hypothesis for sustainable development

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sustainable development

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• Salt Lake Community College Pressbooks - Introduction to Human Geography - Sustainable Development
• Academia - Sustainable Development and its Dimensions

sustainable development , approach to social, economic, and environmental planning that attempts to balance the social and economic needs of present and future human generations with the imperative of preserving, or preventing undue damage to, the natural environment .

Sustainable development lacks a single detailed and widely accepted definition. As a general approach to human development , it is frequently understood to encompass most if not all of the following goals, ideals, and values:

• A global perspective on social, economic, and environmental policies that takes into account the needs of future generations
• A recognition of the instrumental value of a sound natural environment , including the importance of biodiversity
• The protection and appreciation of the needs of Indigenous cultures
• The cultivation of economic and social equity in societies throughout the world
• The responsible and transparent implementation of government policies

The intellectual underpinnings of sustainable development lie in modern natural resource management , the 20th-century conservation and environmentalism movements, and progressive views of economic development . The first principles of what later became known as sustainable development were laid out at the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment , also called the Stockholm Conference. The conference concluded that continued development of industry was inevitable and desirable but also that every citizen of the world has a responsibility to protect the environment. In 1987 the UN -sponsored World Commission on Environment and Development issued the Brundtland Report (also called Our Common Future ), which introduced the concept of sustainable development—defining it as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”—and described how it could be achieved. At the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also called the Earth Summit), more than 178 countries adopted Agenda 21, which outlined global strategies for restoring the environment and encouraging environmentally sound development.

Since that time, sustainable development has emerged as a core idea of international development theory and policy. However, some experts have criticized certain features of the concept, including:

• Its generality or vagueness, which has led to a great deal of debate over which forms or aspects of development qualify as “sustainable”
• Its lack of quantifiable or objectively measurable goals
• Its assumption of the inevitability and desirability of industrialization and economic development
• Its failure to ultimately prioritize human needs or environmental commitments, either of which may reasonably be considered more important in certain circumstances

Although the implementation of sustainable development has been the subject of many social scientific studies—so many, in fact, that sustainable development science is sometimes viewed as a distinct field—a number of public intellectuals and scholars have argued that the core value of sustainable development lies in its aspirational perspective. These writers have argued that merely attempting to balance social, economic, and environmental policymaking—the three “pillars” of sustainable development—is an inherently positive practice. Even if an imbalance of results is to a certain extent inevitable, it is better that policymakers at least attempt to achieve a balance. Abandoning the notion of sustainable development altogether, they argue, would likely worsen social, economic, and environmental conditions throughout the world, thus undermining all three pillars.

Despite widespread criticism , sustainable development has emerged as a core feature of national and international policymaking, particularly by agencies of the United Nations . In 2015 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which included 17 sweeping goals designed to create a globally equitable society alongside a thriving environment.

THE 17 GOALS

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End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.

Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.

Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.

Reduce inequality within and among countries.

Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.

Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.

Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.

Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.

Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development.

Do you know all 17 SDGs?

Implementation Progress

Sdgs icons. downloads and guidelines, the 17 goals.

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,  adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future. At its heart are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are an urgent call for action by all countries - developed and developing - in a global partnership. They recognize that ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and spur economic growth – all while tackling climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests.

The SDGs build on decades of work by countries and the UN, including the  UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs

• In June 1992, at the  Earth Summit  in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, more than 178 countries adopted  Agenda 21 , a comprehensive plan of action to build a global partnership for sustainable development to improve human lives and protect the environment.
• Member States unanimously adopted the Millennium Declaration at the  Millennium Summit  in September 2000 at UN Headquarters in New York. The Summit led to the elaboration of eight  Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)  to reduce extreme poverty by 2015.
• The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and the Plan of Implementation, adopted at the  World Summit on Sustainable Development  in South Africa in 2002, reaffirmed the global community's commitments to poverty eradication and the environment, and built on Agenda 21 and the Millennium Declaration by including more emphasis on multilateral partnerships.
• At the  United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20)  in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 2012, Member States adopted the outcome document  "The Future We Want"  in which they decided, inter alia, to launch a process to develop a set of SDGs to build upon the MDGs and to establish the  UN High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development . The Rio +20 outcome also contained other measures for implementing sustainable development, including mandates for future programmes of work in development financing, small island developing states and more.
• In 2013, the General Assembly set up a 30-member  Open Working Group  to develop a proposal on the SDGs.
• In January 2015, the General Assembly began the negotiation process on the  post-2015 development agenda . The process culminated in the subsequent adoption of the  2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development , with  17 SDGs  at its core, at the  UN Sustainable Development Summit  in September 2015.
• Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction  (March 2015)
• Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing for Development  (July 2015)
• Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  with its 17 SDGs was adopted at the  UN Sustainable Development Summit  in New York in September 2015.
• Paris Agreement on Climate Change  (December 2015)
• Now, the annual  High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development  serves as the central UN platform for the follow-up and review of the SDGs.

Today, the  Division for Sustainable Development Goals (DSDG)  in the United Nations  Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA)  provides substantive support and capacity-building for the SDGs and their related thematic issues, including  water ,  energy ,  climate ,  oceans ,  urbanization ,  transport ,  science and technology , the  Global Sustainable Development Report (GSDR) ,  partnerships  and  Small Island Developing States . DSDG plays a key role in the evaluation of UN systemwide implementation of the 2030 Agenda and on advocacy and outreach activities relating to the SDGs. In order to make the 2030 Agenda a reality, broad ownership of the SDGs must translate into a strong commitment by all stakeholders to implement the global goals. DSDG aims to help facilitate this engagement.

Follow DSDG on Facebook at  www.facebook.com/sustdev  and on Twitter at  @SustDev .

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Every year, the UN Secretary General presents an annual SDG Progress report, which is developed in cooperation with the UN System, and based on the global indicator framework and data produced by national statistical systems and information collected at the regional level.

Please, check below information about the SDG Progress Report:

• SDG Progress Report (2024)
• SDG Progress Report (2023)
• SDG Progress Report (2022)
• SDG Progress Report (2021)
• SDG Progress Report (2020)
• SDG Progress Report (2019)
• SDG Progress Report (2018)
• SDG Progress Report (2017)
• SDG Progress Report (2016)

Please, check here for information about SDG indicators and reports: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs#

Additionally, the Global Sustainable Development Report is produced once every four years to inform the quadrennial SDG review deliberations at the General Assembly. It is written by an Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General.

• Global Sustainable Development Report (2019)
• Global Sustainable Development Report (2023)

SDGs Icons. Downloads and guidelines.

• Download SDGs icons according to guidelines at this link .
• Please send inquiries to: United Nations Department of Global Communications

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A Hypothesis of Hope for the Developing World

About the author, william dar.

About 99 per cent of climate change casualties take place in the developing world. While economic
growth and development are priorities in all countries, the needs in developing and least developed countries are on a different scale altogether. Developing countries are constrained by their particular vulnerability to the impacts of fickle weather and climate. The poor in these countries are at a higher risk to future climate change, given their heavy dependence on agriculture, strong reliance on ecosystem services, rapid growth and concentration of population and relatively poor health services. Add to this gloomy scenario insufficient capacity to adapt to climate change impacts, inadequate infrastructure, meagre household income and savings and limited support from public services and you have a veritable time bomb ticking away.

Climate change, if left unchecked, will worsen food insecurity. Millions of people in countries that suffer from food insecurity will have to give up traditional crops and agricultural methods as they experience changes in the seasons that they have taken for granted. The vicious circle of reduced crop yield, resulting in lower income and fewer resources for the following year's planting season, leads to the poor becoming poorer. So what does that imply for about 1.5 billion people, nearly 60 per cent of the workforce in developing nations, who are engaged in agriculture? Since agriculture constitutes a much larger fraction of the Gross Domestic Product in developing countries, even a small percentage of loss in agricultural productivity could snowball into a larger proportionate income loss in a developing country than in an industrial one. And of all the potential damages which could occur from climate change, the damage to agriculture could be among the most devastating.

Climate change also threatens poverty reduction because poor people depend directly on endangered ecosystems and their services for their well-being. They also lack the resources to adequately defend themselves or to adapt rapidly to changing circumstances. And more importantly, their voices are not sufficiently heard in international discussions, particularly in climate change negotiations.

As a result of global warming, the type, frequency and intensity of extreme weather, such as tropical cyclones, floods, droughts and heavy precipitation, are expected to rise even with relatively small increases in average temperatures. New climate studies show that extreme heat waves are likely to become common in the tropics and subtropics by the end of the twenty-first century. Given the fact that 2 billion people already live in the driest parts of the world where climate change is projected to reduce yields even further, the challenge of putting enough food in 9 billion mouths by 2050 is daunting!

Unhindered climate change has the potential to negatively impact any prospects for sustainable development in developing countries. As rural communities across the developing world feel the pressures of climate change, high food prices and environmental and energy crises, never have new knowledge, technologies and policy insights been more critical.

A conducive and comprehensive policy environment that enhances opportunities for smallholders, given the climate change scenario, needs to encompass all levels: farm, regional, national and global. It must include adaptation strategies, more investment in agricultural research and extension, rural infrastructure, and access to markets for small farmers.

Adaptation to climate change needs to be integrated into developmental activities. Policies on adaptation should include changes in land use and timing of farming operations, adaptive breeding and technologies, irrigation infrastructure, water storage, and water management. In addition, long-term weather forecasting, dissemination of technology, creating drought and flood-resistant crop varieties, will require national and international planning and investment.

Climate change worsens water quality and availability in regions that are already water-stressed. Almost 95 per cent of water in developing countries is used to irrigate farmlands. Therefore, improving water management for drinking and agriculture by understanding water flows and water quality, improving rainwater harvesting, water storage and the diversification of irrigation techniques is critical. Greener practices, better erosion control and soil conservation measures, agro-forestry and forestry techniques, forest fire management and finding alternative clean energy sources as well as better town planning are some other steps that can be initiated to blunt the impacts of climate change. Agriculture's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions may be reduced by new crop planting and livestock breeding technologies. In addition, the emerging market for carbon emissions trading offers new opportunities for farmers to benefit from land management that sequesters carbon.

There is an urgent need for climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies to be integrated into national and regional development programmes. Developing countries also need to participate in a globally integrated approach to this problem. The crucial role of weather and climate services and products in developing adaptation solutions must be emphasized. Available climate information in developing countries must be taken stock of in order to ascertain where the systematic observation needs are most pressing. Collaboration between national and international providers of climate information and users in all sectors, and generating awareness among different user communities of the usefulness of such information, is crucial. Climate change assessment tools are needed that are more geographically precise and are more useful for agricultural policy, programme review and scenario assessment. These tools will more explicitly incorporate the biophysical constraints that affect agricultural productivity. Packaging this data for its effective use and rescuing historical meteorological data are equally important.

Among other important elements that should feature in any national and international approach to address climate change is to engage the private sector, lower costs through the inclusion of market mechanisms, and focus on development and dissemination of new technologies. A progressive policy environment should ideally include more investment in infrastructure and education; a renewed agenda for agricultural research and increased investment in agricultural research and development; sustainable agricultural and natural resource management practices; and advanced technologies that can generate climate-resilient crop varieties and better-adapted livestock breeds. Research that improves understanding and predictions of the interactions between climate change and agriculture should be funded. Collective action to build the livelihood options and risk management capacity of vulnerable groups would be another critical step. Capacity-building to integrate climate change into sectoral development plans, involving local communities in education on climate change and raising public awareness are unavoidable if we have to overcome the serious threats posed by climate change.

Unless steps are taken to initiate and strengthen cooperation among academic and research institutions, regional and international organizations and non-governmental organizations to provide opportunities for strengthening institutions and capacity building, dealing with climate change impacts may be unmanageable. Economic diversification to reduce dependence on climate-sensitive resources is an important adaptation strategy that must be promoted. Improved food security through crop diversification, developing local food banks for people and livestock and improving local food preservation needs to be encouraged.

Given the diversity of agro-ecological zones and their inherent problems, it is also essential to assemble, document and disseminate a comprehensive and action-oriented database of adaptation options of different farming and livelihood systems and agro-ecological zones, including measures and policies, to serve the needs of smallholder farmers.

Since farmers are often constrained by access to credit, facilitating better access to credit and agricultural inputs in order to intensify integrated production systems is a related area that needs attention. Catastrophic or weather-risk insurance and index insurance (insurance linked to a particular index such as rainfall, humidity, or crop yields rather than actual loss) can be used as new climate risk management tools in developing countries. The multilateral funds that have been pledged for climate change adaptation across developing countries currently amount to about $400 million -- a sharp contrast to the $4 to $86 billion needed annually, as estimated by experts and aid agencies. There is also a great need to mobilize resources to strengthen research on the impact of climate change on agriculture in different agro-ecological zones where empirical evidence and research results remain insufficient.

One area that has been neglected is gender diversity, which needs to be tackled to bring wider perspectives into decision making, since climate change and natural disasters have gender-differentiated impacts. Women can contribute significantly to this process.

Dealing with climate change is not just a matter of reducing carbon emissions of developed nations. Developing countries have themselves begun to increase their energy demand, but they do not have the same access to -- or resources for -- clean energy technology. However, the very countries that are most vulnerable are those that have contributed least to the current atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gasses. Climate justice will be done if there is a responsibility among the historically largest contributors to assist them in achieving development goals in ways that contribute to adaptation and mitigation goals.

The recent L'Aquila Food Security Initiative linked the need for effective actions on global food security to that concerning climate change, sustainable management of water, land, soil and other natural resources, including the protection of biodiversity. Fundamental climate change mitigation and adaptation goals will be effectively met if agriculture is included in international climate negotiations such as the UN Climate Change Conference to be held in Copenhagen, in December 2009.

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) addresses climate change concerns with programmes supportive of dryland agriculture. It does this by developing and using sophisticated techniques of predicting and forecasting the monsoons in the context of climate change; enabling collective action and rural institutions for agriculture and natural resource management; upscaling and outscaling its community watershed management model; rehabilitating degraded lands and diversifying livelihood systems for landless and vulnerable groups; and initiating government support for water saving options.

Recognizing that managing climatic uncertainty and adapting to change cannot be an end in itself, ICRISAT has integrated climate risk management across its research agenda. Its Integrated Genetic and Natural Resource Management (IGNRM) approach to climate proofing involves better drought and heat-tolerant crop varieties grown in farming as well as land-use systems that conserve water both in the crop's root zone and in the wells and reservoirs of villagers. ICRISAT believes that in order to adapt to climate change, agricultural communities and stakeholders need to first enhance their ability to cope better with the rainfall variability associated with current climates. The Institute is currently partnering with meteorological services, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) centres and climate science specialists in several projects pertaining to climate risk management in Asia and Africa. We are helping farmers devise ways to manage landscapes, soils and crops so that more of the water and nutrient resources are stored and used more efficiently and over a longer time period.

ICRISAT already possesses crops that are tolerant of heat and high soil temperatures, a knowledge and understanding of flowering maturities, information on genetic variation for water-use efficiency, short duration crops that escape terminal drought, as well as high yielding and disease-resistant crops. For instance, we have developed short-duration chickpea cultivars ICCV 2 (Shweta), ICCC 37 (Kranti) and KAK 2 and short-duration groundnut cultivar ICCV 91114 that escapes terminal drought. We recently developed a super-early pigeonpea that flowers in 32 days and matures in about 65-70 days We have integrated trees into traditional annual cropping systems to help reduce the impacts of winds and protect soils from erosion. ICRISAT has developed plants that resist pests and pathogens, such as downy mildew-resistant improved pearl millet hybrid HHB 67 in India; wilt-resistant high-yielding pigeonpea ICEAP 00040 in Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania and rosette-resistant groundnuts in Uganda, to name a few. Guiding our crop adaptation work are crop growth simulation models that examine the disaggregated impact of a range of climate change scenarios on our mandate crops across the semi-arid tropics of the world.

ICRISAT has an evolutionary advantage since its mandate crops are already more adapted to heat and high soil temperatures. Our breeding strategy factors in these harsh and dry conditions. What we need to better understand are the physiological mechanism underlying heat tolerance; identify wider gene pools to develop crops of wider adaptability; and develop more effective screening techniques of germplasm for desired traits. ICRISAT is also responding to challenges by exploiting the potential of 'pro-poor' opportunities for biofuel production. Its BioPower initiative argues for more investments in bio-energy crops and systems to provide a major impetus for sustainable development; and for empowering the dryland poor to benefit, rather than marginalize, so that farmers can better cope with climate change or other stresses. The current activities include developing higher-yielding sweet sorghum varieties for food, fuel, feed and fodder; pilot-scaling pro-poor commercial startup partnerships in sweet sorghum bioethanol; and research-to-development alliances for pro-poor Jatropha plantation development for biodiesel.

ICRISAT studies have generated a "hypothesis of hope" which states that the impact of climate change on yields under low input agriculture is likely to be minimal, as other factors will continue to provide the overriding constraints to crop growth and yield. Secondly, the adoption of recommended improved crop, soil and water management practices, even under climate change, will result in substantially higher yields than farmers are currently obtaining in their low input systems. Thirdly, the adaptation of better "temperature-adapted" varieties could result in the almost complete mitigation of climate change effects that result from temperature increases.

In conclusion, if developing countries are to contribute meaningfully to efforts toward adaptation and mitigation of climate change impacts, they will need the strengthened capacity that comes with development.

The UN Chronicle  is not an official record. It is privileged to host senior United Nations officials as well as distinguished contributors from outside the United Nations system whose views are not necessarily those of the United Nations. Similarly, the boundaries and names shown, and the designations used, in maps or articles do not necessarily imply endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

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• Published: 13 August 2024

Exploring extremophilic fungi in soil mycobiome for sustainable agriculture amid global change

• Luis Andrés Yarzábal Rodríguez 1 ,
• Peggy Elizabeth Álvarez Gutiérrez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5085-1186 2 ,
• Nina Gunde-Cimerman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9464-3263 3 ,
• Jimmy Casto Ciancas Jiménez   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0005-7221-0773 4 ,
• Adrián Gutiérrez-Cepeda 5 , 6 ,
• Ana María Fernández Ocaña   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2686-9949 7 &
• Ramón Alberto Batista-García   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1032-0767 7 , 8  

Nature Communications volume  15 , Article number:  6951 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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As the Earth warms, alternatives to traditional farming are crucial. Exploring fungi, especially poly extremophilic and extremotolerant species, to be used as plant probiotics, represents a promising option. Extremophilic fungi offer avenues for developing and producing innovative biofertilizers, effective biocontrol agents against plant pathogens, and resilient enzymes active under extreme conditions, all of which are crucial to enhance agricultural efficiency and sustainability through improved soil fertility and decreased reliance on agrochemicals. Yet, extremophilic fungi’s potential remains underexplored and, therefore, comprehensive research is needed to understand their roles as tools to foster sustainable agriculture practices amid climate change. Efforts should concentrate on unraveling the complex dynamics of plant-fungi interactions and harnessing extremophilic fungi’s ecological functions to influence plant growth and development. Aspects such as plant’s epigenome remodeling, fungal extracellular vesicle production, secondary metabolism regulation, and impact on native soil microbiota are among many deserving to be explored in depth. Caution is advised, however, as extremophilic and extremotolerant fungi can act as both mitigators of crop diseases and as opportunistic pathogens, underscoring the necessity for balanced research to optimize benefits while mitigating risks in agricultural settings.

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Introduction.

The Earth is warming much faster than ever 1 . At this trend, global warming will have severe consequences at the planetary level much earlier than expected, many of which will be even worse than predicted only a couple of years ago 2 . Some of these outcomes will seriously jeopardize the stability of many regions worldwide and, most notably, the adequate and sufficient food supply to feed a population estimated to reach 9.3 billion people by 2050 3 . Thus, feeding humans and livestock will only be possible with substantial modifications to our agricultural practices that, in addition, must have minimal environmental impacts. Indeed, although the “Green Revolution” made it possible to meet the food needs of humanity in the second half of the 20th century, it is not feasible to continue with this production model based on the use of large amounts of agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) that have caused so many environmental disturbances 4 .

The use of inputs of microbiological origin has been proposed as a viable and promising alternative to intensifying agriculture sustainably, based on the rational exploitation of the ecological functions displayed by the so-called “plant-growth promoting microorganisms” (PGPM) 5 . Among these inputs stand out biofertilizers (i.e., products containing live microorganisms that participate in the process of supplying nutrients or hormones to plants) 6 and biopesticides (i.e., products containing microorganisms capable of antagonizing plant pathogens or inducing their defense response against these same pathogens) 7 . Nowadays, the term “plant probiotics” is increasingly used to refer to all types of PGPM 8 , 9 .

Unfortunately, an increasing amount of evidence indicates that the efficiency of commercial plan probiotics depends on the ability of PGPM to deal with many abiotic- (temperature, acidity, salinity, among many others) and biotic factors (including the capacity to colonize roots or aerial parts of plants, the ability to survive and thrive in the soil, or the ability to outcompete native microorganisms that are part of the natural microbiome, among others), when released in the field 10 . In this context, extremophilic and extremotolerant fungi, which can grow and tolerate a wide range of extreme conditions 11 , 12 , 13 , represent a promise for the future agriculture in the context of global change. For instance, besides controlling several pathogens, a few halotolerant fungi act as promoters of plant crops’ growth under saline stress 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 . Drought can also be alleviated by xerotolerant fungi belonging to Trichoderma , Fusarium , Piriformospora or Alternaria genera 20 , 21 , 22 . Similarly, some thermophilic fungi, like Thermomyces lanuginosus and Curvularia protuberata , can protect plants from heat 23 , 24 ; on the opposite side, psychrotolerant strains of Rhodotorula sp., Mrakia sp., and Naganishia sp. can promote growth of Solanum lycopersicum at low temperatures 25 . Notwithstanding these emblematic examples, the field is still in its early stages, and it will be imperative to redirect its focus to speed up the exploration of novel PGP fungi (PGPF) adapted to poly-extreme environments, like the ones that will dominate future soil agroecosystems. (Boxes  1 , and 2 ).

Extremophilic fungi stand out as key players in the quest for sustainable agricultural innovations, particularly due to their ability to thrive and multiply in conditions that are typically detrimental to most life forms 11 , 12 , 13 . These fungi have evolved to survive in environments with extreme temperatures, high salinity, or acidity among other challenging environmental conditions 26 , making them highly valuable for agricultural use in soils and climates that challenge conventional crop production. By incorporating extremophilic fungi into plan probiotics, researchers and farmers can significantly enhance crop resilience and productivity 27 . Such fungi not only improve plant growth directly through symbiotic relationships but also contribute to soil health by facilitating its remediation when contaminated. Moreover, the unique stress-resilient traits found in extremophilic fungi, including their novel molecular mechanisms 11 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 and genes encoding stress-related proteins and extremoenzymes that help alleviate various stresses in other organisms, offer promising avenues for genetic transfer to crop plants 35 , 36 . This transfer would confer enhanced stress tolerance in crops, providing a robust defense against the environmental stresses associated with global climate change. Thus, exploiting the adaptive capabilities of extremophilic fungi could transform agricultural practices and foster sustainable food production on a global scale.

In contrast, extremotolerant fungi, while capable of surviving in harsh conditions, do not necessarily grow or metabolize optimally under such stresses 12 . These fungi are also tolerant to various extreme conditions like high temperatures, UV radiation, and desiccation, yet they are often found in a wide range of environments, not exclusively in extreme ones. This adaptability is largely due to their ability to switch on their stress response mechanisms only when needed, conserving energy and resources during less challenging periods. Polyextremotolerant fungi, in particular, demonstrate a remarkable capacity to adapt to multiple types of extreme environments, reflecting their versatility (reviewed in ref. 12 ). However, in their native extreme environments, both extremotolerant and extremophilic fungi tend to exhibit slower growth rates due to the demanding nature of these habitats. Interestingly, when placed in more favorable conditions, some of these fungi can significantly accelerate their growth rates, highlighting their latent potential for exploitation in more benign agricultural settings. This dual ability to endure extremes while also adapting to moderate conditions emphasizes the strategic advantage of extremotolerant fungi in developing environmentally friendly agricultural practices.

Recently, our research group published a comprehensive review that provided a variety of examples to illustrate the ecological functions of extremotolerant and extremophilic fungi, with a particular emphasis on their use as plant probiotics (reviewed in ref. 37 ). Additionally, the review briefly touched upon ongoing projects that aim to harness the capabilities of these fungi to develop innovative biofertilizers 37 . In the end, we outlined a viewpoint on the significance of conducting a thorough examination of the molecular mechanisms that facilitate the interactions between plants and extremophilic/extremotolerant fungi in extreme ecosystems. Nevertheless, our previous published review fails to offer a comprehensive perspective on this subject 37 (refer to the subsequent section), rendering this in-depth analysis a unique feature of the current review.

Here, we identify some areas that warrant further investigation to explore neglected aspects in the field of study. Additionally, we address some crucial factors that should be taken into account when considering extremophilic fungi as essential tools to develop plant probiotics. Even so, we equally caution against the potential threat posed by some of these fungi: their possible dual role as both biological control agents and opportunistic pathogens of mammals. Finally, we advocate for performing field-level investigations in long-term trials to fully explore these extremophiles’ true potential. These two critical aspects represent a distinctive focus of the current Perspectives, addressing gaps from our previous work 37 .

Box 1. Agroecosystem models for the future I: Olive groves and plant probiotic-extremophilic fungi

Although they have already begun to be impacted at a global scale by extreme environmental conditions, traditional agroecosystems will be impacted even more in the coming years. The new environmental circumstances will impose further challenges to designing novel plant probiotics. One major bottleneck in this quest is testing their performance under field conditions 10 . On the opposite side, many microbial strains are prematurely discarded because of their poor performance in vitro 93 .

A few proposals have been advanced to select the best PGPM to be applied in the field 94 . Nevertheless, the ultimate decision still relies on the analysis of results obtained from longitudinal field- studies. Thus, to select the best candidates among many extremophilic/extremotolerant fungi as plant probiotics we propose conducting long-term field trials on olive groves ( Olea europaea L. subsp. europaea ), as model agroecosystems for the future agriculture.

Olive groves dominate the landscapes of the Mediterranean Basin, where drought episodes are increasingly frequent and severe 95 . Different varieties of olive trees have evolved there for centuries under poly-stressful conditions: extreme soil oligotrophy, water scarcity, and wide temperature fluctuation across the year, among others. On the other hand, olive trees are frequently challenged by Verticillium dahlia and Xylella fastidiosa 96 , 97 , 98 , two pathogenic fungi that cause severe plant damage and significant economic losses in Italy and Spain 98 .

Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) are crucial in alleviating water scarcity in olive trees. Indeed, mycorrhized trees can withstand at least 40 days without irrigation because the osmotic response of the plant is faster than recorded in non-mycorrhizal trees, due to proline accumulation and an improved stomatal conductance 99 , 100 , 101 . The fungi that colonize the roots of olive trees are specific to the soil in which they grow, producing a more efficient plant-fungus symbiosis 102 , 103 . Therefore, olive groves represent a favorable setting to test new plant probiotics.

Interrogating the olive tree-extremophilic fungi symbiosis before implementing fungal probiotics in crop fields can help us answering interesting questions like: How do these extremophilic fungi elicit plant mechanisms to overcome water scarcity and other abiotic stresses? In the specific case of AMF, important questions also arise: Do these symbiotic relationships also trigger immune-type reactions in the plant that benefit both organisms? Is the secretion of exudates by mycorrhizal roots different depending on the type of fungus or the type of soil in which they grow? Do these exudates aim to attract extremophilic fungi to carry out symbiosis, or could they also be beneficial substances that prevent or attenuate other types of stresses, such as water scarcity? Does a AMF-colonized plant develop some memory to promote mycorrhization with other species of fungi? Could a mycorrhized plant develop a memory that defends it against future drought episodes? Does the benefit occur exclusively because the water absorption area is more significant as the plant is mycorrhized? Is it the fungus or the plant (or both) responsible for altering the composition of the rhizosphere?

Addressing these questions could help us updating agricultural practices to enhance olive crop resilience and productivity. Understanding these symbiotic mechanisms opens new avenues for sustainable agriculture, especially in arid and semi-arid regions facing climate change challenges.

Box 2. Agroecosystem models for the future II: Quinoa cultivation in the Bolivian Altiplano and fungal plant probiotics

Quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa , Willd.) is a high-quality protein pseudocereal originating in the Andean region, whose main virtue as a food crop lies in its remarkable nutritional profile 104 . Quinoa contains higher amounts of protein, lipids, calcium, iron, zinc, and magnesium than regular cereals. These are among the reasons why the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) considers quinoa essential to eradicate hunger, malnutrition and poverty 105 .

Still considered an underutilized crop, quinoa is expected to contribute to food security under current and future climate scenarios, because it can grow on arid, saline and nutrient deficient soils which, in addition, contain sand and volcanic ash, and low levels of organic matter (around 0.7%). Quinoa grows also at high altitudes (from 3600 to 4800 meters above sea level), under severe water scarcity (annual precipitation between 60 and 270 mm) and high Evapotranspiration Potential (between 357 mm and 577 mm). Finally, quinoa tolerates wide daily temperature ranges (between −11 °C and − 30 °C), and periodic frosting episodes (between 160 and 257 annually) 106 . These characteristics justify the proposal of quinoa as a model crop for tomorrow’s agriculture 107 .

Some quinoa-microbe interactions improve grain yields, and are especially relevant for quinoa cultivation expansion to different agronomical areas elsewhere in the world 105 . For instance, native strains of Azotobacter spp., Bacillus spp., Flavobacterium spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Rhizobium spp. have been isolated from farmer plots in Bolivia. Some of these strains are tolerant to extreme environmental conditions, can fix nitrogen and solubilize phosphorus, and produce secondary metabolites able to promote quinoa growth 108 . Even though quinoa-colonizing fungi have received much lesser attention, various Trichoderma species have been isolated from quinoa plants grown in traditional lands 108 , 109 , 110 . A few endophytici fungi, mainly belonging to the genera Fusarium , Penicillium and Phoma well known for alleviating abiotic stresses in other plant species, have also been detected in the root tissues of quinoa plants 110 .

Plant probiotics developed with some of the abovementioned strains have been tested in the greenhouse and also under field conditions to validate their utility. The resulting products, well adapted to the soils surrounding Uyuni salt flat, have been certified and included in a crop management strategy and are now commercialized and available to farmers growing organic quinoa 108 . Nonetheless, research on this largely unexplored microbial biodiversity remains marginal, with almost nothing known yet concerning quinoa-associated extremophilic/extremotolerant fungi. Thus, there is plenty of room to test the potential of extremophilic fungi on quinoa growth and development in long-term assays, under extreme conditions in real-world settings.

Knowledge gaps in the study of the interactions between plants and extremophilic fungi: a perspective analysis

Despite years of successful agricultural application of PGP bacteria, many bacteria-plant interaction mechanisms remain poorly understood (i.e., bacteria-mediated plant-epigenome modifications, bacterial inheritance via seeds, bacteria-virus interactions in soil and plants, potential effects of extracellular bacterial granules, secreted metabolites involved in the interspecies interaction, plant-microorganism signaling pathways, regulation of gene expression in plant stress responses, among others). In the case of fungi, the paucity of comprehension of the crosstalk mechanisms between microorganisms and plants is even more significant. Species of the genus Trichoderma are the most studied fungi concerning their beneficial interactions with different types of plants 38 . A closer look at these interactions has enabled the depiction of important molecular and cellular mechanisms that govern the fungal colonization of roots, the endophytic behavior of some fungal species, and the repertoire of molecules that participate in the crosstalk between both partners, among other processes. However, numerous mechanisms still need to be studied, particularly in the case of (poly) extremophilic fungi. Understanding their significance during the interaction between these fungi and their plant hosts (Fig.  1 ) will unquestionably lead to a more rational design of novel fungal plant probiotics under the current global change scenario.

These interactions occur at the phyllospheric, endospheric, and rhizospheric compartments and are discussed in detail in the main text. Eighteen subjects, including some molecular and cellular mechanisms, were identified and proposed as crucial to be explored in depth to understand these interactions. These subjects, presented here in a visual form, are: i) phyllosphere : presence/functions of ExF ; ii) endosphere : plant epigenome modulation mediated by ExF , vertical inheritance of ExF , stem colonization by ExF , spatial distribution of ExF , microbial trafficking through ExF hyphae; iii) rhizosphere : ExF colonization and root exudates, ExF functions in biogeochemical cycles, interactions of ExF with the native soil microbiome and potential disturbances arising from such interactions, molecular cross-talk between ExF and native soil microbiome, outcomes of stressful conditions in ExF physiology, production and release of extracellular fungal vesicles (DNA/RNA/protein loaded), activation of repressed biosynthetic gene clusters, production of mycotoxins and emergence of extant plant pathogens. Digging into such subjects is critical to producing the fundamental knowledge needed to assist in rationally developing agricultural plant probiotics from (poly)extremophilic fungi in light of present and future global change scenarios.

Within the context of microbial ecology and evolution, the roles played by pathogens and mutualists must be thoroughly reconsidered, particularly from the perspective of symbiotic relationships. Indeed, some symbioses established between microbes and plants can result in either mutually beneficial or detrimental effects, depending on factors like the environment and the life stage of the plants. However, there are still limitations in understanding how the continuum approach is applied to host-microbe pairs across different environmental and ecological conditions (reviewed in ref. 39 ). Still, we know that variations of the environmental conditions prevailing in a given agroecosystem can lead to changes in soil microbiomes’ composition, structure, and functioning (= dysbiosis) 40 , 41 . The consequences of this phenomenon on the ecological services provided by a microbial community may be severe. Microbial dysbiosis may induce, for instance, some microbiome members to occupy different ecological niches. The most feared of these unexpected consequences in an agroecosystem is likely the switch from commensalism or mutualism to pathogenicity. By facilitating the emergence of new pathogenic strains and altering host-pathogen interactions and evolution, climate change exacerbates the dangers of outbreaks 42 . Therefore, further studies are urgently required to investigate the impact of global change, and specifically climate change, on the fungal populations present in the rhizosphere, endosphere, and phyllosphere of plants growing in extreme habitats and their potential as novel phytopathogens. The scientific value of this hypothesis is growing in the context of global change (see next section).

The fluxes associated with carbon metabolism in soil microbiomes may also be altered by dysbiotic events, induced by extreme environmental conditions. New metabolic functions might emerge, ultimately leading to a modification of the microbial metabolism in the soil, all of which may adversely affect the rates at which organic matter is turned over in soil ecosystems. Thus, it is necessary to conduct long-term mesocosm experiments to gain a better understanding of the types of microbial interactions and host-microbial associations that may occur in future soils 39 , 43 , and how, within the context of biogeochemical cycles, these microbial relationships could modify the recycling of organic matter and the metabolic fluxes in the soil.

The idea of microbial consortia as the functional workforce of the rhizosphere, examined recently by Williams et al. 44 , should be thoroughly understood to design new plant probiotics to increase food production in the era of global change. Toward reaching this goal, we must first fully comprehend the complicated interactions between extremophilic fungi and other members of the soil microbiome not only in terms of the microbial associations established in the soil, but also at the phyllosphere, rhizosphere, and endophyte levels. Thus, in-depth investigations of the intricate dynamics within the soil microbiome are required.

Extremophilic fungi’s hyphae could play a crucial role in transporting both helpful and harmful microorganisms to the rhizosphere of plants, i.e . microbial trafficking through hyphal highways. How extreme environmental conditions will determine which microbial populations would be attracted to plants—and thus determine which ecological functions will be promoted or disfavored—must be investigated. The nature of the interactions taking place between native archaeal, bacterial, and fungal populations and the newly introduced fungal probiotics in an agroecosystem also represents a gap that should be investigated. In addition, we need to fully understand the processes that mediate how extremophilic fungi colonize the plant’s stem, leaves, and roots, and how they are assisted in this process by the soil- or plant microbiota.

At present, we know little or almost nothing about the relationships established between fungi and their viruses in soil 45 . We know, for instance, that viruses linked to extremophilic fungi can significantly affect plant physiology and survival under stressful conditions, alleviating the impact of a specific abiotic stress 46 . Even though it is almost certain that fungal plant probiotics will also interact with the soil virome, biology inadequately covers these interactions and their biological significance. For example, it is unknown how viruses can infect plant probiotic fungi and how viral populations change over time due to a molecular link with fungi. All these gaps need to be comprehended urgently, including the possibility to genetically manipulating mycobiomes and viromes, which appears as an exciting avenue to explore.

While our understanding of the role played by the epigenetic machinery in modulating the plant’s response to environmental stresses is increasingly growing, less attention has been given to the role of epigenetics in establishing and regulating beneficial interactions between plants and other organisms (reviewed in refs. 47 , 48 ). Recent studies have emphasized the significance of DNA methylation in symbiotic and commensal interactions. However, comprehensive and consistent information regarding the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in mycorrhizal symbiosis is scarce 48 . Investigating the modifications induced in the plant epigenome by the microbial partners colonizing the rhizosphere, the endosphere, and the phyllosphere is imperative, particularly in the case of extremophilic fungi. Further investigations are required to comprehend the molecular interdependencies among various regulatory layers and the influence of naturally occurring epigenetic variations in plants on their interactions with other organisms.

The production of extracellular vesicles by extremophilic fungi could be one of the primary mechanisms enabling them to modify the genetic expression of their plant hosts 49 , 50 . These vesicles can contain non-coding RNAs, such as lncRNA and microRNA, which could alter plants’ transcriptional and protein expression profiles, altering, in turn, their resilience towards environmental challenges. On the other hand, vesicles containing DNA or proteins may also significantly determine how plants respond to stressors; thus, they may contribute to the expression of resistance mechanisms against biotic and abiotic stresses. We must, therefore, dig into how the environmental -(poly)-extreme- conditions prevalent in agroecosystems could also influence the production of fungal extracellular vesicles, modify their content, and consequently, influence the type of epigenetic regulation that fungi can trigger on their plant hosts.

The metabolism of extremophilic fungi is extraordinarily versatile, highly flexible, and adaptable, and it is influenced by environmental conditions 28 , 51 , 52 . Owing to these features, extremophilic fungi provide many valuable ecological services—for instance, degradation and recycling of soil´s organic matter—by producing extracellular enzymes such as cellulases, hemicellulases, peroxidases, proteases, or amylases, and other stress-tolerant proteins (i.e., hydrophobins), adapted to extreme pH, temperature, salinity, and low water activity conditions, among others (reviewed in ref. 53 ). In global change scenarios, we must examine the possible metabolic changes that extremophilic fungal ecotypes will experience and how these changes might impact biogeochemical cycles, nutrient mobilization, and further improve soil health.

Secondary metabolism also plays a crucial role in modulating the interactions of fungi with their plant hosts. Environmental conditions influence the expression of numerous clusters of fungal biosynthetic genes 54 , many of which could be essential for promoting plant health and growth 55 . The aforementioned becomes pertinent in a context of global change, if we consider that environmental conditions that induce microbial stress may promote the expression of dormant biosynthetic genes and enable the synthesis of metabolites possessing unique chemical structures and, consequently, functions unknown in the interplay between fungi and plants. How the produced metabolites will interfere with the promotion of plant growth, how will these metabolites contribute to reprogramming metabolic processes that affect or improve the plant’s physiology, and how will these metabolites influence the soil microbiota, among other questions, must be answered to consider the formulation of new fungal plant probiotics. It is foreseeable that beneficial crosstalk between extremophilic fungi and plants would result in plant transcriptional reprogramming, activating numerous host genes associated with resistance to fungal pathogens, insect pests, and drought, among other desired effects. Particular attention should be devoted to understanding the molecular changes occurring in plants when colonized by extremophilic fungal endophytes and how these changes relate to the control of microbial metabolism at various levels.

A relatively new and insufficiently explored area pertains to the study of metabolic remodeling of plants when colonized by beneficial microorganisms. Studying these interactions between plants and extremophilic fungi, under conditions of biotic and abiotic stress, provides unique opportunities to unravel the secrets behind these interactions. The acquired knowledge will be highly significant in future agricultural scenarios, where the plant’s metabolism could be altered by both extreme conditions—resulting from global change—and the introduction of unconventional plant probiotics, such as those containing extremophilic fungi.

How extreme conditions will affect the production of mycotoxins by toxin-producing fungi 56 is an additional significant challenge that must be addressed. In addition to studying this particular aspect, the use of fungal plant probiotics in the context of global change will also require the implementation of new analytical technologies to identify and quantify these mycotoxins, as well as to develop new laboratory assays to demonstrate their biological activity and estimate their risks.

We must also learn how extremophilic fungi, including filamentous and yeast-like species, can thrive and proliferate in various soil environments. Toward this goal, we envisage it will be necessary to conduct mesocosm experiments, simulating current and more extreme environmental conditions, to investigate the impact of changes in soil properties (including moisture, particle aggregation, porosity, nutrient availability, pH, oxygen availability, or presence of emerging micropollutants, among others), on the establishment, survival, persistence, and performance of exogenous plant probiotic extremophilic fungi.

Lastly, we also identified other topics that should be addressed, such as the existence of spatial profiles of fungal colonization concerning different plant organs; the mechanisms enabling the vertical transmission of extremophilic fungi through seeds, ensuring their inheritance across filial generations; the impact of biofertilizers containing extremophilic fungi on the molecular crosstalk in the rhizosphere; the significant consequences on the microbiota and the plant with regards to cell signaling induced by fungal plant probiotics under extreme conditions; the possibility that obligate extremophilic fungi could establish mycorrhizal symbiosis; and the role of the extremophilic members of the soil and plant microbiome in establishing ecologically relevant symbiotic relationships, known and unexplored, among others.

Biocontrollers and opportunistic pathogens: The danger beneath two-faced traits

As said before, extremotolerant and extremophilic fungi are promising alternatives to manage the diseases or damages caused to crops by pathogens, pests, and herbivores on a warming planet. Alas, a kingdom-wide phylogenetic analysis suggests significant co-occurrences of opportunistic and biocontrol traits at the level of fungal orders 57 . In other words, some of the traits relevant for microbial antagonism towards plant-pathogens (= biocontrol) may also play a role in mammalian opportunism, making using extremophilic fungi for biotechnological purposes risky.

This hypothesis is well illustrated by the example of the closely related species Aureobasidium pullulans and Aureobasidium melanogenum : they are both remarkably poly-extremotolerant, being able to multiply under hypersaline (3.0 M NaCl), acidic/basic pH (3–10), low temperature (4 °C), and oligotrophic conditions 58 . On the other hand, they are markedly different: A. pullulans is currently considered safe from an animal health perspective and can be used to control plant pathogens. That is why commercial A. pullulans -based biocontrol agents (e.g., Blossom Protect®, Boni Protect®, AureoGold®) are available to prevent preharvest and postharvest fruit and vegetable diseases. However, A. melanogenum causes human opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients, in part due to its ability to grow at 37 °C 59 . Unfortunately, due to the recent redefinition of Aureobasidium species, distinguishing between A. pullulans and A. melanogenum is often impossible 60 .

Other examples of poly-extremotolerant fungal species, proposed as potential biocontrollers but also shown to behave as opportunistic pathogens under various environmental conditions, are the halophilic yeast Debaryomyces hansenii , the neurotropic black yeast Exophiala dermatitidis , the thermotolerant yeast Meyerozyma guilliermondii , and the pink/red pigmented widely distributed yeast Rhodotorula mucilaginosa (reviewed in ref. 58 ).

Based on the facts mentioned above, plus other experimental evidence, Zajc et al. 58 . noticed an overlap between traits associated with opportunism and traits desirable for biocontrol purposes. The authors proposed that thermotolerance, oligotrophism, siderophore production at 37 °C, urease activity, melanization, and biofilm formation (all traits considered beneficial for biocontrol purposes) are also characteristics that increase the likelihood that fungi will cause opportunistic infections in mammals. In the present work, we extended this hypothesis by adding a few additional mechanisms and updating the position of others (Fig.  2 ). On the side of biocontrol desired traits, these newly added mechanisms include cellulase/hemicellulase and pectinase production 61 , 62 . On the side of “two-faced traits”, we added biosynthesis of volatile compounds 63 , 64 , capsule synthesis 65 , 66 , protease/gelatinase activity 67 , 68 , and quorum sensing 69 , 70 .

Three types of traits are presented: i) traits desirable for the biocontrol of plant pathogens; ii) traits involved in pathogenesis in animals and humans; and, iii) two-faced traits, displayed by pathogenic fungi and also relevant for biocontrol.

In the current perspectives we placed thermotolerance in the intersection of both types of traits (“two-faced traits”), considering that in a warming planet, this ability will be crucial for biocontrollers to act efficiently in the field. As various studies have shown, fungi can readily acquire thermotolerance without requiring extensive genomic mutations to develop this complex phenotype. For example, experimental evolution studies allowed to develop thermotolerant strains of Metarhizium anisopliae , a versatile entomopathogenic fungus with significant biotechnological potential for biocontrol. The temperature-adapted variants grew better at higher temperatures, resulting in enhanced biological control efficacy 71 . However, this study left unanswered questions regarding whether the increased pathogenicity was directly linked to the thermotolerant phenotype.

Unfortunately, the available evidence shows that thermotolerance in extremotolerant or extremophilic fungi with biocontrol activities would act as an additional virulence factor in the event of becoming pathogenic. As previously noticed by Casadevall 72 , fungal adaptation to higher temperatures is one of the most important factors explaining the emergence of new fungal pathogens, like Candida auris . Even though the origin and emergence of C. auris remain unclear due to limited knowledge of its ecology and distribution, a working hypothesis suggests it may be the first fungal disease linked to global warming 73 . The recent isolation of C. auris from samples collected in the coastal wetlands of the tropical Andaman Islands, India, supports this idea, indicating that the pathogen can persist in the environment and that human infections could stem from environmental sources 74 .

Besides C. auris , other fungal pathogens have surfaced, leading to notable outbreaks that correlate with climate change 75 , 76 , 77 . For instance, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , an aquatic chytrid fungus, is a pathogen that has emerged as a significant threat to amphibian diversity in Australia, North America, and South America, especially in areas undergoing warming trends 78 . This fungal pathogen is increasingly prevalent in tropical regions, where higher temperatures enhance its pathogenic fitness 79 , 80 . Cryptococcus deuterogattii is also a thermotolerant fungus that has emerged in temperate regions of western Canada and the Pacific Northwest of North America, leading to numerous infections in humans and animals 81 . This species demonstrates a notable level of thermotolerance compared to other members of the C. gattii complex 82 .

Rhodotorula mucilaginosa , is another thermotolerant basidiomycetous yeast, able to tolerate a wide temperature range from near freezing to human body temperature 83 , 84 . The species has been found in various environments such as cold and hypersaline conditions, but is also present in plant surfaces, uranium mineral heaps, acidic and oligotrophic settings and contaminated water sources (reviewed in ref. 51 ). Despite its potential use as a biocontrol agent for fruit preservation, and a plant probiotic 25 , 85 , R. mucilaginosa is considered as an emerging opportunistic pathogen, capable of causing severe infections in humans 86 . Similarly, Meyerozyma guilliermondii , formerly known as Pichia guilliermondii , is a versatile and thermotolerant yeast, capable of growing at 40 °C 87 , 88 . Although it can act as an antagonist of some fungal pathogens 89 , it also behaves as an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised individuals, causing skin lesions and osteomyelitis 87 , 89 .

Climate change has also been proposed as a catalyst for the emergence of new thermotolerant and virulent fungal lineages. For example, Puccinia striiformis , the etiologic agent of the most devastating global wheat disease, is increasingly prevalent in warmer regions. Indeed, some thermotolerant variants of P. striiformis have emerged in recent years, expanded into new geographical areas and are more virulent than the original strains 90 . Fusarium graminearum , a mycotoxigenic species and significant phytopathogen for cereal crops, has also emerged as a pathogen in warm agroecosystems. This species is highly thermotolerant, and produces increased amounts of mycotoxins at high temperatures and under water scarcity conditions 91 . Some researchers suggest that F. graminearum has expanded its range into warmer environments due to global warming 92 . Likewise, climate change seems to have influenced the distribution of other fungal pathogens, including Coccidioides immitis , the thermotolerant Apophysomyces trapeziformis , and other soil-borne fungi such as Talaromyces marneffei , Blastomyces , Histoplasma , and Paracoccidioides 75 , 76 .

In summary, there seems to be little doubt that the emergence of thermotolerant variants of some fungal species, exhibiting significantly different disease profiles from those currently recognized 75 , 76 , is related to climate change and represents a potential threat to human and animal health. However, as we said before there is a growing need for thermotolerant fungi able to thrive and support crop production under elevated temperatures. Therefore, as we explore using extremophilic and thermotolerant fungi for sustainable agriculture in a warming world, it is crucial also to carefully assess and manage the potential risks associated with their (potential) pathogenicity and ensure a balanced approach towards their utilization in agricultural practices.

Final comments

Fungal plant probiotics and extremotolerance: navigating alternate routes for sustainable agronomy in the era of global warming.

Despite the commercial success of bacterial PGPM, fungi remain comparatively understudied, even though they display unique attributes and remarkable plant growth-promoting functions. This lack of information, even more pronounced when considering extremophilic and extremotolerant fungi, is striking if one considers their remarkable potential as plant probiotics for a warming planet. Indeed, in the face of the formidable challenges posed by global climate change, the need for sustainable agricultural practices and innovative solutions is paramount. Within this context, both extremophilic and extremotolerant fungi are notable for their ability to endure extreme environmental conditions and to promote plant growth, through direct and indirect mechanisms. Thus, using plant probiotics based on PGP-extremophilic fungi emerges as a green paradigm offering multifaceted contributions to plant well-being and environmental resilience.

However, the interactions between plants and extremophilic fungi still need to be explored, highlighting a crucial research gap. Therefore, comprehensive investigations into the underlying fungus-plant interaction mechanisms are imperative for successfully developing and deploying plant probiotics. Integrating advanced ‘omics’ technologies, including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, can help us better understanding the biotechnological potential of extremotolerant fungi and could clear the way for precision agriculture. In addition, a paradigm shift from single-strain probiotics to synergistic consortia—known as Synthetic Communities (SynComs)—, is also needed to take profit of the remarkable versatility exhibited by fungi in controlling various plant stresses and pests.

As we tread into this exciting frontier, caution is warranted. In the face of global change, the critical importance of thermotolerance in developing biocontrol agents is evident. As temperatures rise, the safe and efficient operation of extremophilic fungi becomes imperative. However, the potential adaptation of these fungi to higher temperatures introduces a need for vigilant strain selection and continuous monitoring to mitigate the risk of unintended pathogenicity.

In summary, throughout this perspective article, we insist on the urgent need to turn our attention to this fascinating group of microorganisms and join efforts to address major gaps in our current understanding of the mechanisms driving fungal-plant interactions, particularly in extreme environments. Thanks to these collective actions, we believe we will contribute to ensuring the success of sustainable agricultural practices, and to warrant food security in a planet increasingly facing extreme climatic conditions. The untapped biotechnological potential of extremophilic fungi holds one of the keys to reaching these goals.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are extremely grateful to Yusleidy Llerena-Fernández for her assistance in the graphic design of the figures included in this manuscript. AGC acknowledges the assistance provided by the Deans of the Faculty of Health Sciences (Dr. Mario Uffre) and Faculty of Science (José Ferreira) at the Autonomous University of Santo Domingo (UASD), Dominican Republic. AGC also expresses his gratitude to the Vice-Rector for Research and Postgraduate Studies (Dr. Radhamés Silverio) of UASD for his support of this work. Authors declare that QuillBot and ChatGPT were used to improve the English style in certain selected paragraphs. This work was supported by Fondo Nacional de Innovación y Desarrollo Científico-Tecnológico (FONDOCYT), Ministerio de Educación Superior, Ciencia y Tecnología (MESCYT), Government of Dominican Republic: Project COD. 2022-2B2-078. This work was supported by Darwin Initiative Round 27: Partnership Project DARPP220, and Darwin Initiative Round 30: Project DIR30S2/1004. This study was also supported by funding from the Slovenian Research Agency to Infrastructural Center Mycosmo (MRIC UL, I0-0022), programs P4-0432 and P1-0198. Authors appreciate the support received from the European Commission–Program H2020, Project GEN4OLIVE: 101000427, Topic SFS-28-2018-2019-2020 Genetic resources and pre-breeding communities. RAB-G received a Sabbatical fellowship (CVU: 389616) from the National Council of Humanities, Sciences and Technologies (CONAHCyT), Government of Mexico. This work was supported by RYC2022-037554-I project funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and FSE +.

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L.A.Y.-R. and R.A.B.-G. conceived and designed this work and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. J.C.-J., A.G.-C., and A.M.F.-O. prepared text boxes. P.E.A.-G., A.G.-C., J.C.-J., A.M.F.-O., L.A.Y.-R., and R.A.B.-G. prepared and edited the figures. N.G.-C. participated in writing the first draft of the manuscript and with L.A.Y.-R., R.A.B.-G., and P.E.A.-G. edited the final version. All authors commented on the figures and previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Yarzábal Rodríguez, L.A., Álvarez Gutiérrez, P.E., Gunde-Cimerman, N. et al. Exploring extremophilic fungi in soil mycobiome for sustainable agriculture amid global change. Nat Commun 15 , 6951 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51223-x

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New quality productivity and industrial structure in china: the moderating effect of environmental regulation.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 2.1. literature on new quality productivity and industrial structure, 2.2. literature on environmental regulation and industrial structure, 3. theoretical analysis and hypothesis development, 3.1. the connotation of new quality productivity, 3.2. analysis of the mechanism between new quality productivity and industrial structure, 3.3. analysis of the mechanism of new quality productivity, environmental regulation and industrial structure, 4. methods and data, 4.1. construction and measurement of new quality productivity index system, 4.1.1. construction of new quality productivity index system, 4.1.2. measurement of new quality productivity index system, 4.2. variable selection specification, 4.3. econometric modeling, 5. results and discussion, 5.1. analysis of the results of the neoplasm productivity measurements, 5.1.1. overall analysis of new quality productivity measurement results, 5.1.2. analysis of new quality productivity measurement results in different dimensions, 5.2. benchmark regression and robustness test results, 5.3. endogeneity issues and robustness tests, 5.4. moderating effects test of environmental regulation, 6. conclusions and prospect, 6.1. conclusions, 6.2. prospect, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Shao, C.; Dong, H.; Gao, Y. New Quality Productivity and Industrial Structure in China: The Moderating Effect of Environmental Regulation. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 6796. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166796

Shao C, Dong H, Gao Y. New Quality Productivity and Industrial Structure in China: The Moderating Effect of Environmental Regulation. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):6796. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166796

Shao, Changhua, Han Dong, and Yuan Gao. 2024. "New Quality Productivity and Industrial Structure in China: The Moderating Effect of Environmental Regulation" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 6796. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166796

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How Access to Solar Energy can economically empower women in Guinea-Bissau

August 9, 2024.

Head of Solutions Mapping

Aunt Npili an elder from the village of Cobiana in Guiné-Bissau

Aunt Npili, a woman from the small village of Cobiana, nestled in the region of Cacheu. Cobiana is a protected area overseen by the Institute of Biodiversity and Protected Areas (IBAP). The village, comprising five small neighborhoods spread over a 7 km radius, is home to around 500 people, with women making up just over half of the population. In her lifetime, Aunt Npili has toiled to extract palm oil, pick cashew nuts, gather fruits such as foli, and craft brooms sold in the Senegalese market. Her work, like that of many other women in Cobiana, is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and often detrimental to both health and the environment. The village's water sources are either dried up or contaminated, forcing residents to collect wood and boil water for safe drinking, a task that consumes time and energy.

Our journey to Cobiana was challenging; heavy rains had blocked both roads leading to the village, underscoring the isolation and vulnerability of this community. In emergencies, this inaccessibility poses a significant threat to the villagers' safety and well-being. Cobiana lacks a real economy, with most production aimed at personal sustenance. The absence of electricity hampers market access and stifles economic growth. During our djumbai (informal gathering) with the village women, we explored the potential of solar energy to improve their lives and economic growth. Our objective is to understand how access to solar energy can improve their livelihoods and empower them through economic activities.    

Blocked road into Cobiana, due to heavy rains.

Background  

In Guinea-Bissau, only 35.76% of the population has access to energy, with most of this limited resource concentrated in the capital, Bissau. For those living in rural areas, the situation is even more dire, as they face significant challenges due to the lack of reliable energy sources. This stark disparity is compounded by the country's underdeveloped infrastructure, making energy access and usage even more difficult.

Energy access is crucial for the health and well-being of Guinea-Bissau's population, especially for women. The absence of energy forces women into strenuous domestic labor, posing severe health risks and leaving them with little time for education, economic activities, or family care. Our project is grounded in the belief that providing sustainable energy solutions can transform this dynamic. By introducing individual solar grids, we aim to free up time for women, allowing them to pursue educational and entrepreneurial opportunities, thereby supporting Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5) on gender equality.

Implementing sustainable energy sources not only improves women's health and well-being but also reduces deforestation and helps mitigate climate change. While energy access alone won't solve all challenges, it lays the foundation for economic opportunities that can uplift entire communities. Women, often the primary breadwinners, stand to benefit immensely, and in turn, so do their families and communities.

Design Thinking questionnaire to further our understanding regarding energy use in Cobiana.

How Might We Economically Empower Women of the Cacheu Region Through Access to Solar Energy?

Through the Accelerator Lab learning cycle, we are testing a hypothesis: 

IF women in Cacheu have access to solar energy, THEN traditional harmful and time-consuming practices they engage in will become less strenuous, freeing up time for them to participate in economic activities that can boost the local economy.

Exploring Cobiana: Understanding Energy Perceptions and Economic Activities

Our first exploration visits to Cobiana aimed to understand the current perception of energy, existing economic activities, and interactions between the neighborhoods from an ethnographic perspective. We used three main methodologies:

1.    Behavioral Analysis: We observed behaviors without direct engagement to map common practices. 2.    Design Thinking Questionnaire: We explored energy use and current practices, focusing on women (70F/30M) and potential economic activities. 3.    Focus Groups: We gathered input from the entire population on the best ways to use energy and what is currently being done. The focus groups were later divided into female and male groups for more in-depth conversations.  

Solar powered radio used by the youth in the village of Cobiana.

Key Insights from Phase 1 Exploration

The three methodologies we used to understand the existing dynamics of energy use were enlightening. They confirmed several assumptions from our behavioral observations, such as the fact that women primarily handle domestic labour and that the community recognizes the value of solar energy, evidenced by small solar panels in every household. However, some crucial insights emerged only through deeper one-on-one conversations and gender-divided focus groups. Here are the main insights we discovered:

⦁    Knowledge : Despite never having full access to energy, communities understand its benefits. Every household had one or two small solar panels for small lights, hand lanterns, speakers, and power banks. Admittedly, they mentioned that it was impossible for them to come up with new activities that could benefit from energy, given that they had never had access to it in the first place.

⦁    Culture and Tradition : Cultural and traditional influences impact how the community interacts with electricity. For instance, ancestors visiting the community do not want to see electricity, highlighting the need for an "on/off" button for installed systems.

⦁    Trust : Previous failed projects have led to a lack of trust in external initiatives. The community values collective ownership and follow-through.

⦁    Maintenance and Security : The community is willing to contribute to the maintenance of solar panels and economic activities, emphasizing the importance of co-designing structures to ensure longevity.  

Community members making their way to the focus group discussions.

What Have We Learned?

For the project to be sustainable, it must consider the key components raised by the village population. Local expertise is essential for ensuring community ownership of the project and understanding the need for economic activities to maintain the solar panel systems.

An exchange with the Malawi Accelerator Lab and Environment team provided valuable lessons from a similar project. Although the context differed slightly, key takeaways included:

1.    Progress can be slow, but the value of electricity becomes apparent over time. 2.    Identifying champions can encourage others to use energy for economic activities through value chain identification. 3.    Close collaboration with the government can support small changes to improve overall solar energy use.

Youth of Cobiana sharing their experiences on energy use.

The next steps in this learning cycle include mapping existing activities in Cobiana, proposing economic activities that can benefit from solar energy, and collaborating with existing projects like Kau Criar and No Firmanta that focus on economic empowerment and entrepreneurship for vulnerable groups. These projects offer local expertise that can be invaluable in ensuring success in rural communities like Cobiana.

This learning cycle is ongoing, and we will continue to blog about developments in stages.  

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NDC Support Programme impact analysis and methodology development

Procurement process.

RFP - Request for proposal

UNDP-HQ - UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

26-Aug-24 @ 02:00 PM (New York time)

Published on

12-Aug-24 @ 12:00 AM (New York time)

Reference Number

UNDP-HQ-01138

Ahmad Sleiman - [email protected]

Introduction

The objective is to develop one flagship knowledge product, five detailed country case studies and one methodology or framework. Specifically, the service provider is expected to develop the following:

1. One (1) flagship product on the achievements of the NDC SP (estimated 30-40 pages)

·         Objective – To illustrate the outcomes and achievements of NDC SP interventions across all seven key results areas:

o    Review and summarise achievements and outcomes across the 7 result areas both quantitatively (drawing from the Programme’s global results framework) and qualitatively (based on desk reviews, surveys, interviews, and/or other research methods). 

o    Conduct a deep dive analysis into 10-15 countries and select 5 stand-out countriesto be turned into a 4-5-page case studies (separate products - see below).

UNDP will provide the successful bidder with annual progress reports, country products, and other relevant knowledge products to support research and development of this product. Use of data visuals is encouraged.

2. One (1) pilot methodology or framework for assessing how ambitious NDCs contribute to development outcomes (estimated 15-20 pages)

·         Objective: Prepare a short discussion paper that outlines a methodology for assessing how ambitious NDCs contribute to development outcomes and tests the hypothesis for several NDCs:

o    Review ambitious NDCs submitted with programme support;

o    Define methodology for assessing the potential development outcomes of NDCs;

o    Engage governments in select countries to assess how development aspects are being considered and/or measured as part of the NDC revision and/or implementation process.

3. Five (5) products: Country case studies (Each product estimated 4-5 pages)

·         Objective: Showcase cumulative and overall impact of NDC SP work through in-depth country case studies that demonstrate how long-term and responsive/flexible support to countries can increase impact.

o    Identify 5 outstanding country case studies in consultation with UNDP.

o    For each case study, provide an overview of the country context, the decisions used to identify key intervention areas, key results, and how/if sustained support enhanced the impact of Programme results. Good practices and lessons learned should also be documented.

It is expected that all communication with UNDP Country Offices and partner governments will be coordinated for all products in order to minimize information demands. 

Documents :

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Beneath the Surface: Anuj Sanghvi’s Journey From Toy Tinkerer to Cybersecurity Defender

A cybersecurity and resilience researcher recalls how a childhood urge to dismantle his toys led to a career in defending clean energy data from cyberattacks.

Anuj Sanghvi had to train himself for a career in research.

Sanghvi, now a National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) cybersecurity researcher and network security engineer, always knew he wanted to work in engineering. He was one of those children—the ones who take toys and electronics apart to play with the circuit boards.

“It fascinated me how great minds thought these things up and put them together,” Sanghvi recalled. “I had to figure out how they did it and how these things worked.”

Sanghvi’s interest in the way things work led him to study electrical and communications engineering in college in his native India and to an early career as a radio frequency engineer for a satellite broadcasting company in Mumbai.

“I loved the concept of telecommunications,” Sanghvi said. “A signal goes from a television company, transmits content all the way up to a satellite in space, and then gets broadcast to a region in the form of entertainment and information.”

Sanghvi wanted to learn more about networks and communication, so he decided to leave India for the United States, where he earned a Master of Science in electrical and network engineering at San Jose State University. After his first year of grad school, Sanghvi began looking for internships where he could get practical experience applying what he was learning in his classes. He found that opportunity as a network and security engineering intern at NREL during summer 2016.

“NREL needed someone who understood both electrical and networking engineering,” Sanghvi explained. “I didn’t know what NREL did, but I knew I had the knowledge they were looking for.”

During the eight-week internship, Sanghvi set up off-the-shelf cybersecurity devices, along with networking equipment like routers and firewalls, at NREL’s cybersecurity testing facilities.

“In that short time, I gained a deeper understanding of renewable energy and the lab’s mission,” Sanghvi said. “At the end of the internship, my manager offered me a full-time position as a cybersecurity researcher. I finished grad school in 2017, took a few months to recharge, and started my full-time job in early 2018. I’ve been here ever since.”

Research, Sanghvi found, required a subtly different mindset than engineering—a mindset he had to train himself to adopt.

“As an engineer, I completed specific tasks, which usually resulted in clear, expected outcomes,” Sanghvi explained. “As a researcher, I investigate new ways of doing things. I might spend months or years testing a hypothesis, and it might not work—which I had to learn to not take personally. But that’s not to say it was a wasted effort, because I learned something. And at NREL, I get support and encouragement, even when a hypothesis doesn’t work out.”

Now, six years into his role at NREL, Sanghvi occasionally encounters confusion about what his job actually entails.

“If I say I research cybersecurity at NREL, people sometimes think that means I protect NREL from people who want to hack in and steal our research,” Sanghvi said. “My job is to study ways that renewable energy asset owners can protect their digital infrastructure from cyber threats.”

As an engineer, Sanghvi often marvels at the feats of engineering that renewable energy technologies like wind turbines and hydropower dams showcase. As a researcher, he recognizes these facilities’ asset vulnerabilities and how critical it is to fortify them against attacks.

“Sometimes I feel like I’m no one to say that renewable energy facilities installations can be improved, because they were designed by brilliant engineers and some, like hydropower plants, have withstood the test of time,” Sanghvi said. “But many of those facilities were built before the digital age.”

Today, Sanghvi explained, most renewable energy facilities rely on interconnected technologies and digital control systems. This reliance is increasing the complexity of the grid and widening the attack surface, presenting new security questions and new opportunities to implement security and resilience by design.

To address these questions, Sanghvi works to develop strong cybersecurity measures that help maintain a stable, reliable grid and foster confidence in the continued use and growth of renewable energy. He coauthored the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Roadmap for Wind Cyber Security and serves as an organizer of DOE’s Advanced Cybersecurity Technology 1 Prize , which aims to bridge the gap between cybersecurity technical solution providers and under-resourced utility companies.

“Some utilities, especially rural ones, have a staff of maybe five people and limited resources to make cybersecurity upgrades,” Sanghvi said. “This prize will provide funding and technical assistance to help these utilities strengthen their defenses.”

Sanghvi also led recent updates to the Cybersecurity Value-at-Risk Framework (CVF). Developed with funding from DOE’s Water Power Technologies Office, the CVF helps hydropower operators assess their facilities’ cybersecurity risks and select different investments to help improve overall resilience. With these updates, users can now create multiple profiles and facilities within one organization, so they can compare cybersecurity strengths and weaknesses within multiple facilities and make an informed decision at the organizational level.

“I’ve worked on past cybersecurity assessments that were basically a laundry list of measures identified as poorly or insufficiently implemented,” said Sanghvi. “But those assessments were missing a discussion of how difficult or expensive it would be to make improvements to a facility’s cybersecurity practices. The CVF provides that.”

Beyond his work at NREL, Sanghvi describes himself as a beloved husband and says his wife, a family law paralegal, likes to gently rib him for his highly technical job title.

“My wife will ask me, ‘What did you research today?’” Sanghvi joked. “Then, she enjoys hearing about my work while taking a nap.”

Sanghvi also describes himself as “just a regular Indian dude trying to make a living in the United States.”

“I have several friends and family members who immigrated from India to make a life here,” Sanghvi explained. “It’s not an uncommon journey, but it’s also not easy to leave your home behind, take graduate-level courses, find a job in a tough market, and, on top of all that, try to blend into a new culture. Those challenges knock a lot of people out. It is, I think, an underappreciated journey.”

So, what is the secret to Sanghvi’s success?

“I’m an optimistic, resourceful, passionate guy,” Sanghvi said, “and any of my achievements would not have been possible without the support of my family.”

Learn more about how NREL’s experts are helping advance hydropower . And subscribe to the NREL water power newsletter, The Current , for the latest news on NREL's water power research.