versus the Traditional Physical Education - A Comparison. Topic 2: Assessing the Impact of Physical Education on Mental Health. Topic 3: Analysing Student Behavior and Engagement in Physical Education Classes. Topic 4: Planning Physical Education Programs to Produce Effective Results.
Role of Parents in Physical Education and Sport. The involvement of parents in physical education and sports is viewed differently in regard to how it affects the child's participation in sports even later in life. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts. 187 writers online.
Physical Education is one of the subjects that should be highlighted in order for. students to improve their physical health and a cademic performance. As a result, from 2017. to 2021, this ...
The Journal of Teaching in Physical Education (JTPE) features peer-reviewed research articles based on classroom and laboratory studies, descriptive and survey studies, summary and review articles, and discussion of current topics of interest to physical educators at every level.JTPE is endorsed by the Curriculum and Instruction Academy of the National Association for Sport and Physical ...
Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy publishes research that reports educational practices in all appropriate contexts including, but not limited to, school physical education, club sport, and active leisure programs. The journal considers papers that discuss a broad range of physical activities, including aquatics, dance, exercise, gymnastics ...
Hypertension Health Behavior Change and Older Adults: the effect of an Appreciative Education Approach, Mary Katherine Benya. PDF. Preservice Physical Education Teacher's Value Orientations across the Student Teaching Semester, Heesu Lee. PDF. The Subjective Warrant for Teaching Physical Education in South Carolina, Matthew Blake Lineberger. PDF
Impact of a model-based paralympic sports project in physical education on primary school pupils' attitudes, self-efficacy, and intentions toward inclusion of peers with physical disabilities. Erica Gobbi, Stefano Amatori, Fabrizio Perroni, Davide Sisti, Marco Rocchi & Nils Neuber. Published online: 17 Jun 2024.
Journal of Physical Education Research (JOPER) is a scientific publication. It is a peer reviewed and referred journal, officially publishes original research articles on Physical Education and its allied sciences. The JOPER is an open access international journal has four annual issues (March, June, September and December), with its own issue ...
The goal of this special edition Research Topic is to shed light on the progress made in the past decade in the Physical Education and Pedagogy field, and on its future challenges to provide a thorough overview of the field. This article collection will inspire, inform and provide direction and guidance to researchers in the field. Keywords ...
Brendon Hyndman, Charles Sturt University and Vaughan Cruickshank, University of Tasmania. Health and physical education includes subjects such as sport science, health studies, athlete ...
Physical education is the foundation of a comprehensive school physical. activity program. It provides cognitive content and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and. behaviors ...
Here are 126 physical education essay topic ideas and examples to help you get started: The benefits of physical education in schools. The role of physical education in promoting mental health. The impact of physical education on academic performance. The importance of physical education for children with disabilities.
In many countries, health has in some way framed the history of physical education (PE) (Augestad, 2003; Kirk, 1992; Tinning and McCuaig, 2006), and PE has often been aligned with medicalized notions of health (Fitzpatrick and Tinning, 2014).Currently, health is a subject in formal education and is considered an important aspect of PE (Cale, 2020; Schenker, 2018; Stolz, 2014).
a non-daily physical education (NPE) program. It was hypothesized that the students involved in a daily physical education program would reap the benefits of regular physical activity to a greater degree than the non-daily physical education students and therefore develop a more positive attitude towards physical activity. Furthermore, by
In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979), six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems.
Education Source contains the largest and most complete collection of full-text education journals providing scholarly research and information to meet the needs of education students, professionals, and policy makers. It covers all levels of education — from early childhood to higher education — as well as all educational specialties.
The document discusses selecting a thesis topic for a physical education research paper. It notes that choosing an appropriate topic is crucial, as it lays the foundation for the entire study. The topic should be engaging, relevant to the field of physical education, and address current issues. The document provides examples of potential topics like the impact of technology on physical ...
This document lists potential topics for physical education dissertations. Some of the topics included are: comparing middle school physical education courses; the effects of suggested legacy for an hour a day of PE; traditional exercise vs. dance classes in public schools; and analyzing the influence of fat-free vs. 2% milk on body strength and resistance training. The document also provides ...
The American Physical Society is conducting an international search for a new Chief Editor of Physical Review Physics Education Research (PRPER). A top ranked journal in its field, PRPER covers the full array of experimental and theoretical research relating to the teaching and learning of physics and astronomy.
In SHAPE America's Teacher Toolbox you'll find links to some of the most popular topics, news stories, research articles, and webinars that health and physical education teachers are talking about. You'll also find the resources you need to support 50 Million Strong, SHAPE America's commitment to empowering all children to lead healthy and ...
Effect of age differentiated physical activities on selected health and skill related fitness variables among school boys: Vivek, R: Ram Mohan Singh, R: 29-Dec-2022: The influence of physical activity intervention on gross motor skills development of children with autism spectrum disorder: Muneer, P: Sultana, D: 29-Dec-2022
Physical Education Lesson Plan One of the more overwhelming needs of society today is without a doubt to effectively address and curb the ever-present danger of childhood obesity. Without a doubt, childhood obesity is one of the biggest health concerns of our time, particularly because it leads to a range of other more serious and debilitating health issues.
List of Topics Ideas for Physical Education Research Paper. See below for some ideas for preparing academic papers such as Physical Education Research Paper: 552 Physical Education THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROFESSIONAL IN ORIENTATION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES WALK.
A quality physical education program involves more than just getting kids to move for a set amount of time during the school day, experts say. Topics Week's top