pros and cons of higher education

Liberty & Wealth

Is It Really Worth It? The Pros and Cons of a College Degree

Posted: June 6, 2024 | Last updated: June 6, 2024

As tuition costs rise and student debt increases, many are starting to question the value of a college degree. The decision of whether to go to college or not is important, so we will explore some of the benefits and challenges of higher education.

Higher Earnings

Overall, a college degree is linked with higher earning potential in the long-run. College graduates typically earn more money over their lifetime compared to those with only a high school diploma.

Advantage in the Job Market

Because many professions require a degree, college graduates tend to have access to a wider range of job opportunities. Sometimes the specific degree doesn’t matter and the college degree itself can open doors.

Skills Development

A college education can be fundamental to certain critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills development. Many jobs value the development of these skills in college beyond just the diploma at the end.

Networking Opportunities

One of the often overlooked benefits of college is the opportunity to network with alumni, professors, and experts in different fields. Connections made during college can open doors to job opportunities in the future and allow students to go into their careers with realistic opportunities.

Job Security

Overall, unemployment rates tend to affect college graduates less than those with only a high school diploma. During times of economic hardship, those with a college degree may have some protection against unemployment.

Pursuing Your Passion

The structure of the college experience often allows students to explore their interests and pursue degrees closely aligned with their passions. Degrees themselves can also open doors to potentially more fulfilling careers by developing skills and providing a space for exploration.

Economic Mobility

Moving past the socioeconomic status you were born into can be challenging. For many, a college degree allows them to climb the ladder toward higher earnings and economic mobility.

Social Experience

College offers more than just an education and a diploma. College often also provides a vibrant social environment, with opportunities to build lifelong friendships and connections.

Personal Growth

At the same time, college often exposes students to diverse cultures and perspectives. These opportunities for students to broaden their horizons and learn from many different people can ignite a passion for lifelong learning and education.

The Debt Dilemma

The cost of college tuition has risen significantly, leading to substantial financial burdens for students and their families. Because of this, many students graduate with significant debt, which often takes years to repay and can impact financial stability.

Job Market Saturation

In some fields, jobs are oversaturated with college graduates. In this case, a diploma may be a financial investment with little payoff, especially in specific areas of study.

Time Commitment

A college degree requires a significant time commitment, often four years or more, which can delay entry into the workforce. For those who may not prioritize academics or want to pursue fields that don’t require a degree, this could be a huge deterrence.

Mental Health Risk

College is an academic environment that can be very stressful for students. The academic and social demands can be high and some students may find their mental health declining in this environment.

Unrealistic Expectations

While years ago a college degree was the key to getting a job, this is not the case these days. Some graduates may find that their degree does not guarantee a job in their chosen field, leading to frustration and dissatisfaction.

The Varying Value of a Degree

The demand for certain fields often changes depending on economic trends. Some fields are highly in demand some years and then the tide may change. Job availability and salary levels change rapidly, which may change the value of a degree.

Limited Practical Experience

Many job descriptions, even entry-level ones, require education alongside experience. While some degrees do offer practical experience, it’s not always a degree and sometimes the lack of non-academic experience can make the transition to the workforce more challenging.

Lower Graduation Rates

Not all students who start college graduate. Starting college, and then leaving, can lead to financial and mental struggles as a result. Deciding to go to college is a big decision that should be considered carefully as not fully completing the degree can leave a student worse off.

The Opportunity Cost

There are other ways to secure a job than solely the college route. Time spent in college could be used to gain work experience or complete vocational training, which might lead to immediate employment. In this case, the opportunity cost of college may be too high.

Alternatives to College: Vocational Training

College is not for everybody. For some, vocational training or trade schools may provide a more practical and less expensive path to a successful career.

The Big Decision

Deciding whether college is worth it depends on individual circumstances and career goals. It’s important to do research when weighing the pros and cons so that you make an informed decision regarding your education future.

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The post – Is It Really Worth It? The Pros and Cons of a College Degree –  first appeared on Liberty & Wealth .

Featured Image Credit: Shutterstock / Roman Samborskyi.

The content of this article is for informational purposes only and does not constitute or replace professional financial advice.

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The Pros and Cons of Higher Education

Higher education is an investment. But unlike the stock market or real estate, a degree can offer a return that goes beyond dollars and cents.

The value of higher education is immense and grows more valuable as the job market continues to value knowledge. No matter how you assess the pros and cons of higher education, the pros always outweigh the cons. 

So how can you tell if higher education is for you? Consider the risks and benefits. 

Higher Earnings

A college degree (or any advanced learning beyond high school) can accelerate your earning power. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , in 2021, bachelor’s degree holders had median weekly earnings of $1,334, compared to $899 for people who dropped out of college and $809 for people with only a high school diploma. Compared to someone who leaves college, that adds up to $22,620 more in median annual earnings — meaning $678,000 over a 30-year career. 

But raw earnings don’t capture the full picture. The more you earn, the more you can invest. So college graduates who set aside savings put their money to work, steadily building a nest egg. And future earnings tend to build upon prior earnings, such that your high wage today will result in larger raises over time. 

Still, there are no guarantees that you’ll earn significantly more. Your earnings depend a little on luck and a lot on which field you choose and how hard you work. Going into school with a clear vision for the future and a detailed understanding of typical earnings in your field can help you decide on the right degree program. 

More Job Opportunities

Adults who return to school don’t just earn more. They also have more job opportunities. This decreases their unemployment rate and offers additional security during a recession or economic downturn, lending flexibility to your career trajectory. Don’t like your current job? Try shifting to consulting or another industry. Sick of working for someone else? A college degree can improve your chances of success as an entrepreneur. 

However, not every degree program increases job opportunities. Ensure you’re on track for the life you desire by choosing one of these recession-proof careers . 

A Sense of Accomplishment

Whether you’ve never been to college or you started but weren’t able to finish, that degree can be a powerful motivator. The sense of accomplishment is real, and the benefits include: 

• Showing your children that it’s never too late to reshape your life. 
• Modeling a growth mindset and instilling the value of education in your kids.
• Helping you assert yourself with confidence at work. 

Recognition of Worth 

The Great Resignation was an awakening for many workers who finally realized the value of their labor and for employers who don’t treat their workers well. 

Returning to college to complete your degree may help you offer greater value in the workplace. Earning a degree can also increase your sense of accomplishment and confidence. Knowing that worth can allow you to negotiate for higher wages, better treatment, more autonomy and improved benefits. 

For unfair bosses, this might be a drawback because their workers will demand more. But it’s a massive benefit for everyone else, including businesses that gain access to stronger, more effective employees.

Startup Investment 

Like all investments, college costs money. However, it’s more affordable than investing in real estate and less risky than get-rich-quick schemes. You’ll need to come up with the money, and this may mean taking on debt, applying for grants, dipping into personal savings, seeking a scholarship or maybe all of the above. 

But college almost inevitably opens up new career doors if you finish. It helps you master new skills, including soft interpersonal skills. It allows you to build a professional network, especially if you take advantage of SNU’s cohort learning model . And the long-time boost in earnings can help you repay any debt you take on to fund school. 

What about other expenses? You may need to reduce your hours at work or pay for additional childcare. Perhaps you’ll need a cleaning service to help you keep on top of things at home or a dog walker because you’re gone more often. Although these can certainly increase the total cost of school, they are short-term expenses. Moreover, you can use student aid to pay for all the expenses of attending school. So talk to a financial aid counselor and seek the award that will fully empower you to attend school while meeting your basic needs. 

You likely already have a busy, stressful life. Attending college can add to the load. You’ll need to take time away from your family and job, and you’ll likely face some challenges along the way, such as taking a difficult class, getting transfer credit or graduating on time. 

Choose a school that supports you as a whole person — not just as a learner — and the stress will feel more manageable. SNU offers a chaplain, counseling services and an innovative VETS Center to help soldiers adjust to civilian life. We also help ease the burden by offering prior learning credits and enhanced advanced standing that translate your valuable life and work experience into real college credits, moving you closer to a degree from the outset.

The stress is temporary. Over the long term, the right degree can relieve stress. You may earn more, gain access to a better neighborhood and additional job benefits, enjoy a rewarding work environment and have more job security. So as you pursue your degree, consider that the temporary stress is the stress of accomplishment and that a better life awaits on the other side. 

Online learning can also help lighten the load by reducing commute time and empowering you to attend school on your own schedule. SNU students can choose between an online degree program or in-person classes for just one night per week. 

It’s never too late to pursue a high-quality education after school. SNU helps learners from all walks of life get back into school, finish quickly and graduate with the skills they need to thrive. We can help you choose the right educational format and program for you. To learn more, check out our free guide, “ Choose Your Path: Online vs. On-Campus Education .” 

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The pros and cons of going to university

Record-high costs and competition leave A-level students questioning worth of a degree

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1. Pro: greater earning potential

2. con: added student debt, 3. pro: greater job choice, 4. con: ‘worthless’ degrees, 5. pro: life experience, 6. con: vocational courses.

Thousands of A-level students have missed out on their first-choice university after this year’s grades reverted to pre-pandemic boundaries, sparking a rush for “clearing” places.

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According to Ucas , only 205,000 school leavers made their offers for their first- or second-choice university, “nearly 10,000 fewer than in 2022”, said The Guardian , thanks to a “steep fall” in the number of top A-level grades. Universities UK said only 79% of 18-year-olds were accepted on to their first-choice course.

Nearly 50,000 teenagers were left “scrambling” to find a course after the results were published last week, said The Times , with a record 10,400 gaining places through the Ucas clearing service – up from 6,000 last year.

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Some universities were “bending over backwards” to admit would-be students, wrote education editor Sian Griffiths, due to their “urgent need” for the students’ tuition fees of £9,250 a year.

With intense competition for places and evermore focus on the cost benefit of going to university, The Week weighs up the pros and cons of getting a degree.

Graduates can reasonably expect to earn more on average than non-graduates over the course of their careers. According to Statista , graduates in England earned an average of £38,500 last year, which is £11,500 higher than non-graduates.

However, this fabled “graduate premium” has fallen over time, according to data from the Higher Education Statistics Agency , thanks partly to more people gaining degrees and demand outstripping supply of places.

“How much graduates earn also depends on the subject studied and university attended,” said BBC News .

On average, women who study creative arts and languages degrees earn about the same in their lifetime as they would have done without a degree, according to research by the Institute for Fiscal Studies think tank. Men who study creative arts on average earn less across their lifetime than those who didn’t attend university.

However, students who chose law, economics or medicine earned significantly more than those without a degree.

While tuition fees vary, cost is a huge factor – especially since they tripled a decade ago. Many will pay £9,250 a year, and take out a student loan to pay for it.

Factor in living costs and the average debt for those who started their course in 2022/23 will be £45,600 by the time they graduate, according to data from the Commons Library .

Although students do not start paying back their loans until their earnings exceed a certain threshold (currently £27,660 a year, according to government data ), they are charged interest on their total loan from the day they take it out.

When repayments begin, they can be substantial (currently 9% of their income above the repayment threshold). It had been the case that the balance will be written off after 30 years, or when you turn 65 (whichever came first).

But a “big change this year”, for students starting their courses on or after 1 August 2023, will now see the balance lasting for 40 years rather than 30, said The Times – “until close to retirement for many” – and a lower salary repayment threshold.

Universities have said that “effectively freezing tuition fees” since 2012 is “threatening to have an impact on the quality” of what they can offer as their income has been reduced dramatically in real terms.

A degree offers greater opportunities and choice in the job market. It will also “improve your chances of securing a job role in specialised fields”, said Career Addict . A degree “is essential for certain skilled roles and careers”.

A university education “allows you to target a broader range of careers than you can through an apprenticeship”, said Prospects , “but both will stand you in good stead when it comes to getting a job”.

According to data published in 2019 by the Office for National Statistics , almost a third of graduates were overqualified for their job.

“Our findings show that people who studied arts, biology and humanities are the most likely to be overeducated,” said Dr Maja Savic, an ONS economist.

Nearly three out of 10 graduates do not progress into highly skilled jobs or further study 15 months after graduating, according to the regulator, the Office for Students (OfS).

Under new government plans , universities could be restricted in recruiting students to courses that “do not have good outcomes”. This includes courses with high drop-out rates, or a low proportion of graduates ending up in professional jobs.

“Of course going to university is about so much more than money,” said The Times. While hard to quantify, many graduates benefit enormously from the university experience, and the life lessons learned.

These include making new friends from different backgrounds, expanding your network of contacts that can help you in later life, broadening your range of interests through extracurricular societies and clubs, studying abroad, learning skills like budgeting – all of which will serve you well after you graduate.

The focus has begun to shift towards vocational courses and on-the-job training, which offers many of the skills needed to succeed in the workplace – without the accompanying student debt. From 2024, candidates will be able to apply to do apprenticeships through Ucas.

A 2021 report by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development found that the majority of graduates (52%) would have considered doing an apprenticeship instead of a degree.

By doing an apprenticeship, “you’ll immediately enter the world of work and gain valuable on-the-job experience while earning money as you study”, said Prospects. “You won’t pay tuition fees and you’ll make industry contacts from day one.”

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Harriet Marsden is a writer for The Week, mostly covering UK and global news and politics. Before joining the site, she was a freelance journalist for seven years, specialising in social affairs, gender equality and culture. She worked for The Guardian, The Times and The Independent, and regularly contributed articles to The Sunday Times, The Telegraph, The New Statesman, Tortoise Media and Metro, as well as appearing on BBC Radio London, Times Radio and “Woman’s Hour”. She has a master’s in international journalism from City University, London, and was awarded the "journalist-at-large" fellowship by the Local Trust charity in 2021. 

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Should College Be Free? The Pros and Cons

Types of Publicly Funded College Tuition Programs

Pros: why college should be free, cons: why college should not be free, what the free college debate means for students, how to cut your college costs now, frequently asked questions (faqs).

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Americans have been debating the wisdom of free college for decades, and more than 30 states now offer some type of free college program. But it wasn't until 2021 that a nationwide free college program came close to becoming reality, re-energizing a longstanding debate over whether or not free college is a good idea. 

And despite a setback for the free-college advocates, the idea is still in play. The Biden administration's free community college proposal was scrapped from the American Families Plan . But close observers say that similar proposals promoting free community college have drawn solid bipartisan support in the past. "Community colleges are one of the relatively few areas where there's support from both Republicans and Democrats," said Tulane economics professor Douglas N. Harris, who has previously consulted with the Biden administration on free college, in an interview with The Balance. 

To get a sense of the various arguments for and against free college, as well as the potential impacts on U.S. students and taxpayers, The Balance combed through studies investigating the design and implementation of publicly funded free tuition programs and spoke with several higher education policy experts. Here's what we learned about the current debate over free college in the U.S.—and more about how you can cut your college costs or even get free tuition through existing programs.

Key Takeaways

• Research shows free tuition programs encourage more students to attend college and increase graduation rates, which creates a better-educated workforce and higher-earning consumers who can help boost the economy. 
• Some programs are criticized for not paying students’ non-tuition expenses, not benefiting students who need assistance most, or steering students toward community college instead of four-year programs.  
• If you want to find out about free programs in your area, the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education has a searchable database. You’ll find the link further down in this article. 

Before diving into the weeds of the free college debate, it's important to note that not all free college programs are alike. Most publicly funded tuition assistance programs are restricted to the first two years of study, typically at community colleges. Free college programs also vary widely in the ways they’re designed, funded, and structured:

• Last-dollar tuition-free programs : These programs cover any remaining tuition after a student has used up other financial aid , such as Pell Grants. Most state-run free college programs fall into this category. However, these programs don’t typically help with room and board or other expenses.
• First-dollar tuition-free programs : These programs pay for students' tuition upfront, although they’re much rarer than last-dollar programs. Any remaining financial aid that a student receives can then be applied to other expenses, such as books and fees. The California College Promise Grant is a first-dollar program because it waives enrollment fees for eligible students.
• Debt-free programs : These programs pay for all of a student's college expenses , including room and board, guaranteeing that they can graduate debt-free. But they’re also much less common, likely due to their expense.  

Proponents often argue that publicly funded college tuition programs eventually pay for themselves, in part by giving students the tools they need to find better jobs and earn higher incomes than they would with a high school education. The anticipated economic impact, they suggest, should help ease concerns about the costs of public financing education. Here’s a closer look at the arguments for free college programs.

A More Educated Workforce Benefits the Economy

Morley Winograd, President of the Campaign for Free College Tuition, points to the economic and tax benefits that result from the higher wages of college grads. "For government, it means more revenue," said Winograd in an interview with The Balance—the more a person earns, the more they will likely pay in taxes . In addition, "the country's economy gets better because the more skilled the workforce this country has, the better [it’s] able to compete globally." Similarly, local economies benefit from a more highly educated, better-paid workforce because higher earners have more to spend. "That's how the economy grows," Winograd explained, “by increasing disposable income."

According to Harris, the return on a government’s investment in free college can be substantial. "The additional finding of our analysis was that these things seem to consistently pass a cost-benefit analysis," he said. "The benefits seem to be at least double the cost in the long run when we look at the increased college attainment and the earnings that go along with that, relative to the cost and the additional funding and resources that go into them." 

Free College Programs Encourage More Students to Attend

Convincing students from underprivileged backgrounds to take a chance on college can be a challenge, particularly when students are worried about overextending themselves financially. But free college programs tend to have more success in persuading students to consider going, said Winograd, in part because they address students' fears that they can't afford higher education . "People who wouldn't otherwise think that they could go to college, or who think the reason they can't is [that] it's too expensive, [will] stop, pay attention, listen, decide it's an opportunity they want to take advantage of, and enroll," he said.

According to Harris, students also appear to like the certainty and simplicity of the free college message. "They didn't want to have to worry that next year they were not going to have enough money to pay their tuition bill," he said. "They don't know what their finances are going to look like a few months down the road, let alone next year, and it takes a while to get a degree. So that matters." 

Free college programs can also help send "a clear and tangible message" to students and their families that a college education is attainable for them, said Michelle Dimino, an Education Director with Third Way. This kind of messaging is especially important to first-generation and low-income students, she said. 

Free College Increases Graduation Rates and Financial Security

Free tuition programs appear to improve students’ chances of completing college. For example, Harris noted that his research found a meaningful link between free college tuition and higher graduation rates. "What we found is that it did increase college graduation at the two-year college level, so more students graduated than otherwise would have." 

Free college tuition programs also give people a better shot at living a richer, more comfortable life, say advocates. "It's almost an economic necessity to have some college education," noted Winograd. Similar to the way a high school diploma was viewed as crucial in the 20th century, employees are now learning that they need at least two years of college to compete in a global, information-driven economy. "Free community college is a way of making that happen quickly, effectively, and essentially," he explained. 

Free community college isn’t a universally popular idea. While many critics point to the potential costs of funding such programs, others identify issues with the effectiveness and fairness of current attempts to cover students’ college tuition. Here’s a closer look at the concerns about free college programs.

It Would Be Too Expensive

The idea of free community college has come under particular fire from critics who worry about the cost of social spending. Since community colleges aren't nearly as expensive as four-year colleges—often costing thousands of dollars a year—critics argue that individuals can often cover their costs using other forms of financial aid . But, they point out, community college costs would quickly add up when paid for in bulk through a free college program: Biden’s proposed free college plan would have cost $49.6 billion in its first year, according to an analysis from Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce. Some opponents argue that the funds could be put to better use in other ways, particularly by helping students complete their degrees.

Free College Isn't Really Free

One of the most consistent concerns that people have voiced about free college programs is that they don’t go far enough. Even if a program offers free tuition, students will need to find a way to pay for other college-related expenses , such as books, room and board, transportation, high-speed internet, and, potentially, child care. "Messaging is such a key part of this," said Dimino. Students "may apply or enroll in college, understanding it's going to be free, but then face other unexpected charges along the way." 

It's important for policymakers to consider these factors when designing future free college programs. Otherwise, Dimino and other observers fear that students could potentially wind up worse off if they enroll and invest in attending college and then are forced to drop out due to financial pressures. 

Free College Programs Don’t Help the Students Who Need Them Most

Critics point out that many free college programs are limited by a variety of quirks and restrictions, which can unintentionally shut out deserving students or reward wealthier ones. Most state-funded free college programs are last-dollar programs, which don’t kick in until students have applied financial aid to their tuition. That means these programs offer less support to low-income students who qualify for need-based aid—and more support for higher-income students who don’t.

Community College May Not Be the Best Path for All Students

Some critics also worry that all students will be encouraged to attend community college when some would have been better off at a four-year institution. Four-year colleges tend to have more resources than community colleges and can therefore offer more support to high-need students. 

In addition, some research has shown that students at community colleges are less likely to be academically successful than students at four-year colleges, said Dimino. "Statistically, the data show that there are poorer outcomes for students at community colleges […] such as lower graduation rates and sometimes low transfer rates from two- to four-year schools." 

With Congress focused on other priorities, a nationwide free college program is unlikely to happen anytime soon. However, some states and municipalities offer free tuition programs, so students may be able to access some form of free college, depending on where they live. A good resource is the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education’s searchable database of Promise Programs , which lists more than 100 free community college programs, though the majority are limited to California residents.

In the meantime, school leaders and policymakers may shift their focus to other access and equity interventions for low-income students. For example, higher education experts Eileen Strempel and Stephen Handel published a book in 2021 titled "Beyond Free College: Making Higher Education Work for 21st Century Students." The book argues that policymakers should focus more strongly on college completion, not just college access. "There hasn't been enough laser-focus on how we actually get people to complete their degrees," noted Strempel in an interview with The Balance. 

Rather than just improving access for low-income college students, Strempel and Handel argue that decision-makers should instead look more closely at the social and economic issues that affect students , such as food and housing insecurity, child care, transportation, and personal technology. For example, "If you don't have a computer, you don't have access to your education anymore," said Strempel. "It's like today's pencil."

Saving money on college costs can be challenging, but you can take steps to reduce your cost of living. For example, if you're interested in a college but haven't yet enrolled, pay close attention to where it's located and how much residents typically pay for major expenses, such as housing, utilities, and food. If the college is located in a high-cost area, it could be tough to justify the living expenses you'll incur. Similarly, if you plan to commute, take the time to check gas or public transportation prices and calculate how much you'll likely have to spend per month to go to and from campus several times a week. 

Now that more colleges offer classes online, it may also be worth looking at lower-cost programs in areas that are farther from where you live, particularly if they allow you to graduate without setting foot on campus. Also, check out state and federal financial aid programs that can help you slim down your expenses, or, in some cases, pay for them completely. Finally, look into need-based and merit-based grants and scholarships that can help you cover even more of your expenses. Also, consider applying to no-loan colleges , which promise to help students graduate without going into debt.

Should community college be free?

It’s a big question with varying viewpoints. Supporters of free community college cite the economic contributions of a more educated workforce and the individual benefit of financial security, while critics caution against the potential expense and the inefficiency of last-dollar free college programs. 

What states offer free college?

More than 30 states offer some type of tuition-free college program, including Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Michigan, Nevada, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Virginia, and Washington State. The University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education lists over 100 last-dollar community college programs and 16 first-dollar community college programs, though the majority are limited to California residents.

Is there a free college?

There is no such thing as a truly free college education. But some colleges offer free tuition programs for students, and more than 30 states offer some type of tuition-free college program. In addition, students may also want to check out employer-based programs. A number of big employers now offer to pay for their employees' college tuition . Finally, some students may qualify for enough financial aid or scholarships to cover most of their college costs.

Scholarships360. " Which States Offer Tuition-Free Community College? "

The White House. “ Build Back Better Framework ,” see “Bringing Down Costs, Reducing Inflationary Pressures, and Strengthening the Middle Class.”

The White House. “ Fact Sheet: How the Build Back Better Plan Will Create a Better Future for Young Americans ,” see “Education and Workforce Opportunities.”

Coast Community College District. “ California College Promise Grant .”

Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce. “ The Dollars and Cents of Free College ,” see “Biden’s Free College Plan Would Pay for Itself Within 10 Years.”

Third Way. “ Why Free College Could Increase Inequality .”

Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce. “ The Dollars and Cents of Free College ,” see “Free-College Programs Have Different Effects on Race and Class Equity.”

University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education. “ College Promise Programs: A Comprehensive Catalog of College Promise Programs in the United States .”

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Student Opinion

Should College Be Free?

Do you think other states should follow New Mexico in making higher education tuition-free? What would that mean for society?

By Callie Holtermann

Do you plan to go to college? Are you or your family concerned about paying for it?

In the past three decades, the average cost of attending a private college in the United States has tripled — landing at around $50,000 per year.

Should college cost this much? How would our society change if college cost nothing at all?

Amid declines in enrollment , states including Texas and Michigan are experimenting with plans to reduce or eliminate tuition for many students. Starting in July, New Mexico will go a step further: It will completely cover tuition for all state residents who attend public colleges and universities.

In “ What if College Were Free? This State Is Trying to Find Out. ,” Simon Romero writes about the state’s plan, which received bipartisan approval:

As universities across the United States face steep enrollment declines , New Mexico’s government is embarking on a pioneering experiment to fight that trend: tuition-free higher education for all state residents. After President Biden’s plan for universal free community college failed to gain traction in Congress, New Mexico, one of the nation’s poorest states, has emerged with perhaps the most ambitious plans as states scramble to come up with their own initiatives. A new state law approved in a rare show of bipartisanship allocates almost 1 percent of the state’s budget toward covering tuition and fees at public colleges and universities, community colleges and tribal colleges. All state residents from new high school graduates to adults enrolling part-time will be eligible regardless of family income. The program is also open to immigrants regardless of their immigration status. Some legislators and other critics question whether there should have been income caps, and whether the state, newly flush with oil and gas revenue, can secure long-term funding to support the program beyond its first year. The legislation, which seeks to treat college as a public resource similar to primary and secondary education, takes effect in July.

The article continues:

Other states are assembling their own programs: The University of Texas System created a $300 million endowment in February that expands tuition assistance for thousands of students. Michigan provides free college to residents who were essential workers during the pandemic, while also covering tuition at community colleges for people ages 25 or older. Reflecting challenges before and during the pandemic, some initiatives have not produced the desired results. Even after California recently expanded free tuition opportunities, enrollment at its community colleges fell by nearly 15 percent in 2021 from a year earlier. The push for tuition-free higher education comes amid a broader enrollment crisis in the United States. Total undergraduate enrollment fell by 6.6 percent from 2019 to 2021, according to the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center.

Students, read the entire article , then tell us:

What do you think of New Mexico’s plan to provide tuition-free college to state residents? Do you think college should be “a public resource similar to primary and secondary education,” as New Mexico is treating it? Do you think that your state should adopt a similar plan? Why or why not?

Do you want to attend college? Why or why not? How does the cost of higher education factor into your thinking?

Do you think everyone should go to college — or do you think there should be more alternatives to higher education? If so, what should they be and why?

Why do you think universities across the United States are facing declines in enrollment? Do you think plans to make college less expensive or entirely free are the right way to increase enrollment?

Do you think making college tuition-free is worth the cost? (As the article points out, the money for the first year of the New Mexico program largely comes from pandemic relief funds. After that, legislators will need to draw funds from other sources to keep the program going.) Is it more realistic to do what states like Washington and Tennessee have done and limit tuition assistance to community colleges, exclude some residents because of family income or impose conditions requiring students to work part time?

Mr. Romero describes New Mexico’s initiative as “unusually inclusive,” given that it extends free tuition to inmates, unauthorized immigrants and some Native Americans from neighboring states. Why do you think New Mexico’s legislators decided it was important to make members of these groups eligible for free tuition? What might be some of the long-term effects of free college for all?

Want more writing prompts? You can find all of our questions in our Student Opinion column . Teachers, check out this guide to learn how you can incorporate them into your classroom.

Students 13 and older in the United States and Britain, and 16 and older elsewhere, are invited to comment. All comments are moderated by the Learning Network staff, but please keep in mind that once your comment is accepted, it will be made public.

Callie Holtermann joined The Learning Network as a senior news assistant in 2020. More about Callie Holtermann

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The pros and cons of higher education from a graduates perspective

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Many people enter higher education because they want to get into a good career after they complete their studies. Over the duration of their degree, they develop knowledge and skills and ultimately improve their future employment prospects. However, it is important to bear in mind that higher education might not be the right path for everyone and there are multiple factors to take into consideration when deciding if you should attend.

Here are some pros and cons when considering undertaking higher education.

1. You develop skills

Studying at university is a great way to develop your knowledge in the field you aspire to become established in. Universities can also equip students with transferable skills including; research skills, time management skills and improve your ability in using computers. These skills can enhance your employability by enabling you to stand out from candidates who may have not gone to university or gained these skills. To enter into professions such as law, accounting or marketing, it is highly likely that you will need a degree to be considered for an entry level position and without a degree; it can be considerably harder and take longer to break into these professions.

2. Increase your earning potential

Everyone would like to earn as much money as possible and a degree can certainly increase your earning potential. Although your salary will vary depending on which degree you have and what profession you enter, it has been established that graduates will earn significantly more over the course of their lifetime than a person who has not gained a degree. Attaining a degree can also improve your chances of gaining promotion and may enable you to climb up the career ladder quicker.

3. Provides an opportunity to make new friends and connections

University is a great place to meet new people as they will be in the same boat as you and you will be sharing similar experiences. This means you will more than likely have some things in common with them and this can help you to build rapport with your fellow students. You will be attending various lectures and seminars containing different students in them, and this will give you the opportunity to meet a variety of different people. Many students form strong friendships whilst at university and go on to become life-long friends.

4. You will gain independence

When you enter into higher education, you have taken a step towards improving your future prospects and this can motivate you to work towards your goals and aspirations. Many students decide to attend a university away from their home town and this will more than likely be their first time living away from their families. They will experience living on their own and will be obligated to pay for their accommodation and living expenses while managing their finances responsibly. If you decide to attend university away from home, you will experience life as an adult and gain a new level of independence and maturity.

1. It’s expensive!

University is very expensive and finance is a big aspect to take into consideration. Tuition fees cost thousands per year and graduates leave with a considerable amount of debt. In addition, you will need money for accommodation (if you are attending a university away from your home town) and money for living expenses. Student loans and grants can be taken to help you pay for your studies but this may not cover all of your costs. Once you graduate and find a job where you are earning over the threshold to make repayments, you will slowly have to pay off your loan and this can hang over you for years. University is well and truly an investment in your future but it is not always guaranteed to pay off.

2. You will have an intensive workload

You will be responsible for your own workload and must ensure you are fully committed to your programme. If you’re full time student, attending various lectures and seminars can be demanding and lecturers also encourage independent study so students are expected to dedicate a portion of the time in which they are not in lessons towards their studies. If you have taken a part-time job to gain some extra income, it can be difficult balancing university with your working life and this can be quite stressful to many students.

3. You may not gain any practical experience

While reading a degree, you will learn plenty of theory in the subject you are studying but you may not get the opportunity to gain any practical experience. After completing university, many graduates start applying to graduate roles only to find out that they do not have the hands-on practical experience to be considered for positions. They may have to undertake unpaid work placements or internships to gain experience and this can be hard to commit to if they have taken up employment in another field and are no longer very flexible. After completing these placements, graduates may still not have the relevant experience an employer requires and this can leave them feeling like university may have been a waste of their time.

4. You may have a change of heart…

Part way through your degree, you may decide that you have picked the wrong course and want to change. This could potentially mean waiting until the end of the academic year to change your degree and at this point, you will have already paid for a whole year’s tuition and living expenses. You could also have a change of heart and come to the conclusion that university might not the right for you and want to leave. Many students decide that they want to go down another route which does not require a university education and though they may be exceptions, the likes of Richard Branson and Philip Green have become highly successful in their fields without any higher education.

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Andre Lampen

Andre Lampen is a voluntary content writer with a heart to make a positive impact in his generation.

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Is college worth it? The answer for half of Americans is striking.

A college degree has often been sold as the key to a higher-quality, affluent life. But a new survey from the Pew Research Center suggests Americans have mixed views about that narrative – and data shows people without degrees have seen their earnings increase in the last decade.

Just 1 in 4 U.S. adults said it was extremely or very important to have a four-year degree if you want a well-paying job in the current economy. Forty percent of respondents said it wasn’t too important or important at all. 

Mirroring those trends, just 22% of adults said the cost of getting a bachelor’s is worth it even if it means taking out student loans. Nearly half said the cost is only worth it when students don’t have to go into debt. 

Graphics explain: How are college costs adding up these days and how much has tuition risen?

Given trends in the labor and economy – combined with skyrocketing tuition and student debt levels – the lackluster confidence among Americans isn’t surprising. For several decades until about 2014, for example, the earnings for young men without a degree trended downward. But the past decade “has marked a turning point,” according to the Pew analysis.

Workforce participation for these young men has stabilized and their earnings have risen. The share of them living in poverty has also fallen significantly. In 2011, for example, 17% of young men with just a high school diploma were living in poverty; in 2023, that rate dropped to 12%. Young women’s outcomes also improved in recent years.

The changing circumstances help explain why people's mindsets about the value of college have shifted. Roughly half of Americans, according to the Pew report, say a four-year degree is less important today than it was in the past to secure a well-paying job. A smaller percentage – about a third – say it’s more important now. 

The skepticism is more pronounced among conservative Americans than people who identify as Democrats or somewhat Democrat. Most Republicans (57%) said it was less important to have a four-year degree. Still, Americans from both parties are more likely to say the importance of a college degree has declined than to say it's increased.

The findings come as the Biden administration works to forgive certain borrowers’ federal student loan debt, which now totals more than $1.6 trillion. On top of barriers to covering tuition, college life has been altered this year by an uptick in culture war tensions on campus, from bans on diversity, equity and inclusion programming to student protests prompted by the Israel-Hamas war. These challenges have fueled debates about whether college is worth it.

Still, the research shows that earnings for degree holders have also trended upward. The income gaps between college graduates and those with just high school degrees or incomplete credentials have persisted. 

And while employment prospects for young men without a degree improved in the past decade, their median annual earnings remain below their 1973 adjusted levels.

Financial aid crisis: How FAFSA 'fixes' have turned College Decision Day into chaos

Lowering the cost of public college is essential and reasonable

February 9, 2022 Opinions Editor Opinion , Opinions , Opinions 1

Ethan Kuhstoss, Contributing Writer

That’s the average cost of public university tuition over a four year period. That number doesn’t account for housing, fees, student loan interest, textbooks and the many other expenses associated with attending college. When taking these costs into consideration, a bachelor’s degree can cost more than $400,000.

For the majority of students — primarily low-income students of color — salvaging these costs is simply not feasible, saddling young professionals with overwhelming debt.

To ensure that hard-working students can obtain higher education while affording basic needs, it is imperative to vastly reduce or eliminate the cost of public four-year universities before it is entirely unobtainable for lower-income Americans.

Over 60% of all college graduates receive their diplomas from public institutions according to the Association of Public and Land-Grant Universities. Despite the clear necessity of public colleges, a 2020 study from the College Board found that their exorbitant prices have caused the average graduate to saddle $27,000 in debt .

The National Center for Education Statistics revealed that, when adjusted for inflation, the annual cost to attend a public four-year institution has increased by over 148% since 1970 . However, the average household income has not kept pace; with an increase in income of only 48.6% , families today have a far more difficult time financing their childrens’ education than the previous generation.

Public colleges earn hundreds of millions of dollars every year from tuition and federal subsidies , yet fail to return their services in an affordable manner. In turn, the totality of student debt has passed $1.73 trillion .

As American student loan debt totals surpass Canada’s GDP , the racial wealth gap also continues to widen. In 2020, Black Americans were the group most likely to be paying off student loan debt and to be behind on payments.

65% of Black students are financially independent and have the highest rate of full-time employment compared to other groups of students, according to a 2018 study from the United Negro College Fund. Moreover, this leaves them more vulnerable to the socio-economic effects of COVID-19, as job insecurity can make or break their ability to afford college.

It isn’t as simple as choosing a cheaper school, either. A study from the Institute for Higher Educational Policy revealed that lower-income students can only afford one to five percent of colleges; compounded with the fact that poor families have a shorter travel radius due to a lack of transportation, it’s clear why college is so unobtainable for so many.

With the infeasibility of higher education, it is no surprise that the United States’ college graduation rates are quickly falling behind other developed nations. In a 2012 OECD study , America scored 19th out of 28 countries.

One of the most common concerns about lowering the cost of public universities is that higher education would lose its value. Thus, American students display their willingness to “go the extra mile” by putting their financial security at risk, showing future employers that they are prepared to do whatever it takes to achieve their goals.

This is an inaccurate and biased system, however. Poorer students assume far more risk and stress by enrolling in college, yet the end result appears the same. Can we really call America a meritocracy if disadvantaged populations have to work harder to get to the same position as those born more privileged than them?

Higher education significantly improves personal income , leading to increased revenue for every level of government through taxation. Additional spending money also stimulates more economic activity. Throughout their lifetime, bachelor’s degree holders inject $278,000 more into local economies than those who only graduated high school.

There are a number of avenues the government can pursue to lower the cost of public higher education. In addition to improving economic activity, Sen. Bernie Sanders’, I-V.T., Tax on Wall Street Speculation Act illustrates how we can raise $2.4 trillion for educational funding in the next decade.

The act gains funding through the implementation of taxes under 1% on the trade of stocks, bonds and derivatives. Considering the price tag of public universities is $79 billion annually, Sanders’ plan would solely fund the price of tuition. This legislation is not unprecedented, either; financial transaction taxes (FTT) were imposed in America from 1914 to 1965 , demonstrating that such a plan is feasible.

The ethical, rational and feasible decision to lower the price of public universities has been delayed for far too long. The American government has a moral obligation to ensure equality for academic opportunities to disadvantaged populations.

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Promises and pitfalls of online education

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Eric bettinger and eric bettinger associate professor of economics of education - stanford graduate school of education, research associate - national bureau of economic research susanna loeb susanna loeb professor and faculty director - scale initiative, stanford university's graduate school of education, founder and executive director - national student support accelerator.

June 9, 2017

• 12 min read

Executive Summary

Online courses have expanded rapidly and have the potential to extend further the educational opportunities of many students, particularly those least well-served by traditional educational institutions. However, in their current design, online courses are difficult, especially for the students who are least prepared. These students’ learning and persistence outcomes are worse when they take online courses than they would have been had these same students taken in-person courses. Continued improvement of online curricula and instruction can strengthen the quality of these courses and hence the educational opportunities for the most in-need populations.

Online courses offer the promise of access regardless of where students live or what time they can participate, potentially redefining educational opportunities for those least well-served in traditional classrooms. Moreover, online platforms offer the promise, through artificial intelligence, of providing the optimal course pacing and content to fit each student’s needs and thereby improve educational quality and learning. The latest “intelligent” tutoring systems, for example, not only assess students’ current weaknesses, but also diagnose why students make the specific errors. These systems then adjust instructional materials to meet students’ needs. 1

Yet today these promises are far from fully realized. The vast majority of online courses mirror face-to-face classrooms with professors rather using technology to better differentiate instruction across students. As one new study that we completed with our colleagues Lindsay Fox and Eric Taylor shows, online courses can improve access, yet they also are challenging, especially for the least well-prepared students. These students consistently perform worse in an online setting than they do in face-to-face classrooms; taking online courses increases their likelihood of dropping out and otherwise impedes progress through college. 2

Online college courses are rapidly growing. One out of three college students now takes at least one course online during their college career, and that share has increased threefold over the past decade. 3  The potential for cost savings and the ease of scaling fuels ongoing investments in online education by both public and private institutions. 4  Online courses have grown in the K-12 sector as well. Florida, for example, requires each high school student to take at least one online course before graduation and the Florida Virtual School offers over 150 classes to students across the state. 5  An estimated 1.5 million K-12 students participated in some online learning in 2010, 6  and online learning enrollments are projected to grow in future years. 7

Non-selective and for-profit higher education institutions have expanded online course offerings particularly quickly. These institutions serve a majority of college-aged students, and these students typically have weaker academic preparation and fewer economic resources than students at other more selective colleges and universities. As such, their ability to provide useful course work, engage students, and build the skills necessary for economic success is particularly important. Their use of online coursework is promising to the extent that it can reach the most students in need and serve them well.

While online course-taking is both prevalent and growing, especially in non-selective higher education institutions, relatively little evidence has examined how taking a course online instead of in person affects student success in college. Our new study is the first of which we are aware to provide evidence on the effects of online courses at-scale at non-selective four-year colleges. It is also the first to assess the effects of online course taking at for-profit institutions. Nearly 2.4 million undergraduate students (full-time equivalent) enrolled at for-profit institutions during the 2011-12 academic year, and the sector granted approximately 18 percent of all associate degrees.

Our study uses data from DeVry University, a large for-profit college with an undergraduate enrollment of more than 100,000 students, 80 percent of whom are seeking a bachelor’s degree. The average DeVry student takes two-thirds of her courses online. The remaining one-third of courses meet in conventional in-person classes held at one of DeVry’s 102 physical campuses. The data include over 230,000 students enrolled in 168,000 sections of more than 750 different courses.

DeVry University’s approach to online education makes it particularly well suited for estimating the effects of taking online courses. Each DeVry course is offered both online and in-person, and each student enrolls in either an online section or an in-person section. Online and in-person sections are identical in most ways: both follow the same syllabus and use the same textbook; class sizes are approximately the same; both use the same assignments, quizzes, tests, and grading rubrics. Many professors teach both online and in-person courses. The contrast between online and in-person sections is primarily the mode of communication. In online sections, all interaction—lecturing, class discussion, group projects—occurs in online discussion boards, and much of the professor’s “lecturing” role is replaced with standardized videos. In online sections, participation is often asynchronous while in-person sections meet on campus at scheduled times. In short, DeVry online classes attempt to replicate traditional in-person classes, except that student-student and student-professor interactions are virtual and asynchronous.

Using variation in course-taking that arises both from changes in course offerings at particular campuses in a particular term and from variation across students in the distance that they have to travel to take in-person courses, we find that taking a course online reduces student grades by 0.44 points on the traditional four-point grading scale, approximately a 0.33 standard deviation decline relative to taking a course in-person (See Figure 1). To be more concrete, students taking the course in-person earned roughly a B- grade (2.8) on average while if they had taken it online, they would have earned a C (2.4). Additionally, taking a course online reduces a student’s GPA the following term by 0.15 points; and, if we look only at the next term GPA for courses in the same subject area or courses for which the course in question is a pre-requisite, we find larger drops of 0.42 points and 0.32 points respectively, providing evidence that students learned less in the online setting.

We also find that taking a course online, instead of in person, increases the probability that a student will drop out of school. In the semester after taking an online course, students are about 9 percentage points less likely to remain enrolled. This reduction is relative to an average of 88 percent of students remaining enrolled in the following term. Moreover, taking a course online reduces the number of credits that students who do reenroll take in future semesters. While this setting is quite different, we can compare the effects on online course taking to other estimates of effects of on college persistence. For example, the literature on financial aid often finds that $1000 in financial aid increases persistence rates by about three percentage points 8  and college mentorship increases persistence rates by five percentage points. 9

The negative effects of online course taking are concentrated in the lowest performing students. As shown in Figure 2, for students with below median prior GPA, the online classes reduce grades by 0.5 points or more, while for students with prior GPA in the top three deciles we estimate the effect as much smaller and, in fact, we cannot tell whether there is negative effect at all for this higher-achieving group. Thus, while online courses may have the potential to differentiate coursework to meet the needs of students with weaker incoming skills, current online courses, in fact, do an even worse job of meeting the needs of these students than do traditional in-person courses.

These analyses provide evidence that students in online courses perform substantially worse than students in traditional in-person courses and that experience in these online courses impact performance in future classes and their likelihood of dropping out of college as well. The negative effects of online course-taking are far stronger for students with lower prior GPA. The results are in line with prior studies of online education in other settings such as community colleges and highly competitive four-year institutions that also show that online courses yield worse average outcomes than in-person courses. 10

The current negative effect of online course taking relative to in-person course taking should not necessarily lead to the conclusion that online courses should be discouraged. On the contrary, online courses provide access to students who never would have the opportunity or inclination to take classes in-person. 11  As one indication, of the 5.8 million students taking online courses in the fall of 2014, 2.85 million took all of their courses online. 12  Moreover, advances in AI offer hope that future online courses can respond to the needs of students, meeting them where they are in their learning and engaging them in higher education even better than in-person courses are currently able to do. 13 Nonetheless, the tremendous scale and consistently negative effects of current offerings points to the need to improve these courses, particularly for students most at risk of course failure and college dropout.

The authors did not receive financial support from any firm or person with a financial or political interest in this article. They are currently not officers, directors, or board members of any organization with an interest in this article.

• Graesser, Arthur C., Mark W. Conley, and Andrew Olney. 2012. “Intelligent tutoring systems.” In APA Educational Psychology Handbook, Vol. 3: Application to Learning and Teaching , edited by Karen. R. Harris, Steve Graham, and Tim Urdan. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Bettinger, E., Fox, L., Loeb, S., & Taylor, E. (Forthcoming). Changing Distributions: How Online College Classes Alter Student and Professor Performance. American Economic Review .
• Allen, I. Elaine, and Jeff Seaman. 2013. Changing Course: Ten Years of Tracking Online Education in the United States. Newburyport, MA: Sloan Consortium.
• Deming, David J., Claudia Goldin, Lawrence F. Katz, and Noam Yuchtman. 2015. Can Online Learning Bend the Higher Education Cost Curve? American Economic Review, Papers & Proceedings, 105 (5):496-501.
• Jacob, B., Berger, D. Hart, C. & Loeb, S. (Forthcoming). “Can Technology Help Promote Equality of Educational Opportunities?” In K. Alexander and S. Morgan (Editors),  The Coleman Report and Educational Inequality Fifty Years Later.  Russell Sage Foundation and William T. Grant Foundation: New York.
• Wicks, Matthew. 2010. “A National Primer on K-12 Online Learning. Version 2.” Vienna, VA: International Association for K-12 Online Learning.
• Watson, John, Amy Murin, Lauren Vashaw, Butch Gemin, and Chris Rapp. 2012. “Keeping Pace with K-12 Online Learning: An Annual Review of Policy and Practice 2011.” Durango, CO: Evergreen Education Group. And Picciano, Anthony G., Jeff Seaman, Peter Shea, and Karen Swan. 2012. “Examining the Extent and Nature of Online Learning in American K-12 Education: The Research Initiatives of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.” The Internet and Higher Education 15(2): 127-35.
• Bettinger, Eric P. 2004. “How Financial Aid Affects Persistence.” In Caroline Hoxby (Ed.), College Choices: The Economics of Where to Go, When to Go, and How to Pay for It . University of Chicago Press.
• Bettinger, Eric P., and Rachel B. Baker. 2013. “The Effects of Student Coaching: An Evaluation of a Randomized Experiment in Student Advising.” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36 (1):3-19.
• See for examples: Figlio, David, Mark Rush, and Lu Yin. 2013. “Is It Live or Is It Internet? Experimental Estimates of the Effects of Online Instruction on Student Learning.” Journal of Labor Economics, 31 (4):763-784; Couch, Kenneth A., William T. Alpert, and Oskar R. Harmon. 2014. “Online, Blended and Classroom Teaching of Economics Principles: A Randomized Experiment.” University of Connecticut Working Paper; Xu, Di, and Shanna Smith Jaggars. 2014. “Performance Gaps Between Online and Face-to-Face Courses: Differences Across Types of Students and Academic Subject Areas.” The Journal of Higher Education, 85 (5):633-659; Hart, Cassandra, Elizabeth Friedmann, and Michael Hill. 2014. “Online Course-Taking and Student Outcomes in California Community Colleges.” Working Paper; and Streich, Francie E. 2014. “Online and Hybrid Instruction and Student Success in College: Evidence from Community Colleges in Two States.” University of Michigan Working Paper.
• See, for example, Joshua Goodman, Julia Melkers, and Amanda Pallais, “ Can Online Delivery Increase Access to Education? ” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 22754, October 2016.
• Online Report Card – Tracking Online Education in the United States , the 2015 Survey of Online Learning conducted by the Babson Survey Research Group and co-sponsored by the Online Learning Consortium (OLC), Pearson, StudyPortals, WCET and Tyton Partners.
• See, for example, the Open Learning Initiative at Carnegie Mellon University.

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• Published: 09 January 2024

Online vs in-person learning in higher education: effects on student achievement and recommendations for leadership

• Bandar N. Alarifi 1 &
• Steve Song 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  86 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This study is a comparative analysis of online distance learning and traditional in-person education at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia, with a focus on understanding how different educational modalities affect student achievement. The justification for this study lies in the rapid shift towards online learning, especially highlighted by the educational changes during the COVID-19 pandemic. By analyzing the final test scores of freshman students in five core courses over the 2020 (in-person) and 2021 (online) academic years, the research provides empirical insights into the efficacy of online versus traditional education. Initial observations suggested that students in online settings scored lower in most courses. However, after adjusting for variables like gender, class size, and admission scores using multiple linear regression, a more nuanced picture emerged. Three courses showed better performance in the 2021 online cohort, one favored the 2020 in-person group, and one was unaffected by the teaching format. The study emphasizes the crucial need for a nuanced, data-driven strategy in integrating online learning within higher education systems. It brings to light the fact that the success of educational methodologies is highly contingent on specific contextual factors. This finding advocates for educational administrators and policymakers to exercise careful and informed judgment when adopting online learning modalities. It encourages them to thoroughly evaluate how different subjects and instructional approaches might interact with online formats, considering the variable effects these might have on learning outcomes. This approach ensures that decisions about implementing online education are made with a comprehensive understanding of its diverse and context-specific impacts, aiming to optimize educational effectiveness and student success.

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Introduction.

The year 2020 marked an extraordinary period, characterized by the global disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Governments and institutions worldwide had to adapt to unforeseen challenges across various domains, including health, economy, and education. In response, many educational institutions quickly transitioned to distance teaching (also known as e-learning, online learning, or virtual classrooms) to ensure continued access to education for their students. However, despite this rapid and widespread shift to online learning, a comprehensive examination of its effects on student achievement in comparison to traditional in-person instruction remains largely unexplored.

In research examining student outcomes in the context of online learning, the prevailing trend is the consistent observation that online learners often achieve less favorable results when compared to their peers in traditional classroom settings (e.g., Fischer et al., 2020 ; Bettinger et al., 2017 ; Edvardsson and Oskarsson, 2008 ). However, it is important to note that a significant portion of research on online learning has primarily focused on its potential impact (Kuhfeld et al., 2020 ; Azevedo et al., 2020 ; Di Pietro et al., 2020 ) or explored various perspectives (Aucejo et al., 2020 ; Radha et al., 2020 ) concerning distance education. These studies have often omitted a comprehensive and nuanced examination of its concrete academic consequences, particularly in terms of test scores and grades.

Given the dearth of research on the academic impact of online learning, especially in light of Covid-19 in the educational arena, the present study aims to address that gap by assessing the effectiveness of distance learning compared to in-person teaching in five required freshmen-level courses at King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. To accomplish this objective, the current study compared the final exam results of 8297 freshman students who were enrolled in the five courses in person in 2020 to their 8425 first-year counterparts who has taken the same courses at the same institution in 2021 but in an online format.

The final test results of the five courses (i.e., University Skills 101, Entrepreneurship 101, Computer Skills 101, Computer Skills 101, and Fitness and Health Culture 101) were examined, accounting for potential confounding factors such as gender, class size and admission scores, which have been cited in past research to be correlated with student achievement (e.g., Meinck and Brese, 2019 ; Jepsen, 2015 ) Additionally, as the preparatory year at King Saud University is divided into five tracks—health, nursing, science, business, and humanity, the study classified students based on their respective disciplines.

Motivation for the study

The rapid expansion of distance learning in higher education, particularly highlighted during the recent COVID-19 pandemic (Volk et al., 2020 ; Bettinger et al., 2017 ), underscores the need for alternative educational approaches during crises. Such disruptions can catalyze innovation and the adoption of distance learning as a contingency plan (Christensen et al., 2015 ). King Saud University, like many institutions worldwide, faced the challenge of transitioning abruptly to online learning in response to the pandemic.

E-learning has gained prominence in higher education due to technological advancements, offering institutions a competitive edge (Valverde-Berrocoso et al., 2020 ). Especially during conditions like the COVID-19 pandemic, electronic communication was utilized across the globe as a feasible means to overcome barriers and enhance interactions (Bozkurt, 2019 ).

Distance learning, characterized by flexibility, became crucial when traditional in-person classes are hindered by unforeseen circumstance such as the ones posed by COVID-19 (Arkorful and Abaidoo, 2015 ). Scholars argue that it allows students to learn at their own pace, often referred to as self-directed learning (Hiemstra, 1994 ) or self-education (Gadamer, 2001 ). Additional advantages include accessibility, cost-effectiveness, and flexibility (Sadeghi, 2019 ).

However, distance learning is not immune to its own set of challenges. Technical impediments, encompassing network issues, device limitations, and communication hiccups, represent formidable hurdles (Sadeghi, 2019 ). Furthermore, concerns about potential distractions in the online learning environment, fueled by the ubiquity of the internet and social media, have surfaced (Hall et al., 2020 ; Ravizza et al., 2017 ). The absence of traditional face-to-face interactions among students and between students and instructors is also viewed as a potential drawback (Sadeghi, 2019 ).

Given the evolving understanding of the pros and cons of distance learning, this study aims to contribute to the existing literature by assessing the effectiveness of distance learning, specifically in terms of student achievement, as compared to in-person classroom learning at King Saud University, one of Saudi Arabia’s largest higher education institutions.

Academic achievement: in-person vs online learning

The primary driving force behind the rapid integration of technology in education has been its emphasis on student performance (Lai and Bower, 2019 ). Over the past decade, numerous studies have undertaken comparisons of student academic achievement in online and in-person settings (e.g., Bettinger et al., 2017 ; Fischer et al., 2020 ; Iglesias-Pradas et al., 2021 ). This section offers a concise review of the disparities in academic achievement between college students engaged in in-person and online learning, as identified in existing research.

A number of studies point to the superiority of traditional in-person education over online learning in terms of academic outcomes. For example, Fischer et al. ( 2020 ) conducted a comprehensive study involving 72,000 university students across 433 subjects, revealing that online students tend to achieve slightly lower academic results than their in-class counterparts. Similarly, Bettinger et al. ( 2017 ) found that students at for-profit online universities generally underperformed when compared to their in-person peers. Supporting this trend, Figlio et al. ( 2013 ) indicated that in-person instruction consistently produced better results, particularly among specific subgroups like males, lower-performing students, and Hispanic learners. Additionally, Kaupp’s ( 2012 ) research in California community colleges demonstrated that online students faced lower completion and success rates compared to their traditional in-person counterparts (Fig. 1 ).

The figure compared student achievement in the final tests in the five courses by year, using independent-samples t-tests; the results show a statistically-significant drop in test scores from 2020 (in person) to 2021 (online) for all courses except CT_101.

In contrast, other studies present evidence of online students outperforming their in-person peers. For example, Iglesias-Pradas et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a comparative analysis of 43 bachelor courses at Telecommunication Engineering College in Malaysia, revealing that online students achieved higher academic outcomes than their in-person counterparts. Similarly, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Gonzalez et al. ( 2020 ) found that students engaged in online learning performed better than those who had previously taken the same subjects in traditional in-class settings.

Expanding on this topic, several studies have reported mixed results when comparing the academic performance of online and in-person students, with various student and instructor factors emerging as influential variables. Chesser et al. ( 2020 ) noted that student traits such as conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion play a substantial role in academic achievement, regardless of the learning environment—be it traditional in-person classrooms or online settings. Furthermore, Cacault et al. ( 2021 ) discovered that online students with higher academic proficiency tend to outperform those with lower academic capabilities, suggesting that differences in students’ academic abilities may impact their performance. In contrast, Bergstrand and Savage ( 2013 ) found that online classes received lower overall ratings and exhibited a less respectful learning environment when compared to in-person instruction. Nevertheless, they also observed that the teaching efficiency of both in-class and online courses varied significantly depending on the instructors’ backgrounds and approaches. These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of the online vs. in-person learning debate, highlighting the need for a nuanced understanding of the factors at play.

Theoretical framework

Constructivism is a well-established learning theory that places learners at the forefront of their educational experience, emphasizing their active role in constructing knowledge through interactions with their environment (Duffy and Jonassen, 2009 ). According to constructivist principles, learners build their understanding by assimilating new information into their existing cognitive frameworks (Vygotsky, 1978 ). This theory highlights the importance of context, active engagement, and the social nature of learning (Dewey, 1938 ). Constructivist approaches often involve hands-on activities, problem-solving tasks, and opportunities for collaborative exploration (Brooks and Brooks, 1999 ).

In the realm of education, subject-specific pedagogy emerges as a vital perspective that acknowledges the distinctive nature of different academic disciplines (Shulman, 1986 ). It suggests that teaching methods should be tailored to the specific characteristics of each subject, recognizing that subjects like mathematics, literature, or science require different approaches to facilitate effective learning (Shulman, 1987 ). Subject-specific pedagogy emphasizes that the methods of instruction should mirror the ways experts in a particular field think, reason, and engage with their subject matter (Cochran-Smith and Zeichner, 2005 ).

When applying these principles to the design of instruction for online and in-person learning environments, the significance of adapting methods becomes even more pronounced. Online learning often requires unique approaches due to its reliance on technology, asynchronous interactions, and potential for reduced social presence (Anderson, 2003 ). In-person learning, on the other hand, benefits from face-to-face interactions and immediate feedback (Allen and Seaman, 2016 ). Here, the interplay of constructivism and subject-specific pedagogy becomes evident.

Online learning. In an online environment, constructivist principles can be upheld by creating interactive online activities that promote exploration, reflection, and collaborative learning (Salmon, 2000 ). Discussion forums, virtual labs, and multimedia presentations can provide opportunities for students to actively engage with the subject matter (Harasim, 2017 ). By integrating subject-specific pedagogy, educators can design online content that mirrors the discipline’s methodologies while leveraging technology for authentic experiences (Koehler and Mishra, 2009 ). For instance, an online history course might incorporate virtual museum tours, primary source analysis, and collaborative timeline projects.

In-person learning. In a traditional brick-and-mortar classroom setting, constructivist methods can be implemented through group activities, problem-solving tasks, and in-depth discussions that encourage active participation (Jonassen et al., 2003 ). Subject-specific pedagogy complements this by shaping instructional methods to align with the inherent characteristics of the subject (Hattie, 2009). For instance, in a physics class, hands-on experiments and real-world applications can bring theoretical concepts to life (Hake, 1998 ).

In sum, the fusion of constructivism and subject-specific pedagogy offers a versatile approach to instructional design that adapts to different learning environments (Garrison, 2011 ). By incorporating the principles of both theories, educators can tailor their methods to suit the unique demands of online and in-person learning, ultimately providing students with engaging and effective learning experiences that align with the nature of the subject matter and the mode of instruction.

Course description

The Self-Development Skills Department at King Saud University (KSU) offers five mandatory freshman-level courses. These courses aim to foster advanced thinking skills and cultivate scientific research abilities in students. They do so by imparting essential skills, identifying higher-level thinking patterns, and facilitating hands-on experience in scientific research. The design of these classes is centered around aiding students’ smooth transition into university life. Brief descriptions of these courses are as follows:

University Skills 101 (CI 101) is a three-hour credit course designed to nurture essential academic, communication, and personal skills among all preparatory year students at King Saud University. The primary goal of this course is to equip students with the practical abilities they need to excel in their academic pursuits and navigate their university lives effectively. CI 101 comprises 12 sessions and is an integral part of the curriculum for all incoming freshmen, ensuring a standardized foundation for skill development.

Fitness and Health 101 (FAJB 101) is a one-hour credit course. FAJB 101 focuses on the aspects of self-development skills in terms of health and physical, and the skills related to personal health, nutrition, sports, preventive, psychological, reproductive, and first aid. This course aims to motivate students’ learning process through entertainment, sports activities, and physical exercises to maintain their health. This course is required for all incoming freshmen students at King Saud University.

Entrepreneurship 101 (ENT 101) is a one-hour- credit course. ENT 101 aims to develop students’ skills related to entrepreneurship. The course provides students with knowledge and skills to generate and transform ideas and innovations into practical commercial projects in business settings. The entrepreneurship course consists of 14 sessions and is taught only to students in the business track.

Computer Skills 101 (CT 101) is a three-hour credit course. This provides students with the basic computer skills, e.g., components, operating systems, applications, and communication backup. The course explores data visualization, introductory level of modern programming with algorithms and information security. CT 101 course is taught for all tracks except those in the human track.

Computer Skills 102 (CT 102) is a three-hour credit course. It provides IT skills to the students to utilize computers with high efficiency, develop students’ research and scientific skills, and increase capability to design basic educational software. CT 102 course focuses on operating systems such as Microsoft Office. This course is only taught for students in the human track.

Structure and activities

These courses ranged from one to three hours. A one-hour credit means that students must take an hour of the class each week during the academic semester. The same arrangement would apply to two and three credit-hour courses. The types of activities in each course are shown in Table 1 .

At King Saud University, each semester spans 15 weeks in duration. The total number of semester hours allocated to each course serves as an indicator of its significance within the broader context of the academic program, including the diverse tracks available to students. Throughout the two years under study (i.e., 2020 and 2021), course placements (fall or spring), course content, and the organizational structure remained consistent and uniform.

Participants

The study’s data comes from test scores of a cohort of 16,722 first-year college students enrolled at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia over the span of two academic years: 2020 and 2021. Among these students, 8297 were engaged in traditional, in-person learning in 2020, while 8425 had transitioned to online instruction for the same courses in 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic. In 2020, the student population consisted of 51.5% females and 48.5% males. However, in 2021, there was a reversal in these proportions, with female students accounting for 48.5% and male students comprising 51.5% of the total participants.

Regarding student enrollment in the five courses, Table 2 provides a detailed breakdown by average class size, admission scores, and the number of students enrolled in the courses during the two years covered by this study. While the total number of students in each course remained relatively consistent across the two years, there were noticeable fluctuations in average class sizes. Specifically, four out of the five courses experienced substantial increases in class size, with some nearly doubling in size (e.g., ENT_101 and CT_102), while one course (CT_101) showed a reduction in its average class size.

In this study, it must be noted that while some students enrolled in up to three different courses within the same academic year, none repeated the same exam in both years. Specifically, students who failed to pass their courses in 2020 were required to complete them in summer sessions and were consequently not included in this study’s dataset. To ensure clarity and precision in our analysis, the research focused exclusively on student test scores to evaluate and compare the academic effectiveness of online and traditional in-person learning methods. This approach was chosen to provide a clear, direct comparison of the educational impacts associated with each teaching format.

Descriptive analysis of the final exam scores for the two years (2020 and 2021) were conducted. Additionally, comparison of student outcomes in in-person classes in 2020 to their online platform peers in 2021 were conducted using an independent-samples t -test. Subsequently, in order to address potential disparities between the two groups arising from variables such as gender, class size, and admission scores (which serve as an indicator of students’ academic aptitude and pre-enrollment knowledge), multiple regression analyses were conducted. In these multivariate analyses, outcomes of both in-person and online cohorts were assessed within their respective tracks. By carefully considering essential aforementioned variables linked to student performance, the study aimed to ensure a comprehensive and equitable evaluation.

Study instrument

The study obtained students’ final exam scores for the years 2020 (in-person) and 2021 (online) from the school’s records office through their examination management system. In the preparatory year at King Saud University, final exams for all courses are developed by committees composed of faculty members from each department. To ensure valid comparisons, the final exam questions, crafted by departmental committees of professors, remained consistent and uniform for the two years under examination.

Table 3 provides a comprehensive assessment of the reliability of all five tests included in our analysis. These tests exhibit a strong degree of internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients spanning a range from 0.77 to 0.86. This robust and consistent internal consistency measurement underscores the dependable nature of these tests, affirming their reliability and suitability for the study’s objectives.

In terms of assessing test validity, content validity was ensured through a thorough review by university subject matter experts, resulting in test items that align well with the content domain and learning objectives. Additionally, criterion-related validity was established by correlating students’ admissions test scores with their final required freshman test scores in the five subject areas, showing a moderate and acceptable relationship (0.37 to 0.56) between the test scores and the external admissions test. Finally, construct validity was confirmed through reviews by experienced subject instructors, leading to improvements in test content. With guidance from university subject experts, construct validity was established, affirming the effectiveness of the final tests in assessing students’ subject knowledge at the end of their coursework.

Collectively, these validity and reliability measures affirm the soundness and integrity of the final subject tests, establishing their suitability as effective assessment tools for evaluating students’ knowledge in their five mandatory freshman courses at King Saud University.

After obtaining research approval from the Research Committee at King Saud University, the coordinators of the five courses (CI_101, ENT_101, CT_101, CT_102, and FAJB_101) supplied the researchers with the final exam scores of all first-year preparatory year students at King Saud University for the initial semester of the academic years 2020 and 2021. The sample encompassed all students who had completed these five courses during both years, resulting in a total of 16,722 students forming the final group of participants.

Limitations

Several limitations warrant acknowledgment in this study. First, the research was conducted within a well-resourced major public university. As such, the experiences with online classes at other types of institutions (e.g., community colleges, private institutions) may vary significantly. Additionally, the limited data pertaining to in-class teaching practices and the diversity of learning activities across different courses represents a gap that could have provided valuable insights for a more thorough interpretation and explanation of the study’s findings.

To compare student achievement in the final tests in the five courses by year, independent-samples t -tests were conducted. Table 4 shows a statistically-significant drop in test scores from 2020 (in person) to 2021 (online) for all courses except CT_101. The biggest decline was with CT_102 with 3.58 points, and the smallest decline was with CI_101 with 0.18 points.

However, such simple comparison of means between the two years (via t -tests) by subjects does not account for the differences in gender composition, class size, and admission scores between the two academic years, all of which have been associated with student outcomes (e.g., Ho and Kelman, 2014 ; De Paola et al., 2013 ). To account for such potential confounding variables, multiple regressions were conducted to compare the 2 years’ results while controlling for these three factors associated with student achievement.

Table 5 presents the regression results, illustrating the variation in final exam scores between 2020 and 2021, while controlling for gender, class size, and admission scores. Importantly, these results diverge significantly from the outcomes obtained through independent-sample t -test analyses.

Taking into consideration the variables mentioned earlier, students in the 2021 online cohort demonstrated superior performance compared to their 2020 in-person counterparts in CI_101, FAJB_101, and CT_101, with score advantages of 0.89, 0.56, and 5.28 points, respectively. Conversely, in the case of ENT_101, online students in 2021 scored 0.69 points lower than their 2020 in-person counterparts. With CT_102, there were no statistically significant differences in final exam scores between the two cohorts of students.

The study sought to assess the effectiveness of distance learning compared to in-person learning in the higher education setting in Saudi Arabia. We analyzed the final exam scores of 16,722 first-year college students in King Saud University in five required subjects (i.e., CI_101, ENT_101, CT_101, CT_102, and FAJB_101). The study initially performed a simple comparison of mean scores by tracks by year (via t -tests) and then a number of multiple regression analyses which controlled for class size, gender composition, and admission scores.

Overall, the study’s more in-depth findings using multiple regression painted a wholly different picture than the results obtained using t -tests. After controlling for class size, gender composition, and admissions scores, online students in 2021 performed better than their in-person instruction peers in 2020 in University Skills (CI_101), Fitness and Health (FAJB_101), and Computer Skills (CT_101), whereas in-person students outperformed their online peers in Entrepreneurship (ENT_101). There was no meaningful difference in outcomes for students in the Computer Skills (CT_102) course for the two years.

In light of these findings, it raises the question: why do we observe minimal differences (less than a one-point gain or loss) in student outcomes in courses like University Skills, Fitness and Health, Entrepreneurship, and Advanced Computer Skills based on the mode of instruction? Is it possible that when subjects are primarily at a basic or introductory level, as is the case with these courses, the mode of instruction may have a limited impact as long as the concepts are effectively communicated in a manner familiar and accessible to students?

In today’s digital age, one could argue that students in more developed countries, such as Saudi Arabia, generally possess the skills and capabilities to effectively engage with materials presented in both in-person and online formats. However, there is a notable exception in the Basic Computer Skills course, where the online cohort outperformed their in-person counterparts by more than 5 points. Insights from interviews with the instructors of this course suggest that this result may be attributed to the course’s basic and conceptual nature, coupled with the availability of instructional videos that students could revisit at their own pace.

Given that students enter this course with varying levels of computer skills, self-paced learning may have allowed them to cover course materials at their preferred speed, concentrating on less familiar topics while swiftly progressing through concepts they already understood. The advantages of such self-paced learning have been documented by scholars like Tullis and Benjamin ( 2011 ), who found that self-paced learners often outperform those who spend the same amount of time studying identical materials. This approach allows learners to allocate their time more effectively according to their individual learning pace, providing greater ownership and control over their learning experience. As such, in courses like introductory computer skills, it can be argued that becoming familiar with fundamental and conceptual topics may not require extensive in-class collaboration. Instead, it may be more about exposure to and digestion of materials in a format and at a pace tailored to students with diverse backgrounds, knowledge levels, and skill sets.

Further investigation is needed to more fully understand why some classes benefitted from online instruction while others did not, and vice versa. Perhaps, it could be posited that some content areas are more conducive to in-person (or online) format while others are not. Or it could be that the different results of the two modes of learning were driven by students of varying academic abilities and engagement, with low-achieving students being more vulnerable to the limitations of online learning (e.g., Kofoed et al., 2021 ). Whatever the reasons, the results of the current study can be enlightened by a more in-depth analysis of the various factors associated with such different forms of learning. Moreover, although not clear cut, what the current study does provide is additional evidence against any dire consequences to student learning (at least in the higher ed setting) as a result of sudden increase in online learning with possible benefits of its wider use being showcased.

Based on the findings of this study, we recommend that educational leaders adopt a measured approach to online learning—a stance that neither fully embraces nor outright denounces it. The impact on students’ experiences and engagement appears to vary depending on the subjects and methods of instruction, sometimes hindering, other times promoting effective learning, while some classes remain relatively unaffected.

Rather than taking a one-size-fits-all approach, educational leaders should be open to exploring the nuances behind these outcomes. This involves examining why certain courses thrived with online delivery, while others either experienced a decline in student achievement or remained largely unaffected. By exploring these differentiated outcomes associated with diverse instructional formats, leaders in higher education institutions and beyond can make informed decisions about resource allocation. For instance, resources could be channeled towards in-person learning for courses that benefit from it, while simultaneously expanding online access for courses that have demonstrated improved outcomes through its virtual format. This strategic approach not only optimizes resource allocation but could also open up additional revenue streams for the institution.

Considering the enduring presence of online learning, both before the pandemic and its accelerated adoption due to Covid-19, there is an increasing need for institutions of learning and scholars in higher education, as well as other fields, to prioritize the study of its effects and optimal utilization. This study, which compares student outcomes between two cohorts exposed to in-person and online instruction (before and during Covid-19) at the largest university in Saudi Arabia, represents a meaningful step in this direction.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Bandar N. Alarifi

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Alarifi, B.N., Song, S. Online vs in-person learning in higher education: effects on student achievement and recommendations for leadership. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 86 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02590-1

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What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Studying Abroad?

April 17, 2024

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@cieestudyabroad These are the pros and cons of studying abroad! #cieestudyabroad #studyabroad #studyabroadadvice #studyabroadprograms #wheretostudyabroad #howtostudyabroad #college Sunshine - WIRA

Studying abroad is a big decision. On one hand, studying abroad has endless advantages and is a life-changing opportunity that only comes around during your college years. On the other hand, it can feel like a total leap of faith. 

If you’re on the fence about taking the next step with CIEE Study Abroad , keep reading! W e’ve created the ultimate list of the advantages and disadvantages of studying abroad . Why? So, you can make an informed decision about whether studying abroad is the right choice for YOU.

EXPLORE CIEE PROGRAMS

Read More: Is Studying Abroad Worth It? 10 Outcomes of Studying Abroad  

The Pros  of Study Abroad

Studying abroad opens the door to a world of new possibilities. We couldn't be more passionate about that. The benefits of living and learning in a new culture will impact all parts of your life, from the day you enroll to every day thereafter.  

You will be surprised at the impact this one experience will have on you. And you will be so glad you took that leap of faith, after all. 

The Top 6 Advantages of Studying Abroad  

As you weigh the pros of studying abroad , add these to your list:  

1. You will learn to think more broadly.    

By immersing yourself in a new culture, you will be exposed to a new language, new perspectives, foreign foods, and life-changing experiences. All of this will change the way you see the world and your role in it. 

2. You will make lifelong connections.    

By sharing new experiences, you can’t help but connect deeply with other students in your cohort and at your partner institutions. And trust us, you will share many new experiences while studying abroad. These are the kind of friendships that last a lifetime. 

3. You will gain a competitive edge.    

Ninety-seven percent of students who study abroad find employment within 12 months of graduation and 25 percent earn higher salaries than their peers. How’s that for standing out in today’s competitive job market?  

Bonus : You can even boost your resume by gaining real-world experience through a global internship ! We offer full- and part-time international internship opportunities across a wide variety of industries. So, if it’s a competitive edge you want, then a competitive edge is exactly what you’ll get. 

Read more: How to Put Study Abroad on Your Resume: 4 Steps

4. You will build your language skills.    

Whether your goal is to master a new language or just get by with a conversational understanding of the local language, studying abroad will help you do it. There is nothing quite like cultural immersion for optimal language learning.  

Do note , however, that most CIEE programs are delivered in English unless you’re in a language class or program for advanced speakers, like our Summer Intensive Spanish Language program in Alicante or our Advanced Arabic Language program in Amman.   

5. You will step out of your comfort zone.    

Trying new things helps you learn how to adapt to new situations. A key life skill for our rapidly changing world.  

Just think, you will be working with new professors, new peers, a new currency, a new language, a new transit system, new food, and more – you get the idea. And just know, CIEE will be there to support you every step of the way, 24/7. Our program is a truly great way to safely take that leap of faith. 

6. You will be better for it.    

We hear it all the time : “study abroad changed my life.” And it’s so true. Studying abroad teaches you leadership, cross-cultural communication, adaptability, and so much more. Mark this down as a key advantage to studying abroad.  

The Cons  of Study Abroad

Charting new territory is not in everyone’s comfort zone. And studying abroad, for many students, is definitely classified as uncharted territory. We know the unknown can be intimidating, and we also know studying abroad comes with a bit of sacrifice.  

This is why we’re sharing some of the disadvantages of studying abroad so you can make the most informed decision possible.  

The Top 5 Disadvantages of Studying Abroad  

Here are the cons of studying abroad you should address when weighing your decision:  

1. Studying abroad can be expensive.    

It can be . But there are scholarships and grants available to help you make studying abroad a reality . Your college or university may offer their own scholarship and grant options. Others you can apply for at CIEE directly in your CIEE Study Abroad application . We offer millions each year for students with demonstrated financial need, proven academic merit, or who’ve enrolled in specific programs as well.  

On average, a semester with CIEE costs $18,861 . A little less when studying abroad in Latin America ($17,291) . A little more when heading to Europe ($19,968) .   

Our Open Campus Block program option, in which you can choose one, two, or three consecutive six-week study abroad sessions, costs about $18,750 but drops significantly to a little over $6,000 for students who choose to pursue only one block (6 weeks) or about $12,000 for two blocks (12 weeks).  

Bear in mind, too, that CIEE tuition provides a high level of student support. Not every program can say the same. Our program fee covers most of the essentials, outside of airfare and meals, and typically includes: 

• Tuition  
• Housing  
• Pre-departure advising  
• Orientation  
• On-site staff + 24/7 emergency on-site support  
• Cultural + co-curricular activities  
• Travel protection  

Read More: How Much Does it Cost to Study Abroad in 2024?  

2. There will be language barriers.   

Even for the most advanced speakers, immersion into a new culture will stretch your language capabilities. We see that as a really good thing. And we believe that if you go abroad with us, you will, too.  

But there’s no getting around the fact that there will be a steep language learning curve as you make your way through the program. We bet you’re up for the challenge. Plus, most of our classes are taught in English, so you will still make big gains academically. 

3. You may experience culture shock.   

The food will be different. The language will be different. The architecture will be different. The style of communication will be different. The local customs and social norms will be different, too. You will have to adjust. But isn’t that at least some of the point? You will return home with a new perspective! 

Read more: What is Culture Shock? 4 Examples and Tips to Adjust

4. You might get homesick.  

Most of our students are traveling for the first time without their family or friends. And that’s a huge step that may cause homesickness . 

Just know that CIEE offers a ton of support, including around-the-clock on-site staff. So, we’re always available. Plus, you’ll have a cohort of new friends to keep you company when those homesick feeling begin creeping up.  

And remember , you can always call home when you need to hear a familiar voice. Our students love to FaceTime, Skype, Zoom, and so on to virtually connect with their loved ones whenever they want. 

5. Re-integration can be hard.    

This is an adjustment most students don’t anticipate.   

Often, when the study abroad experience is really great and there’s a ton of personal growth, students have a hard time adjusting back into their typical routine back home. You may experience this, too. It’s a sort of homesickness for the study abroad culture.  

Just know it will get better once you’ve had time to adjust to your routine again. And, for those who just can’t shake the feeling, there’s the opportunity to apply to join CIEE’s Student Ambassador Program to get paid to talk about your study abroad experience! 

Learn More: Become a CIEE Student Ambassador  

The Choice is Yours  

Thinking through the advantages and disadvantages of studying abroad is an important first step in your study abroad experience. If you have any questions or want to talk through your personal list of studying abroad pros and cons, we ’re happy to connect .   

In the meantime, check out t he 170+ incredible programs we have to offer to begin planning your perfect study abroad experience! 

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Which social media platforms are most common, who uses each social media platform, find out more, social media fact sheet.

Many Americans use social media to connect with one another, engage with news content, share information and entertain themselves. Explore the patterns and trends shaping the social media landscape.

To better understand Americans’ social media use, Pew Research Center surveyed 5,733 U.S. adults from May 19 to Sept. 5, 2023. Ipsos conducted this National Public Opinion Reference Survey (NPORS) for the Center using address-based sampling and a multimode protocol that included both web and mail. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race and ethnicity, education and other categories.

Polls from 2000 to 2021 were conducted via phone. For more on this mode shift, read our Q&A.

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and  its methodology ­­­.

A note on terminology: Our May-September 2023 survey was already in the field when Twitter changed its name to “X.” The terms  Twitter  and  X  are both used in this report to refer to the same platform.

YouTube and Facebook are the most-widely used online platforms. About half of U.S. adults say they use Instagram, and smaller shares use sites or apps such as TikTok, LinkedIn, Twitter (X) and BeReal.

Note: The vertical line indicates a change in mode. Polls from 2012-2021 were conducted via phone. In 2023, the poll was conducted via web and mail. For more details on this shift, please read our Q&A . Refer to the topline for more information on how question wording varied over the years. Pre-2018 data is not available for YouTube, Snapchat or WhatsApp; pre-2019 data is not available for Reddit; pre-2021 data is not available for TikTok; pre-2023 data is not available for BeReal. Respondents who did not give an answer are not shown.

Source: Surveys of U.S. adults conducted 2012-2023.

Usage of the major online platforms varies by factors such as age, gender and level of formal education.

% of U.S. adults who say they ever use __ by …

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Follow these links for more in-depth analysis of the impact of social media on American life.

• Americans’ Social Media Use  Jan. 31, 2024
• Americans’ Use of Mobile Technology and Home Broadband  Jan. 31 2024
• Q&A: How and why we’re changing the way we study tech adoption  Jan. 31, 2024

Find more reports and blog posts related to  internet and technology .

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Straight Talk About Soy

The Takeaway: Soy is a unique food that is widely studied for its estrogenic and anti-estrogenic effects on the body. Studies may seem to present conflicting conclusions about soy, but this is largely due to the wide variation in how soy is studied. Results of recent population studies suggest that soy has either a beneficial or neutral effect on various health conditions. Soy is a nutrient-dense source of protein that can safely be consumed several times a week, and probably more often, and is likely to provide health benefits—especially when eaten as an alternative to red and processed meat.

Soy is exalted as a health food by some, with claims of taming hot flashes, warding off osteoporosis, and protecting against hormonal cancers like breast and prostate.

At the same time, soy is shunned by others for fear that it may cause breast cancer, thyroid problems, and dementia, though these claims have not been substantiated.

Whether published in a popular press article or a well-designed clinical study, some debate about soy remains. As a species within the legume family , nutrition scientists often label soy as a food with potential for significant health benefits. However, due to contrary research that suggests possible negative effects of soy in certain situations, there has been a hesitancy to wholeheartedly promote soy.

Part of the uncertainty is due to the intricacy of soy’s effects on the body. Soy is unique in that it contains a high concentration of isoflavones, a type of plant estrogen (phytoestrogen) that is similar in function to human estrogen but with much weaker effects. Soy isoflavones can bind to estrogen receptors in the body and cause either weak estrogenic or anti-estrogenic activity. The two major soy isoflavones are called genistein and daidzein. Soy isoflavones and soy protein appear to have different actions in the body based on the following factors:

• Type of study . Is it being examined in a study with animals or humans? Soy may be metabolized differently in animals, so the outcomes of animal studies may not be applicable to humans.
• Hormone levels . Because soy can have estrogenic properties, its effects can vary depending on the existing level of hormones in the body. Premenopausal women have much higher circulating levels of estradiol—the major form of estrogen in the human body—than postmenopausal women. In this context soy may act like an anti-estrogen, but among postmenopausal women soy may act more like an estrogen. Also, women with breast cancer are classified into hormone type—either hormone positive (ER+/PR+) or hormone negative (ER-/PR-) breast cancer—and these tumors respond differently to estrogens.
• Type of soy . What type of soy is being studied: Whole soy foods such as tofu and soybeans, processed versions like soy protein powders, or soy-based veggie burgers? Fermented or unfermented soy foods? If supplements are used, do they contain isoflavones or soy protein?

Thus, there are many factors that make it difficult to construct blanket statements about the health effects of soy. 

Aside from their isoflavone content, soy foods are rich in nutrients including B vitamins , fiber , potassium , magnesium , and high-quality protein . Unlike some plant proteins, soy protein is considered a complete protein, containing all nine essential amino acids that the body cannot make which must be obtained from the diet. Soy foods are also classified as fermented or unfermented (see table with examples, below). Fermented means that the soy food has been cultured with beneficial bacteria , yeast, or mold. Some believe that fermenting soy improves its digestibility and absorption in the body, as this process partially breaks down soy’s sugar and protein molecules.

Research on Soy and Disease

Learn more about the research on soy and specific diseases or other conditions:

Soy protein took center stage after research showed that it might lower levels of harmful cholesterol. A 1995 meta-analysis of 38 controlled clinical trials showed that eating approximately 50 grams of soy protein a day (no small amount as this translates to 1½ pounds of tofu or eight 8-ounce glasses of soy milk!) in place of animal protein reduced harmful LDL cholesterol by 12.9 percent. [1] Such reductions, if sustained over time, could mean a greater than 20% lower risk of heart attack, stroke, or other forms of cardiovascular disease. In response to this finding, in 1999 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allowed companies to claim that diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol that also contain soy “may reduce the risk of heart disease.” [2]

However, a number of studies since have tempered that finding. [3] According to a comprehensive update of soy research by the nutrition committee of the American Heart Association (AHA) published in 2000, eating 50 grams of soy per day lowered LDL by only about 3%. [3] In October 2017, after review of additional scientific studies since the health claim was authorized, the FDA proposed a rule to revoke the claim because numerous studies presented inconsistent findings on the relationship between soy protein and heart disease. [4] Some of these inconsistencies may have resulted because soy was compared with a variety of alternative foods.

Even though soy protein may have only a small direct effect on cholesterol, soy may still benefit the heart in other ways. An epidemiological study following three large cohorts of American men and women who did not have cardiovascular disease at the start of the study found that those who ate the highest amounts of tofu and isoflavones from soy foods, compared with those who ate the least, had an 18% and 13% lower risk, respectively, of developing heart disease. [5] The benefit of tofu was stronger in premenopausal women and postmenopausal women not using hormone therapy.

Soy foods are generally good for the heart and blood vessels because they provide polyunsaturated fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and are low in saturated fat. Replacing red meat with plant proteins including soy foods, beans, and nuts was associated with a 14% lower risk of heart disease, as found in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, a large long-term epidemiological study of more than 43,000 men. [6] Another large cohort of more than 500,000 Chinese adults with no previous cardiovascular disease found that those with the highest intakes of soy (4+ days a week) compared with those who never ate soy had a 25% lower risk of deaths from heart attack. [7]

Hormone replacement therapy has traditionally been used as an effective treatment for hot flashes and other unpleasant symptoms that accompany menopause, but its long-term use has raised concerns of an increased risk of some diseases including breast cancer and stroke. Soy has been a popular alternative treatment but not clearly supported by research; in theory the potential estrogenic effects of soy isoflavones could help to tame hot flashes by giving an estrogen-like boost during a time of dwindling estrogen levels.

In many Far East Asian countries where soy is eaten daily, women have lower rates of menopausal symptoms, although research is conflicting as to whether soy is a primary contributor. [8] Reports suggest that about 70–80% of U.S. women of menopausal and perimenopausal age experience hot flashes, in comparison with 10–20% of Far Eastern Asian women. [9] Further, the average blood concentration of the isoflavone genistein in Asian women who regularly consume soy is about 12 times higher than that of U.S. women. [9]

Yet several meta-analyses and carefully controlled clinical studies have not found strong evidence of a link. [10,11] An AHA review in 2006 concluded that it was unlikely that soy isoflavones exert enough estrogenic activity to have an important impact on hot flashes and other symptoms of menopause. [3] A JAMA review the same year found highly conflicting results with soy isoflavone extracts and stated that the overall evidence did not support its benefit in relieving hot flashes. [12]

In another review of 43 randomized controlled trials have examined the effects of phytoestrogens on hot flashes and night sweats in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. Four trials found that extracts of 30 mg or greater of genistein consistently reduced the frequency of hot flashes. Other trials that used dietary soy or soy extracts suggested a reduced frequency and severity of hot flashes and night sweats when compared with placebo, but these trials were small with a possible strong placebo effect. [8] No adverse effects were noted from the soy treatments when followed for up to two years, but the authors did not feel overall there was strong and consistent evidence for a benefit of soy.

Another meta-analysis of 16 studies found that soy isoflavone supplements had a small and gradual effect in weakening menopausal hot flashes compared with estradiol (human estrogen). However, authors noted weaknesses in the analysis due to a small number of participants and high variability in study design. [9]

A more recent review of randomized trials found that some studies showed benefit of soy supplements on hot flashes; the therapeutic dosage ranged from 40-70 mg of isoflavones daily. [13] The authors also observed that the presence of equol (a protective substance made from the breakdown of isoflavones that only some women can produce) may be needed for isoflavones to effectively reduce hot flashes. Despite these results, the study authors did not offer a confident conclusion on the use of isoflavone supplements due to variations in study design and length; differences in the types and dosages of supplements; and the small sample sizes and high drop-out rates.

This area needs further research as questions remain about a possible benefit of soy. Results are conflicting, potentially due to variation in the types of soy preparations used, the quantities given, and for how long they are used.

Phytoestrogens don’t always mimic estrogen. In some tissues and in some people, they may block the action of estrogen. If soy’s estrogen-blocking action occurs in the breast, then eating soy could, in theory, reduce the risk of breast cancer because estrogen stimulates the growth and multiplication of breast and breast cancer cells. Studies so far have not provided a clear answer. Some have shown a benefit with soy consumption and breast cancer while others show no association. [14-17] It appears that the effects of soy may vary depending on menopausal status, the age at which soy is consumed, and type of breast cancer.

In animal and cell studies, high dosages of isoflavone or isolated soy protein extracts tend to stimulate breast cancer growth. [18,19] However, studies that observe people consuming soy foods over time show either a protective or neutral effect. Women from Asian countries appear to receive greater protective benefit from breast cancer with high soy intakes than American and European women, but this may simply be a difference in the amount of soy consumed. [20,21] Asian women may have higher levels of equol, a substance metabolized from the isoflavone daidzein by bacterial flora in the intestines. [22] Equol is believed to block potentially negative effects of human estrogen, but not all women possess the bacteria needed to create equol. [23] It is estimated that 30-50% of all humans are able to produce equol. [24] Eating soy foods starting at an early age (such as those found in many traditional Far East Asian diets) may be why women from some countries find greater benefit from soy foods than others. [19] However, the overall evidence on equol and cancer risk is unsettled. [25]

The Shanghai Women’s Health Study which followed 73,223 Chinese women for more than 7 years has been the largest and most detailed study of soy and breast cancer risk in a population with high soy consumption. [26] In this study, women who ate the most soy had a 59% lower risk of premenopausal breast cancer compared with those who ate the lowest amounts of soy. There was no association with postmenopausal breast cancer. Risk was 43% lower when soy was eaten during adolescence. Seven years later, the study authors published a follow-up analysis from the same cohort over 13 years to evaluate any association between soy foods and specific types of breast cancer defined by hormone receptors and by menopausal status (Estrogen [ER] +/-; Progesterone [PR] +/-). [27] Key highlights of the study:

• A 22% lower risk of breast cancer when comparing the highest to lowest intakes of soy during adulthood.
• A 28% lower risk of hormone positive (ER+, PR+) breast cancer in postmenopausal women.
• A 54% lower risk of hormone negative (ER-, PR-) breast cancer in premenopausal women.
• A 47% lower risk of premenopausal breast cancer when comparing high to low intakes of soy during adolescence and adulthood.

The Breast Cancer Family Registry was a prospective study following 6,235 women for 9 years diagnosed with breast cancer and living in the U.S. and Canada; intake of soy isoflavones was examined in relation to deaths from all causes. [28] Key highlights of the study:

• Women who ate the highest amounts of soy isoflavones had a 21% lower risk of death compared with women with the lowest intakes.
• Women who had ER-/PR- tumors and who were not receiving tamoxifen appeared to receive greatest benefit from the higher soy isoflavone intakes. However, isoflavone intake did not have a negative impact on women who were receiving tamoxifen or who had ER+/PR+ tumors.
• Of all ethnicities, Asian American women tended to have the highest isoflavone intakes at about 6 mg daily, but this amount was still much lower than women living in Asian countries who eat closer to 46 mg daily. The authors noted that American women appeared to benefit from eating smaller amounts of soy.

Another prospective study followed 1,954 American women who were breast cancer survivors for six years. [29] Key highlights of the study:

• Among postmenopausal women treated with tamoxifen, breast cancer recurrence was 60% lower when comparing the highest to the lowest daidzein (a specific type of soy isoflavone) No benefit was observed in women who had never used tamoxifen.
• Recurrence was lower with increasing isoflavone intake among women with tumors that were ER+/PR+ but not ER-/PR-.
• The most frequent sources of soy foods were not whole or minimally processed soy foods, but rather soy sauce, breakfast or diet drinks, tofu, diet bars, and soy protein isolate powder. The mean amount of isoflavones in the “high” category was about 19 mg daidzein and 27 mg genistein daily—a modest amount compared with Asian populations.
• The authors concluded that soy isoflavones eaten at levels comparable to those in Asian populations may reduce the risk of cancer recurrence in women receiving tamoxifen therapy and does not appear to interfere with tamoxifen efficacy. However, the findings need to be confirmed because they were mainly in subgroups and could be due to chance.

Prospective studies also find soy foods to be protective from breast cancer deaths:

• A cohort study of 1,460 Chinese women who were early-stage breast cancer survivors looked at dietary soy isoflavone intakes at baseline and after the breast cancer diagnosis, over a four-year period. [30] Higher soy intakes at baseline were associated with a 66% lower risk of deaths from any cause and a 64% lower risk of deaths from breast cancer. Higher soy intakes after diagnosis were associated with a 64% and 51% lower risk of deaths, from any cause and from breast cancer, respectively. The effects were greater in women who were premenopausal, had ER-/PR- tumors, and were taking tamoxifen.
• A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies found a 12% reduction in breast cancer deaths with each 5 gram per day increase in soy protein intake. [31]

However, randomized controlled trials do not show an effect of soy foods on risk factors for breast cancer:

• A review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) looked at isoflavone intakes ranging from 36-235 mg/day from food or supplements, taken from 1 month to 3 years, and breast cancer risk (as measured by breast density, changes in estrogen, and bloodwork) in healthy women. [32] The eighteen RCTs included both pre- and postmenopausal participants. No changes in breast cancer risk factors were found with isoflavone intakes. The authors noted limitations in their analysis in that there were wide variations in numbers of participants and the doses and duration of treatments, which made drawing firm conclusions difficult. Most importantly, these studies did not examine actual incidence of breast cancer.

The incidence of prostate cancer is highest in Western countries and lowest in Asian countries, where soy foods are a regular part of the daily diet. In addition, observational studies have found an increased risk of prostate cancer in Chinese and Japanese men who move to Western countries and adopt a Western diet, but not in those who continue eating a traditional diet. [33] Soy isoflavones, specifically genistein and daidzein, are incorporated in prostate tissue and may act as weak estrogens and inhibit the development of prostate cancer. [34]

In a meta-analysis of 30 case-control and cohort studies from the U.S., Europe, Japan, and China, intakes of total soy foods, genistein, daidzein, and unfermented soy foods were associated with a lower risk of prostate cancer. [34]

A review of eight randomized controlled trials examined the effects of soy in men with or at risk of developing prostate cancer. Two of these studies found that isoflavone supplements or dietary soy protein reduced the risk of prostate cancer in men at high risk of developing the disease. However, none of the studies found a significant effect on prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels, a protein produced by the prostate gland that is used to detect prostate cancer. There were no adverse effects reported with soy supplementation. The authors discussed limitations of the review including the small number of participants, the short duration of studies (less than one year), and variation in dosages and types of soy given. [33]

A small randomized controlled trial in 2021 examined if soy protein supplements could slow down or reverse rising PSA levels in men who had previously been diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer, but who had a recurrence (as evidenced by rising PSA levels). The study found that even though the soy protein supplements increased blood levels of genistein, there was no effect of the supplement versus placebo on PSA levels when given for 6-8 months. [35]

Fermented soy foods commonly eaten in East Asian diets, including natto, tempeh, soy paste, and soy sauce, contain isoflavones and also bacteria that might have benefits for neurological disorders including cognitive decline, Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and Parkinson’s disease (PD). Soy’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects may reduce the oxidative stresses associated with AD and PD. [36] Animal studies have suggest that soy compounds can weaken the progression of AD and prevent nerve cell death. They also find that soy can reduce inflammation and excess free radical production in the brain. AD has been associated with decreased levels of beneficial anti-inflammatory bacteria while harboring increased levels of proinflammatory bacteria.  Fermented soy foods are produced with beneficial bacteria like Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, and Bacillus species that produce butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid that regulates immune function and is being investigated for its protective effects on the brain.

Long-term low levels of estrogen the occur in menopausal women can reduce the number of estrogen receptors in the brain that are necessary for specific cognitive functions like memory and learning. [37] The soy isoflavone, daidzein, has been hypothesized to reduce decline in cognitive function or disease processes related to cognition and behavior. Thus, the possibility has been raised that eating soy foods might help prevent age-related memory loss or decline in thinking skills. [38]

Studies in humans, however, are not conclusive on soy’s effects on the brain:

• Trials have yielded contradictory results, with some showing a benefit with soy isoflavone supplementation [39, 40] and others showing no benefit. [41-43] A review of 13 randomized controlled trials found that in about half of the studies, isoflavone supplementation had a beneficial effect on cognition in older men and women compared with controls, including improvements in attention, information-processing speed, and memory. However the results overall were mixed, with other studies not demonstrating a benefit. This may have been due to differing dosages given or the types of cognition tests used. [37]

One large study in men found a detrimental effect on cognitive function. In a prospective cohort study of more than 3,700 Japanese-American men living in Hawaii, those with the highest intakes of tofu (eaten almost daily) at midlife ages had greater cognitive impairment and brain atrophy in late life compared with men with the lowest tofu intakes (almost never eaten). [44] However, the actual number of men eating very high amounts of tofu was small, and past dietary information was collected by relying on the participants’ memory, some of whom may have already experienced cognitive decline. Because of this, the researchers stated that the findings were too preliminary to make recommendations. [45]

A meta-analysis of 18 randomized controlled trials found that although soy supplements raised thyroid stimulating hormone levels slightly, they did not have any effect on actual thyroid hormone production. [46] However, another study found that soy may interfere with thyroid hormone medication used to treat hypothyroidism. In one randomized double-blinded trial, 60 patients with a mild form of hypothyroidism (called subclinical hypothyroidism) were given low or high-dose phytoestrogen supplements (both also contained 30 grams of soy protein), the amount that might be obtained from a vegetarian diet. [47] Risk of developing clinical hypothyroidism was increased in the higher phytoestrogen group (no effect in the lower phytoestrogen group). The authors suggested that female vegetarian patients with subclinical hypothyroidism may need more careful monitoring of thyroid function. However, the authors also found a benefit on of reduced cardiovascular risk factors in the high phytoestrogen group, with a significant reduction in insulin resistance, inflammatory markers, and blood pressure. The effect of soy on thyroid function needs further examination.

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Last reviewed January 2022

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