essay on benefits of wildlife

The Importance of Wildlife (With Examples)

By: Author Paul Jenkins

Posted on Published: April 25, 2022  - Last updated: July 4, 2023

Categories Entertainment , Inspiration , Society , Travel

Do you like to walk in nature? Do you appreciate the beauty of the animals and plants around you? If so, you should know that wildlife is important. By protecting wildlife, we help protect our environment and all the benefits that come with it. Learn more about the importance of wildlife below.

What Is Wildlife and Why Is It Important?

Wild animals refer to all animals that aren’t domesticated. You can find wild animals in every country in the world and also on every continent. From lions and tigers to hawks and butterflies, there’s a huge variety of wildlife.

The term wildlife can also be applied to any organism that grows or lives wild in an area without being introduced by humans. Thus, wildlife includes not only animals, but also plants, fungi, and microorganisms that live in their natural environment undisturbed by humans.

Wildlife exists all over the world: almost one-third of the Earth’s land area is covered by forests; these provide habitat for much of the world’s wildlife.

Wildlife is an important part of our natural heritage because they play an important role in maintaining healthy ecosystems and provide many boons to humans, such as food, scientific research opportunities, and esthetics.

The Variety of Different Types of Life That Can Be Found on Our Planet

Our natural world consists of a complex system of interactions between different species. The loss or decline of a single species can disrupt this balance and have long-lasting consequences for other species in the region.

This is also true for humans, who depend on healthy ecosystems for food, clean air and water, shelter, and medicines. We don’t yet know how many species there are on Earth and how they interact with each other. Scientists estimate that more than 91% of marine species have yet to be classified!

What we do know is that our actions are impacting wildlife populations around the world and their habitats – our oceans and forests are being destroyed at an alarming rate. Many endangered species of animals and plants are increasingly at risk of extinction due to human activities such as poaching, overfishing, and climate change.

Wildlife Is an Integral Part of Our Ecosystem

Wildlife is an essential part of our ecosystem. Wildlife plays an important role in stabilizing the environment by controlling various factors such as the population of insects and other organisms, soil erosion, and more.

In addition to these major roles, wildlife also plays many other roles that help maintain ecological balance and biodiversity. These other tasks include seed dispersal, pollination of flowers, etc.

So, it can be said that wild animals play a very important role in maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity.

Wildlife Helps Maintain Ecological Balance and Biodiversity

In a world that’s becoming more and more dominated by humans as our population increases, wildlife is important because it helps maintain the ecological balance.

Biodiversity or biological diversity refers to the variety of different types of life found on our planet, including all plants, animals, microorganisms, and other organisms.

Why is it important?

The world’s biodiversity is important for many reasons:

• It provides us with food and water
• it helps maintain a stable climate
• it breaks down waste and recycles nutrients
• It keeps pests under control; It protects against soil erosion and flooding
• It provides raw materials (e.g., wood)
• It provides energy (e.g., fossil fuels)

When a species becomes rare, it can pose a threat to humans because of its lack of genetic diversity. This means that those with high species diversity live longer than those with less species diversity. Predators play an important role in maintaining the ecosystem and keeping it healthy.

Wildlife also play an important role in providing food for us. If we kill most of their livestock and keep only a few domesticated breeds, we risk massive famine in a few years if crops fail for any reason.

Wildlife helps to ensure that we always have something to eat so that our survival doesn’t depend solely on agriculture – that’s why it’s so sad that many species are becoming extinct!

Biodiversity Includes Not Only the Many Species That Exist but Also the Many Ecosystems

Biodiversity includes not only the many species that exist, but also the many ecosystems that make up those species, and the genetic diversity within each species or population.

Genetic diversity is the diversity of genes within a species or population. It’s important because it helps the species adapt to new environmental conditions. The greater the genetic diversity of a species, the more likely it’s to survive and successfully reproduce under new conditions. It’s like having many people with different talents on your team – you’re better positioned to meet any challenge.

The genetic diversity of a species depends on its size – the larger the population, the greater its genetic diversity. This means that some large populations are genetically diverse and can successfully adapt to their environment.

However, this isn’t always the case – some large populations are still endangered! It’s not just about counting species, but also understanding what they’re and how they relate to each other and the environment in which they live.

Many Plants and Animals Have Medicinal Properties

Herbal medicines are the oldest form of medicine known to man. For thousands of years, plants and herbs have been used by almost all civilizations of the world to treat many diseases.

Even today, many people use herbal medicines as the basis for modern medicines. In fact, over 25% of today’s prescription drugs contain at least one herbal ingredient, from digitalis and quinine to morphine and codeine.

Wild Species Play a Role in Pest Control

Wildlife plays an important role in pest control. Pests can damage crops and other plants, resulting in less food for people. Wildlife helps control populations of these pests.

Songbirds, for example, eat insects such as aphids and grasshoppers that harm crops. Some mammals also help reduce populations of white grubs. Insects aren’t the only pests that wildlife control; rodents and rabbits also eat our food crops, but predators like foxes and hawks eat them!

Spiders eat mosquitos. One particular species of spider alone can devour 3,000 mosquitos in a single year! Spiders also eat aphids which can destroy crops like wheat, corn, celery, and more. Frogs gobble up various bugs that would otherwise love to nibble at your favorite flowers on veggies in the garden.

Other examples include ladybugs eating aphids and potato beetles; snakes eating slugs, grubs, and caterpillars; centipedes killing ants; woodpeckers eating wood-boring insects; birds preying on grasshoppers; bats feasting on beetles and moths; dragonflies gobbling mosquitos…the list goes on!

However, we must remember that there are other ways to control pests besides using wildlife. We should never release animals into unfamiliar areas where they could become invasive species or endanger local wildlife populations!

The use of pesticides is another way to eliminate pests, but this is harmful to the environment and surrounding ecosystems and should be used sparingly.

Wildlife Conservation Has Become an Increasingly Important Practice

Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting endangered plant and animal species and their habitats.

The goals of wildlife conservation include preserving nature for future generations and recognizing the importance of wildlife and wilderness to people.

Many countries have government agencies involved in wildlife conservation that help implement wildlife protection measures. Numerous independent nonprofit organizations also work to protect wildlife.

The goal isn’t only a sustainable population, but one that can meet human needs such as food, fuel, clothing, medicine, or other products derived from animals or plants. Some people believe that all living organisms have intrinsic value, while others believe that only humans have intrinsic value (anthropocentrism).

Wildlife conservation has become an increasingly important practice due to the negative effects of human activity on wildlife.

There is also increasing awareness that the globe is undergoing a period of massive extinction of species due to human activities and that wildlife conservation efforts need to be made more effective worldwide.

Wildlife Conservation Helps in Maintaining the Ecological Balance of the Environment

The protection of wildlife is very important because it helps to maintain the ecological balance in the environment.

The domestication of wild plant and animal species for the benefit of humans has occurred throughout the world and has had a great impact on the environment, both positive and negative.

Wild animals exist in all ecosystems. Deserts, forests, rainforests, plains, and other areas, including the most developed urban areas, have different forms of wildlife.

While international trade in wild plants and species has been well documented for centuries, botanists and zoologists have become more concerned with wildlife conservation since World War II. In the face of a growing population seeking resources such as food, shelter, warmth, medicines, etc., wildlife conservation helps to preserve our natural resources.

Protecting Habitat Diversity

Protecting wildlife habitats is important because it preserves the diversity of habitats that help maintain a healthy ecosystem.

Maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity is important for a healthy ecosystem. Wildlife conservation helps maintain ecological balance in the environment. It involves the protection and management of various species of wildlife that are either endangered or in danger of extinction due to changes in environmental conditions or other important factors.

What Are Some of the Challenges Faced by Wildlife Today and How Can We Help Address Them?

Wildlife can be affected directly or indirectly by the following:

• Habitat loss and fragmentation . This occurs when human activities destroy, degrade, or isolate natural habitats to the detriment of wildlife.
• Climate change. The warming of our planet is changing the seasonal cycles and habitats that wildlife depend on for survival.
• Pollution. Wildlife is affected by all types of pollution, including air, soil, water, noise, and light, placing additional stress on their habitat.
• Invasive species . Non-native species: often introduced to an area by human activities. These non-native species can compete with native wildlife for food and space, sometimes leaving native animals without a safe place in their ecosystem to survive.
• Poaching : Illegal hunting or harvesting of wildlife is a major cause of global wildlife decline. Many species are hunted for their meat (e.g., elephant ivory), fur, or body parts (e.g., rhino horns), making them vulnerable to poaching for commercial purposes.

How Has Human Activity Impacted Wildlife Populations and What Can Be Done to Mitigate These Effects?

Wildlife populations are rapidly declining, largely due to human activities:

• Illegal wildlife trade
• Overhunting
• Invasion of exotic species
• Climate change
• Spread of disease
• Development
• Overconsumption
• Deforestation

Wildlife Can Be an Important Source of Food for Humans

In some parts of the world, wild animals are an important source of food. People hunt wildlife for survival or for sport and recreation. Traditional hunting methods are still used by nomadic tribes in southern Africa and northern Asia, for example.

Hunting for survival is one of the oldest human traditions. As the population grew and the environment no longer allowed hunting as a primary means of survival, many people turned to agriculture and other sources of food. However, hunting remained a popular means of obtaining food for subsistence or trade.

In many places around the world today, hunting is still used for subsistence. Wildlife remains an important source of income and food for many people, affecting both their well-being and their culture.

Wildlife is an important food source for millions of poor people in developing countries who cannot afford or produce enough high-quality protein from livestock. Demand for wildlife products often leads to overhunting that threatens wildlife populations with extinction.

They Are Also a Valuable Resource for Tourism

Wildlife tourism is a large sector in the tourism industry. According to a report by the World Travel and Tourism Council, wildlife tourism directly contributed $120.1 bn to global GDP in 2018.

In the United States alone, there are more than 45 million visits to wildlife refuges annually.

People interested in wildlife tourism can participate in a variety of activities such as wildlife viewing at wildlife parks, wildlife photography, wildlife tours, and wildlife safaris. Safaris are trips that involve extensive travel to wildlife sanctuaries or other previously undeveloped areas.

Safari tourism is considered part of ecotourism because travelers usually have an interest in local cultures and natural history. Wildlife sanctuaries also provide opportunities for ecotourism because they help save ecosystems and rare species from extinction by preserving their habitat,

The more exceptional wildlife there is in a region, the more tourists are attracted and spend money on lodging, food, and other things while they’re there. Walruses attract tourists in Alaska, as do penguins in South Africa and New Zealand. Tourists from all over the world come to America’s Yellowstone National Park to see grizzly bears, bison, and moose, among others, just as they come to Africa’s Serengeti to see lions, elephants, and giraffes.

How Does Climate Change Impact Wildlife Populations

Climate change is a massive threat to wildlife species – from insects to polar bears.

While most people know that climate change is a global problem, many are unaware of how much it affects the animals in their own backyard.

Below are some of the main reasons climate change is negatively impacting the wildlife population worldwide:

• Animals are forced to move to higher elevations. Climate-induced changes in habitat are causing species such as pikas and polar bears to move to smaller areas or out of the habitats they need to survive. This can lead to malnutrition and death, as well as reproductive problems. In addition, these animals compete directly with other species for food and shelter, leading to increased stress for all involved.
• Warmer oceans have led to changes in water chemistry that may threaten some fish species with extinction, and invasive species have taken advantage of temperature changes to spread into new areas.
• Animals that hibernate may lose the protective layer they need to survive extended periods without food or water if less snow falls in their habitat
• Aquatic species such as salmon that spawn in response to seasonal temperature changes may experience a decline in their populations if those temperature changes occur too quickly

All of these changes are causing major upheavals in ecosystems, leaving some animals and plants competing for fewer resources and increasing the likelihood that entire populations will become extinct.

What Are Some of the Most Endangered Species in the World

There are countless species of animals in the world, and some are more endangered than others.

The IUCN’s Red List classifies more than 40,000 species as threatened with extinction, out of 142,500 tracked species globally.

Endangered animals include:

• Eastern Lowland Gorilla
• Hawksbill Turtle
• Javan Rhino
• Giant Panda
• Amur Leopard

They Are Necessary for Pollination and Seed Dispersal

Wildlife plays a critical role in pollination and seed dispersal. In fact, without wildlife, plants would not be able to grow.

Bees are the most common source of pollination; they gather pollen from flowers and carry it to other flowers. This process allows plants to develop seeds and fruit. Birds and bats also play a significant role in pollination by carrying pollen between different flower species.

Seed dispersal occurs when animals eat fruit or berries containing seeds and then deposit the seeds in another location via defecation or regurgitation. This helps plants spread across the land and ensures there are enough nutrients for them to grow well when they take root. Seed dispersal is also important because it encourages biodiversity by allowing new plant varieties to develop in previously undiscovered areas.

They Are Beautiful to Look At

Wildlife has a high esthetic value. Wildlife is beautiful to look at, which is one of the reasons why wildlife photography, painting, and other arts are so popular.

Many people enjoy recreational activities such as bird watching. Esthetic experiences with nature can be both relaxing and stimulating. Wildlife is the most natural form of entertainment we have without resorting to artificial alternatives such as mass media or video games.

We Need to Do Our Best to Protect Them

It’s important that we protect wildlife so that we can continue to enjoy all the benefits it provides. It’s our most precious natural resource.

One way to do this is to not hunt a particular species too much.

Another way is to protect the habitats of certain animals, increasing the chance that their species will thrive. The last thing you want is for your favorite bird species, fish, or other creature to go extinct because not enough action was taken to protect it.

Another way we can help protect wildlife is by stopping poaching and illegal trade in endangered animals and fighting illegal logging and fishing.

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Wildlife conservation.

Wildlife conservation aims to protect plant and animal species as the human population encroaches on their resources.

Biology, Ecology, Conservation, Storytelling, Photography

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Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting plant and animal species and their habitats . Wildlife is integral to the world’s ecosystems , providing balance and stability to nature’s processes. The goal of wildlife conservation is to ensure the survival of these species, and to educate people on living sustainably with other species. The human population has grown exponentially over the past 200 years, to more than eight billion humans as of November 2022, and it continues to rapidly grow. This means natural resources are being consumed faster than ever by the billions of people on the planet. This growth and development also endangers the habitats and existence of various types of wildlife around the world, particularly animals and plants that may be displaced for land development, or used for food or other human purposes. Other threats to wildlife include the introduction of invasive species from other parts of the world, climate change, pollution, hunting, fishing, and poaching. National and international organizations like the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation International, the Wildlife Conservation Society, the United Nations, and National Geographic, itself, work to support global animal and habitat conservation efforts on many different fronts. They work with the government to establish and protect public lands, like national parks and wildlife refuges . They help write legislation, such as the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 in the United States, to protect various species. They work with law enforcement to prosecute wildlife crimes, like wildlife trafficking and illegal hunting (poaching). They also promote biodiversity to support the growing human population while preserving existing species and habitats. National Geographic Explorers, like conservation biologist Charudutt Mishra and conservation technologist Rebecca Ryakitimbo, are working to slow the extinction of global species and to protect global biodiversity and habitats. Environmental filmmakers and photographers, like Thomas P. Peschak and Joel Sartore, are essential to conservation efforts as well, documenting and bringing attention to endangered wildlife all over the world.

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It’s no secret that we’ve lost an overwhelming number of species within the last four decades. These species have all but disappeared due to overpopulation , deforestation , consumer culture, Climate change , animal exploitation, and other harming sources – all inflicted by mankind. It’s been said that at least 10,000 species are lost a year, halving the world’s wildlife population in just the past 40 years. One of the first great rules of terrestrial biology according to Jeffrey Kluger is “no species is forever.” However, this rapid loss of species we are witnessing today is estimated by experts to be between 1,000 and 10,000 times higher than the  natural extinction rate . As increasingly accepted theories have argued — and as the Science papers show  — we are now in the midst of the sixth great extinction, the unsettlingly-named Anthropocene, or the age of the humans.

When the public and politicians began insisting on environmental protection in the 1960s , Conservation  laws began passing in the 1980s , starting with the Alaska National Interest Lands Act, which set aside 101 million acres of Alaska to be preserved as a monument, national park or wildlife refuge to maintain one of the United States’ last “wild” areas . With more and more public involvement, restoring and preserving endangered wildlife species finally became possible. As WWF perfectly puts it, conserving wildlife “is a source of inspiration.”

The Earth’s natural assets are made up of plants, animals, water, land, the atmosphere, and of course, humans. WWF goes on to assert that, “Biodiversity underpins the health of the planet and has a direct impact on all our lives. Put simply, reduced biodiversity means millions of people face a future where food supplies are more vulnerable to pests and disease, and where fresh water is in irregular or short supply.” If biodiversity directly impacts our lives in such big ways, then it’s safe to say that Conservation efforts don’t just benefit the environment, they benefit us, too.

Food Security

One compelling benefit that comes from wildlife Conservation efforts is that it ensures food security. Protecting forests from deforestation and rebuilding forest habitats to preserve biodiversity aids in the carbon-sequestering process, provides new economic opportunities, and guards against erosion.

In addition, wildlife Conservation promotes agricultural biodiversity , which plays an important role in building a secure, robust, and thriving food system. When agricultural biodiversity is exploited and land is cleared for agriculture, resources and extensive habitat loss take place, as well as undocumented loss of species and massive soil erosion. Research shows this process has negative impacts on nutrition, health and dietary diversity of some groups of society.

Public Health

Another compelling benefit that comes from wildlife Conservation is that these initiatives protect human health.  Conservation International reports  that “more than 50 percent of modern medicines and more than 90 percent of traditional medicines come from wild plants and animals.” These traditional medicines thereby represent an essential pharmacopeia and body of medical knowledge that cannot be replaced easily by synthetic alternatives.

Moreover, a world that promotes healthy ecosystems and biodiversity provide crucial buffers between disease and humans. A number of studies  have linked reduced diversity among mammal species  and overall decreases in biodiversity to an  increase in the transmission  of animal-born diseases to humans.

In addition to this, healthy ecosystems and biodiversity regulate Climate change and mitigate water and air Pollution .

Creating Opportunity 

Perhaps the most compelling benefit that comes from wildlife Conservation is that it provides us with opportunity, whether it be economically, socially, or culturally.

Unsustainable resource extraction industries – such as the clear-cut logging industry, the bushmeat industry, the poaching industry, and the charcoal trade – extend the gap between the poor and the rich and have been linked to civil war and political strife .

In addition, increasing biodiversity and healthy ecosystems through Conservation improves agricultural productivity, thereby allowing farms to become more profitable. Healthy ecosystems that are home to unique species lure in tourists from around the world, which helps the local economy and invites in a new fusion of investment. Wildlife Conservation projects bring the community together as well, as they call for a team effort. From rangers to administrators, Conservation initiatives invite the opportunity for a new preservation-based economy .

Our unsustainable, unconscious, self-interested relationship with the environment has lead us into an exceedingly destructible world. If we do not take action and go about changing our ways, we are at risk of losing more vital and irreplaceable ecosystems and biodiversity, or at least until the sixth great extinction claims one final species: our own.

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i hate bears we should let them die llms if u agree

MUST SVE THE WILDLIFE NOW.

Here\’s to human extinction! Our extinction benefits everyone else.

hello again

Essay on Wildlife Conservation

Introduction to Wildlife Conservation

Wildlife conservation is crucial for maintaining the planet’s ecological balance and preserving biodiversity. Wildlife faces numerous threats as human activities continue to expand, including habitat destruction, climate change, and poaching. The loss of wildlife impacts ecosystems and communities that depend on them for their livelihoods and cultural practices. For example, the African elephant, with its iconic status, is facing a severe poaching crisis due to the demand for ivory. Without conservation efforts, these magnificent creatures could face extinction in the wild. This essay explores the importance of wildlife conservation, the threats facing wildlife, and strategies to protect these vulnerable species.

Importance of Wildlife Conservation

• Biodiversity Preservation: Wildlife conservation helps maintain the diversity of life on Earth, ensuring that various species, ecosystems, and genetic diversity are preserved for future generations.
• Ecosystem Balance: Wildlife plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems. Species interact with each other and their environment in complex ways, and losing one species can have cascading effects on others.
• Economic Benefits: Wildlife conservation can have significant economic benefits, including ecotourism, which generates revenue and employment opportunities in local communities.
• Cultural Importance: Many cultures around the world have deep connections to wildlife, and conservation helps preserve these cultural practices and traditions.
• Ecological Services: Wildlife provides essential ecological services, such as pollination, seed dispersal, and nutrient cycling, which are vital for the health of ecosystems and human well-being.
• Medicinal Resources: Many wildlife species provide sources for medicines and other valuable products that can benefit human health.
• Climate Regulation: Wildlife plays a role in regulating the climate by sequestering carbon and contributing to the overall health of ecosystems.
• Education and Research: Wildlife conservation provides opportunities for education and research, helping us better understand the natural world and develop sustainable practices.
• Aesthetic and Recreational Value: Wildlife enriches our lives through its beauty and provides recreational activities like birdwatching and hiking opportunities.
• Ethical Considerations: Many people believe that wildlife has intrinsic value and a right to exist independent of its usefulness to humans, making conservation a moral imperative.

Threats to Wildlife

Threats to wildlife are numerous and diverse, ranging from direct human activities to broader environmental changes. Here are some of the major threats:

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• Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: One of the biggest threats to wildlife is the destruction and fragmentation of habitats due to human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture. This habitat loss reduces the available space for wildlife to live and thrive.
• Climate Change: Climate change alters habitats and ecosystems, making them less suitable for many species. Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and sea levels are affecting the distribution and behavior of wildlife.
• Poaching and Illegal Wildlife Trade: Poaching for body parts, such as ivory, horns, and skins, continues to threaten many species, including elephants, rhinos, and tigers. The illegal wildlife trade is a multi-billion-dollar industry that drives many species to the brink of extinction.
• Pollution: Pollution from various sources, including chemicals, plastics, and oil spills, can devastate wildlife. Pollutants can contaminate water and soil, harm ecosystems, and directly impact the health of wildlife.
• Overexploitation: Overexploitation of wildlife for food, medicine, pets, and other purposes can lead to population declines and even extinction. Unsustainable hunting and fishing practices can deplete populations faster than they can recover.
• Invasive Species: Invasive species introduced by humans can outcompete native species for resources, prey on them, or introduce diseases, leading to declines in native wildlife populations.
• Human-Wildlife Conflict: As human populations expand and encroach on wildlife habitats, conflicts between humans and wildlife increase. This can result in retaliatory killings of wildlife and further habitat destruction.
• Infrastructure Development: The construction of roads, dams, and other infrastructure can fragment habitats, disrupt wildlife migration routes, and increase the risk of collisions between wildlife and vehicles.
• Lack of Awareness and Conservation Efforts: A lack of awareness about the importance of wildlife conservation and inadequate conservation efforts can also threaten wildlife. Without proper conservation measures, species are more vulnerable to other threats.

Conservation Strategies

Conservation strategies aim to protect and restore ecosystems, preserve wildlife populations, and promote sustainable practices. Here are some key conservation strategies:

• Protected Areas: Establishing and maintaining protected areas, such as national parks, wildlife reserves, and marine protected areas, to safeguard habitats and wildlife from human activities.
• Habitat Restoration: Restoring degraded habitats through reforestation, wetland restoration, and other measures to improve habitat quality and connectivity for wildlife.
• Wildlife Corridors: Creating wildlife corridors or greenways to connect fragmented habitats, allowing species to move between areas and maintain genetic diversity.
• Anti-Poaching Efforts: Implementing measures to combat poaching, such as increasing patrols, strengthening law enforcement, and reducing demand for wildlife products.
• Community-Based Conservation: Involving local communities in conservation efforts through sustainable livelihoods, education, and partnerships to promote conservation while meeting their needs.
• Sustainable Land Use Practices: Promoting sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fisheries practices that minimize negative impacts on wildlife and ecosystems.
• Climate Change Mitigation: Addressing climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting renewable energy, and supporting climate-resilient habitats.
• Invasive Species Management: Managing and controlling invasive species to reduce their impact on native wildlife and ecosystems.
• Research and Monitoring: Conducting research and monitoring better to understand wildlife populations, habitats, and threats and to inform conservation strategies.
• Education and Awareness: Educating the public about the importance of wildlife conservation and promoting behavior change to reduce threats to wildlife.

Human-Wildlife Conflict

Human-wildlife conflict occurs when there are competition or antagonistic interactions between humans and wildlife, often resulting in negative consequences for both. Here are some key aspects of human-wildlife conflict:

• Causes: Human-wildlife conflict can arise due to various factors, including habitat loss and fragmentation, competition for resources such as food and water, crop raiding by wildlife, predation on livestock, property damage, and threats to human safety.
• Impacts on Humans: Human-wildlife conflict can have significant socio-economic impacts on communities, including crop losses, damage to property and infrastructure, loss of livelihoods, injuries, and even loss of human lives. These impacts can exacerbate poverty and food insecurity, particularly in rural areas.
• Impacts on Wildlife: Human-wildlife conflict can also negatively impact wildlife populations, including retaliatory killings, habitat destruction, reduced reproductive success, and fragmentation of habitats. This can lead to declines in wildlife populations and loss of biodiversity.
• Species Affected: A wide range of wildlife species can be involved in human-wildlife conflict, including large mammals such as elephants, big cats, bears, and wolves, as well as smaller animals like monkeys, deer, and rodents.
• Conflict Hotspots: Human-wildlife conflict tends to occur in areas where humans and wildlife overlap, such as agricultural lands, peri-urban areas, and areas adjacent to protected areas or natural habitats.
• Management Strategies: Various strategies, including preventive measures such as fencing, deterrents, and land-use planning, as well as reactive measures such as compensation schemes, translocation of problem animals, and community-based conflict resolution, can help mitigate human-wildlife conflict.
• Community Engagement: Engaging local communities in decision-making and implementing solutions is essential for addressing human-wildlife conflict effectively. This can involve participatory approaches, community-based monitoring, and capacity building to empower communities to coexist with wildlife.
• Policy and Legislation: Governments play a crucial role in addressing human-wildlife conflict by developing and enforcing policies promoting coexistence, protecting wildlife, and supporting affected communities.
• Research and Monitoring: Research on human-wildlife conflict’s causes, impacts, and dynamics is essential for informing management strategies and developing evidence-based solutions. Monitoring of conflict incidents and their outcomes can help assess the effectiveness of mitigation measures.
• Long-Term Solutions: Addressing the root causes of human-wildlife conflict, such as habitat loss, land-use change, and socio-economic disparities, is crucial for achieving long-term solutions that promote sustainable coexistence between humans and wildlife. This may require integrated approaches that consider the needs of both people and wildlife and involve multiple stakeholders.

Economic Aspects of Wildlife Conservation

The economic aspects of wildlife conservation are multifaceted and interconnected with broader socio-economic factors. Here are some key economic aspects of wildlife conservation:

• Ecotourism: Wildlife conservation can stimulate economic growth through ecotourism, which involves visiting natural areas to observe wildlife. Ecotourism can create jobs, generate revenue for local communities, and provide incentives for conservation.
• Ecosystem Services: Wildlife conservation contributes to the provision of ecosystem services, such as pollination, water purification, and carbon sequestration, which have economic value for human well-being and livelihoods.
• Biodiversity-based Industries: Conservation of wildlife and habitats supports industries that rely on biodiversity, such as pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and biotechnology, by maintaining genetic resources and ecosystem functions.
• Cultural and Spiritual Values: Wildlife conservation can preserve cultural and spiritual values associated with wildlife, such as traditional practices, beliefs, and aesthetics, contributing to cultural heritage and identity.
• Property Values: Proximity to protected areas and wildlife habitats can increase property values, benefiting local economies and communities.
• Research and Education: Conservation efforts contribute to scientific research and education, creating opportunities for innovation, capacity building, and knowledge transfer.
• Regulation and Enforcement: Wildlife conservation regulations and enforcement mechanisms incur costs but are necessary for preventing illegal activities, such as poaching and habitat destruction, which can have long-term economic consequences.
• Sustainable Resource Use: Conservation promotes sustainable resource use practices, which can lead to long-term economic benefits by ensuring the availability of resources for future generations.
• Opportunity Costs: Conservation often involves trade-offs, as protecting wildlife and habitats may require limiting certain economic activities, such as logging, mining, or agriculture, which can have short-term economic costs.
• Externalities: Wildlife conservation can generate positive externalities, such as improved ecosystem health and resilience, benefiting society as a whole but not necessarily captured in market transactions.

Challenges and Limitations

Despite efforts to conserve wildlife, several challenges and limitations persist, hindering effective conservation outcomes. Here are some of the key challenges and limitations:

• Funding Constraints: Limited funding for conservation projects often restricts the scale and effectiveness of conservation efforts, leading to gaps in the protection and management of wildlife and habitats.
• Lack of Political Will: Inadequate political support and commitment to conservation initiatives can result in insufficient policies, enforcement, and allocation of resources for conservation efforts.
• Human-Wildlife Conflicts: Conflicts between humans and wildlife, such as crop raiding by elephants or livestock depredation by predators, can lead to negative perceptions of wildlife and undermine conservation efforts.
• Limited Stakeholder Engagement: Ineffective engagement with local communities, indigenous peoples, and other stakeholders can hinder conservation efforts, as their support and participation are crucial for successful conservation outcomes.
• Poverty and Livelihoods: Poverty and lack of alternative livelihood options can drive communities to engage in activities harmful to wildlife, such as poaching and illegal logging, undermining conservation efforts.
• Inadequate Law Enforcement: Weak law enforcement, corruption, and insufficient penalties for wildlife crimes contribute to illegal wildlife trade and poaching, exacerbating threats to wildlife populations.
• Climate Change: Climate change poses significant challenges to wildlife conservation by altering habitats, disrupting ecosystems, and increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.
• Limited Data and Information: Only complete or adequate data on wildlife populations, habitats, and threats can impede evidence-based conservation decision-making and monitoring of conservation outcomes.
• Conflicting Interests: Conflicts of interest between conservation goals and economic development, infrastructure projects, or resource extraction activities can compromise conservation efforts and lead to habitat destruction.
• Scale and Scope: The vast scale and complexity of conservation challenges, including global biodiversity loss and habitat degradation, require coordinated and sustained efforts at local, national, and international levels.

Role of Government and NGOs

Both governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play crucial roles in wildlife conservation, often collaborating to achieve conservation goals. Here’s how they contribute:

• Policy and Legislation: Governments are responsible for creating and implementing laws and regulations designed to safeguard wildlife and their natural habitats. This includes establishing protected areas, regulating hunting and trade, and setting conservation goals.
• Resource Management: Governments manage natural resources , including wildlife, through agencies such as wildlife departments, national parks, and forestry departments, ensuring sustainable use and conservation.
• Law Enforcement: Governments enforce wildlife protection laws through wildlife rangers, law enforcement agencies, and judiciary systems to combat poaching, illegal trade, and other wildlife crimes.
• Research and Monitoring: Governments fund and research wildlife populations, habitats, and threats to inform conservation strategies and monitor the effectiveness of conservation efforts.
• International Cooperation: Governments collaborate with other countries through agreements such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) to address transboundary conservation issues.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

• Advocacy and Awareness: NGOs raise awareness about wildlife conservation issues, advocate for policy change, and mobilize public support for conservation efforts.
• Field Conservation: NGOs implement on-the-ground conservation projects, such as habitat restoration, anti-poaching efforts, and species conservation programs, often in collaboration with local communities.
• Research and Monitoring: NGOs conduct scientific research, monitor wildlife populations, and develop conservation strategies to protect endangered species and habitats.
• Capacity Building: NGOs build the capacity of local communities, governments, and other stakeholders to engage in effective conservation practices and sustainable natural resource management.
• Community Engagement: NGOs work closely with local communities, indigenous peoples, and other stakeholders to involve them in conservation decision-making and ensure conservation benefits local people.
• Partnerships and Collaboration: NGOs collaborate with governments, other NGOs, academia, and businesses to leverage resources, share expertise, and coordinate conservation efforts on a larger scale.

Case Studies

Here are some case studies of successful wildlife conservation projects from around the world:

• Conservation efforts for giant pandas in China have successfully upgraded the species from “endangered” to “vulnerable” on the IUCN Red List. Conservation measures include establishing protected areas, habitat restoration, and captive breeding programs.
• Black Rhinoceros Conservation (Namibia): Namibia has implemented community-based conservation programs that involve local communities in rhino conservation and provide economic benefits from ecotourism. As a result, black rhino populations have increased in some areas.
• Mountain Gorilla Conservation (Rwanda, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo): Conservation efforts, including anti-poaching patrols, community engagement, and tourism revenue sharing, have helped increase mountain gorilla populations in the Virunga Massif and Bwindi Impenetrable Forest.
• California Condor Recovery Program (USA): The California Condor Recovery Program has successfully increased the population of critically endangered California condors through captive breeding, habitat protection, and monitoring programs.
• Tiger Conservation (India): India’s Project Tiger, launched in 1973, has been instrumental in conserving tiger populations by establishing tiger reserves, improving habitat, and anti-poaching efforts, leading to an increase in tiger numbers.
• Sea Turtle Conservation (Costa Rica): Conservation efforts in Costa Rica have helped protect nesting beaches, reduce bycatch, and increase awareness about the importance of sea turtle conservation, leading to increased nesting populations.
• African Elephant Conservation (Kenya): Kenya’s anti-poaching efforts, community-based conservation programs, and wildlife corridors have helped protect African elephant populations and reduce poaching.

Future Outlook

The future of wildlife conservation faces both challenges and opportunities. Here are some key aspects of the future outlook for wildlife conservation:

• Climate Change: Climate change continues to impact wildlife and habitats, necessitating adaptive strategies to mitigate its effects on ecosystems and species.
• Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Addressing ongoing habitat loss and fragmentation will be critical to ensuring the survival of many species, requiring concerted efforts to protect and restore habitats.
• Technology and Innovation: Advances in technology, such as remote sensing, DNA analysis, and conservation drones, offer new tools for monitoring wildlife populations, combating poaching, and informing conservation strategies.
• Policy and Governance: Enhancing international cooperation, strengthening wildlife protection laws, and improving governance frameworks will be essential for effective conservation on a global scale.
• Human-Wildlife Coexistence: Promoting coexistence between humans and wildlife through innovative solutions, such as wildlife corridors, eco-friendly infrastructure, and community-based conservation, will be crucial for reducing conflicts and conserving biodiversity.
• Public Awareness and Education: Increasing public awareness about the importance of wildlife conservation and promoting sustainable lifestyles will be key to garnering support for conservation efforts.
• Sustainable Development: Integrating wildlife conservation into sustainable development agendas, such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), will be vital for balancing conservation with human development needs.
• Inclusive Conservation: Ensuring conservation efforts are inclusive and benefit local communities, indigenous peoples, and marginalized groups will be essential for long-term conservation success.
• Innovative Financing: Exploring new financing mechanisms, such as biodiversity offsets, conservation finance, and public-private partnerships, will be crucial for funding conservation projects and ensuring their sustainability.
• Adaptive Management: Embracing adaptive management approaches that allow for flexibility and learning from both successes and failures will be critical for effective conservation in an ever-changing world.

Wildlife conservation is imperative for maintaining biodiversity, ecological balance, and ecosystem services essential for human well-being. While facing numerous challenges, such as habitat loss, poaching, and human-wildlife conflict, conservation efforts have shown promising results in protecting and restoring wildlife populations and habitats. The future of wildlife conservation depends on collaborative efforts involving governments, NGOs, local communities, and individuals. Sustainable practices, innovative solutions, and effective policies are crucial for ensuring the survival of wildlife species and promoting harmonious coexistence between humans and wildlife. By valuing and conserving wildlife, we protect our natural heritage and secure a healthy planet for future generations.

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Why Save Species?

Since life began on Earth, countless creatures have come and gone, rendered extinct by naturally changing physical and biological conditions.

Since extinction is part of the natural order, and if many other species remain, some people ask: “Why save endangered species? Why should we spend money and effort to conserve them? How do we benefit?”

Congress answered these questions in the preamble to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, recognizing that endangered and threatened species of wildlife and plants “are of aesthetic, ecological, educational, historical, recreational, and scientific value to the Nation and its people.” In this statement, Congress summarized convincing arguments made by scientists, conservationists, and others who are concerned by the disappearance of unique creatures. Congress further stated its intent that the Act should conserve the ecosystems upon which endangered and threatened species depend.

Although extinctions occur naturally, scientific evidence strongly indicates that the current rate of extinction is much higher than the natural or background rate of the past. The main force driving this higher rate of loss is habitat loss. Over-exploitation of wildlife for commercial purposes, the introduction of harmful exotic (nonnative) organisms, environmental pollution, and the spread of diseases also pose serious threats to our world’s biological heritage.

Conservation actions carried out in the United States under the Endangered Species Act have been successful in preventing extinction for 99 percent of the species that are listed as endangered or threatened. However, species loss on a global scale continues to increase due to the environmental effects of human activities.

Biologists estimate that since the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock in 1620, more than 500 species, subspecies, and varieties of our Nation’s plants and animals have become extinct. The situation in Earth’s most biologically rich ecosystems is even worse. Tropical rainforests around the world, which may contain up to one half of all living species, are losing millions of acres every year. Uncounted species are lost as these habitats are destroyed. In short, there is nothing natural about today’s rate of extinction.

Not too long ago, almost one quarter of the trees in the Appalachian forests were American chestnuts. They helped support not only wildlife but the people living among them. Chestnuts were an important cash crop for many families. As year-end holidays approached, nuts by the railroad car were sold and shipped to northeastern cities. Chestnut timber, strong and rot resistant, was prized for building barns, fences, furniture, and other products. This photograph of the Shelton family, taken around 1920, shows the size American chestnut trees once reached.

First detected in 1904, an Asian fungus to which native chestnuts had little resistance appeared in New York City trees. The blight spread quickly, and by 1950 the American chestnut was virtually extinct except for occasional root sprouts that also became infected. Organizations such as the American Chestnut Foundation are working with plant breeders to develop a disease resistant strain and restore it to the eastern forests.

Benefits of Natural Diversity

How many species of plants and animals are there? Although scientists have classified approximately 1.7 million organisms, they recognize that the overwhelming majority have not yet been catalogued. Between 10 and 50 million species may inhabit our planet.

None of these creatures exists in a vacuum. All living things are part of a complex, often delicately balanced network called the biosphere. The earth’s biosphere, in turn, is composed of countless ecosystems, which include plants and animals and their physical environments. No one knows how the extinction of organisms will affect the other members of its ecosystem, but the removal of a single species can set off a chain reaction affecting many others. This is especially true for “keystone” species, whose loss can transform or undermine the ecological processes or fundamentally change the species composition of the wildlife community.

The gray wolf is one such keystone species. When wolves were restored to Yellowstone National Park, they started to control the park’s large population of elk, which had been over consuming the willows, aspen, and other trees that grew along streams. The recovery of these trees is cooling stream flows, which benefits native trout, and increases nesting habitat for migratory birds. Beavers now have willow branches to eat, and beaver dams create marshland habitat for otters, mink, and ducks. Wolves even benefit the threatened grizzly bear, since grizzlies find it easier to take over a wolf kill than to bring down their own elk.

Contributions to Medicine

One of the many tangible benefits of biological diversity has been its contributions to the field of medicine. Each living thing contains a unique reservoir of genetic material that has evolved over eons. This material cannot be retrieved or duplicated if lost. So far, scientists have investigated only a small fraction of the world’s species and have just begun to unravel their chemical secrets to find possible human health benefits to mankind.

No matter how small or obscure a species, it could one day be of direct importance to us all. It was “only” a fungus that gave us penicillin, and certain plants have yielded substances used in drugs to treat heart disease, cancer, and a variety of other illnesses. More than a quarter of all prescriptions written annually in the United States contain chemicals discovered in plants and animals. If these organisms had been destroyed before their unique chemistries were known, their secrets would have died with them.

A few hundred wild species have stocked our pharmacies with antibiotics, anti-cancer agents, pain killers, and blood thinners. The biochemistry of unexamined species is an unfathomed reservoir of new and potentially more effective substances. The reason is found in the principles of evolutionary biology. Caught in an endless “arms race” with other forms of life, these species have devised myriad ways to combat microbes and cancer-causing runaway cells. Plants and animals can make strange molecules that may never occur to a chemist. For example, the anti-cancer compound taxol, originally extracted from the bark of the Pacific yew tree, is “too fiendishly complex” a chemical structure structure Something temporarily or permanently constructed, built, or placed; and constructed of natural or manufactured parts including, but not limited to, a building, shed, cabin, porch, bridge, walkway, stair steps, sign, landing, platform, dock, rack, fence, telecommunication device, antennae, fish cleaning table, satellite dish/mount, or well head. Learn more about structure for researchers to have invented on their own, said a scientist with the U.S. National Cancer Institute. Taxol has become the standard treatment for advanced cases of ovarian cancer, which strikes thousands of women every year. But until the discovery of taxol’s effectiveness, the Pacific yew was considered a weed tree of no value and was routinely destroyed during logging operations.

Some of the most promising natural wonder drugs come from compounds not usually associated with healing: poisons. One pharmaceutical company is marketing a blood thinner based on the venom of the deadly saw-scaled viper. A protein from another Asian pit viper is being studied because it appears to inhibit the spread of melanoma cells, and a compound from the venom of some tarantula species may lead to new treatments for neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease.

Biodiversity and Agriculture

Many seemingly insignificant forms of life are beginning to show important benefits for agriculture. Farmers are using insects and other animals that prey on certain crop pests, as well as using plants containing natural-toxins that repel harmful insects. These are called “biological controls,” and in many cases they are a safe, effective, and less expensive alternative to synthetic chemicals.

Thomas Jefferson once wrote that “the greatest service which can be rendered any country is to add a useful plant to its culture, especially a breadgrain.” It has been estimated that there are almost 80,000 species of edible plants, of which fewer than 20 produce 90 percent of the world’s food. If underutilized species are conserved, they could help to feed growing populations. One grain native to the Great Lakes States, Indian wild rice, is superior in protein to most domesticated rice, and its increasing commercial production earns millions of dollars annually. Crossing it with a related but endangered species, Texas wild rice, could result in a strain adaptable to other regions of the country.

Environmental Monitors

Many individual species are uniquely important as indicators of environmental quality. The rapid decline in bald eagles and peregrine falcons in the mid-20th century was a dramatic warning of the dangers of DDT—a strong, once widely used pesticide that accumulates in body tissues. (It hampered fertility and egghatching success in these species.) In another example, lichens and certain plants like the eastern white pine are good indicators of excess ozone, sulfur dioxide, and other air pollutants. Species like these can alert us to the effects of some contaminants before more damage is done.

Freshwater mussels are also very effective environmental indicators. The eastern United States boasts the richest diversity of freshwater mussels in the world. These animals are filter feeders, drawing in water and straining out food particles. Their method of feeding helps to keep our waters clean. But because mussels filter material from the water, they are often the first animals to be affected by water pollution. They tend to accumulate whatever toxins, such as chemicals in agricultural and industrial runoff, are present in their habitat. Too much pollution can eliminate the mussels. Other threats to mussel populations include siltation, the introduction of competing nonnative mussels, stream channelization and dredging, and the impoundment of free-flowing streams and rivers. Today, most native freshwater mussel species are considered to be endangered, threatened, or of special concern.

Ecosystem Services

One example of an ecosystem service not widely known is that plants remove, transfer, stabilize, and destroy contaminants in soil and sediment. Certain plant species have the ability to extract elements from the soil and concentrate them in the easily harvested plant stems, shoots, and leaves. The alpine pennycress, for example, doesn’t just thrive on soils contaminated with zinc and cadmium; it cleans them by removing the excess metals. In the home, houseplants under some conditions can effectively remove benzene, formaldehyde, and certain other pollutants from the air.

Other Economic Values

Some benefits of animals and plants can be quantified. For example, the International Fund for Animal Welfare named whale watching one of the fastest growing tourism products in the world. In 2009, 13 million whale watchers from 119 countries pumped an estimated $2 billion into the global economy. The U.S. is home to a great diversity of plants and animals, and opportunities for experiencing unique species in nature abound. In a recent survey (Wildlife Watching in the United States: The Economic Impacts on National and State Economies), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service found that wildlife watching— not limited to whales—generated $55 billion in economic benefits to the nation in 2011.

Intangible Values

If imperiled plants and animals lack a known benefit to mankind, should we care if they disappear? If a species evolves over millennia or is created by divine intent, do we have a right to cause its extinction? Would our descendants forgive us for exterminating a unique form of life? Such questions are not exclusive to scientists or philosophers. Many people believe that every creature has an intrinsic value. The loss of plant and animal species, they say, is not only shortsighted but wrong, especially since an extinct species can never be replaced. Eliminating entire species has been compared to ripping pages out of books that have not yet been read. We are accustomed to a rich diversity in nature. This diversity has provided inspiration for countless writers and artists, and all others who treasure variety in the natural world.

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Why You Should Care About Wildlife

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Animals and plants aren’t just valuable for their own sake – they’re also part of a wider natural environment that may provide food, shelter, water, and other functions, for other wildlife and people.

With so much wildlife at risk, the question people often ask us is how do we decide which animals and plants to focus our conservation efforts and funds on? Well, it’s not always an easy decision… but we do have criteria to guide us.

For example: 1) is it a species that’s a vital part of a food chain? Or 2) a species that helps demonstrate broader conservation needs? Or 3) is it an important cultural icon that will garner support for wildlife conservation as a whole? These are just some of the considerations.

"Our planet is so special and diverse there are still new species being discovered all the time. Meanwhile we’ve reported the terrifying news that vertebrate species populations have declined on average by over 50% since 1970.  Whether your interest in wildlife is for its own intrinsic value or for its contribution to a functioning ecosystem that supports so many species as well as human livelihoods and well-being too, there is no denying that we, people, have an obligation to ensure we not only stop our damaging ways, but look to increase wildlife populations and strengthen the habitats they rely on."

Over the past five decades, our field work has helped bring several iconic animals back from the brink of extinction – including white and greater one-horned rhinos, certain populations of African elephants, mountain gorillas, giant pandas and tigers.

We’ve also achieved important policy changes – for instance: helping bring about the global moratorium on commercial whaling; improving controls for trade in threatened species such as tigers; and regulating trade in over used trees, like mahogany, and fish such as sturgeons (caught for caviar).

Our work hasn’t just given a more certain future for specific wildlife, but has helped thousands more species by contributing to the conservation of all the diversity of life within their environments.

Our wildlife conservation efforts are also directly helping people, through improved livelihoods, food security, access to fresh water, incomes, and by strengthening communities, socially and politically.

The work we do is playing a part in at least five of the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals, and contributing to poverty reduction in several parts of the world.

Global wild tiger numbers increase for first time in conservation history

Thanks to the collective efforts by governments and organisations, and the brilliant help of our passionate supporters and colleagues around the world, we were thrilled to see that wild tiger numbers have risen – for the first time in conservation history. Just over a century ago, there were thought to be around 100,000 wild tigers. In the past century, we lost nearly 95% of our wild tigers. By 2010 there were as few as 3,200 left in the wild (to put that in perspective, there are more tigers than this in captivity in the US alone). But due to enthusiastic and determined global efforts, and skilled conservation work on the ground in Asia, wild tiger numbers have now risen to an estimate of around 3,900. We’re stepping up our efforts to help wild tiger populations grow further – and you can help us.

Restoring the Tiger’s Amur Heilong Home Read More

A Corridor for Wildlife and Communities Read More

Plastics: Why we must act now Read More

Panda numbers up – threat level down Read More

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How we're protecting wildlife

Supporting people to support snow leopards

We’re working with communities in the high mountains of China, India and Nepal to help protect snow leopards and other wildlife.

Illegal Wildlife Trade in Nepal

Reducing wildlife trade in Bagmati province, Nepal.

Sustainable fisheries in the Mara wetlands

The UK Government’s Darwin Initiative, funds WWF collaborative work with local partners on sustainable fisheries management in Mara wetlands, Tanzania.

Tackling human-wildlife conflict in Ruvuma

With funding from the UK Government’s Darwin Initiative, WWF is collaborating with local partners to reduce human-wildlife conflict in Ruvuma.

Conserving Otters in the Karnali

Strengthening communities’ livelihood and stewardship to conserve Otters in the Karnali.

Making palm oil sustainable

WWF Malaysia works with plantations to help the endangered Borneo elephant move freely.

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Ethics of Wildlife Management and Conservation: What Should We Try to Protect?

Developments in the Use and Management of Wild Animals

Values at stake in wildlife management.

Dilemmas and conflicts., underlying ethical approaches to wild animals: five perspectives, a contractarian perspective., a utilitarian perspective., an animal rights perspective., respect for nature perspectives., a contextual (or relational) view., hybrid views., in conclusion: balancing concerns, references and recommended reading, flag inappropriate.

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Wildlife Conservation Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on wildlife conservation.

Wildlife, like trees, is also a domestic asset that not only helps to maintain the ecological balance but also benefits from financial, recreational and aesthetic points of perspective. There was a time when the number of wild animals was quite large when human interference was minimum and there was no issue with their safety or conservation. But, with the development of farming , settlement, industrial and other development activities, and primarily due to man’s greed, the number of wild animals gradually decreased and decreased. As a consequence, several animal species have become extinct and several are on the brink of being so. The Wildlife Conservation Essay is an insight into the requirements of conserving wildlife globally.

Deforestation

Deforestation is also a major cause of wildlife loss. Mass murders of wild animals are taking place all over the globe for their meat, bones, fur, teeth, hair, skin, etc. The need for conservation of wildlife has now become a necessity.

Population growth, agricultural and livestock development, urban and road building, and pollution are among the many pressures on wildlife’s natural habitat. In addition to illegal hunting, the decrease of habitat and its degradation has endangered the biodiversity of the widespread areas.

Wildlife preservation does not imply blanket protection for all species of fauna and flora; rather, it means adequate, judicious control over the multiplication of crops and animals that communicate to provide a suitable atmosphere for the man whose very life is at risk today.

In the past, due to the irrational use of the earth’s natural and biotic resources, most wildlife was demolished after recovery. It is our immediate responsibility to safeguard the ecosystem’s natural splendor and to develop a system of coexistence with every living creature on earth.

While the world’s nations must be very specific in terms of wildlife conservation, the amount of wildlife is diminishing day by day. The World Wild Life Fund is a global organization that does a praiseworthy job of encouraging wildlife protection. National agencies are also involved in wildlife conservation.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Steps Towards Wildlife Conservation

• To study and retrieve all wildlife data, in particular, the amount and development of wildlife.
• Habitat protection through forest protection.
• Delimiting their natural habitat regions.
• Protecting animals against pollution and natural hazards.
• Full limitation on wildlife hunting and capture.
• To impose constraints on the export and importation of wildlife products and to impose serious penalties on those engaged in such activity.
• Developing game sanctuaries for particular wildlife or world life in particular.
• Special arrangements should be made to safeguard those very restricted species.
• To create a general understanding of wildlife protection at domestic and international level.
• The adoption by trained personnel of a wildlife management system.

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The Role of Hunting in Wildlife Conservation, Explained

While some deem hunting to be a cruel, unnecessary and unethical practice, it remains the “backbone” of wildlife conservation in the United States, according to one NC State professor. 

“Hunters do more to help wildlife than any other group in America,” said Chris DePerno , a professor of fisheries, wildlife and conservation biology at the College of Natural Resources. “They not only provide financial support for state wildlife agencies, but they also play an important role in wildlife management activities.” 

The connection between hunting and conservation in the U.S. can be traced back to the late 19th century, according to DePerno. During this time period, unregulated killing and habitat destruction pushed many species, including bison, white-tailed deer and wild turkeys, to the edge of extinction. 

In response to the nation’s declining wildlife populations, sportsmen began to organize conservation groups and advocate for hunting regulations. “They realized that natural resources aren’t limitless and that they need to be protected for future generations,” DePerno said. “It was a real turning point for conservation, and it’s the reason why a lot of the wildlife that’s hunted today still persists.” 

By the early 20th century, sportsmen worked with Congress to pass a number of laws designed to provide long-term protection for wildlife and wilderness areas. That included the Lacy Act, which outlaws the interstate shipment of any wild animals killed in violation of state laws, and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, which prohibits the killing, capturing, selling, trading and transport of nearly 1,100 species of migratory birds.

Paying for conservation 

As state fish and wildlife agencies formed across the country to enforce laws and regulations, sportsmen groups recognized the need for a strong and stable source of funding for conservation. Working with the firearms industry and state agencies, they successfully lobbied Congress to pass two key pieces of legislation: the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act and the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act. 

Passed in 1934, the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, or the Duck Stamp Act, requires all hunters 16 years or older to purchase a federally issued stamp prior to hunting for ducks, geese and other migratory waterfowl species. The revenue generated from stamp sales is used to buy or lease waterfowl habitat. To date, the Duck Stamp Act has generated more than $1.1 billion for the preservation of over 6 million acres of waterfowl habitat. 

Meanwhile, the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act, or the Pittman-Robertson Act, enacts an 11% excise tax on firearms, ammunition and archery equipment. The revenue generated from this tax is distributed to state fish and wildlife agencies each year to support the management and conservation of wildlife populations. Since it was passed by Congress in 1937, the Pittman-Robertson Act has generated more than $12 billion for state conservation initiatives. 

Following the success of the Duck Stamp Act and Pittman-Robertson Act, Congress passed several other laws to bolster conservation funding, including the Dingell-Johnson Sport Fish Restoration Act of 1950, which created an excise tax on fishing equipment. 

Today, state fish and wildlife agencies continue to rely on the Duck Stamp Act, Pittman-Robertson Act and the Dingell-Johnson Act to support conservation initiatives, according to DePerno. However, they also rely heavily on hunting licence sales. In 2017, the last year data is available, more than 15 million Americans purchased a hunting license, generating over $500 million in revenue for conservation. Also, most states use the revenue from licenses sales as the matching funds they must have to gain access to the Pittman-Robertson Act and the Dingell-Johnson Act funding.  

Many states have also enacted legislation to raise funds for conservation programs, according to DePerno. In North Carolina, for example, the state’s Wildlife Resources Commission requires all hunters to purchase an electronic stamp before hunting for black bears. The revenue generated by the $11 stamp is dedicated to black bear research and management. 

“A lot of people think state wildlife agencies and programs are funded by taxpayers. But in reality, they’re mostly funded by hunters,” DePerno said. 

DePerno added that hunters also raise millions of dollars and contribute thousands of volunteer hours to wildlife conservation through their memberships in organizations such as the National Wild Turkey Federation, Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, Whitetails Unlimited, Pheasants Forever and Ducks Unlimited. Many of these organizations play a vital role in habitat creation and protection. The Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, for example, has protected or enhanced more than 7.9 million acres of habitat for elk and other wildlife since it was founded in 1984. 

Supporting wildlife management 

In addition to providing funds for conservation, hunters play an important role in helping state wildlife biologists manage the size of certain animal populations, according to Nils Peterson , a professor of forestry and environmental resources at the College of Natural Resources. 

Some prey animals such as elk or deer can become overabundant in their habitat, mostly due to a lack of predators or landscape changes. This overabundance can threaten the well-being of other species, and, in some instances, impact human health and safety. When deer become overpopulated in urban and residential areas, for example, it can lead to an increase in vehicle collisions. 

Regulated hunting is one of the most effective tools that state wildlife agencies can use to address the overpopulation of a species, Peterson said. “It removes the excess number of animals.” 

DePerno added that the ultimate goal of wildlife management is to monitor populations “under an adaptive resource management process while using sound research principles.” 

Wildlife managers typically model population growth and set management regulations, which may include season length or harvest quotas, based on field research and harvest data. Once these regulations are implemented, wildlife managers monitor the population while continually conducting research and adapting future management decisions based on the resulting data.  

If a population of white-tailed deer is too large, for example, wildlife managers might increase the season length or allow hunters to harvest one or more female deer to reduce the number of fawns born. On the other hand, if wildlife managers want the population to increase, they might implement a regulation restricting hunters to harvest adult males only, allowing all the females to produce fawns.

Many state and federal wildlife agencies also ask hunters to report the number of animals they harvested in a season and where the animals were harvested, according to DePerno. This allows biologists to evaluate long-term wildlife population and distribution changes.

“Ultimately, managers want to maximize the harvest without putting the population at risk of extinction,” DePerno said. “They want populations to remain healthy for people to enjoy in the future.”

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Essay on Conservation of Forest and Wildlife

Students are often asked to write an essay on Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Conservation of Forest and Wildlife

Introduction.

Forests and wildlife are vital parts of our ecosystem. They provide shelter, food, and even oxygen. Sadly, these natural resources are under threat due to human activities.

Importance of Forests and Wildlife

Forests absorb harmful carbon dioxide, helping to combat climate change. They are also home to countless species of animals. Wildlife, on the other hand, contributes to biodiversity, crucial for ecosystem balance.

Threats to Forests and Wildlife

Deforestation and hunting are major threats. Forests are being cleared for agriculture or urbanization, while animals are hunted for their body parts.

Conservation Efforts

Protecting these resources involves creating protected areas, enforcing laws, and promoting sustainable practices. Education also plays a key role in conservation.

250 Words Essay on Conservation of Forest and Wildlife

Forests and wildlife are integral to maintaining ecological balance. They serve as carbon sinks, absorbing greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Wildlife, on the other hand, plays a crucial role in pollination, pest control, and maintaining a balanced food chain.

Impacts of Deforestation and Loss of Wildlife

Deforestation and loss of wildlife have far-reaching impacts. It disrupts the balance of the ecosystem, leading to severe climatic changes, soil erosion, and loss of biodiversity. The extinction of a single species can have a domino effect, causing the collapse of an entire ecosystem.

Conservation Strategies

Conservation strategies revolve around sustainable use and management of natural resources. These include the establishment of protected areas, implementation of laws against illegal hunting and logging, and promotion of eco-tourism. Additionally, reforestation and afforestation programs can help restore degraded habitats.

The conservation of forests and wildlife is not just an environmental issue; it’s a matter of survival for future generations. It is our collective responsibility to ensure that we use our resources sustainably, preserving the balance of our ecosystems. Through concerted efforts and global cooperation, we can protect and preserve our natural heritage.

500 Words Essay on Conservation of Forest and Wildlife

Forests and wildlife are integral parts of our planet’s ecosystem, playing a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance. They not only support a diverse range of flora and fauna but also provide essential resources for human survival. However, with rapid industrialization and urbanization, the conservation of forest and wildlife has become a pressing issue.

The Importance of Forests and Wildlife

Wildlife, on the other hand, contributes to the biodiversity of the planet. Each species, no matter how small, plays a vital role in the ecosystem. They help in pollination, pest control, decomposition, and much more. Wildlife also has intrinsic value, enhancing our world with their beauty and diversity.

Unfortunately, human activities pose significant threats to forests and wildlife. Deforestation, driven by the need for agricultural land, timber, and urban development, is causing a rapid loss of forest cover. This not only results in a loss of habitat for wildlife but also contributes to climate change.

Efforts towards the conservation of forest and wildlife must be multi-pronged. Legal measures, such as implementing strict laws against deforestation and poaching, can deter destructive activities. Protected areas, like national parks and wildlife reserves, should be established and effectively managed to provide safe havens for wildlife.

Community involvement is also crucial. Local communities should be educated about the importance of conservation and encouraged to participate in conservation efforts. Sustainable practices, such as community forestry and eco-tourism, can provide economic benefits while preserving the environment.

The Role of Technology and Research

The conservation of forest and wildlife is not just an environmental issue; it is a matter of our survival. As we continue to exploit nature for our needs, we must also take responsibility for its protection. By understanding the value of forests and wildlife, implementing effective conservation strategies, and harnessing the power of technology and research, we can ensure a sustainable future for all life on Earth.

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• Essay on Wildlife Conservation

500+ Words Essay on Wildlife Conservation

Going by the importance of climate change and associated topics are garnering importance worldwide, an essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English is an expected topic in the English exams. To prepare well in advance Vedantu has brought this essay for you. It is written by experts having expertise in English. Enough data and content are brought to you so that you can recall maximum points in the exam. This will ensure you achieve amazing marks in the English examination.

Let’s Being with the Essay on Wildlife Conservation for Students in English

Like forests, wildlife consisting of animals, birds, insects, etc. living in the forest is a national resource, which not only helps in maintaining the ecological balance but is also beneficial for various economic activities that generate revenue from tourism. The rich flora and fauna also play a major role in maintaining the ecological balance of a region. There was a time when human needs were minimal and there was bare interference in the wildlife. There is no denying the fact that due to urbanization, pollution, and human interventions wildlife is rapidly disappearing from the planet.

Today the biodiversity of the world is threatened due to the extinction of species. There are thirty-five hotspots around the world, which supports 43% of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians as endemic. The IUCN has compiled a list of species and has classified the different species under extinct, critically endangered, less endangered, vulnerable, near threatened, and least concerned. This list is called the Red Data Book. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the number of birds, animals, marine and freshwater creatures has dropped by almost one-third of its earlier population.

Causes for Decline or Threat to Wildlife

One of the major reasons for the constant decline of wildlife is human’s ever-increasing demands and greed that have led to deforestation and habitat destruction. For development and urbanization, man has chopped down trees to build dams, highways, and towns and this has forced the animals to retreat further and further into the receding forests.

Rapid industrialization and urbanization due to the fast growth in population in recent decades have taken a heavy toll on wildlife. Global warming and extensive environmental pollution have largely threatened wildlife as they lead to habitat destruction and rising temperature.

There is a huge demand for animal fur, skin, meat, bone, etc. across the globe that has led to a decrease in the wildlife population. Poachers kill the animals for the illegal trading of their body parts. For example, elephants are massively poached for ivory, rhinoceros are poached in Assam for their horns. The desire to keep animals in captivity or their desire to consume certain animals as exotic food has resulted in the disappearance of many animal species such as tigers and deer.

Forest fires, food shortage, increase in the number of predators, extreme weather conditions and other extraneous reasons have led to the extinction and endangerment of many species. For instance, the recent forest fires in the Amazon (Brazil), Uttarakhand (India), Australia, etc. lead to the death of many animals every year. 

Many types of animals, birds, and fauna are needed to retain the ecological balance. They are considered necessary for scientific research and experiments that will benefit mankind.

Steps to Conserve Wildlife

The protection and conservation of wildlife is the need of the hour. Some conservation efforts which are widely implemented are given below:

Afforestation:

First and most importantly, humans need to have control over their needs. We need to prevent man from felling trees unnecessarily. Trees should be replanted if they are felled.

Pollution is one of the major causes that have led to the destruction of the habitat of animal species. Pollution of the environment like air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution hurts the entire ecosystem. It has become of utmost importance to control environmental pollution.

More campaigns must be launched to raise awareness in humans on the need to keep our environment clean. A man should be responsible to maintain a healthy and balanced ecosystem so they should be cordial with the environment. More organizations like PETA should be set up to create awareness among people for the protection of wildlife.

Population:

The man should consciously put a check on the rapid growth of the population. The slow growth of population will decrease the rate of urbanization and that will have a major impact on the preservation of wildlife.

Wildlife Sanctuaries:

Wildlife sanctuaries should be made to ensure the protection of the areas of ecological significance. Under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 various provisions for protecting habitats of wildlife are made by constructing national parks and sanctuaries. These parks and sanctuaries ensure the protection and maintenance of endangered species.

Ban of Illegal Activities:

Illegal activities like hunting, poaching, and killing animals, birds, etc. for collections and illegal trade of hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns, feathers, etc. should be strictly prohibited and severe punishments and fines should be imposed on people who do these kinds of activities.

Community initiatives

Communities come together to take various conservation initiatives such as the establishment of community forests, raising their voice against illegal activities, creating awareness among the masses, raising voice for the rights of the animals, conserving animals of cultural significance, and many more. For example, members of the Bishnoi community of Rajasthan are very vocal against poaching activities in the region.    

Many countries have taken the initiative to help animals by proclaiming various birds and animals either as national animals or as protected species. In India, the government has launched a program of Joint Forest Management to protect the wildlife and their habitat. Under this program, responsibilities have been assigned to the village communities to protect and manage nearby forests and the wildlife in them.  Animal species have the right to live just like humans. Therefore, we should take every step to conserve them and ensure their survival and betterment.

Wildlife is an integral part of our planet. Wildlife plays a significant role in the ecology and the food chain. Disturbing their numbers or in extreme cases, extinction can have wide-ranging effects on ecology and humankind. Valuing and conserving forests and wildlife enhance the relation between man and nature. We want our future generation to be able to hear the lions roar and peacocks dancing with their extravagant feathers and not just see them in picture books. We must take steps today or else it will be too late and we should always remember 

“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed.”

-Mahatma Gandhi

FAQs on Essay on Wildlife Conservation

1. How is Wildlife Important for Humankind?

Wildlife comprises animals, birds, insects, and aquatic life forms. They provide us with a number of products, such as milk, meat, hides, and wools. Insects like bees provide us, honey. They help in the pollination of flowers and have an important role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem. The birds act as decomposers by feeding on insects. Birds like vultures are known as scavengers and cleansers of the environment by feeding on dead livestock. Thus, wildlife helps in maintaining ecological balance.

2. Why Should we Conserve Biodiversity?

We should conserve biodiversity because it is very significant for all living organisms and for the environment. We must conserve biodiversity to save it from becoming extinct.

3. Why are Animals Poached?

The animals are hunted and poached for collection and illegal trade of skins, fur, horns, skins, and feathers.

4. Write Two Steps that the Government has Taken to Conserve Wildlife.

The two steps that the government has taken to conserve wildlife are:

In order to conserve wildlife, the government has established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.

Many awareness programs are launched by the government to create awareness of protecting wildlife.

5. What is the importance of essays on Wildlife Conservation for students in English?

Essay on Wildlife Conservation is a topic given to students because it serves many purposes and holds a lot of importance in the present times. Before starting the essay, students will do adequate research to get enough data about the topic. In the process, they will learn a lot about wildlife conservation. While writing this essay they will learn to empathize with the plight of the animals. Also, they will become better at expressing themselves in written words by writing an essay on this topic as it is a very sensitive topic. This essay will not just help them in fetching excellent marks but it will also sensitize them about the current happenings.

6. What message does an essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English carry?

Essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English carries a very significant message that emphasizes the importance of the conservation efforts taken and that are needed. The essay talks about the efforts which have already been taken and are under implementation and it also talks about what needs to be done in the future. It also talks about why we need to conserve wildlife and what significance it holds. Overall the central message of the essay is to conserve and protect the wildlife as much as we can.  

7. What important points should be covered while writing an essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English?

As such there are no rigid pointers that you need to cover while writing an essay on Wildlife Conservation, but you may use the following pointers for reference:

Definition of wildlife conservation

Explain the reasons for conserving the wildlife with valid points

Efforts that are taken by international agencies. This should also include various treaties and protocols signed 

Mention the efforts that are taken by the Indian government. Talk about various laws and legislations present.

Mention various provisions on the local level

Talk about various popular civil movements such as efforts undertaken by the Bishnoi Community

What can you do as students to conserve wildlife? Give suggestions and examples.

8. What steps taken by the government should be mentioned in the essay on Wildlife Conservation?

The Indian government has undertaken various measures to conserve wildlife in the country. You can mention some of these in the essay on Wildlife Conservation:

Wildlife Conservation Act, 1972

Schedules involved and protections provided to the animals

Conservation efforts for particular animals like tigers, elephants, etc.

Formation of various protected areas such as National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, etc.

Awards and accolades received by India on various international forums

Various international treaties and agreements were signed by India. 

Mention names of international grouping dedicated to conservation efforts whose India is a part of

You may refer to Vedantu’s forum to get more information about steps to conserve wildlife. 

9. In how many words should one write an essay on Wildlife Conservation?

Word count for writing an essay on Wildlife Conservation for students in English can vary depending on which standard the student is studying in. it can range from 300 words to 800 words. Accordingly, the level of writing and richness of the content should vary. You can refer to Vedantu’s guide on essays for further understanding the demand of any given topic. If the essay is being written by a student studying in class 10 then the essay should be data and opinion-driven. It should reflect the ideas and thoughts of the student that are substantiated with authentic data and valid reasons.

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The Surprising Benefits of Wildlife Tourism

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Wildlife tourism is a major business, accounting for 20% to 40% of the entire tourism industry’s net value. However, this kind of tourism can also have a detrimental impact on animal populations and their habitats. As people flock to take selfies with sedated tigers or ride abused elephants, they fuel the cycle of unsustainable ecotourism. Their actions further fund animal cruelty, captivity and destruction.  Yet, many other wildlife tourist attractions actually work to protect animals and their habitats. In allowing tourists to come and experience these animals in their natural environments, these organizations change wildlife tourism — and the future of animals everywhere — for the better. 

Educates Tourists

More than 31,000 species are facing extinction and, each day, between two and 20 species do cease to exist. However, many tourists — and people in general — aren’t aware of this rapid decline in biodiversity. This factor is mostly due to many of these species being halfway across the world. For people to know and care about these endangered animals, they must see and experience them and their homes. That’s where ecotourism comes into play.  By traveling to and visiting animals’ natural habitats, tourists can increase their awareness of the importance of conservation and learn how they can make a difference. Moreover, they can go home and share their newfound knowledge and passion with others. 

Spreads Awareness

Many people learn of ecotourism attractions through social media sites like Instagram and Facebook. Photos of friends posing with elephants and tigers make them want to go to those locations and do the same. However, these hands-on encounters often aren’t animal-friendly. Moreover, they only exacerbate the problem of wildlife cruelty and captivity. As more people travel in search of photo opportunities, they knowingly and unknowingly fund unsustainable wildlife tourism.

However, if more people travel and participate in healthy, animal-friendly ecotourism, these new photos will replace the ones featuring unsustainable attractions. This concept fosters true public awareness by showing a well-rounded perspective of issues surrounding wildlife and how people play a crucial role in preserving them. 

Funds the Economy and Conservation Efforts

Wildlife tourism also encourages the development of impoverished communities by bringing steady revenue and jobs to the local economies. In Kenya, the Northern Rangelands Trust employs more than 1,000 Kenyans , providing them with security, healthcare and education. Moreover, the Trust gives them skills they can transfer to other areas of employment if they so choose. Thus, wildlife tourism offers many families a bright future they otherwise wouldn’t have had.

In addition to benefiting the people and the local economy, sustainable wildlife tourism also funds conservation efforts. At the Northern Rangelands Trust, almost 30% of their revenue comes from tourism. This funding helps them provide sanctuary for elephants, protect endangered species, monitor wildlife and boost local animal populations. This money also aids them in training and raising leaders within the community who will work to conserve local wildlife for many years beyond.

Promotes Local Animal Rescue Efforts

While many people may see photos of illegal poaching and become enraged, there’s little they can do to solve the issue from thousands of miles away, aside from sharing their sentiments with others. Those closest to the problem, like the locals in Kenya, can end illegal activities and rescue wildlife, though. And this is exactly what conservancies like the Northern Rangelands Trust are doing.  Stopping poaching and the illegal wildlife trade requires more than law enforcement’s efforts. Kenya must rally the private sector to join the fight. Therefore, the Trust uses funding from tourism to educate people on poaching and how it affects the local community — because there can be no wildlife tourism or related jobs without animals. This initiative has encouraged the transport, travel and tourism sectors to work undercover to report illegal activities. Already there has been a 50% decrease in elephant poaching in Kenya. 

Upholds Eco-Friendly Standards

If you choose a conservation-oriented wildlife tour, it’ll likely be eco-friendly to both the animals and the environment. Your journey may include participating in a walking tour instead of a car ride or taking care to observe the plants, trees and other flora while also looking for gorillas or other wild animals. Eco-friendly trips like these stress the importance of preserving animals’ homes and fostering a deep respect for natural habitats and ecosystems.   Some travel companies, like Baobab Travel, are taking it a step further by offering fair-trade tourism travel packages. By purchasing one of these packages, tourists can rest assured that their money is benefiting the local people , environment and businesses of South Africa. Moreover, travelers can book vacations with organizations that work closely with local communities, thereby supporting the economy. 

Protecting Wildlife Tourism With Your Dollars

Hundreds of thousands of unsustainable wildlife tourism attractions exist across the globe. These establishments practice animal cruelty, illegal wildlife trade and many other abhorrent activities. Whenever you visit one of these places to get a good photo or touch a wild animal, you fund this vicious cycle. However, by traveling and participating in tourist attractions that actively work to protect and care for animals and their habitats, you can be part of the solution.  If enough people decide they no longer want to pay for an unsustainable experience, these harmful tours and attractions will cease to exist. And instead, people will participate in eco-friendly tours and pro-conservation activities, thereby protecting wildlife and their precious habitats.

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Rethinking the study of human–wildlife coexistence

Simon pooley.

1 Department of Geography, Birkbeck, University of London, 32 Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9EZ U.K.

2 School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu‐Natal, Room 105 John Bews B, Carbis Road, Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg 3209 South Africa

Saloni Bhatia

3 Centre for Technology Alternatives in Rural Areas, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076 India

Anirudhkumar Vasava

4 Voluntary Nature Conservancy, 101, Radha Darshan, Behind Union Bank of India, Vallabh Vidyanagar Gujarat, 388120 India

Associated Data

Although coexistence with wildlife is a key goal of conservation, little is known about it or how to study it. By coexistence we mean a sustainable though dynamic state in which humans and wildlife coadapt to sharing landscapes, where human interactions with wildlife are effectively governed to ensure wildlife populations persist in socially legitimate ways that ensure tolerable risk levels. Problems that arise from current conflict‐oriented framing of human–wildlife interactions include reinforcing a human–nature dichotomy as fundamentally oppositional, suggesting coexistence requires the absence of conflict, and skewing research and management toward direct negative impacts over indirect impacts and positive aspects of living with wildlife. Human behavior toward wildlife is framed as rational calculus of costs and benefits, sidelining emotional and cultural dimensions of these interactions. Coexistence is less studied due to unfamiliarity with relevant methodologies, including qualitative methods, self‐reflexivity and ethical rigor, and constraints on funding and time. These challenges are illustrated with examples from fieldwork in India and Africa. We recommend a basic approach to case studies aimed at expanding the scope of inquiries into human–wildlife relations beyond studies of rational behavior and quantification of costs and benefits of wildlife to humans.

Replanteamiento del Estudio de la Coexistencia Humano‐Fauna

A pesar de que la coexistencia con la fauna es una meta de suma importancia para la conservación, todavía se conoce muy poco sobre ella y cómo estudiarla. Cuando hablamos de coexistencia nos referimos a un estado sustentable, pero a la vez dinámico en el cual los humanos y la fauna están coadaptados a compartir paisajes en los que las interacciones entre humanos y animales están regidas de manera efectiva para asegurar que las poblaciones de fauna persistan de maneras socialmente legítimas que aseguren niveles tolerables de riesgo. Los problemas que surgen de las actuales estructuraciones orientadas hacia la resolución de conflictos en las interacciones humano‐fauna incluyen el reforzamiento de una dicotomía humano‐naturaleza como fundamentalmente opositora, lo que sugiere que la coexistencia requiere de una ausencia del conflicto y la desviación de la investigación y el manejo hacia los impactos negativos directos por encima de los impactos indirectos y los aspectos positivos de la convivencia con la fauna. El comportamiento humano hacia la fauna está conceptualizado como un cálculo racional de costos y beneficios, haciendo a un lado las dimensiones emocionales y culturales de estas interacciones. La coexistencia está poco estudiada debido a la poca familiarización con las metodologías relevantes, incluyendo los métodos cualitativos, el rigor ético y autorreflexivo y las restricciones al financiamiento y al tiempo. Estos retos se encuentran ilustrados mediante ejemplos tomados del trabajo de campo en la India y en África. Recomendamos un enfoque básico para los estudios de caso centrado en la expansión del espectro de las indagaciones en las relaciones humano‐fauna más allá de los estudios del comportamiento racional y la cuantificación de los costos y beneficios de la fauna para los humanos.

Introduction

Humans and wildlife are increasingly coming into contact due to climate change, habitat conversion, and species recovery and reintroductions. Thus, it is urgent to facilitate coexistence with wildlife in shared multiuse landscapes. Coexistence is, however, too seldom defined and rarely studied. In this essay, we define coexistence and then discuss why current framings of human–wildlife relations focused on conflict hinder the study of coexistence. We provide recommendations for reconceptualizing coexistence, and for studying coexistence, based on our fieldwork in India and South Africa.

Although the term coexistence has become more prominent in conservation science (König et al 2020 ), it is seldom defined (Frank et al. 2019 ). We favor a formulation based on Carter and Linnell ( 2016 ): a sustainable though dynamic state, where humans and wildlife coadapt to sharing landscapes and human interactions with wildlife are effectively governed to ensure wildlife populations persist in socially legitimate ways that ensure tolerable risk levels. Although developed for large carnivores, their definition applies equally to the challenges of living with large or small potentially dangerous or destructive wildlife.

Tolerance and risk are just one (important) dimension here. Coexistence does not imply there is no risk; rather, it requires tolerance of risks and the management of risks such that they remain within tolerable limits. Effective institutions and social legitimacy allow for management actions to deal with the inevitable challenges—for humans (attacks on individuals or livestock or destruction of crops or property) and wildlife (illegal killing or destruction of habitat)—when they occur (Carter & Linnell 2016 ).

We agree that it is necessary to “address the disparity in human norms, attitudes, and knowledge about [wildlife] among different human groups” (Carter & Linnell 2016 :576). That is, in addition to employing the many instrumental and economic tools developed to respond to problematic situations, it is also necessary to “address the human and ethical facets … directly.” It is important to build trust and legitimacy and codevelop novel decision‐making processes, which take cognizance of different stakeholders’ explanatory frameworks (rational and spiritual), moral frameworks, and risk perceptions (Madden & McQuinn 2015 ; Lute & Gore 2019 ).

Conflict as Paradigm

The primary motivation for most work on human–wildlife conflict has been protecting threatened wildlife from anthropogenic threats. These efforts have aimed to reduce the impacts on wildlife and habitats, mitigate negative impacts of wildlife, and persuade and assist locals to adapt to living alongside damage‐causing wildlife (Pooley et al. 2017 ). The focus has been on negative impacts of humans on wildlife and vice versa.

In their survey of the scientific literature on human–wildlife relations, Bhatia et al. ( 2019 ) found that 71% of 250 papers focused on human–wildlife conflict, 2% focused on coexistence, and 8% focused on neutral interactions. Although this study is based on a keyword search rather than the concept, the focus on conflict in the literature on human–wildlife interactions is indisputably overwhelming (König et al. 2020 ).

This framing positions wild animals as consciously combative with humans and reinforces a human–nature dichotomy framed as oppositional (Peterson et al. 2010 ). Recent thinking is more nuanced, however. For example, Bruskotter et al. ( 2015 ) conceptualize of a continuum of behaviors from intolerance to stewardship. Frank et al. ( 2019 ) propose a continuum of human responses to wildlife from conflicts to coexistence, urging researchers to consider positive as well as negative interactions. Bhatia et al. ( 2019 ) take a similar line, adding a typology of responses with the aim of better understanding the myriad factors influencing responses to wildlife. Although only 1% of surveyed papers evoked coexistence and conflict (Bhatia et al. 2019 ), and case studies are scarce, presumably in places where wildlife (e.g., African megafauna or rich birdlife in Indian farmlands) has survived outside protected areas both coexistence and conflicts have been present a long time.

Although Frank et al. ( 2019 ) are fully aware of the multidimensional and dynamic nature of human–wildlife interactions, their continuum framework can be interpreted as suggesting conflict and coexistence occupy opposite poles of a linear continuum. However, coexistence does not presume the absence of conflict. Conflict is a part of life, and can be a catalyst for positive change (Madden & McQuinn 2015 ). Another potential pitfall of the continuum concept is that as it is much easier to count direct, negative impacts than instances of coexistence, research in this shared dimension is skewed towards conflict. Counting the hits and not the misses similarly bedevils quantitative attempts to assess human–wildlife relations (Powell et al., 2020 ).

A review by Kansky & Knight ( 2014 ) suggests that it is indirect impacts that most shape peoples’ attitudes to local damage‐causing wildlife. A large‐scale comparative study of attitudes and behavior toward jaguars across their range (Zimmermann 2014 ) shows that peoples’ tolerance for damage‐causing species is often not directly related to economic damage or direct impacts and is instead influenced by sociocultural factors, including norms and attitudes toward the species. Species are persecuted, feared, revered, or protected for aesthetic, ethical, symbolic, and spiritual, as well as utilitarian and ecological reasons (Macdonald et al. 2010 ; Athreya et al. 2018 ).

Conceptual Challenges

Striving to protect biodiversity is not the same thing as trying to promote human–wildlife coexistence, as we envision it. What is true, however, is that the study of important dimensions of coexistence (while not necessarily using the term) is not new (Treves & Karanth 2003 ; König et al. 2020 ). Research includes work on tolerance and acceptance, social science approaches (particularly psychological) to studying human perceptions, attitudes and behavior, and more inclusive and reflexive approaches to human–wildlife conflicts, as well as human–human conflicts over conservation (Treves et al. 2006 ; Hudenko 2012 ; Redpath et al. 2015 ).

Conceptually, the key antecedent idea is tolerance: in the area of animal behavior studies, tolerance of wildlife for humans (Whittaker & Knight 1998 ), and in human dimensions of wildlife research, human tolerance and intolerance of wildlife (e.g., Decker & Purdy 1988 ; Bruskotter & Wilson 2014 ). We considered overlaps and differences between tolerance and coexistence, but space does not permit a review here.

Since the early 2000s, variations on the theory of planned behavior have been used to investigate tolerance for wildlife. Bruskotter & Wilson ( 2014 :159) concluded that behavioral intentions are the best indicators of tolerance for a species: what is meant by tolerance here is “passive acceptance of a wildlife population.” The conservation focus of concern is intolerant attitudes or judgements as the drivers of intent to harm wildlife, sometimes enacted. The aim is to reduce intolerance of wildlife hazards through framing conservation messages to address locals’ perceptions of risks and benefits, emphasizing the latter.

The focus is intolerance—and ensuing conflict between conservationists and those acting on their intolerance to wildlife—and the role of conservationists themselves is usually not considered. Tolerance (and by implication coexistence) is regarded as passive and less directly linked to action or behavior than intolerance. Seeing wildlife as a hazard suggests people formulate their judgements of the acceptability of these animals in accordance with the perceived risks and benefits associated with living alongside them. Although Bruskotter & Wilson ( 2014 ) acknowledge that this is not a completely rational process and that it includes affect and intuitive risk assessments, their focus is on decisions “driven largely by the outrage that is felt over the potential consequences” (i.e., negative impacts). Brenner & Metcalf ( 2019 :262) define tolerance as “accepting wildlife and/or wildlife behaviors that one dislikes.”

We do not suggest this is not important and interesting work. We do suggest that the framework used is oriented to negative impacts and relationships predicated on rational calculus of costs and benefits. This line of thinking permeates recent ideas on coexistence. In a special section of this journal on human–wildlife conflict and coexistence, König et al. ( 2020 ) provide a conceptual framework with a focus on damage prevention and conflict resolution, coexistence being the goal these foci will deliver (i.e., largely absent).

The emphasis across the special section (12 articles) is mostly on reducing damages, involving relevant stakeholders in management, and providing co‐benefits calculated within a cost–benefit framework (e.g., Denninger Snyder & Rentsch 2020 ; Jordan et al. 2020 ; Treves & Santiago‐Ávila 2020 ). Locals are of interest mainly insofar as they perceive these costs and benefits in different ways, are affected by them in different ways, and respond to them.

In a provocative essay, Chapron and López‐Bao ( 2020 ) suggest the study of conflicts over wildlife is a distraction from the core business of conservation, recommending a focus on rights of nature, effectively excluding the study of locals’ coexistence with wildlife. While sharing their interest in indigenous ideas about the rights of nature, it is unclear to us how this fits with their desire for universal laws to defend nature's rights.

We argue that current research favors a partial view of human–animal relations focused on (and starting from) negative interactions. Although both risks and benefits are in the frame, this conception still obscures reasons for coexistence that are not directly related to the costs or benefits of living with particular wild animals. It is also better suited to scenarios involving charismatic species or those with commercial potential in iconic landscapes where economic benefits really count. This partial view focuses on conservation goals and outcomes and excludes dimensions not relevant to this framing. It also implies an overly rational and universal view of human decision‐making.

Psychology and Decision‐Making

Possibly influenced by a much‐cited paper by St John et al. ( 2011 ), conservation scientists researching human behavior favor variations on the theory of planned behavior (Jochum et al. 2014 ). This theory (one among many in psychology) is built on the basic elements of attitudes, personal and social norms, and perceived control. It is oriented to rational decision‐making, as the name suggests, though variants attempt to capture the influence of emotions and prior experience too. Conservation science researchers have explored in ever increasing detail the significance of the relationships between the many variables influencing behavior (see Marchini & Macdonald [ 2012 ] for a sophisticated example). The approach is quantitative and statistical, and the aim is primarily to understand and change undesired behavior.

Research by psychologists shows that human decision‐making is not primarily or even most frequently rational, however. This is especially the case when it comes to infrequent, vivid, and traumatic events. Neurological research shows that “the emotional brain” responds to sensory inputs faster, and more simply, than the neocortex or “rational brain” (Van der Kolk 2014 :60–63). In a normally functioning person, providing the stimuli from the emotional brain are not too strident, the automatic response it triggers can be evaluated and if necessary overridden by the neocortex. Traumatic events may result in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), however, where the regulating function of the neocortex is disrupted and emotions and impulses related to the originating (and related) events become much harder to control. In such cases, rational explanations and facts will not silence the alarms traumatized people are receiving from their emotional brains (Van der Kolk 2014 ).

Hard‐won coexistence scenarios may be compromised if traumatic impacts are not recognized and addressed. Doing so is not straightforward because different cultures use different mechanisms to help those suffering from such extreme experiences (Wilson 2007 ). These range from the psychological and psychiatric treatments of Western societies, through mainstream religious beliefs and interventions, to healers, shamans, rituals and alternative cures used in traditional societies (and Western societies today). Humans are driven to make sense of their experiences, especially apparently random traumatic events. We worry that attempts to educate locals out of their cultural interpretations of such events (e.g., Surayawanshi et al 2013 ) may negate the work such beliefs do in helping people cope. What will be offered in their place?

Despite such insights from other fields, most studies of human–wildlife conflicts have been built around quantifications of damage and the effectiveness of responses intended to mitigate damage (Pooley et al. 2017 ). A popular strategy is to discover locals’ perceptions of damage and compare it with a quantification of damage, in the hope of convincing locals of the error of their perceptions (Surayawanshi et al 2013 ). Here, the truth‐telling power of the scientific method is put in direct opposition to how locals experience and explain human–wildlife relations (which include, but are not limited to, impacts). Research into PTSD suggests this is unlikely to be effective where traumatic encounters have occurred. Integrative theories focusing on how emotions and cognitions interact during decision‐making offer promising ways forward (Hudenko 2012 ).

Conservation scientists’ familiarity with quantification and related analyses partly explains the prevailing focus on negative impacts. Studying conflicts, and particularly coexistence, requires less familiar methodologies and interdisciplinary collaborations (Bennett et al. 2017 ). Therefore, while supporting current approaches to quantifying and analyzing the variables shaping human–wildlife interactions, we caution against absorbing coexistence and the kinds of influences that shape it into a quantitative, direct‐impact‐oriented framework.

The recognition that conservation scientists should collaborate with social scientists (with long traditions of studying prejudice and stereotyping and human attitudes and behavior) to address both rational and emotional dimensions of human responses to wildlife has been an important development in human–wildlife relations studies (Johansson & Karlsson 2011 ; St John et al. 2011 ; Hudenko 2012 ). We welcome Brenner and Metcalf's ( 2019 ) typology of attitudes to and acceptability of wildlife insofar as it suggests that tolerance and intolerance (emphasizing action or passivity and dislike) are one among several dimensions of such relations.

Units of Study

Where should studies of human–wildlife coexistence take place, and what should they encompass? Biologists prefer to study populations and communities relatively unaffected by humans, which they regard as wild, that is, not debased through interactions with humans. They prefer to do so in wild or mostly wild landscapes. But it is precisely where humans and wild animals interact on a regular basis (as they have for millennia) that conflicts arise. It is also where coexistence is found. We agree with König et al. ( 2020 ) that conservation needs to focus on multiuse landscapes, notably agricultural areas, and be cognizant of emerging frontiers in an era of climate change, recovering wildlife (in some regions), habitat encroachment, rewilding, and emergence of zoonotic diseases.

A key challenge is to approach human–animal relations within a coherent conceptual and interdisciplinary framework, rather than splitting it into studies of human dimensions by ethnologists and of wildlife by ethologists and ecologists. We agree with Carter and Linnell ( 2016 :575) that “coexistence emerges from the interactions” of humans and wildlife, but we are cautious about describing these as emerging “within coupled socioecological systems, in which the human and natural systems are fundamentally integrated.” This systemic conception should not obscure the individual nature of places or human and animal individuals and societies, that is, the contingency and specificities of historical, cultural, and individual behavior and interaction. Systems should be defined and subject to investigation. Coupling should not be assumed wherever the social and the environmental co‐occur, and causal links must be proven (Walters & Vayda 2009 ).

Our conception of coexistence assumes wild animals have the capacity to adjust to human presence in the landscape; it is not only humans who can adapt. This capacity can be individual and social. Brakes et al. ( 2019 ) and Kühl et al. ( 2019 ) make strong cases for considering animal cultures in conservation. They urge researchers to study social learning by animals and emphasize the importance of key individuals (Brakes et al. 2019 :1033). Brakes et al. ( 2019 :1033) suggest that “social learning can … be exploited to ameliorate human‐wildlife conflict,” which also suggests humans can learn much about how animals have already adapted in order to peacefully coexist with humans (and vice versa). This work offers ideas for reframing studies of human–wildlife interactions as studies of human–animal communities.

The challenge is to identify and delineate the communities of cross‐species interest—rather than focus as Brakes et al. ( 2019 :1034) suggest on populations or social units to “predict how specific biological processes may influence conservation outcomes.” Interesting ideas for how to study human–animal communities are emerging from human–animal studies (Marvin & McHugh 2018 ), etho‐ethnology (Lestel et al. 2006 ), field philosophy (Van Dooren 2019) and multispecies ethnography (Aisher & Damodaran 2016 ).

Lestel et al. ( 2014 ) object to more traditional ethologists’ exclusion of animals that live or interact with humans as worthy subjects of study by deploying notions of disturbance (their term) or habituation. Dismissing anecdotes about singular animals renders ethologists unable to perceive unusual and singular animal behavior and protects their notions of typical species behavior, generalized from statistically significant sample sizes of observations. They recommend close observation of interactions between species, considering the ideas, communication styles, perceptions, and priorities of all the actors involved.

How could these diverse approaches be synthesized? A good place to start may be to establish cross‐disciplinary clarity on the terms used for human–wildlife interactions—for example, attraction , habituation , sensitization , tolerance , and avoidance —and to consider the value judgments attached to these terms (Whittaker & Knight 1998 ). Habituation is possibly the most misunderstood. In conservation science, major disagreements remain over whether or not habituation is good for wildlife and to what extent activities such as diversionary feeding or hazing are legitimate conservation practices (Bejder et al. 2009 ).

Habituation can be defined as a learning process in which repeated exposure to humans (with neither positive nor negative reinforcement) results in a reduction in response in individual wild animals because they learn there are neither costs nor benefits to the presence of humans (Bejder et al 2009 ). Tolerance, on the other hand, refers to the response of an individual animal in the moment (i.e., its behavioral state at a single point in time).

Studying only behavioral responses to human–wildlife interactions can mask impacts and suggest that animals showing tolerance for humans are not being negatively affected in any way. However, such animals do experience physiological responses (e.g., increased heart rate) that have no external indicators (Bejder et al. 2009 ; Vijayakrishnan et al. 2018 ). It is intriguing to speculate what might be learned by turning this around and considering similar responses in humans who have to tolerate potentially dangerous wildlife in their daily lives.

Methodological Challenges

Perhaps as a result of their novelty in conservation science, some central tenets of good qualitative research relevant for studying coexistence are insufficiently applied. These include rigor in recording and presenting qualitative data, reflecting on the researcher's role in the research process, and thinking through research ethics. Good practice is further hindered by mismatches between academic and funding requirements and the time requirements of ethnographic‐style research.

Numerous theses and publications present qualitative data imprecisely, in ways that the same researchers would never countenance presenting quantitative data. For example, tables of interviewees that allow attribution of quotations to specific interviewees (not “an old man told me”) are seldom provided (interviews recorded rigorously as data). Transcriptions of interviews or focus groups are seldom referred to. Methods sections are silent on the social contexts in which data were collected, by whom, and how this could have influenced the information gathered.

Self‐reflexivity is an important dimension of field research, particularly research on sensitive topics such as human–wildlife conflict and coexistence. Sometimes noted, it is seldom explored in depth. In essence, it refers to researchers reflecting on their identity and how this positions them (and results in them being positioned) relative to their interviewees (Lute & Gore 2019 ). It reminds researchers that they bring strong biases to interview situations and that knowledge is being coproduced.

Researchers are urged to be as transparent as possible in presenting themselves and their research projects to interviewees. This is to the good, but actual field research is more complicated, raising issues around ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and power relations shaping the nature of interactions (Chattopadhyay 2013 ). Researchers build relationships with individuals and communities that may require omitting certain aspects of their personal circumstances and beliefs, for example, religious beliefs, gender identity, sexual orientation, wealth, and access to resources (relative to interviewees).

Being invited to witness or even participate in illegal activities raises dilemmas for researchers. Researchers are not there to judge locals, but there are times when lives are at stake or their personal values are challenged, when they may feel compelled to act to prevent such activities. Participation may offer access to important knowledge but require researchers to be less judgmental. However, when it comes to writing and publication, the intimate relationships and trust that allowed participation become challenging to represent and explain, and communicating may be difficult to achieve without compromising anyone involved (Chattopadhyay 2013 ; Smith 2016 ). Self‐reflexivity and the constraints on objective observation deserve serious attention.

Researchers have an ethical duty to ensure no harm will come to those they are working with, during and after research activities (ASA 2011 ). Asking people to talk about traumatic events and possibly illegal responses to them requires empathy and tact. It requires putting the feelings of interviewees first when conversations become upsetting. Victims of traumatic events should be interviewed with someone close to them present to support them. Learning about peoples’ lives and experiences requires humility because researchers are the learners, not the experts. In addition to those suffering traumatic events, researchers hearing about them also have a duty of care to themselves: both sets of persons should have someone to discuss their experiences with in confidence. Finally, it is advisable to consider the sensitivities of governments and management organizations and ensure publications and public statements do not compromise local collaborators.

Time and funding constraints, especially those faced by early‐career researchers, present serious challenge for ethnographic‐style work. Postgraduate research projects and short‐term grants demand quick results and publication. Undertaking ethnographic research, however, typically takes years. It takes a brave graduate student to arrive at a field site and spend several months doing “informed hanging out” (anthropologist G. Marvin, personal communication 2018). Not doing so, however, and arriving with preformulated ideas and prestructured research instruments seriously compromises researchers’ abilities to discover concepts and questions they had not already thought of. Conceptually, ethnographic researchers try to avoid preconceptions and biases in questions and analyses based on predetermined categories and theoretical perspectives.

Studying coexistence requires slow research and a willingness and capacity to listen carefully to and learn from others. It requires researchers to take the time to approach communities appropriately, get the necessary permissions, make good contacts, win peoples’ trust, learn about their lives beyond just how they interact with wildlife, and above all empathize with them. Interviewees are individuals with unique biographies; they are not simply victims , perpetrators , or demographic variables. This work requires giving the care and attentiveness to people that naturalists give to observing nature.

It is remarkable how little attention has been paid to the experiences of (and posttraumatic effects on) people involved in life‐changing encounters with wild animals, including attacks and disastrous losses of livestock, food, or crops (Barua et al. 2013 ). There is a management focus on prevention and one‐off or short‐term compensation measures, but lives may be changed forever and attitudes deeply affected for the long term by such encounters.

Fieldwork Challenges

Doing fieldwork on human–wildlife interactions brings some unusual challenges. We recommend that researchers planning research on coexistence spend time in the field first, including participant observation and open‐ended interviews. Conversations with locals ranging beyond negative interactions with wildlife may reveal unsuspected dimensions. Once researchers think they have found the right questions to ask, it is worth testing them and the potential research methods to discover factors influencing what kinds of answers their questions elicit (or fail to).

It is not sufficient to gather demographic information on, for example, gender, age, or caste without understanding how these dimensions influence social interactions, including focus groups and interviews. Caste, for example, is a complex and fluid concept that nevertheless shapes social interactions in rural India (de Zwart 2000 ). Access to interviewees, their exposure to particular hazards, and their risk perceptions may differ significantly by demographic group and community association (Gore & Kahler 2012 ). We illustrate some of these considerations through examples from our fieldwork.

Traveling around the districts of Kheda, Anand, and Vadodara in Gujarat, meeting locals known to A.V. and crocodile expert Raju Vyas from a prior survey of interactions with mugger crocodiles ( Crocodylus palustris ), the diversity of interview situations became quickly apparent. Very seldom were we alone with our select interviewee: relatives and friends would be present, and passers‐by would join in. Retaining focus on the person of interest, particularly if young or female, was challenging. If an elder or senior relative, a higher caste individual, or men (if the interviewee was a female) were present, they tended to dominate conversations and inhibit some interviewees. In some rural communities, women are reluctant to speak to unfamiliar males. It makes sense to work in a team of men and women.

Some questions, which seemed important and obvious to SP, an outsider, were met with incomprehension or evaded—in particular, direct questions to uneducated rural victims of mugger bites about how they felt about their experiences. A.V. struggled to translate and differentiate the concepts of feeling and thinking for some interviewees, a process exacerbated by variations in accents and word usages across the study region. In some cases, it remained unclear whether interviewees had suppressed their emotional responses to attacks, did not want to discuss them publicly or with strangers, or decided it was inappropriate to reveal feelings they assumed we would find unacceptable.

A 50‐year‐old man bitten near Pingal Walla village in Vadodara State and another who had lost a relative at Traj village in Kheda District said they had felt nothing toward the mugger and had just been worried about the consequences of the attacks. An elderly widow in Mahadev in Vadodara District remarked that she could not express her feelings toward the mugger that bit her because “it's illegal” (interview references in Supporting Information).

Locals from different castes interacted with us differently. Some Darbar men (warrior, ruling caste) were confident and challenging, whereas some Waghari caste (so‐called scheduled caste) were diffident. We were told that the Waghari community (mostly agricultural laborers) in a certain village were responsible for problems with crocodiles because they sacrifice animals and put the waste in the village pond. Community members denied this, as did the village sarpanch (mayor). In northeastern Vadodara District, we were told that scheduled castes were barred from some crocodile exclusion enclosures.

In northern KwaZulu‐Province, South Africa, S.P. interviewed a family where the adult son was killed by a leopard. The consequences of his inability to complete paying his bride price tore the family apart. His wife's family took his 2 middle children hostage until the remaining cattle were provided. It took 3 field visits to secure an informal conversation with the investigating official. He had evaded us for fear the details would be misreported in the press. Such actual and potential indirect consequences of the impacts of wildlife on humans, for victims and for others involved—which continue after the incident—are seldom explored (but see Chowdhury et al. 2016 ).

Narrative methods (Riessman 2008 ) can be useful. They focus on why and how people tell interviewers particular narratives. The content, including the veracity of the facts, may be less important than the intention. For example, a man we met living below a village pond near Heranj (who is an enthusiastic participant in mugger conservation) tried to convince S.P. that muggers presented an unacceptable danger to his family. He aimed to pressure the village sarpanch into building a crocodile exclusion enclosure near his homestead, thereby acknowledging his status in the community.

Conducting interviews in translation is sometimes presented as inherently compromised. That should only be the case if the researcher is not working with locals who can translate and interpret. It is a team exercise—a social activity greater than the sum of its parts—and all parties need to reflect on the process. Certainly, something will be lost, and possibly something not intended by the interviewee may be gained. Research partners knowledgeable in local customs and able to elicit responses through conversation, rather than only direct questions, are invaluable.

An Approach to Studying Coexistence

We do not advocate studying everything; that is, the approach to knowledge described by Borges ( 1975 ) in a story about a “[m]ap of the Empire whose size was that of the Empire, and which coincided point for point with it.” We worry that mapping all the variables influencing behavior and working out the relative strengths of their interactions over time and changing circumstances may lead to the creation of just these kinds of impenetrable conceptual maps.

We suggest first delimiting case studies loosely, focusing on the observable effects of perceived conflict or coexistence and recognizing that boundaries and dimensions will change as more is learned. Second, we recommend exploring in an open‐ended way the lived realities and concerns of those affected by human–wildlife interactions (or worries about such interactions). Dimensions include histories of land use and community–conservation interactions and consideration of the lives and interactions of humans and animals.

Having identified the key concerns and motivations of those involved through a collaborative process and clearly defined what is to be described and explained, focused field research can commence. Investigations radiate out from the identified key effects of conflict and coexistence, back in time and outward in space, to reveal a widening circle of causes. Explanatory theories to be tested, including consideration of counterfactuals, emerge from the data (Walters & Vayda 2009 ).

Our preliminary research in central Gujarat focused on distinctive and persistent instances of coexistence (Figs.  1 & 2 ) and conflict with the same species: mugger crocodile. Informed by research published in Vasava et al. ( 2015 ), this involved visits to 19 villages, 3 temples, and 5 cities and towns, and numerous wetlands and rivers across 3 districts.

Women washing near a mugger in a village pond in Anand District, Gujarat, India.

Muggers basking safely on an island created for them in Deva Village pond, Anand District, Gujarat.

The following factors may influence outcomes of conflicts or coexistence regarding mugger: spiritual beliefs about nature and religious associations between the mugger and the goddess Khodiyar (variable); cultures of (and a small industry in) rescuing problem animals; levels of natural history knowledge about mugger behavior and perceptions of population trends; extent and nature of shared use of waterbodies; attacks on people or livestock; apparent differences in the behavior of muggers (mostly) resident in ponds and dams (where coexistence exists) compared with river mugger (where most conflicts arise); histories of interactions of forestry officials, locals, and nongovernmental organizations over bite incidents; and traumatic individual experiences. Comparative work on scenarios where coexistence exists and scenarios where conflicts are predominant will enable a fuller appreciation of factors influencing either outcome.

Studying coexistence where it exists, in diverse social, cultural, and ecological contexts, with appropriate methodologies and research instruments, will widen understanding of the ways in which humans and wildlife coexist. It will reveal to what degree (in particular places) coexistence requires that people do not act (show tolerance) and to what degree coexistence requires action (preventative or remedial, perhaps).

Not subordinating coexistence studies within a conception of human–wildlife interactions dominated by conflict studies, not being preoccupied with quantification of direct impacts and costs and benefits, and not universalizing Western values systems will allow exploration of novel dimensions of coexistence. These dimensions will include some not encompassed by theories of behavior focused on rational decision‐making. Historical research, human–animal studies and ethnographies, and exploring the psychology of traumatic events and the work that diverse cultural traditions do in responding to them all offer promising ways forward.

Supporting information

Fieldwork interviews, background information, and table of interviewees (Appendix S1) is available online. The authors are solely responsible for the content and functionality of these materials. Queries (other than absence of the material) should be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

S.P. and A.V. acknowledge support from Dhaval Patel and the Voluntary Nature Conservancy, Gujarat (VNC) and advice and facilitation from R. Vyas, V. Mistry, M. B. Patel, and N. Patel. SP thanks A. Nzuza for field assistance and translation and acknowledges funding support from a Birkbeck/Wellcome Trust Early Career ISSF Award.

Article impact statement : Too little is known about human‐wildlife coexistence. This essay shows why it matters, why conflict dominates, and suggests ways forward.

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Drug distributors strike $300 mln opioid settlement with US health plans

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Reporting by Nate Raymond in Boston, Editing by Rosalba O'Brien

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Nate Raymond reports on the federal judiciary and litigation. He can be reached at [email protected].

Ford to recall 90,736 vehicles over engine valve issue, US regulators say

Ford will recall 90,736 vehicles as engine intake valves in the vehicles may break while driving, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) said on Saturday.