i am assignment on self perception

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4: Identity and Perception of Self

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• Page ID 114750

• Pamela J. Gerber & Heidi Murphy
• Central New Mexico Community College via https://www.cnm.edu/

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Learning Objectives

• How does self-perception and identity shape communication, and vice-versa?
• Why is an understanding of identity and self-perception important for interpersonal communication competence?

Successful students will be able to:

• explain three types of identities
• recognize six principles of identity
• describe how self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy shape our self-perception
• describe how family and media influence self-perception
• explain how self-perception, identity and communication are interrelated
• recognize how awareness of self-presentation, cultural context and self-fulfilling prophecy can help us build communication competence

Ask yourself the following questions: “Who am I?” and “What defines me?” We may think these are easy questions to answer and that we have a good grasp on our identity and what comprises it. However, our identities are not inherent and fixed. Who we are and what defines us changes throughout our lives. In addition, the way we communicate with others and vice-versa creates, shapes, and reshapes our identity in significant ways. While some people may assert “This is just who I am” or “I was born this way,” our identities are actually formed through a variety of processes and interactions, and, as such, are dynamic and never fully complete. In this chapter, we will learn about various types of identities, address the principles of identity, examine factors that shape our self-perception, explore the relationship between identity and communication, and discuss how to improve communication competence.

• 4.1: Types of Identities
• 4.2: Principles of Identity
• 4.3: Self-Perception
• 4.4: Influences on Self-Perception
• 4.5: Self-Perception, Identity, and Communication
• 4.6: Communication Competence

Contributors and Attributions

• Sections 4.1.0–4.1.2, 4.3.0-4.4.2, & 4.6.3: adapted from Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies; University of Minnesota; 2016; CC BY NC SA 4.0
• Sections 4.2.1-4.2.5: adapted from The Open University; OpenLearn; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
• Sections 4.0, 4.2.6, 4.5.0-4.5.1, 4.6.1, & 4.6.2: Interpersonal Communication Abridged Textbook (I.C.A.T.); Central New Mexico Community College; 2019; CC BY NC SA 4.0

Assignment 1: Understanding Your Self-Concept

The purpose of this assignment is to help you understand your own self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. For this assignment, you will work independently.

Learning Objectives

LO1. Compare and contrast self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy.

LO2. Apply self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy to personal experiences.

LO3. Discuss how social and family influences, culture, and media influence self-perception.

LO4. Compare and contrast personal, social, and cultural identities.

The time estimated to complete this activity is 45-60 minutes.

Instructions

You will be completing several short surveys to learn more about your self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. Please use the links below to complete each survey. Make sure you save a copy of your results for each survey.

VIA Character Strengths Inventory

This online survey is meant to determine what characteristics make up your self-concept. It has 96 items and will take about 15-20 minutes to complete. You will need to register for the site. After you have completed your inventory click on the “PDF Results” button to download and save a pdf copy of your results.

Rosenburg Self-Esteem Scale

This online survey is meant to rate self-esteem feelings by measuring both positive and negative feelings about the self. It has 10 questions and will take about 3-5 minutes to complete. After you have completed your inventory, please save a copy of your Summary Snapshot Report. You will need to take a screenshot and save it to a Word or Google Doc file for a later activity.

General Self-Efficacy Scale

This online survey is meant to assess the sense of perceived self-efficacy to check how you cope with daily situations and stressful life events. It has 10 questions and will take about 3-5 minutes to complete. After you have completed your survey, please save a copy of your results using the Print button at the bottom of the survey to download and save a pdf copy of your results.

After you have completed these surveys, please address the following questions in a 200-400 word written response. Follow formal writing conventions using complete sentences and checking spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Separate your answers into different paragraphs for each question to make grading easier.

• Discuss the similarities and differences between self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. Based on your survey results and your thoughts about them, how are they related to each other? Do you think that having a very high or very low score for one of these concepts will impact the others, why or why not
• Based on what you included in your “Who am I?” creative work, which identities are the most important to you (personal, social, cultural)? What aspects of your life do you think were most influential in how you see your identity?
• Discuss any hardships you have experienced, or that you have seen in media for people who share an identity you have, and how you think those could be addressed.

Psychology of Human Relations Copyright © by Stevy Scarbrough is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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16 Self-Concept Questionnaires, Activities and Tests (+PDF)

How do you answer such a complex question? It’s tough and one that psychologists have consistently sought to help us with.

‘Self-concept’ might not be a term you’re generally familiar with, but it’s one that’s well worth knowing about. It essentially refers to the way we think about ourselves, evaluate our appearance, thoughts, and behaviors, and perceive ourselves both as individuals and in comparison to others. It’s also linked to concepts of self-awareness, self-esteem, and self-image.

The term self-concept has grown in popularity owing to the way it encompasses a more robust idea of self, rather than individual terms.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Self-Compassion Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will not only help you increase the compassion and kindness you show yourself but will also give you the tools to help your clients, students or employees show more compassion to themselves.

This Article Contains:

Popular psychology definitions of self-concept, the personal self-concept questionnaire (psq), the self-concept questionnaire (scq), 3 more ways to map beliefs about the self, 3 self-concept activities & exercises, best online self-concept test, 3 more tests and assessments, handy pdf worksheets, a take-home message.

A popular definition is provided by Baumeister (1999):

The individual’s belief about himself or herself, including the person’s attributes and who and what the self is.

Rogers (1959) suggested that self-concept has three core aspects:

• Self-Image – The view you have of yourself
• Self-Worth – How much value you have in yourself
• Ideal-Self – Who you really wish you were

Lewis (1990) also theorized that the development of individual self-concept has two key components:

• The Existential Self – The realization that you exist as separate to others.
• The Categorical Self – The realization that you exist as an individual object in the world, with distinct properties, such as your age, hair color, and gender. As we grow older, this component also begins to include psychological traits.

The Personal Self-Concept Questionnaire (PSQ) was developed by Goñi, Madariaga, Axpe & Goñi (2011) in response to the plethora of self-concept tools available. The researchers wanted to create a shorter measurement that provided an accurate representation of self-concept overall.

The questionnaire is made up of 22 statements, divided into four subcategories:

• Self-fulfillment
• Emotional self-concept

Example statements from the questionnaire include:

• To do anything, I first need other people’s approval. (Autonomy)
• I consider myself to be a very uptight and highly strung person. (Emotional Self-Concept)
• I have yet to achieve anything I consider to be important in my life. (Self-Fulfilment)
• I am a man/woman of my word. (Honesty)

Download 3 Free Self-Compassion Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will equip you to help others create a kinder and more nurturing relationship with themselves.

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By filling out your name and email address below.

Initially developed by Saraswat (1984), the Self Concept Questionnaire is one of the more popular questionnaires when it comes to measuring self-concept.

The questionnaire itself contains 48 statements that aim to measure self-concept across six different aspects:

• Temperamental
• Educational
• Intellectual

Example statements include:

• I feel different from most people and wish I was more like them. (Social)
• I only partially believe in myself. (Temperamental)
• I feel I am a person of worth. (Moral)
• I have trouble taking criticism from other people. (Temperamental)

Participants rate their answers to the statements on a scale from 1 to 5, with one being ‘very unlike me’ and five being ‘very true of me.’ A higher score indicates a high sense of self-concept, with a lower score indicating a lower sense of self-concept.

Although the PSQ and SCQ are the two most commonly used questionnaires to measure and map self-concept, there are several other questionnaires and tools that aim to explore self-belief too.

Below are three I’ve come across in my research that might be of interest to you:

1. Academic Self-Concept Scale for Adolescents (ASCS)

The Academic Self-Concept Scale for Adolescents (Minchekar, 2019) was developed in response to the idea that many self-concept questionnaires and measures are quite broad. The researchers wanted to narrow this down and focused only on measuring self-concept concerning academic skills and performance.

The scale is broken down into eight distinct sub-categories that it measures:

• Self-Concept of Academic Ability
• Self-Concept of Academic Interests
• Self-Concept of Study
• Self-Concept of Examination
• Self-Concept of Academic Interactions
• Self-Concept of Academic Efforts
• Self-Concept of Curriculum
• Self-Concept of Academic Future

The scale contains 57 statements that ask participants to rate themselves from one to five, with one being ‘Never’ and five being ‘Always.’ Higher scores indicate a higher level of Academic Self-Concept, and participants with a higher score were found to be more confident in their academic capabilities.

The ASCS is still a relatively new tool, and you can read more about its development .

2. Harrill Self-Esteem Inventory

The Harrill Self-Esteem Inventory was developed by Counselor, Susan Harrill, as a measurement for self-esteem within self-concept. It is made up of 25 statements that participants are required to respond to.

Example statements from the inventory include:

• I feel of equal value to other people, regardless of my performance, looks, IQ, achievements, or possessions (or lack of them).
• I take responsibility for my feelings, emotions, thoughts, and actions. I do not give others credit or blame for how I feel, think, or what I do.
• I learn and grow from my mistakes rather than deny them or use them to confirm my unworthiness.
• I nurture myself with kind, supportive self-talk.

Participants respond with a score between zero and four as follows:

0 = I never think, feel, or behave this way. 1 = I do less than half the time. 2 = I do 50% of the time. 3 = I do more than half the time. 4 = I always think, feel, or behave this way.

After responding to all statements, participants tally their total score, with a higher score indicating a higher level of self-esteem .

3. The Twenty Statements Test

The Twenty Statements Test (Kuhn & McPartland, 1954) was developed to specifically measure self-image as a part of self-concept, although it covers other areas of self-concept too.

The twenty questions probe participants to respond to the question ‘Who am I’ with ‘I am …’ answers. The questions are broken down into five subcategories:

• Social groups and classifications
• Ideological beliefs
• Self-evaluations

Kuhn (1960) states that the majority of responses to the questions could be divided into three groups:

• Social Roles – Responses related to external aspects of the self, for example, ‘I am a mother/daughter/teacher/doctor.’
• Personality Traits – Responses related to internal aspects of the self, for example, ‘I am funny/patient/short-tempered/kind.’
• Physical Descriptions – Responses related to image aspects of the self, for example, ‘I am tall/short/fat/thin.’

Related: 21 Self-Image Examples and Activities to Use the Theory Today

Exploring self-concept can be a great learning and growth experience for individuals of all ages. Below are three easy to do activities for individuals or groups of any age to help learn more about self-concept.

1. ‘Who Am I?’ Exercise

This is a wonderful introductory exercise that can be used with individuals or groups. The premise is straightforward to replicate, and participants can take as long as they need to complete the initial statements, with plenty of encouragement for discussion.

You will need:

To encourage participants to think more deeply about the ideas and labels they have about themselves.

Provide each participant with a list of statements – suggested amount 15-20 – that ask them to think about who they are. Some example statements include:

• My favorite food is …
• My favorite music is …
• An important person in my life is …
• Something I dislike …
• An idea for my future I have is …

Encourage participants to answer all statements. Ask them to reflect on the answers they choose and why these are important to them. Remind them there are no wrong or right answers, just the opportunity to engage with their sense of self-concept.

2. ‘My Strengths’ Exercise

This exercise is great to encourage participants to start thinking about their self-concept of their strengths in critical areas of life. Again, it is very easy to set up and will enable some great conversations with individuals or groups.

To encourage participants to reflect on their strengths in different key areas.

Provide participants with pen and paper and ask them to divide their paper into four sections with the following headings:

• Interests/Sports
• School/Work

Next, read out some statements that could relate to each of the sections and ask participants to write down the ones they feel most relate to them. Aim for 5-6 statements for each of the four categories. Example statements include:

• I always try my best at school/work.
• I am a caring friend.
• I help out around the house.
• I like to be creative.
• I enjoy team sports.

Once participants get the idea, encourage them to reflect further on the four areas, and write down some of their unique strengths.

3. ‘Three Compliments Journal’ Exercise

This exercise is great for any individual who struggles with self-concept, and who has low self-esteem or low self-image in particular. Similar to many journal exercises; it is easy to implement and consistency is key to its success.

• Journal/notebook

To increase ideas of self-concept – in particular, self-esteem and self-image .

Participants are required to spend 5-10 minutes a day reflecting on three compliments they would give themselves about how they behaved, interacted, engaged, or looked during the day. The compliments can focus on anything they like. The idea is to reflect on the positives about themselves they might otherwise dismiss.

Example compliments could include things like:

• I liked my outfit today, and the compliments I received because of it.
• Today I was kind to the lady in the store and offered to help her with her bags.
• I’m proud of my school/work presentation. My teacher/boss said I did a great job.

Ask participants to repeat this exercise daily, for as long as they need to. Remind them it’s okay if they forget some days and it might be challenging to think of three things at first, but it will get easier over time.

How to build your self image – Proctor Gallagher Institute

There are many online self-concept tests you can take – some are paid, and some are free – and it’s important to know that these tests are only snapshots. Sampling a few different tests will give you a more robust sense of your self-concept.

One of the most popular online tests is the Self-Esteem Test from Psychology Today. This test contains a variety of statements that you will need to respond to. It should take no more than 15 mins to complete.

It is free to take, and you’ll receive a ‘snapshot’ of your results at the end. You can invest in a more in-depth result by paying a small fee.

Besides the previously mentioned assessments, we share three more tests below.

1. Robson Self-Concept Questionnaire

The Robson Self-Concept Questionnaire follows a similar pattern to the previous questionnaires explored in this article. It consists of 30 statements relating to different areas of self-concept. Example statements include:

• I’m glad I am who I am.
• I am reliable.
• It would be boring if I talked about myself.
• I have a pleasant personality.

Participants rate their responses to the statements on a scale of zero to seven with zero being ‘Completely Disagree,’ and seven being ‘Completely Agree.’ A higher score means a higher sense of self-concept.

2. Self Description Questionnaire (SDQ)

The Self-Description Questionnaire was developed by Marsh (1990), and has two formats:

• The SDQI, designed for use with primary school students.
• The SDQII, designed for use with secondary school students.

The SDQ contains 43 statements that participants are required to respond to on a scale of one to five, with one being ‘False’ and five being ‘True.’

• I worry about a lot of things.
• Overall I am a failure.
• I am honest.
• I get along well with my parents.

3. Social Style Questionnaire

This questionnaire follow a slightly different format in how to assess self-concept. Instead of singular statements that ask participants to rate their response, these questionnaire provide two statements and asks participants to select the one they feel is most like them.

The Social Style Questionnaire aims to measure how participants feel they interact with others daily.

Examples of a pair of statements from this questionnaire include:

A. I tend to tell people what is on my mind. B. I tend to keep things to myself.

A. I see myself as playful and fun-loving. B. I see myself as serious and thoughtful.

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In researching this article, I came across a wealth of PDF worksheets and exercises to help you on your way to further exploring self-concept.

Below I’ve shared some of my favorite ones:

1. Therapist Aid – About Me Sentence Completion Worksheet

This is a great introductory worksheet to encourage initial thinking around self-concept. The Sentence Completion Worksheet contains a set of statements that asks participants to reflect and explore different scenarios that made them feel a certain way.

2. Therapist Aid – Strength Exploration Worksheet

This Strength Exploration Worksheet is slightly similar to the ‘My Strengths’ exercise so that it could be used as a great accompaniment. It asks participants to reflect on their strengths in three key areas of life: relationships, profession, and personal fulfillment. Additionally, it includes a more in-depth exploration of strengths under each of the specific headings.

3. Thought Diary for Negative Self-Evaluations Worksheet

The Thought Diary Worksheet can be used as a journal/diary insert and asks participants to reflect on negative self-evaluations they may have about themselves. The worksheet is comprehensive and laid out well to encourage a step by step process through evaluating the idea of self-concept being explored.

Additional reading material includes a selection of 27 books on self-esteem .

Self-concept is such a broad area of psychology, and yet it’s a fascinating one. It really hones in one of the deeper parts of answering that question ‘Who am I?’.

Some of the questionnaires and exercises we’ve visited in this article are more general, so I hope you’ll see these as a great starting point for further exploration and personal growth around your ideas of self-concept.

Have you tried any of these exercises, or know of others that you’ve found particularly beneficial? I’d love to hear about them! Please leave a comment below.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Self Compassion Exercises for free .

• Baumeister, R. F. (1990). The nature and structure of the self: An overview. In R. Baumeister (Ed.), The self in social psychology (pp. 1-20). Philadelphia, PA, US: Psychology Press (Taylor & Francis).
• Goñi, E., Madariaga, J. M., Axpe, I., & Goñi, A. (2011). Structure of the Personal Self-Concept (PSC) Questionnaire. Retrieved from: http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/337/33719289006.pdf
• Kuhn, M. H. & McPartland, T. S. (1954). An Empirical Investigation of Self-Attitudes.
• Kuhn, M. H. (1960). Self-attitudes by age, sex and professional training. Sociological Quarterly, 1 , 39-56.
• Lewis, M. (1990). Self-knowledge and social development in early life. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality (pp. 277-300). New York: Guilford.
• Marsh, H. W. (1990). Causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic achievement: A multi-wave, longitudinal panel analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82 , 646-656.
• Minchekar, V. S. (2019). Academic Self Concept Scale for Adolescents: Development, Reliability, and Validity of ASCS. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331873419_Academic_Self_Concept_Scale_for_Adolescents_Development_Reliability_and_Validity_of_ASCS
• Rogers, C. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships as developed in the client-centered framework. In (ed.) S. Koch, Psychology: A study of science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the person and the social context. New York: McGraw Hill.
• Saraswat, R. K. (1984). Manual for Self-Concept Questionnaire. Agra, India: National Psychological Corporation.

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Article feedback

What our readers think.

Hi! May I know what database is used for the automatic scoring system of Robson’s Self-concept Questionnaire? I was having a hard time understanding the manual one. Thank you!

you can use this automatic scoring system .

I hope it helps 🙂

Warm regards, Julia | Community Manager

Thank you so much for your response!

This is me again.

May I know what specifc scores the respondents should have in order to know that they have low or high self-concept?

Norms from different studies are provided for comparison. For example, a control group from Robson (1989) had a mean total score of 137.0 (SD = 20.2), while a group of patients with DSM-III Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) had a mean score of 108.0 (SD = 24.8). This information can be used to interpret individual scores in relation to these norms.

I hope this helps 🙂

Hai, how are you? I would like to have some suggestions on the questions which may help my leaners to realize their characters, their weaknesses and help them to formulate their studies. can i put those questins in MS forms in which the students will be answering themself find their Strengths and Weaknesses?

I recommend the VIA Survey of Character Strengths to assess strengths and weaknesses. It is available for free on the VIA Institute on Character website .

Hope this helps! Kind regards, Julia | Community Manager

Hi Nicole. Im Aishah.. Could u plz to advise me Self Concept Questionnaire focus on Activity Physical and Nutrition for Adolescent Student? And which website that I can get for more info? TQ so much

Thanks for your question. Unfortunately I was not able to find a Self-concept questionnaire which includes all the constructs you are looking for. However, this article dives into some of the most relevant self-concept and self-esteem questionnaires.

Additionally, this article explores some of the constructs you mentioned and their relations (self-concept, dietary patterns, and nutrition in adolescents).

I hope this helps!

Kind regards, -Caroline | Community Manager

Hi Nicole, the scales on broad positive psychology themes are very impressive. I would be happy if you could specify or share with me any self-concept scale specifically for teachers. This scale will help me to adapt or to bring out a similar scale on this topic.

Hi Baldwin,

Glad this was helpful for you! Definitely take a look at the Teacher Self-Concept Evaluation Scale by Villa and Calvete (2001): https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-491X(01)00028-1

You can download the paper with the items for free here: https://www.academia.edu/659520/Development_of_the_Teacher_Self_Concept_Evaluation_Scale_and_Its_Relation_to_Burnout

Hope this helps!

– Nicole | Community Manager

Hi Nicole Can you help me how to get permission for Robson self concept questionnaire. I am using this questionnaire for my research. I need permission. Kindly guide me

Thanks for your question. You can find the Robson Self-Concept Questionnaire here . As long as you properly reference the scale, you can use it for your research.

I hope this helps.

– Caroline | Community Manager

Do you have any on line courses which would help in building my self?

We offer a complete Masterclass series that covers themes like self-acceptance and strength development which may be of interest to you. These courses include a workbook, hours of video, and everything else you need to better understand yourself and also teach the material to others. You can find more information about these courses on our store page:

https://pro.positivepsychology.com/product/the-science-of-self-acceptance/ https://pro.positivepsychology.com/product/maximizing-strengths-masterclass/

Let me know if I can answer any questions.

Hello! Would you know if I could be given permission to use Academic Self-Concept Scale for Adolescents (ASCS)? Is there a scale intended for younger population? Can you please help me get in touch with the person/people concerned?

The ASCS can be used freely without permission from the author for research purposes.

If you’re looking for an alternative you can use with a younger crowd, Reynold’s (1988) scale has been used with youth 10 years and older: https://youthrex.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Academic-Self-concept-Scale-1.pdf

Where can I get the range for Robson Self concept questionnaire? to know if one falls in high or low self concept? thank you

Hi Cristine,

You’ll find some population norms for the scale here: https://scales.arabpsychology.com/s/robson-self-concept-questionnaire/

I’m not aware of any published information stating cut-offs for high and low levels on this measure, but this website indicates that an average score on this measure (within a non-clinical population) is 140. Hopefully that helps a little.

Thank you so much for your reply! Do you know a way where I can contact Robson or people who arebaccountable for the scale?

You’ll find Robson’s contact here: https://www.psych.ox.ac.uk/team/phil-robson 🙂

Hii, Can I get the professional self concept scale? will be helpful..

Hi Christina,

Professional self-concept scales tend to be specific to the role type (e.g., nurse, teacher). So can you please let me know the sort of sample you will be administering it to? Then I’ll be happy to advise 🙂

Hii I am looking for theAcademic Self-Concept Scale for Adolescents (ASCS). May you help to needful?

I cannot seem to find this scale online, but you can contact the author of this scale (Vikas Minchekar) via ResearchGate to get a copy of the questionnaire items.

I hope this helps a little!

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I know how I know: perception, self-awareness, self-knowledge

• Published: 12 June 2020
• Volume 198 , pages 10355–10375, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Andrea Giananti   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2361-6487 1 , 2  

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When a subject has perceptually grounded knowledge, she typically knows how she knows what she knows, and is able to appeal to perceived items and her own experiences in reason-giving practices. What explains this ability? In this paper I focus on vision, and I submit that paradigmatic cases of visual perceptual knowledge are such that, when a subject acquires knowledge that p by seeing that p, she also acquires tacit knowledge that she sees that p; I also argue that the truth of this thesis is grounded in phenomenological facts concerning awareness and self-awareness.

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The Five Whys Technique

No one knows what attention is

Invariant representations in abstract concept grounding – the physical world in grounded cognition

For a similar idea, see Crimmins ( 1992 ) and Shoemaker ( 1994 ).

Only minor modifications would be required to explain my tacit knowledge about John’s height. Of course, we don’t tacitly know all the consequences of what we explicitly know; and when we don’t tacitly know certain consequences, we don’t have the relevant dispositions.

Similar issues arise for tacit knowledge of our own beliefs.

Just to which kinds of mental states constitutivism would apply is an open question. In this paper, I am most directly concerned with constitutivism about perception.

Moran says similar things about action ( 2001 : p. 31).

I conceive of seeing that as an experience and also as a way of knowing. I illustrate this conception in Sect. 4.1 .

See especially Boyle ( 2009 ) and Moran ( 2001 ).

I will remain neutral on whether the awareness that comes with conscious belief is phenomenal.

The literature on HOT is vast, and convincingly arguing against them would require a separate paper. Here I will only mention two of the criticisms that I find most compelling among those usually levelled against HOT.

(1) In order for the higher-order state to make the first-order state phenomenally conscious, it must make the subject of the state aware that she herself is in the target conscious state (e.g., Rosenthal 1997 : p. 737). However, for that the higher-order state would have to represent itself as belonging to the same stream of consciousness as that of the first-order state, and it is not clear how an unconscious state could do that (for a detailed exposition of the problem, see Zahavi, 2004 , section I; Shoemaker’s ( 1968 ) classic paper on self-reference is an indirect source for the objection).

(2) As it has been observed by many, it is not clear why an unconscious state should become conscious just by being the object of a distinct state (e.g., Bonjour and Sosa 2003 , Sect. 4.2; a more elaborate version of the same argument is given by see Kriegel 2009 , ch. 4, Sects. 3 and 4, and Siewert 2013 ).

This is a slightly simplified presentation of the landscape, as even within first-order interpretations of CP there is room for disagreement. First, Textor defends a mereological interpretation according to which a mental state x is “conscious iff it is unified with an immediately evident cognition (‘Erkenntnis’) of x” ( 2006 : p. 411). Second, there is disagreement on whether the awareness that we have of our own experiences is a kind of objectual awareness (e.g., Kriegel 2009 ) or rather a sui generis , non-objectifying awareness (e.g., Zahavi 2004 ).

E.g., “The awareness of X and the awareness of the awareness of X are one and the same entity” (Kriegel 2018 : p. 83).

See also Gennaro ( 2004 : p. 1) and Kriegel ( 2009 : p. 104).

Thus Overgaard notes that blindsight is “classically defined as residual visual capacity without any perceptual awareness” ( 2011 : pp. 473–474); also Cowey ( 2010 ), Weiskrantz ( 1986 ) and Marcel ( 1988 : p. 132).

For examples of this current terminology, see Levine ( 1995 ) and Kriegel ( 2003 ).

For examples of this phenomenological point, see Levine ( 1995 : p. 261) and Kriegel ( 2003 : p. 106).

In her helpful discussion of transparency, Gow ( 2016 ) details several cases in the literature in which the two points are conflated, or in which the second point is thought obviously to follow from the first.

Martin can plausibly be read along these lines, e.g.: “I attend to what it is like for me to inspect the lavender bush through perceptually attending to the bush itself” ( 2002 : p. 380).

This is convincingly shown by Kennedy ( 2009 : pp. 587‒588); see also Gow ( 2016 ).

Some philosophers would say that only the non-committal state of its looking to one as though p can actually be an experience (e.g., Bonjour and Sosa 2003 ).

See Roessler ( 2009 ) and Stroud ( 2011 ) for a more detailed discussion of the abilities involved in propositional seeing.

For an excellent discussion of several sources for the idea that seeing that entails knowledge, see Ranalli ( 2014 ). For philosophers who reject the entailment, see McDowell ( 1994 ) and Pritchard ( 2012 ).

Something like SAP could be plausibly attributed to Kriegel ( 2009 ), Nida-Rümelin ( 2017 ), Recanati ( 2007 ) and Zahavi ( 2004 ).

For a similar idea, see O’Conaill ( 2017 ).

For a recent exposition and defence of the mineness thesis, see Zahavi and Kriegel ( 2015 ). For a critique, see Guillot ( 2017 ).

I want to mention two more considerations that could be adduced in favour of SAP. The first is Searle’s ( 1983 ) (admittedly much criticized) proposal that the contents of perception are self-referential. The second is the idea that the subject is an unarticulated constituent of perceptual experience. This particular point is developed by Recanati ( 2007 , chs. 17 and 19).

E.g., Shoemaker ( 1994 ) and Zahavi and Kriegel ( 2015 : pp. 45–48); for further references, see Gertler ( 2003 /2015).

Adding more sensory information will not solve the problem. It is true that if I am touching the object, I will experience its hardness or softness, which I could not experience by sight. But perceiving that the object is hard would not settle the question whether I know its shape by touch or by sight (let alone whether I’m both touching it and seeing it), because I could experience the hardness of the object without touching enough of its surface to make out its shape.

Of course, I could reason along the following lines: “I am not receiving any testimony, so I must be seeing the object”, but it is extremely implausible to suggest that that is how we make self-attributions. Furthermore, I could be finding out about the sensible qualities of an object by testimony and sight at the same time.

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Acknowledgements

Author extremely grateful to Donnchadh O’Conaill, who has read and commented on several versions of this paper. Two anonymous referees for Synthese have been patient and encouraging, and they helped me a lot to sharpen my arguments. Author have also benefited from comments by Davood Bahjat Fumani, Giulia Luvisotto, Johannes Roessler and Gianfranco Soldati. Author grateful to the participants for their feedback. This research is generously supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation, Grant No. 100012M_173159.

Research for this article was funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation, Grant No. 100012M_173159.

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Giananti, A. I know how I know: perception, self-awareness, self-knowledge. Synthese 198 , 10355–10375 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-020-02726-9

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Received : 27 April 2019

Accepted : 28 May 2020

Published : 12 June 2020

Issue Date : November 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-020-02726-9

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