john ruskin essay on war pdf

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The Complete Works of John Ruskin

From this page, you can download all or part of The Library Edition of the Works of John Ruskin (1903-1912, eds. E.T Cook & A. Wedderburn) in PDF format.

To view or download the entire Library Edition or a specific volume, click on it in the list below. A PDF reader will be required.

Complete Works - every volume below as a single file portfolio pdf

• Volume I ‌‌ - Early Prose Writings
• Volume II ‌ - Poems
• Volumes III - VII ‌ - Modern Painters
• Volume VIII - The Seven Lamps of Architecture
• Volumes IX - XI ‌ - The Stones of Venice and Examples of the Architecture of Venice
• Volume XII ‌ - Lectures on Architecture and Painting (Edinburgh, 1853) with Other Papers (1844-1854)
• Volume XIII ‌ - Turner, The Harbours of England and Catalogues and Notes
• Volume XIV ‌ - Academy Notes, Notes on Prout and Hunt and Other Art Criticisms (1855-1888)
• Volume XV ‌ - The Elements of Drawing, The Elements of Perspective and The Laws of Fésole
• Volume XVI ‌ - "A Joy For Ever" and The Two Paths with letters on The Oxford Museum and various addresses (1856-1860)
• Volume XVII ‌ - Unto this Last, Munera Pulveris and Time and Tide with other writings on Political Economy (1860-1873)
• Volume XVIII ‌ - Sesame and Lilies, The Ethics of Dust and The Crown of Wild Olive with letters on Public Affairs (1859-1866)
• Volume XIX ‌ - The Cestus of Aglaia and The Queen of the Air with other papers and lectures on Art and Literature (1860-1870)
• Volume XX ‌ - Lectures on Art and Aratra Pentelici with lectures and notes on Greek Art and Mythology (1870)
• Volume XXI ‌ - The Ruskin Art Collection at Oxford: Catalogues, Notes and Instructions
• Volume XXII ‌ - Lectures on Landscape, Michael Angelo & Tintoret, The Eagle's Nest and Ariadne Florentina with notes for other Oxford lectures
• Volume XXIII ‌ - Val D'Arno, The Schools of Florence, Mornings in Florence and The Shepherd's Tower
• Volume XXIV ‌ - Giotto and his works in Padua, The Cavalli Monuments Verona, Guide to the Academy Venice and St Mark's Rest
• Volume XXV - Love's Meinie and Proserpina
• Volume XXVI ‌ - Deucalion and other studies in Rocks and Stones
• Volumes XXVII - XXIX ‌ - Fors Clavigera: Letters to the Workmen and Labourers of Great Britain
• Volume XXX ‌ - The Guild and Museum of St. George
• Volume XXXI ‌ - Bibliotheca Pastorum: The Economist of Xenophon, Rock Honeycomb, The Elements of Prosody and A Knight's Faith
• Volume XXXII ‌ - Studies of Peasant Life: The Story of Ida, Roadside Songs of Tuscany, Christ's Folk in the Apennine and Ulric the Farm Servant
• Volume XXXIII ‌ - The Bible of Amiens, Valle Crucis, The Art of England and The Pleasures of England
• Volume XXXIV ‌ - The Storm-cloud of the Nineteenth Century: On the Old Road, Arrows of the Chace and Ruskiniana
• Volume XXXV - Praeterita and Dilecta
• Volumes XXXVI - XXXVII - The Letters of John Ruskin (1827-1889)
• Volume XXXVIII - Bibliography, Catalogue of Ruskin's Drawings and Addenda et Corrigenda
• Volume XXXIX ‌ - General Index

Special thanks go to John Krug and Jen Shepherd (Lancaster University) for creating these PDFs.

ON WAR BEING AT THE FOUNDATION OF THE ARTS A Reading of John Ruskin's Lecture on War in The Crown of Wild Olives

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Book/Printed Material The crown of wild olive; four lectures on work, traffic, war, and the future of England,

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• The crown of wild olive; four lectures on work, traffic, war, and the future of England,
• Ruskin, John, 1819-1900.

Created / Published

• Chicago, W. B. Conkey company [1900]
• -  Work
• -  War
• -  Architecture
• -  Prussia (Germany)--History
• -  Appendix: Notes on the political economy of Prussia : p. 207-240.
• -  Also available in digital form.
• 240 p. front. (port.) plates. 16 cm.

Call Number/Physical Location

• PR5255 .A1 1900

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• online text

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• https://lccn.loc.gov/00004615

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• Manifest (JSON/LD)
• Selected Digitized Books (156,601)
• General Collections (198,979)
• Library of Congress Online Catalog (1,581,913)
• Book/Printed Material

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• Ruskin, John
• Architecture
• Prussia (Germany)

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Chicago citation style:

Ruskin, John. The crown of wild olive; four lectures on work, traffic, war, and the future of England . [Chicago, W. B. Conkey company, 1900] Pdf. https://www.loc.gov/item/00004615/.

APA citation style:

Ruskin, J. (1900) The crown of wild olive; four lectures on work, traffic, war, and the future of England . [Chicago, W. B. Conkey company] [Pdf] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/00004615/.

MLA citation style:

Ruskin, John. The crown of wild olive; four lectures on work, traffic, war, and the future of England . [Chicago, W. B. Conkey company, 1900] Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, <www.loc.gov/item/00004615/>.

Lecture I; Work [from The Crown of Wild Olive ]

John ruskin [added by gpl].

[ Victorian Web Home --> Authors --> John Ruskin --> Works --> Political Theme and Subject --> Leading Questions ]

(Delivered before the Working Men's Institute, at Camberwell.)

MY FRIENDS, -- I have not come among you to-night to endeavour to give you an entertaining lecture; but to tell you a few plain facts, and ask you some plain, but necessary, questions. I have seen and known too much of the struggle for life among our labouring population, to feel at ease, even under any circumstances, in inviting them to dwell on the trivialities of my own studies; but, much more, as I meet to-night, for the first time, the members of a working Institute established in the district in which I have passed the greater part of my life, I am desirous that we should at once understand each other, on graver matters. I would fain tell you, with what feelings, and with what hope, I regard this Institution, as one of many such, now happily established throughout England, as well as in other countries; -- Institutions which are preparing the way for a great change in all the circumstances of industrial life; but of which the success must wholly depend upon our clearly understanding the circumstances and necessary limits of this change. No teacher can truly promote the cause of education, until he knows the conditions of the life for which that education is to prepare his pupil. And the fact that he is called upon to address you, nominally, as a "Working Class," must compel him, if he is in any wise earnest or thoughtful, to enquire in the outset, on what you yourselves suppose this class distinction has been founded in the past, and must be founded in the future. The manner of the amusement, and the matter of the teaching, which any of us can offer you, must depend wholly on our first understanding from you, whether you think the distinction heretofore drawn between working men and others, is truly or falsely founded. Do you accept it as it stands ? do YOU wish it to be modified? or do you think the object of education is to efface it, and make us forget it for ever ?

Let me make myself more distinctly understood. We call this -- you and I -- a "Working Men's" Institute, and our college in London, a "Working Men's" College. Now, how do you consider that these several institutes differ, or ought to differ, from "idle men's" institutes and "idle men's" colleges? Or by what other word than "idle" shall I distinguish those whom the happiest and wisest of working men do not object to call the "Upper Classes"? Are there really upper classes, -- are there lower? How much should they always be elevated, how much always depressed ? And, gentlemen and ladies -- I pray those of you who are here to forgive me the offence there may be in what I am going to say. It is not I who wish to say it. Bitter voices say it; voices of battle and of famine through all the world, which must be heard some day, whoever keeps silence. Neither is it to you specially that I say it. I am sure that most now present know their duties of kindness, and fulfil them, better perhaps than I do mine. But I speak to you as representing your whole class, which errs, I know, chiefly by thoughtlessness, but not therefore the less terribly. Wilful error is limited by the will, but what limit is there to that of which we are unconscious ?

Bear with me, therefore, while I turn to these workmen, and ask them, also as representing a great multitude, what they think the "upper classes" are, and ought to be, in relation to them. Answer, you workmen who are here, as you would among yourselves, frankly; and tell me how you would have me call those classes. Am I to call them -- would you think me right in calling them -- the idle classes? I think you would feel somewhat uneasy, and as if I were not treating my subject honestly, or speaking from my heart, if I went on under the supposition that all rich people were idle. You would be both unjust and unwise if you allowed me to say that; -- not less unjust than the rich people who say that all the poor are idle, and will never work if they can help it, or more than they can help.

For indeed the fact is, that there are idle poor and idle rich; and there are busy poor and busy rich. Many a beggar is as lazy as if he had ten thousand a year; and many a man of large fortune is busier than his errandboy, and never would think of stopping in the street to play marbles. So that, in a large view, the distinction between workers and idlers, as between knaves and honest men, runs through the very heart and innermost economies of men of all ranks and in all positions. There is a working class -- strong and happy, -- among both rich and poor; there is an idle class -- weak, wicked, and miserable, -- among both rich and poor. And the worst of the misunderstandings arising between the two orders come of the unlucky fact that the wise of one class habitually contemplate the foolish of the other. If the busy rich people watched and rebuked the idle rich people, all would be right: and if the busy poor people watched and rebuked the idle poor people, all would be right. But each class has a tendency to look for the faults of the other. A hard-working man of property is particularly offended by an idle beggar; and an orderly, but poor, workman is naturally intolerant of the licentious luxury of the rich. And what is severe judgment in the minds of the just men of either class, becomes fierce enmity in the unjust -- but among the unjust only. None but the dissolute among the poor look upon the rich as their natural enemies, or desire to pillage their houses and divide their property. None but the dissolute among the rich speak in opprobrious terms of the vices and follies of the poor.

There is, then, no class distinction between idle and industrious people; and I am going to-night to speak only of the industrious. The idle people we will put out of our thoughts at once -- they are mere nuisances -- what ought to be done with them, we'll talk of at another time. But there are class distinctions among the industrious themselves; -- tremendous distinctions, which rise and fall to every degree in the infinite thermometer of human pain and of human power, -- distinctions of high and low, of lost and won, to the whole reach of man's soul and body.

These separations we will study, and the laws of them, among energetic men only, who, whether they work or whether they play, put their strength into the work, and their strength into the game; being in the full sense of the word "industrious," one way or another, -- with purpose, or without. And these distinctions are mainly four:

• Between those who work and those who play.
• Between those who produce the means of life, and those who consume them.
• Between those who work with the head, and those who work with the hand.
• Between those who work wisely, and who work foolishly.

For easier memory, let us say we are going to oppose in our examination, --

• Work to play;
• Production to consumption;
• Head to hand; and,
• Sense to nonsense.
• First, then, of the distinction between the classes who work and the classes who play. Of course we must agree upon a definition of these terms, -- work and play, -- before going farther. Now, roughly, not with vain subtlety of definition, but for plain use of the words, "play " is an exertion of body or mind, made to please ourselves, and with no determined end; and work is a thing done because it ought to be done, and with a determined end. You play, as you call it, at cricket, for instance. That is as hard work as anything else; but it amuses you, and it has no result but the amusement. If it were done as an ordered form of exercise, for health's sake, it would become work directly. So, in like manner, whatever we do to please ourselves, and only for the sake of the pleasure, not for an ultimate object, is "play," the "pleasing thing," not the useful thing. Play may be useful, in a secondary sense; (nothing is indeed more useful or necessary); but the use of it depends on its being spontaneous.

Let us, then, enquire together what sort of games the playing class in England spend their lives in playing at.

The first of all English games is making money. That is an all-absorbing game; and we knock each other down oftener in playing at that, than at football, or any other roughest sport: and it is absolutely without purpose; no one who engages heartily in that game ever knows why. Ask a great money-maker what he wants to do with his money, -- he never knows. He doesn't make it to do anything with it. He gets it only that he may get it. "What will you make of what you have got ? "you ask. " Well, I'll get more," he says. Just as, at cricket, you get more runs. There's no use in the runs, but to get more of them than other people is the game. And there's no use in the money, but to have more of it than other people is the game. So all that great foul city of London there, -- rattling, growling, smoking, stinking, -- a ghastly heap of fermenting brickwork, pouring out poison at every pore, -- you fancy it is a city of work? Not a street of it ! It is a great city of play; very nasty play, and very hard play, but still play. It is only Lord's cricket ground without the turf: -- a huge billiard table without the cloth, and with pockets as deep as the bottomless pit; but mainly a billiard table, after all.

Well, the first great English game is this playing at counters. It differs from the rest in that it appears always to be producing money, while every other game is expensive. But it does not always produce money. There's a great difference between "winning " money and "making " it: a great difference between getting it out of another man's pocket into ours, or filling both. Collecting money is by no means the same thing as making it; the tax-gatherer's house is not the Mint; and much of the apparent gain, (so called), in commerce, is only a form of taxation on carriage or exchange.

Our next great English game, however, hunting and shooting, is costly altogether; and how much we are fined for it annually in land, horses, gamekeepers, and game laws, and all else that accompanies that beautiful and special English game, I will not endeavour to count now; but note only that, except for exercise, this is not merely a useless game, but a deadly one, to all connected with it. For through horse-racing, you get every form of what the higher classes everywhere call "Play," in distinction from all other plays; that is, -- gambling; by no means a beneficial or recreative game: and, through game-preserving, you get also some curious laying out of ground; that beautiful arrangement of dwelling-house for man and beast, by which we have grouse and blackcock -- so many brace to the acre, and men and women -- so many brace to the garret. I often wonder what the angelic builders and surveyors -- the angelic builders who build the "many mansions " up above there; and the angelic surveyors, who measured that four-square city with their measuring reeds -- I wonder what they think, or are supposed to think, of the laying out of ground by this nation, which has set itself, as it seems, literally to accomplish, word for word, or rather fact for word, in the persons of those poor whom its Master left to represent him, what that Master said of himself -- that foxes and birds had homes, but He none.

Then, next to the gentlemen's game of hunting, we must put the ladies' game of dressing. It is not the cheapest of games. I saw a brooch at a jeweller's in Bond Street a fortnight ago, not an inch wide, and without any singular jewel in it, yet worth �3���. And I wish I could tell you what this "play " costs, altogether, in England, France, and Russia annually. But it is a pretty game, and on certain terms, I like it; nay, I don't see it played quite as much as I would fain have it. You ladies like to lead the fashion: -- by all means lead it -- lead it thoroughly, lead it far enough. Dress yourselves nicely, and dress everybody else nicely. Lead the fashions for the poor first; make them look well, and you yourselves will look, in ways of which you have now no conception, all the better. The fashions you have set for some time among your peasantry are not pretty ones; their doublets are too irregularly slashed, and the wind blows too frankly through them.

Then there are other games, wild enough, as I could show you if I had time.

There's playing at literature, and playing at art -- very different, both, from working at literature, or working at art, but I've no time to speak of these. I pass to the greatest of all -- the play of plays, the great gentleman's game, which ladies like them best to p!ay at, -- the game of War. It is entrancingly pleasant to the imagination; the facts of it, not always so pleasant. We dress for it, however, more finely than for any other sport; and go out to it, not merely in scarlet, as to hunt, but in scarlet and gold, and all manner of fine colours: of course we could fight better in grey, and without feathers; but all nations have agreed that it is good to be well dressed at this play. Then the bats and balls are very costly; our English and French bats, with the balls and wickets, even those which we don't make any use of, costing, I suppose, now about fifteen millions of money annually to each nation; all which you know is paid for by hard labourer's work in the furrow and furnace. A costly game! -- not to speak of its consequences; I will say at present nothing of these. The mere immediate cost of all these plays is what I want you to consider; they all cost deadly work somewhere, as many of us know too well. The jewel-cutter, whose sight fails over the diamonds; the weaver, whose arm fails over the web; the iron-forger, whose breath fails before the furnace -- they know what work is -- they, who have all the work, and none of the play, except a kind they have named for themselves down in the black north country, where "play " means being laid up by sickness. It is a pretty example for philologists, of varying dialect this change in the sense of the word "play," as used in the black country of Birmingham, and the red and black country of Baden Baden. Yes, gentlemen, and gentlewomen, of England, who think "one moment unamused a misery, not made for feeble man," this is what you have brought the word "play " to mean, in the heart of merry England! You may have your fluting and piping; but there are sad children sitting in the market-place, who indeed cannot say to you, "We have piped unto you, and ye have not danced: " but eternally shall say to you, "We have mourned unto you, and ye have not lamented."

This, then, is the first distinction between the "upper and lower " classes. And this is one which is by no means necessary; which indeed must, in process of good time, be by all honest men's consent abolished. Men will be taught that an existence of play, sustained by the blood of other creatures, is a good existence for gnats and sucking fish; but not for men: that neither days, nor lives, can be made holy by doing nothing in them: that the best prayer at the beginning of a day is that we may not lose its moments; and the best grace before meat, the consciousness that we have justly earned our dinner. And when we have this much of plain Christianity preached to us again, and enough respect what we regard as inspiration, as not to think that "Son, go work to-day in my vineyard," means "Fool, go play to-day in my vineyard," we shall all be workers, in one way or another; and this much at least of the distinction between "upper " and "lower " forgotten.

• I pass then to our second distinction; between the rich and poor, between Dives and Lazarus, -- distinction which exists more sternly, I suppose, in this day, than ever in the world, Pagan or Christian, till now. I will put it sharply before you, to begin with, merely by reading two paragraphs which I cut from two papers that lay on my breakfast table on the same morning, the 25th of November, 1864. The piece about the rich Russian at Paris is common-place enough, and stupid besides; (for fifteen francs -- 12s. 6d ., -- is nothing for a rich man to give for a couple of peaches, out of season). Still, the two paragraphs printed on the same day are worth putting side by side.

"Such a man is now here. He is a Russian, and, with your permission, we will call him Count Teufelskine. In dress he is sublime; art is considered in that toilet, the harmony of colour respected, the chiar' oscuro evident in well-selected contrast. In manners he is dignified -- nay, perhaps apathetic; nothing disturbs the placid serenity of that calm exterior. One day our friend breakfasted chez Bignon. When the bill came he read, ' Two peaches, Isf.' He paid. ' Peaches scarce, I presume?' was his sole remark. 'No, sir,' replied the waiter, ' but Teufelskines are."' -- Telegraph , November 25, 1864.

"Yesterday morning, at eight o'clock, a woman, passing a dung heap in the stone yard near the recently-erected alms-houses in Shadwell Gap, High Street, Shadwell, called the attention of a Thames police constable to a man in a sitting position on the dung heap, and said she was afraid he was dead. Her fears proved to be true. The wretched creature appeared to have been dead several hours. He had perished of cold and wet, and the rain had been beating down on him all night. The deceased was a bone-picker. He was in the lowest stage of poverty, poorly clad, and halfstarved. The police had frequently driven him away from the stone yard, between sunset and sunrise, and told him to go home. He selected a most desolate spot for his wretched death. A penny and some bones were found in his pockets. The deceased was between fifty and sixty years of age. Inspector Roberts, of the K division, has given directions for inquiries to be made at the lodging - houses respecting the deceased, to ascertain his identity if possible." -- Morning Post, November 25, 1864.

You have the separation thus in brief compass; and I want you to take notice of the "a penny and some bones were found in his pockets," and to compare it with this third statement, from the Telegraph of January 16th of this year: --

"Again, the dietary scale for adult and juvenile paupers was drawn up by the most conspicuous political economists in England. It is low in quantity, but it is sufficient to support nature; yet within ten years of the passing of the Poor Law Act, we heard of the paupers in the Andover Union gnawing the scraps of putrid flesh and sucking the marrow from the bones of horses which they were employed to crush."

You see my reason for thinking that our Lazarus of Christianity has some advantage over the Jewish one. Jewish Lazarus expected, or at least prayed, to be fed with crumbs from the rich man's table; but poor Lazarus is fed with crumbs from the dog's table.

Now this distinction between rich and poor rests on two bases. Within its proper limits, on a basis which is lawful and everlastingly necessary; beyond them, on a basis unlawful, and everlastingly corrupting the framework of society. The lawful basis of wealth is, that a man who works should be paid the fair value of his work; and that if he does not choose to spend it to-day, he should have free leave to keep it, and spend it tomorrow. Thus, an industrious man working daily, and laying by daily, attains at last the possession of an accumulated sum of wealth, to which he has absolute right. The idle person who will not work, and the wasteful person who lays nothing by, at the end of the same time will be doubly poor -- poor in possession, and dissolute in moral habit; and he will then naturally covet the money which the other has saved. And if he is then allowed to attack the other, and rob him of his well-earned wealth, there is no more any motive for saving, or any reward for good conduct; and all society is thereupon dissolved, or exists only in systems of rapine. Therefore the first necessity of social life is the clearness of national conscience in enforcing the law -- that he should keep who has JUSTLY EARNED.

That law, I say, is the proper basis of distinction between rich and poor. But there is also a false basis of distinction; namely, the power held over those who earn wealth by those who levy or exact it. There will be always a number of men who would fain see themselves to the accumulation of wealth as the sole object of their lives. Necessarily, that class of men is an uneducated class, inferior in intellect, and more or less cowardly. It is physically impossible for a well-educated, intellectual, or brave man to make money the chief object of his thoughts; as physically impossible as it is for him to make his dinner the principal object of them. Al] healthy people like their dinners, but their dinner is not the main object of their lives. So all healthily minded people like making money -- ought to like it, and to enjoy the sensation of winning it: but the main object of their life is not money; it is something better than money. A good soldier, for instance, mainly wishes to do his fighting well. He is glad of his pay -- very properly so, and justly grumbles when you keep him ten years without it -- still, his main notion of life is to win battles, not to be paid for winning them. So of clergymen. They like pew-rents, and baptismal fees, of course; but yet, if they are brave and well educated, the pew-rent is not the sole object of their lives, and the baptismal fee is not the sole purpose of the baptism; the clergyman's object is essentially to baptise and preach, not to be paid for preaching. So of doctors. They like fees no doubt, -- ought to like them; yet if they are brave and well educated, the entire object of their lives is not fees. They, on the whole, desire to cure the sick; and, -- if they are good doctors, and the choice were fairly put to them, -- would rather cure their patient, and lose their fee, than kill him, and get it. And so with all other brave and rightly trained men; their work is first, their fee second -- very important always, but still second. But in every nation, as I said, there are a vast class who are ill-educated, cowardly, and more or less stupid. And with these people, just as certainly the fee is first, and the work second, as with brave people the work is first and the fee second. And this is no small distinction. It is the whole distinction in a man; distinction between life and death in him, between heaven and hell for him. You cannot serve two masters; -- you must serve one or other. If your work is first with you, and your fee second, work is your master, and the lord of work, who is God. But if your fee is first with you, and your work second, fee is your master, and the lord of fee, who is the Devil; and not only the Devil, but the lowest of devils -- the "least erected fiend that fell." So there you have it in brief terms; Work first -- you are God's servants; Fee first -- you are the Fiend's. And it makes a difference, now and ever, believe me, whether you serve Him who has on His vesture and thigh written, "King of Kings," and whose service is perfect freedom; or him on whose vesture and thigh the name is written, "Slave of Slaves," and whose service is perfect slavery.

However, in every nation there are, and must always be, a certain number of these Fiend's servants, who have it principally for the object of their lives to make money. They are always, as I said, more or less stupid, and cannot conceive of anything else so nice as money. Stupidity is always the basis of the Judas bargain. We do great injustice to Iscariot, in thinking him wicked above all common wickedness. He was only a common money-lover, and, like all money-lovers, didn't understand Christ; -- couldn't make out the worth of Him, or meaning of Him. He didn't want Him to be killed. He was horror-struck when he found that Christ would be killed; threw his money away instantly, and hanged himself. How many of our present money-seekers, think you, would have the grace to hang themselves, whoever was killed ? But Judas was a common, selfish, muddle - headed, pilfering fellow; his hand always in the bag of the poor, not caring for them. He didn't understand Christ; -- yet believed in Him, much more than most of us do; had seen Him do miracles, thought He was quite strong enough to shift for Himself, and he, Judas, might as well make his own little bye-perquisites out of the affair. Christ would come out of it well enough, and he have his thirty pieces. Now, that is the money-seeker's idea, all over the world. He doesn't hate Christ, but can't understand Him -- doesn't care for Him -- sees no good in that benevolent business; makes his own little job out of it at all events, come what will. And thus, out of every mass of men, you have a certain number of bagmen -- your "fee-first " men, whose main object is to make money. And they do make it -- make it in all sorts of unfair ways, chiefly by the weight and force of money itself, or what is called the power of capital; that is to say, the power which money, once obtained, has over the labour of the poor, so that the capitalist can take all its produce to himself, except the labourer's food. That is the modern Judas's way of " carrying the bag," and " bearing what is put therein."

Nay, but (it is asked) how is that an unfair advantage ? Has not the man who has worked for the money a right to use it as he best can ? No; in this respect, money is now exactly what mountain promontories over public roads were in old times. The barons fought for them fairly: -- the strongest and cunningest got them; then fortified them, and made every one who passed below pay toll. Well, capital now is exactly what crags were then. Men fight fairly (we will, at least, grant so much, though it is more than we ought) for their money: but, once having got it, the fortified millionaire can make everybody who passes below pay toll to his million, and build another tower of his money castle. And I can tell you, the poor vagrants by the roadside suffer now quite as much from the bag-baron, as ever they did from the crag-baron. Bags and crags have just the same result on rags. I have not time, however, to-night to show you in how many ways the power of capital is unjust: but this one great principle I have to assert -- You will find it quite indisputably true -- that whenever money is the principal object of life with either man or nation, it is both got ill, and spent ill; and does harm both in the getting and spending; but when it is not the principal object, it and all other things will be well got, and well spent. And here is the test, with every man, of whether money is the principal object with him, or not. If in mid-life he could pause and say, "Now I have enough to live upon, I'll live upon it; and having well earned it, I will also well spend it, and go out of the world poor, as I came into it," then money is not principal with him; but if, having enough to live upon in the manner befitting his character and rank, he still wants to make more, and to die rich, then money is the principal object with him, and it becomes a curse to himself, and generally to those who spend it after him For you know it must be spent some day; the only question is whether the man who makes it shall spend it, or some one else. And generally it is better for the maker to spend it, for he will know best its value and use. This IS the true law of life. And if a man does not choose thus to spend his money, he must either hoard it or lend it, and the worst thing he can generally do is to lend it; for borrowers are nearly always ill spenders, and it is with lent money that all evil is mainly done, and all unjust war protracted.

For observe what the real fact is, respecting loans to foreign military governments, and how strange it is. If your little boy came to you to ask for money to spend in squibs and crackers, you would think twice before you gave it him; and you would have some idea that it was wasted, when you saw it fly off in fireworks, even though he did no mischief with it. But the Russian children, and Austrian children, come to you, borrowing money, not to spend in innocent squibs, but in cartridges and bayonets to attack you in India with, and to keep down all noble life in Italy with, and to murder Polish women and children with; and that you will give at once because they pay you interest for it. Now, in order to pay you that interest, they must tax every working peasant in their dominions; and on that work you live you therefore at once rob the Austrian peasant, assassinate or banish the Polish peasant, and you live on the produce of the theft, and the bribe for the assassination ~ That is the broad fact -- that is the practical meaning of your foreign loans, and of most large interest of money and then you quarrel with Bishop Colenso, forsooth as if he denied the Bible, and you believed it though wretches as you are, every deliberate act of your lives is a new defiance of its primary orders; and as if, for most of the rich men of England at this moment, it were not indeed to be desired, as the best thing at least for [33-34] them, that the Bible should not be true, since against them these words are written in it: " The rust of your gold and silver shall be a witness against you, and shall eat your flesh, as it were fire."

• I pass now to our third condition of separation, between the men who work with the hand, and those who work with the head.

And here we have at last an inevitable distinction. There must be work done by the arms, or none of us could live. There must be work done by the brains, or the life we get would not be worth having. And the same men cannot do both. There is rough work to be done, and rough men must do it; there is gentle work to be done, and gentlemen must do it; and it is physically impossible that one class should do, or divide, the work of the other. And it is of no use to try to conceal this sorrowful fact by fine words, and to talk to the workmen about the honourableness of manual labour, and the dignity of humanity. That is a grand old proverb of Sancho Panza's, "Fine words butter no parsnips;" and I can tell you that, all over England just now, you workmen are buying a great deal too much butter at that dairy. Rough work, honourable or not, takes the life out of us; and the man who has been heaving clay out of a ditch all day, or driving an express train against the north wind all night, or holding a collier's helm in a gale on a lee shore, or whirling white-hot iron at a furnace mouth, that man is not the same at the end of his day, or night, as one who has been sitting in a quiet room, with everything comfortable about him, reading books, or classing butterflies, or painting pictures. If it is any comfort to you to be told that the rough work is the more honourable of the two, I should be sorry to take that much of consolation from you; and in some sense I need not. The rough work is at all events real, honest, and, generally, though not always, useful; while the fine work is, a great deal of it, foolish and false as well as fine, and therefore dishonourable: but when both kinds [34>35] are equally well and worthily done, the head's is the noble work, and the hand's the ignoble; and of all hand work whatsoever, necessary for the maintenance of life, these old words, "In the sweat of thy face thou shalt eat bread," indicate that the inherent nature of it is one of calamity; and that the ground, cursed for our sake casts also some shadow of degradation into our contest with its thorn and its thistle: so that all nations have held their days honourable, or "holy," and constituted them "holydays," or "holidays," by making them days of rest; and the promise, which, among all our distant hopes, seems to cast the chief brightness over death, is that blessing of the dead who die in the Lord, that "they rest from their labours, and their works do follow them."

And thus the perpetual question and contest must arise, who is to do this rough work? and how is the worker of it to be comforted, redeemed, and rewarded ? and what kind of play should he have, and what rest, in this world, sometimes, as well as in the next? Well, my good working friends, these questions will take a little time to answer yet. They must be answered: all good men are occupied with them, and all honest thinkers. There's grand head work doing about them; but much must be discovered, and much attempted in vain, before anything decisive can be told you. Only note these few particulars, which are already sure.

As to the distribution of the hard work. None of us, or very few of us, do either hard or soft work because we think we ought; but because we have chanced to fall into the way of it, and cannot help ourselves. Now nobody does anything well that they cannot help doing work is only done well when it is done with a will; and no man has a thoroughly sound will unless he knows he is doing what he should, and is in his place. And depend upon it, all work must be done at last, not in a disorderly, scrambling, doggish way, but in an ordered soldierly, human way -- a lawful way. Men are enlisted for the labour that kills -- the labour of war: they are counted, trained, fed, dressed, and praised for that. Let them be enlisted also for the labour that feeds: let them be counted, trained, fed, dressed, praised for that. Teach the plough exercise as carefully as you do the sword exercise, and let the officers of troops of life be held as much gentlemen as the officers of troops of death; and all is done: but neither this, nor any other right thing, can be accomplished -- you can't even see your way to it -- unless, first of all, both servant and master are resolved that, come what will of it, they will do each other justice. People are perpetually squabbling about what will be best to do, or easiest to do, or adviseablest to do, or profitablest to do; but they never, so far as I hear them talk, ever ask what it is just to do. And it Is the law of heaven that you shall not be able to judge what is wise or easy, unless you are first resolved to judge what is just, and to do it. That is the one thing constantly reiterated by our Master -- the order of all others that is given oftenest -- "Do justice and Judgment." That's your Bible order; that's the "Service of God," not praying nor psalm-singing. You are told, indeed, to sing psalms when you are merry, and to pray when you need anything; and, by the perversion of the Evil Spirit, we get to think that praying and psalm singing are "service." If a child finds itself in want of anything, it runs in and asks its father for it -- does it call that, doing its father a service ? If it begs for a toy or a piece of cake -- does it call that serving its father? That, with God, is prayer, and He likes to hear it: He likes you to ask Him for cake when you want it; but He doesn't call that "serving Him." Begging is not serving- God likes mere beggars as little as you do -- He likes honest servants, not beggars. So when a child loves its father very much, and is very happy, it may sing little songs about him; but it doesn't call that, serving its father- neither is singing songs about God, serving God. It is enjoying ourselves, if it's anything; most probably it is nothing: but if it's anything, it is serving ourselves, not God. And yet we are impudent enough to call our beggings and chauntings "Divine Service: "we say, Divine service will be 'performed"' (that's our word -- the form of it gone through) "at eleven o'clock." Alas ! -- unless we perform Divine service in every willing act of life, we never perform it at all. The one Divine work -- the one ordered sacrifice -- is to do justice; and it is the last we are ever inclined to do. Anything rather than that! As much charity as you choose, but no justice. Nay," you will say, "charity is greater than justice. Yes, it is greater; it is the summit of justice -- it is the temple of which justice is the foundation. But you can t have the top without the bottom; you cannot build upon charity. You must build upon justice, for this main reason, that you have not, at first chanty to build with. It is the last reward of good work Do justice to your brother (you can do that, whether you love him or not), and you will come to love him But do injustice to him, because you don't love him and you will come to hate him. It is all very fine to think you can build upon charity to begin with, but you will find all you have got to begin with, begins at home, and is essentially love of yourself. You well-to do people, for instance, who are here to-night, will go to Divine Service "next Sunday, all nice and tidy, and your little children will have their tight little Sunday boots on, and lovely little Sunday feathers in their hats and you'll think, complacently and piously, how lovely they look. So they do; and you love them heartily and you like sticking feathers in their hats. That's alright: that is charity; but it is charity beginning at home. Then you will come to the poor little crossingsweeper, got up also, -- it, in its Sunday dress, -- the dirtiest rags it has, -- that it may beg the better- we shall give it a penny, and think how good we e are That s charity going abroad. But what does Justice say, walking and watching near us ? Christian Justice and doing something; we shall pay our ploughman a little more, and our lawyer a little less, and so on: but, at least, we may even now take care that whatever work is done shall be fully paid for; and the man who does it paid for it, not somebody else; and that it shall be done in an orderly, soldierly, well-guided, wholesome way, under good captains and lieutenants of labour; and that it shall have its appointed times of rest, and enough of them; and that in those times the play shall be wholesome play, not in theatrical gardens, with tin flowers and gas sunshine, and girls dancing because of their misery; but in true gardens, with real flowers, and real sunshine, and children dancing because of their gladness; so that truly the streets shall be full (the "streets," mind you, not the gutters) of children, playing in the midst thereof. We may take care that working men shall have at least as good books to read as anybody else, when they've time to read them; and as comfortable firesides to sit at as anybody else, when they've time to sit at them. This, I think, can be managed for you, my working friends, in the good time.

• I must go on, however, to our last head, concerning ourselves all, as workers. What is wise work, and what is foolish work? What the difference between sense and nonsense, in daily occupation?

Well, wise work is, briefly, work with God. Foolish work is work against God. And work done with God, which He will help, may be briefly described as "Putting in Order " -- that is, enforcing God's law of order, spiritual and material, over men and things. The first thing you have to do, essentially; the real good work "is, with respect to men, to enforce justice, and with respect to things, to enforce tidiness, and fruitfulness. And against these two great human deeds, justice and order, there are perpetually two great demons contending, -- the devil of iniquity, or inequity, and the devil of disorder, or of death; for death is only consummation of disorder. You have to fight these two fiends daily. So far as you don't fight against the fiend of iniquity, you work for him. You "work iniquity and the judgment upon you, for all your "Lord, Lord's," will be "Depart from me, ye that work iniquity." And so far as you do not resist the fiend of disorder, you work disorder, and you yourself do the work of Death, which is sin, and has for its wages, Death himself.

Observe then, all wise work is mainly threefold in character. It is honest, useful, and cheerful.

• It is HONEST. I hardly know anything more strange than that you recognise honesty in play, and you do not in work. In your lightest games, you have always some one to see what you call " fair-play." In boxing, you must hit fair; in racing, start fair. Your English watchword is fair-play, your English hatred foul-play. Did it ever strike you that you wanted another watchword also, fair-work, and another hatred also, foul-work? Your prize-fighter has some honour in him yet; and so have the men in the ring round him they will judge him to lose the match, by foul hitting But your prize-merchant gains his match by foul selling; and no one cries out against that. You drive a gambler out of the gambling-room who loads dice, but you leave a tradesman in flourishing business, who loads scales~ For observe, all dishonest dealing is loading scales What does it matter whether I get short weight, adulterate substance, or dishonest fabric? The fault in the fabric is incomparably the worst of the two. Give me short measure of food, and I only lose by you; but give me adulterate food, and I die by you. Here, then, is your chief duty, you workmen and tradesmen, -- to be true to yourselves, and to us who would help you. We can do nothing for you, nor you for yourselves, without honesty. Get that, you get all; without that, your suffrages, your reforms, your free-trade measures, your institutions of science, are all in vain. It is useless to put your heads together, if you can't put your hearts [41-42] together. Shoulder to shoulder, right hand to right hand, among yourselves, and no wrong hand to anybody else, and you'll win the world yet.
• Then, secondly, wise work is USEFUL. No man minds, or ought to mind, its being hard, if only it comes to something; but when it is hard, and comes to nothing; when all our bees' business turns to spiders'; and for honey-comb we have only resultant cobweb, blown away by the next breeze, -- that is the cruel thing for the worker. Yet do we ever ask ourselves, personally, or even nationally, whether our work is coming to anything or not ? We don't care to keep what has been nobly done; still less do we care to do nobly what others would keep; and, least of all, to make the work itself useful instead of deadly to the doer, so as to use his life indeed, but not to waste it. Of all wastes, the greatest waste that you can commit is the waste of labour. If you went down in the morning into your dairy, and you found that your youngest child had got down before you; and that he and the cat were at play together, and that he had poured out all the cream on the floor for the cat to lap up, you would scold the child, and be sorry the milk was wasted. But if, instead of wooden bowls with milk in them, there are golden bowls with human life in them, and instead of the cat to play with, -- the devil to play with; and you yourself the player; and instead of leaving that golden bowl to be broken by God at the fountain, you break it in the dust yourself, and pour the human blood out on the ground for the fiend to lick up -- that is no waste! What! you perhaps think, " to waste the labour of men is not to kill them." Is it not? I should like to know how you could kill them more utterly -- kill them with second deaths, seventh deaths, hundredfold deaths ? It is the slightest way of killing to stop a man's breath. Nay, the hunger, and the cold, and the little whistling bullets -- our love-messengers between nation and nation, -- have brought pleasant messages from us [42-43] to many a man before now; orders of sweet release, and leave at last to go where he will be most welcome and most happy. At the worst you do but shorten his life -- you do not corrupt his life. But if you put him to base labour, if you bind his thoughts, if you blind his eyes, if you blunt his hopes, if you steal his joys, if you stunt his body, and blast his soul, and at last leave him not so much as to reap the poor fruit of his degradation, but gather that for yourself, and dismiss him to the grave, when you have done with him, having, so far as in you lay, made the walls of that grave everlasting: (though, indeed, I fancy the goodly bricks of some of our family vaults will hold closer in the resurrection day than the sod over the labourer's head), this you think is no waste, and no sin!
• Then, lastly, wise work is CHEERFUL, as a child's work is. And now I want you to take one thought home with you, and let it stay with you.

Everybody in this room has been taught to pray daily, "Thy kingdom come." Now, if we hear a man swear in the streets, we think it very wrong, and say he "takes God's name in vain." But there's a twenty times worse way of taking His name in vain, than that. It is to ask God for what we don't want. He doesn't like that sort of prayer. If you don't want a thing, don't ask for it: such asking is the worst mockery of your King you can mock Him with; the soldiers striking Him on the head with the reed was nothing to that. If you do not wish for His kingdom, don't pray for it. But if you do, you must do more than pray for it; you must work for it. And, to work for it, you must know what it is: we have all prayed for it many a day without thinking. Observe, it is a kingdom that is to come to us; we are not to go to it. Also, it is not to be a kingdom of the dead, but of the living. Also, it is not to come all at once, but quietly; nobody knows how. "The kingdom of God cometh not with observation." Also, it is not to come outside of us, but in the hearts of [43-44] us: " the kingdom of God is within you." And, being within us, it is not a thing to be seen, but to be felt; and though it brings all substance of good with it, it does not consist in that: " the kingdom of God is not meat and drink, but righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost: " joy, that is to say, in the holy, healthful, and helpful Spirit. Now, if we want to work for this kingdom, and to bring it, and enter into it, there's just one condition to be first accepted. You must enter it as children, or not at all: " Whosoever will not receive it as a little child shall not enter therein." And again, "Suffer little children to come unto me, and forbid them not, for of such is the kingdom of heaven." Of such, observe. Not of children themselves, but of such as children. I believe most mothers who read that text think that all heaven is to be full of babies. But that's not so. There will be children there, but the hoary head is the crown. " Length of days, and long life and peace," that is the blessing, not to die in babyhood. Children die but for their parents' sins; God means them to live, but He can't let them always; then they have their earlier place in heaven: and the little child of David, vainly prayed for; -- the little child of Jeroboam, killed by its mother's step on its own threshold, -- they will be there. But weary old David, and weary old Barzillai, having learned children's lessons at last, will be there too: and the one question for us all, young or old, is, have we learned our child's lesson ? it is the character of children we want, and must gain at our peril; let us see, briefly, in what it consists.

The first character of right childhood is that it is Modest. A well-bred child does not think it can teach its parents, or that it knows everything. It may think its father and mother know everything, -- perhaps that all grown-up people know everything; very certainly it is sure that it does not. And it is always asking questions, and wanting to know more. Well, that is [44-45] the first character of a good and wise man at his work To know that he knows very little; -- to perceive that there are many above him wiser than he; and to be always asking questions, wanting to learn, not to teach. No one ever teaches well who wants to teach, or governs well who wants to govern; it is an old saying (Plato's, but I know not if his, first), and as wise as old.

Then, the second character of right childhood is to be Faithful. Perceiving that its father knows best what is good for it, and having found always, when it has tried its own way against his, that he was right and it was wrong, a noble child trusts him at last wholly, gives him its hand, and will walk blindfold with him, if he bids it. And that is the true character of all good men also, as obedient workers, or soldiers under captains. They must trust their captains; -- they are bound for their lives to choose none but those whom they can trust. Then, they are not always to be thinking that what seems strange to them, or wrong in what they are desired to do, is strange or wrong. They know their captain: where he leads they must follow, what he bids they must do; and without this trust and faith, without this captainship and soldiership, no great deed, no great salvation, is possible to man Among all the nations it is only when this faith is attained by them that they become great: the Jew the Greek, and the Mahometan, agree at least in testifying to this. It was a deed of this absolute trust which made Abraham the father of the faithful; it was the declaration of the power of God as captain over all men and the acceptance of a leader appointed by Him as commander of the faithful, which laid the foundation of whatever national power yet exists in the East and the deed of the Greeks, which has become the type of unselfish and noble soldiership to all lands, and to all times, was commemorated, on the tomb of those who gave their lives to do it, in the most pathetic, so far as I know, or can feel, of all human utterances: [45-46]

"Oh, stranger, go and tell our people that we are lying here, having obeyed their words."

Then, the third character of right childhood is to be Loving and Generous. Give a little love to a child, and you get a great deal back. It loves everything near it, when it is a right kind of child -- would hurt nothing, would give the best it has away, always, if you need it -- does not lay plans for getting everything in the house for itself, and delights in helping people; you cannot please it so much as by giving it a chance of being useful, in ever so little a way.

And because of all these characters, lastly, it is Cheerful. Putting its trust in its father, it is careful for nothing -- being full of love to every creature, it is happy always, whether in its play or its duty. Well, that's the great worker's character also. Taking no thought for the morrow; taking thought only for the duty of the day; trusting somebody else to take care of to-morrow; knowing indeed what labour is, but not what sorrow is; and always ready for play -- beautiful play, -- for lovely human play is like the play of the Sun. There's a worker for you. He, steady to his time, is set as a strong man to run his course, but also, he rejoice as a strong man to run his course. See how he plays in the morning, with the mists below, and the clouds above, with a ray here and a flash there, and a shower of jewels everywhere; -- that's the Sun's play; and great human play is like his -- all various -- all full of light and life, and tender, as the dew of the morning.

So then, you have the child's character in these four things -- Humility, Faith, Charity, and Cheerfulness. That's what you have got to be converted to. " Except ye be converted and become as little children " -- You hear much of conversion now-a-days; but people always seem to think they have got to be made wretched by conversion, -- to be converted to long faces. No, friends, you have got to be converted to short ones; you have to repent into childhood, to repent into [46/47] delight, and delightsomeness. You can't go into a conventicle but you'll hear plenty of talk of backsliding. Backsliding, indeed ! I can tell you, on the ways most of us go, the faster we slide back the better. Slide back into the cradle, if going on is into the grave -- back, I tell you; back -- out of your long faces, and into your long clothes. It is among children only, and as children only, that you will find medicine for your healing and true wisdom for your teaching. There is poison in the counsels of the men of this world; the words they speak are all bitterness, "the poison of asps is under their lips," but "the sucking child shall play by the hole of the asp." There is death in the looks of men. "Their eyes are privily set against the poor; "they are as the uncharmable serpent, the cockatrice, which slew by seeing. But "the weaned child shall lay his hand on the cockatrice den." There is death in the steps of men: "their feet are swift to shed blood; they have compassed us in our steps like the lion that is greedy of his prey, and the young lion lurking in secret places," but, in that kingdom, the wolf shall lie down with the lamb, and the fatling with the lion, and "a little child shall lead them." There is death in the thoughts of men: the world is one wide riddle to them, darker and darker as it draws to a close; but the secret of it is known to the child, and the Lord of heaven and earth is most to be thanked in that "He has hidden these things from the wise and prudent, and has revealed them unto babes." Yes, and there is death -- infinitude of death in the principalities and powers of men. As far as the east is from the west, so far our sins are -- not set from us, but multiplied around us: the Sun himself, think you he now "rejoices" to run his course, when he plunges westward to the horizon, so widely red, not with clouds, but blood ? And it will be red more widely yet. Whatever drought of the early and latter rain may be, there will be none of that red rain. You fortify yourselves, you arm yourselves against it in vain; the -- enemy and avenger will be upon you also, unless you learn that it is not out of the mouths of the knitted gun, or the smoothed rifle, but "out of the mouths of babes and sucklings "that the strength is ordained, which shall "still the enemy and avenger."

Last modified 30 April 2024

INDEX OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG WORKS OF JOHN RUSKIN

Compiled by david widger.

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TABLES OF CONTENTS OF VOLUMES

The king of the golden river, by john ruskin.

THE KING OF THE GOLDEN RIVER OR THE BLACK BROTHERS

A legend of stiria, illustrated by richard doyle.

CHAPTER I.
HOW THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM OF THE BLACK BROTHERS WAS INTERFERED WITH BY SOUTH-WEST WIND, ESQUIRE
CHAPTER II.
OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE THREE BROTHERS AFTER THE VISIT OF SOUTH-WEST WIND, ESQUIRE; AND HOW LITTLE GLUCK HAD AN INTERVIEW WITH THE KING OF THE GOLDEN RIVER
CHAPTER III.
HOW MR. HANS SET OFF ON AN EXPEDITION TO THE GOLDEN RIVER, AND HOW HE PROSPERED THEREIN
CHAPTER IV.
HOW MR. SCHWARTZ SET OFF ON AN EXPEDITION TO THE GOLDEN RIVER, AND HOW HE PROSPERED THEREIN
CHAPTER V.
HOW LITTLE GLUCK SET OFF ON AN EXPEDITION TO THE GOLDEN RIVER, AND HOW HE PROSPERED THEREIN; WITH OTHER MATTERS OF INTEREST

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Designed and drawn on wood by richard doyle.

SUBJECTS.	ENGRAVERS.	PAGE
South-West Wind, Esq., knocking at the Black Brothers' door
The Treasure Valley
Initial Letter, and Mountain Range
South-West Wind, Esq., seated on the hob
South-West Wind, Esq., bowing to the Black Brothers
Storm Scene
Card of South-West Wind, Esq.
Initial Letter, and Cottage in the Treasure Valley
The Black Brothers drinking and Gluck working
Gluck looking out at the Golden River
The Golden Dwarf appearing to Gluck
Gluck looking up the Chimney
The Black Brothers beating Gluck
Hans and Schwartz fighting
Schwartz before the Magistrate
Hans and the Dog
The Black Stone
Initial Letter—Gluck releasing Schwartz
Schwartz ascending the Mountain
Initial Letter—Gluck ascending the Mountain
Priest giving Gluck Holy Water
Gluck and the Child

THE ETHICS OF THE DUST

Ten lectures to little housewives, on the elements of crystallization, by john ruskin, ll.d.,.

MORNINGS IN FLORENCE

THE TWO PATHS

THE QUEEN OF THE AIR

Being a study of the greek myths of cloud and storm, by john ruskin, ll.d..

PROSERPINA.

Studies of wayside flowers, by john ruskin,, contents of vol..

	PAGE
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I. MOSS
CHAPTER II. THE ROOT
CHAPTER III. THE LEAF
CHAPTER IV. THE FLOWER
CHAPTER V. PAPAVER RHOEAS
CHAPTER VI. THE PARABLE OF JOASH
CHAPTER VII. THE PARABLE OF JOTHAM
CHAPTER VIII. THE STEM
CHAPTER IX. OUTSIDE AND IN
CHAPTER X. THE BARK
CHAPTER XI. GENEALOGY
CHAPTER XII. CORA AND KRONOS
CHAPTER XIII. THE SEED AND HUSK
CHAPTER XIV. THE FRUIT GIFT
INDEX I. DESCRIPTIVE NOMENCLATURE
INDEX II. ENGLISH NAMES
INDEX III. LATIN OR GREEK NAMES

SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF JOHN RUSKIN

Edited with introduction and notes by chauncey b. tinker.

THE PLEASURES OF ENGLAND.

Lectures given in oxford..

THE PLEASURES OF LEARNING. THE PLEASURES OF FAITH. THE PLEASURES OF DEED. THE PLEASURES OF FANCY.

POETRY OF ARCHITECTURE

Seven lamps of architecture.

	—THE COTTAGE.
I.	THE LOWLAND COTTAGE—ENGLAND AND FRANCE
II.	THE LOWLAND COTTAGE—ITALY
III.	THE MOUNTAIN COTTAGE—SWITZERLAND
IV.	THE MOUNTAIN COTTAGE—WESTMORELAND
V.	A CHAPTER ON CHIMNEYS
VI.	THE COTTAGE—CONCLUDING REMARKS
	—THE VILLA.
I.	THE MOUNTAIN VILLA—LAGO DI COMO
II.	THE MOUNTAIN VILLA—LAGO DI COMO (CONTINUED)
III.	THE ITALIAN VILLA (CONCLUDED)
IV.	THE LOWLAND VILLA—ENGLAND
V.	THE ENGLISH VILLA—PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
VI.	THE BRITISH VILLA.—PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION. (THE CULTIVATED, OR BLUE COUNTRY, AND THE WOODED, OR GREEN COUNTRY)
VII.	THE BRITISH VILLA.—PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION. (THE HILL, OR BROWN COUNTRY)

LIST OF PLATES

Facing Page
Fig.	Old Windows; from an early sketch by the Author
"	Italian Cottage Gallery, 1846
	Cottage near la Cité, Val d'Aosta, 1838
"	Swiss Cottage, 1837. (Reproduced from the Architectural Magazine)
"	Cottage near Altorf, 1835
"	Swiss Châlet Balcony, 1842
"	The Highest House in England, at Malham
"	Chimneys. (Eighteen sketches redrawn from the Architectural Magazine)
"	Coniston Hall, from the Lake near Brantwood, 1837. (Reproduced from the Architectural Magazine)
"	Chimney at Neuchatel; Dent du Midi and Mont Blanc in the distance
"	Petrarch's Villa, Arquà, 1837. (Redrawn from the Architectural Magazine)
"	Broken Curves. (Three diagrams, redrawn from the Architectural Magazine)
"	Old English Mansion, 1837. (Reproduced from the Architectural Magazine)
"	Windows. (Three designs, reproduced from the Architectural Magazine)
"	Leading Lines of Villa-Composition. (Diagram redrawn from the Architectural Magazine)

LOVE'S MEINIE.

Three lectures on greek and english birds..

PREFACE LECTURE I. LECTURE II. LECTURE III.

LECTURES ON ART.

Delivered before the university of oxford in hilary term, 1870..

INAUGURAL	1
THE RELATION OF ART TO RELIGION	24
THE RELATION OF ART TO MORALS	46
THE RELATION OF ART TO USE	66
LINE	86
LIGHT	102
COLOUR	123

"A JOY FOR EVER"

(and its price in the market), two lectures on the political economy of art.

LECTURE I.
PAGE
THE DISCOVERY AND APPLICATION OF ART
LECTURE II.
THE ACCUMULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ART
ADDENDA.
Note	1.—"FATHERLY AUTHORITY"
"	2.—"RIGHT TO PUBLIC SUPPORT"
"	3.—"TRIAL SCHOOLS"
"	4.—"PUBLIC FAVOUR"
"	5.—"INVENTION OF NEW WANTS"
"	6.—"ECONOMY OF LITERATURE"
"	7.—"PILOTS OF THE STATE"
"	8.—"SILK AND PURPLE"
———
SUPPLEMENTARY ADDITIONAL PAPERS.
EDUCATION IN ART
ART SCHOOL NOTES
SOCIAL POLICY

LECTURES ON LANDSCAPE

DELIVERED AT OXFORD IN LENT TERM, 1871.

Outline
Light and Shade
Color

, by J.M.W. Turner
, by J.M.W. Turner
, by J.M.W. Turner
, by Filippo Lippi
, by Sir Joshua Reynolds
, by J.M.W. Turner
, by J.M.W. Turner
, by J.M.W. Turner

THE STORM-CLOUD OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Two lectures delivered at the london institution.

Preface
Lecture I. (February 4)
Lecture II. (February 11)

ON THE OLD ROAD

A collection of miscellaneous essays and articles on art and literature., vol. ii. (of ii.).

PICTURE GALLERIES.
Parliamentary Evidence:—
National Gallery Site Commission. 1857
Select Committee on Public Institutions. 1860
The Royal Academy Commission
A Museum or Picture Gallery
MINOR WRITINGS UPON ART.
The Cavalli Monuments, Verona. 1872
Verona and its Rivers (with Catalogue). 1870
Christian Art and Symbolism. 1872
Art Schools of Mediæval Christendom. 1876
The Extension of Railways. 1876
The Study of Beauty. 1883
NOTES ON NATURAL SCIENCE.
The Color of the Rhine. 1834
The Strata of Mont Blanc. 1834
The Induration of Sandstone. 1836
The Temperature of Spring and River Water. 1836.
Meteorology. 1839
Tree Twigs. 1861
Stratified Alps of Savoy. 1863
Intellectual Conception and Animated Life. 1871
LITERATURE.
Fiction—fair and Foul. 1880-81
Fairy Stories. 1868
ECONOMY.
Home, and Its Economies. 1873
Usury. A Reply and a Rejoinder. 1880
Usury. A Preface. 1885
THEOLOGY.
Notes on the Construction of Sheepfolds. 1851
The Lord's Prayer and the Church. 1879-81. (Letters and Epilogue.)
The Nature and Authority of Miracle. 1873
AN OXFORD LECTURE. 1878

THE HARBORS OF ENGLAND.

HORTUS INCLUSUS

Messages from the wood to the garden,, sent in happy days to the sister ladies of the thwaite, coniston..

	v
	vii
	ix
	1
	2
	7
	9
	10
	10
	12
	13
	18
	19
	20
	21
	25
	26
	28
	29
	39
	53
	61
	67
	93
	100
	101

LECTURES ON ARCHITECTURE AND PAINTING

Delivered at edinburgh in november, 1853..

PAGE
v
LECTURE I.
1
LECTURE II.
34
56
LECTURE III.
75
LECTURE IV.
100
123

LIST OF PLATES.

Plate		Figs.	1. 3. and 5. Illustrative diagrams	3
"		"	2. Windows in Oakham Castle	5
"		"	4. and 6. Spray of ash-tree, and improvement of the same on Greek principles	10
"		"	7. Window in Dunblane Cathedral	15
"		"	8. Mediæval turret	20
"		"	9. and 10. Lombardic towers	22
"		"	11. and 12. Spires at Coutances and Rouen	25
"		"	13. and 14. Illustrative diagrams	39
"		"	15. Sculpture at Lyons	40
"		"	16. Niche at Amiens	41
"		"	17. and 18. Tiger's head, and improvement of the same on Greek principles	44
"		"	19. Garret window in Hotel de Bourgtheroude	51
"		"	20. and 21. Trees, as drawn in the 13th century	81
"		"	22. Rocks, as drawn by the school of Leonardo da Vinci	83
"		"	23. Boughs of trees, after Titian	84

THE BIBLE OF AMIENS

—  By the Rivers of Waters
—  Under the Drachenfels
—  The Lion Tamer
— Interpretations
—  Chronological List of Principal Events referred to in the 'Bible of Amiens'
— References Explanatory of Photographs to Chapter IV
—  General Plan of 'Our Fathers have told us'

— The Dynasties of France
—  The Bible of Amiens, Northern Porch before Restoration
—  Amiens, Jour Des Trépassés, 1880

ARATRA PENTELICI.

Seven lectures on the elements of sculpture, given before the university of oxford in michaelmas term, 1870.

PAGE Preface LECTURE I. Of the Division of Arts LECTURE II. Idolatry LECTURE III. Imagination LECTURE IV. Likeness LECTURE V. Structure LECTURE VI. The School of Athens LECTURE VII. The Relation Between Michael Angelo and Tintoret

Facing Page I. Porch of San Zenone, Verona II. The Arethusa of Syracuse III. The Warning to the Kings, San Zenone, Verona IV. The Nativity of Athena V. Tomb of the Doges Jacopo and Lorenzo Tiepolo VI. Archaic Athena of Athens and Corinth VII. Archaic, Central and Declining Art of Greece VIII. The Apollo of Syracuse, and the Self-made Man IX. Apollo Chrysocomes of Clazomenæ X. Marble Masonry in the Duomo of Verona XI. The First Elements of Sculpture. Incised outline and opened space XII. Branch of Phillyrea XIII. Greek Flat relief, and sculpture by edged incision XIV. Apollo and the Python. Heracles and the Nemean Lion XV. Hera of Argos. Zeus of Syracuse XVI. Demeter of Messene. Hera of Cnossus XVII. Athena of Thurium. Siren Ligeia of Terina XVIII. Artemis of Syracuse. Hera of Lacinian Cape XIX. Zeus of Messene. Ajax of Opus XX. Greek and Barbarian Sculpture XXI. The Beginnings of Chivalry

THE CROWN OF WILD OLIVE

Also, munera pulveris, pre-raphaelitism-aratra pentelici, the ethics of the dust, fiction, fair and foul, the elements of drawing, john ruskin.

THE CROWN OF WILD OLIVE. PAGE LECTURE I. Work, LECTURE II. Traffic, LECTURE III. War, MUNERA PULVERIS. Preface, CHAP. I. Definitions, II. Store-Keeping, III. Coin-Keeping, IV. Commerce, V. Government, VI. Mastership, Appendices, PRE-RAPHAELITISM. Preface, Pre-Raphaelitism, ARATRA PENTELICI. Preface, LECTURE I. Of the Division of Arts, II. Idolatry, III. Imagination, IV. Likeness, V. Structure, VI. The School of Athens, The Future of England, Notes on Political Economy of Prussia,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES FACING PAGE I. Porch of San Zenone. Verona, II. The Arethusa of Syracuse, III. The Warning to the Kings, IV. The Nativity of Athena, V. Tomb of the Doges Jacopo and Lorenzo Tiepolo, VI. Archaic Athena of Athens and Corinth, VII. Archaic, Central and Declining Art of Greece, VIII. The Apollo of Syracuse and the Self-made Man, IX. Apollo Chrysocomes of Clazomenæ, X. Marble Masonry in the Duomo of Verona, XI. The First Elements of Sculpture, XII. Branch of Phillyrea. Dark Purple, XIII. Greek Flat Relief and Sculpture by Edged Incision, XIV. Apollo and the Python. Heracles and the Nemean Lion, 400 XV. Hera of Argos. Zeus of Syracuse, XVI. Demeter of Messene. Hera of Crossus, XVII. Athena of Thurium. Sereie Ligeia of Terina, XVIII. Artemis of Syracuse. Hera of Lacinian Cape, XIX. Zeus of Messene. Ajax of Opus, XX. Greek and Barbarian Sculpture, XXI. The Beginnings of Chivalry, FIGURE PAGE 1. Specimen of Plate, 2. Woodcut, 3. Figure on Greek Type of Vases, 4. Early Drawing of the Myth, 5. Cut, "Give It To Me," 6. Engraving on Coin, 7. Drawing of Fish. By Turner, 8. Iron Bar, 9. Diagram of Leaf,

ARIADNE FLORENTINA

Six lectures on wood and metal engraving, given before the university of oxford, in michaelmas term, 1872..

DEFINITION OF THE ART OF ENGRAVING
THE RELATION OF ENGRAVING TO OTHER ARTS IN FLORENCE
THE TECHNICS OF WOOD ENGRAVING
THE TECHNICS OF METAL ENGRAVING
DESIGN IN THE GERMAN SCHOOLS OF ENGRAVING (HOLBEIN AND DÜRER)
DESIGN IN THE FLORENTINE SCHOOLS OF ENGRAVING (SANDRO BOTTICELLI)

ARTICLE
I.	NOTES ON THE PRESENT STATE OF ENGRAVING IN ENGLAND
II.	DETACHED NOTES

Diagram
The Last Furrow (Fig. 2). Facsimile from Holbein's woodcut
The Two Preachers (Fig. 3). Facsimile from Holbein's woodcut
I.	Things Celestial and Terrestrial, as apparent to the English mind
II.	Star of Florence
III.	"At evening from the top of Fésole"
IV.	"By the Springs of Parnassus"
V.	"Heat considered as a Mode of Motion." Florentine Natural Philosophy
VI.	Fairness of the Sea and Air. In Venice and Athens
	The Child's Bedtime (Fig. 5). Facsimile from Holbein's woodcut
	"He that hath ears to hear let him hear" (Fig. 6). Facsimile from Holbein's woodcut
VII.	For a time, and times
VIII.	The Nymph beloved of Apollo (Michael Angelo)
IX.	In the Woods of Ida
X.	Grass of the Desert
XI.	"Obediente Domino voci hominis"
XII.	The Coronation in the Garden

SAINT URSULA

THE ELEMENTS OF DRAWING

In three letters to beginners.

	page
Preface
LETTER I.
On First Practice
LETTER II.
Sketching from Nature
LETTER III.
On Color and Composition
APPENDIX I.
Illustrative Notes
APPENDIX II.
Things to be Studied

STONES OF VENICE

THE STONES OF VENICE

Volume i. (of iii), the foundations.

	page
Preface,
CHAPTER I.
The Quarry,
CHAPTER II.
The Virtues of Architecture,
CHAPTER III.
The Six Divisions of Architecture,
CHAPTER IV.
The Wall Base,
CHAPTER V.
The Wall Veil,
CHAPTER VI.
The Wall Cornice,
CHAPTER VII.
The Pier Base,
CHAPTER VIII.
The Shaft,
CHAPTER IX.
The Capital,	xii
CHAPTER X.
The Arch Line,
CHAPTER XI.
The Arch Masonry,
CHAPTER XII.
The Arch Load,
CHAPTER XIII.
The Roof,
CHAPTER XIV.
The Roof Cornice,
CHAPTER XV.
The Buttress,
CHAPTER XVI.
Form of Aperture,
CHAPTER XVII.
Filling of Aperture,
CHAPTER XVIII.
Protection of Aperture,
CHAPTER XIX.
Superimposition,
CHAPTER XX.
The Material of Ornament,
CHAPTER XXI.
Treatment of Ornament,	xiii
CHAPTER XXII.
The Angle,
CHAPTER XXII.
The Angle,
CHAPTER XXIII.
The Edge and Fillet,
CHAPTER XXIV.
The Roll and Recess,
CHAPTER XXV.
The Base,
CHAPTER XXVI.
The Wall Veil and Shaft,
CHAPTER XXVII.
The Cornice and Capital,
CHAPTER XXVIII.
The Archivolt and Aperture,
CHAPTER XXIX.
The Roof,
CHAPTER XXX.
The Vestibule,

1.	Foundation of Venice,
2.	Power of the Doges,
3.	Serrar del Consiglio,
4.	Pietro di Castello,	xiv
5.	Papal Power in Venice,
6.	Renaissance Ornament,
7.	Varieties of the Orders,
8.	The Northern Energy,
9.	Wooden Churches of the North,
10.	Church of Alexandria,
11.	Renaissance Landscape,
12.	Romanist Modern Art,
13.	Mr. Fergusson’s System,
14.	Divisions of Humanity,
15.	Instinctive Judgments,
16.	Strength of Shafts,
17.	Answer to Mr. Garbett,
18.	Early English Capitals,
19.	Tombs near St. Anastasia,
20.	Shafts of the Ducal Palace,
21.	Ancient Representations of Water,
22.	Arabian Ornamentation,
23.	Varieties of Chamfer,
24.	Renaissance Bases,
25.	Romanist Decoration of Bases,

			Facing Page
Plate	1.	Wall Veil Decoration, Ca’ Trevisan and Ca’ Dario,
"	2.	Plans of Piers,
"	3.	Arch Masonry,
"	4.	Arch Masonry,
"	5.	Arch Masonry, Bruletto of Como,
"	6.	Types of Towers,
"	7.	Abstracts Lines,
"	8.	Decorations by Disks, Ca’ Badoari,
"	9.	Edge Decoration,
"	10.	Profiles of Bases,
"	11.	Plans of Bases,
"	12.	Decorations of Bases,
"	13.	Wall Veil Decorations,
"	14.	Spandril Decorations, Ducal Palace,
"	15.	Cornice Profiles,
"	16.	Cornice Decorations,
"	17.	Capitals—Concave,
"	18.	Capitals—Convex,
"	19.	Archivolt Decoration, Verona,
"	20.	Wall Veil Decoration, Ca’ Trevisan,
"	21.	Wall Veil Decoration, San Michele, Lucca,

VOLUME II. (of III)

The sea stories, first, or byzantine, period..

CHAPTER I.
	page
The Throne,
CHAPTER II.
Torcello,
CHAPTER III.
Murano,
CHAPTER IV.
St. Mark’s,
CHAPTER V.
Byzantine Palaces,
CHAPTER VI.
The Nature of Gothic,
CHAPTER VII.
Gothic Palaces,
CHAPTER VIII.
The Ducal Palace,

1.	The Gondolier’s Cry,
2.	Our Lady of Salvation,
3.	Tides of Venice and Measures at Torcello,
4.	Date of the Duomo of Torcello,
5.	Modern Pulpits,
6.	Apse of Murano,
7.	Early Venetian Dress,
8.	Inscriptions at Murano,
9.	Shafts of St. Mark’s,
10.	Proper Sense of the Word Idolatry,
11.	Situations of Byzantine Palaces,
12.	Modern Paintings on Glass,

			Facing Page
Plate	1.	Plans of Torcello and Murano,
"	2.	The Acanthus of Torcello,
"	3.	Inlaid Bands of Murano,
"	4.	Sculptures of Murano,
"	5.	Archivolt in the Duomo of Murano,
"	6.	The Vine, Free and in Service,
"	7.	Byzantine Capitals—Convex Group,
"	8.	Byzantine Capitals—Concave Group,
"	9.	Lily Capital of St. Mark’s,
"	10.	The Four Venetian Flower Order,
"	11.	Byzantine Sculptures,
"	12.	Linear and Surface Gothic,
"	13.	Balconies,
"	14.	The Orders of Venetian Arches,
"	15.	Windows of the Second Order,
"	16.	Windows of the Fourth Order,
"	17.	Windows of the Early Gothic Palaces,
"	18.	Windows of the Fifth Order,
"	19.	Leafage of the Vine Angle,
"	20.	Leafage of the Venetian Capitals,

VOLUME III. (of III)

Third, or renaissance, period..

CHAPTER I.
	page
Early Renaissance,
CHAPTER II.
Roman Renaissance,
CHAPTER III.
Grotesque Renaissance,
CHAPTER IV.
Conclusion,

1.	Architect of the Ducal Palace,
2.	Theology of Spenser,
3.	Austrian Government in Italy,
4.	Date of the Palaces of the Byzantine Renaissance,
5.	Renaissance Side of Ducal Palace,
6.	Character of the Doge Michele Morosini,
7.	Modern Education,
8.	Early Venetian Marriages,
9.	Character of the Venetian Aristocracy,
10.	Final Appendix,

I.	Personal Index,
II.	Local Index,
III.	Topical Index,
IV.	Venetian Index,

			Facing Page
Plate	1.	Temperance and Intemperance in Ornament,
"	2.	Gothic Capitals,
"	3.	Noble and Ignoble Grotesque,
"	4.	Mosaic of Olive Tree and Flowers,
"	5.	Byzantine Bases,
"	6.	Byzantine Jambs,
"	7.	Gothic Jambs,
"	8.	Byzantine Archivolts,
"	9.	Gothic Archivolts,
"	10.	Cornices,
"	11.	Tracery Bars,
"	12.	Capitals of Fondaco de Turchi,

FRONDES AGRESTES

Readings in 'modern painters, chosen at her pleasure, by the author's friend, the younger lady of the thwaite, coniston..

	PRINCIPLES OF ART.
	POWER AND OFFICE OF IMAGINATION.
	ILLUSTRATIVE: THE SKY.
	ILLUSTRATIVE: STREAMS AND SEA.
	ILLUSTRATIVE: MOUNTAINS.
	ILLUSTRATIVE: STONES.
	ILLUSTRATIVE: PLANTS AND FLOWERS.
	EDUCATION.
	MORALITIES.

TIME AND TIDE

By weare and tyne, twenty-five letters to a working man of sunderland on the laws of work.

	Co-operation
	The two kinds of Co-operation.—In its highest sense it is not yet thought of.
	Contentment
	Co-operation, as hitherto understood, is perhaps not expedient.
	Legislation
	Of True Legislation.—That every Man may be a Law to himself.
	Expenditure
	The Expenses for Art and for War.
	Entertainment
	The Corruption of Modern Pleasure.—(Covent Garden Pantomime.)
	Dexterity
	The Corruption of Modern Pleasure.—(The Japanese Jugglers.)
	Festivity
	Of the Various Expressions of National Festivity.
	Things Written
	The Four Possible Theories respecting the Authority of the Bible.
	Thanksgiving
	The Use of Music and Dancing under the Jewish Theocracy, compared with their Use by the Modern French.
	Wheat-Sifting
	The Meaning, and Actual Operation, of Satanic or Demoniacal Influence.
	The Golden Bough
	The Satanic Power is mainly Twofold: the Power of causing Falsehood and the Power of causing Pain. The Resistance is by Law of Honor and Law of Delight.
	Dictatorship
	The Necessity of Imperative Law to the Prosperity of States.
	Episcopacy and Dukedom
	The Proper Offices of the Bishop and Duke; or, "Overseer" and "Leader."
	Trade-Warrant
	The First Group of Essential Laws.—Against Theft by False Work, and by Bankruptcy.—Necessary Publicity of Accounts.
	Per-Centage
	The Nature of Theft by Unjust Profits.—Crime can finally be arrested only by Education.
	Education
	Of Public Education irrespective of Class distinction. It consists essentially in giving Habits of Mercy, and Habits of Truth. ( )
	Difficulties
	The Relations of Education to Position in Life.
	Humility
	The harmful Effects of Servile Employments. The possible Practice and Exhibition of sincere Humility by Religious Persons.
	Broken Reeds
	The General Pressure of Excessive and Improper Work, in English Life.
	Rose-gardens
	Of Improvidence in Marriage in the Middle Classes; nd of the advisable Restrictions of it.
	Gentillesse
	Of the Dignity of the Four Fine Arts; and of the Proper System of Retail Trade.
	The Master
	Of the Normal Position and Duties of the Upper Classes. General Statement of the Land Question.
	Landmarks
	Of the Just Tenure of Lands; and the Proper Functions of high Public Officers.
	The Rod and Honeycomb
	The Office of the Soldier.
	Hyssop
	Of inevitable Distinction of Rank, and necessary Submission to Authority. The Meaning of Pure-Heartedness. Conclusion.

APPENDICES.

	Expenditure on Science and Art
	Legislation of Frederick the Great
	Effect of Modern Entertainments on the Mind of Youth
	Drunkenness as the Cause of Crime
	Abuse of Food
	Regulations of Trade
	Letter to the Editor of the

THE SEVEN LAMPS OF ARCHITECTURE

The study of architecture.

Preface
Introduction
CHAPTER I.
The Lamp of Sacrifice
CHAPTER II.
The Lamp of Truth
CHAPTER III.
The Lamp of Power
CHAPTER IV.
The Lamp of Beauty
CHAPTER V.
The Lamp of Life
CHAPTER VI.
The Lamp of Memory
CHAPTER VII.
The Lamp of Obedience
Notes
Preface	213
Lecture I.	217
Lecture II.	248
Addenda to Lectures I. and II.	270
Lecture III. Turner and his Works	287
Lecture IV. Pre-Raphaelitism	311
Addenda to Lecture IV.	334
An Inquiry into the Study of Architecture	339

I.		Ornaments from Rouen, St. Lo, and Venice
II.		Part of the Cathedral of St. Lo, Normandy
III.		Traceries from Caen, Bayeux, Rouen and Beavais
IV.		Intersectional Mouldings
V.		Capital from the Lower Arcade of the Doge's Palace, Venice
VI.		Arch from the Facade of the Church of San Michele at Lucca
VII.		Pierced Ornaments from Lisieux, Bayeux, Verona, and Padua
VIII.		Window from the Ca' Foscari, Venice
IX.		Tracery from the Campanile of Giotto, at Florence.
X.		Traceries and Mouldings from Rouen and Salisbury
XI.		Balcony in the Campo, St. Benedetto, Venice
XII.		Fragments from Abbeville, Lucca, Venice and Pisa
XIII.		Portions of an Arcade on the South Side of the Cathedral of Ferrara
XIV.		Sculptures from the Cathedral of Rouen

UNTO THIS LAST AND OTHER ESSAYS ON POLITICAL ECONOMY

THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF ART
Lecture I.
1. Discovery
2. Application
Lecture II.
3. Accumulation
4. Distribution
Addenda
Note 1.—"Fatherly Authority"
"  2.—"Right to Public Support"
"  3.—"Trial Schools"
"  4.—"Public Favour"
"  5.—"Invention of new wants"
"  6.—"Economy of Literature"
"  7.—"Pilots of the State"
"  8.—"Silk and Purple"

UNTO THIS LAST
Essay
I.—The Roots of Honour
II.—The Veins of Wealth
III.—"Qui Judicatis Terram"
IV.—Ad Valorem

ESSAYS ON POLITICAL ECONOMY
I.—Maintenance of Life: Wealth, Money and Riches
Section 1. Wealth
"       2. Money
"       3. Riches
II.—Nature of Wealth, Variations of Value, The National Store, Nature of Labour, Value and Price, The Currency
III.—The Currency-holders and Store-holders, The Disease of Desire
IV.—Laws and Governments: Labour And Riches

[A] These Essays were afterwards revised and amplified, and published with others under the title "Munera Pulveris."

THE EAGLE'S NEST

Ten lectures on the relation of natural science to art, given before the university of oxford, in lent term, 1872.

THE FUNCTION IN ART OF THE FACULTY CALLED BY   THE GREEKS oio?a
THE FUNCTION IN SCIENCE OF THE FACULTY CALLED BY   THE GREEKS oio?a
THE RELATION OF WISE ART TO WISE SCIENCE
THE FUNCTION IN ART AND SCIENCE OF THE VIRTUE   CALLED BY THE GREEKS ouonio?ic
THE FUNCTION IN ART AND SCIENCE OF THE VIRTUE   CALLED BY THE GREEKS a?oan?a?a
THE RELATION TO ART OF THE SCIENCE OF LIGHT
THE RELATION TO ART OF THE SCIENCES OF INORGANIC   FORM
THE RELATION TO ART OF THE SCIENCES OF ORGANIC   FORM
INTRODUCTION TO ELEMENTARY EXERCISES IN PHYSIOLOGIC   ART. THE STORY OF THE HALCYON
INTRODUCTION TO ELEMENTARY EXERCISES IN HISTORIC   ART. THE HERALDIC ORDINARIES

RUSKIN RELICS

By w. g. collingwood, author of "the life of john ruskin, with fifty illustrations by john ruskin and others.

CHAPTER		PAGE
I.	Ruskin's Chair
II.	Ruskin's "Jump"
III.	Ruskin's Gardening
IV.	Ruskin's Old Road
V.	Ruskin's "Cashbook"
VI.	Ruskin's Ilaria
VII.	Ruskin's Maps
VIII.	Ruskin's Drawings
IX.	Ruskin's Hand
X.	Ruskin's Music
XI.	Ruskin's Jewels
XII.	Ruskin's Library
XIII.	Ruskin's Bibles
XIV.
	Index

ILLUSTRATIONS

( )

ARROWS OF THE CHACE

Being a collection of scattered letters, published chiefly in the daily newspapers, volume i. letters on art and science, contents of volume i..

:
"Modern Painters;" a Reply. 1843
Art Criticism. 1843
The Arts as a Branch of Education. 1857
Art-Teaching by Correspondence. 1860
Danger to the National Gallery. 1847
The National Gallery. 1852
The British Museum. 1866
On the Purchase of Pictures. 1880
The Pre-Raphaelite Brethren. 1851 (May 13)
The Pre-Raphaelite Brethren. 1851 (May 30)
"The Light of the World," Holman Hunt. 1854 {vi}
"The Awakening Conscience," Holman Hunt. 1854
Pre-Raphaelitism in Liverpool. 1858
Generalization and the Scotch Pre-Raphaelites. 1858
The Turner Bequest. 1856
[Turner's Sketch Book. 1858
The Turner Bequest and the National Gallery. 1857
The Turner Sketches and Drawings. 1858
[The Liber Studiorum. 1858
The Turner Gallery at Kensington. 1859
Turner's Drawings. 1876 (July 5)
Turner's Drawings. 1876 (July 19)
Copies of Turner's Drawings. 1876
[Copies of Turner's Drawings—Extract. 1857
[Copy of Turner's Fluelen	]
"Turners," False and True. 1871.
The Character of Turner. 1857.
[Thornbury's Life of Turner. 1861.
John Leech's Outlines. 1872.
Ernest George's Etchings. 1873.
The Frederick Walker Exhibition. 1876.
Gothic Architecture and the Oxford Museum. 1858.
Gothic Architecture and the Oxford Museum. 1859.
The Castle Rock (Edinburgh). 1857 (Sept. 14)
Edinburgh Castle. 1857 (Sept. 27)
Castles and Kennels. 1871 (Dec. 22)
Verona Warwick. 1871 (Dec. 24) {vii}
Notre Dame de Paris. 1871
Mr. Ruskin's Influence—A Defence. 1872 (March 15)
Mr. Ruskin's Influence—A Rejoinder. 1872 (March 21)
Modern Restorations. 1877
Ribbesford Church. 1877
Circular relating to St. Mark's, Venice. 1879.
[Letters relating to St. Mark's, Venice. 1879.
:
The Conformation of the Alps, 1864
Concerning Glaciers. 1864.
English Alpine Geology. 1864
Concerning Hydrostatics. 1864
James David Forbes: His Real Greatness. 1874.
On Reflections in Water. 1844
On the Reflection of Rainbows. 1861
A Landslip Near Giagnano. 1841
On the Gentian. 1857
On the Study of Natural History (undated)

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF THE LETTERS

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF THE LETTERS CONTAINED IN THE FIRST VOLUME.
Note.--
Title of Letter.	Where Written.	When Written.	Where and when First Published.	Page.
A Landslip near Giagnano	Naples	February 7, 1841	Proceedings of the Ashmolean Society
Modern Painters: a Reply	[Denmark Hill	About Sept. 17, 1843]	, Sept. 23, 1843
Art Criticism	[Denmark Hill	December, 1843]	, 1844
On Reflections in Water	[Denmark Hill	January, 1844]	, 1844
Danger to the National Gallery	[Denmark Hill]	January 6 [1847]	, January 7, 1847
The Pre-Raphaelite Brethren, I.	Denmark Hill	May 9 [1851]	, May 13, 1851
The Pre-Raphaelite Brethren, II.	Denmark Hill	May 26 [1851]	, May 30, 1851
The National Gallery	Herne Hill, Dulwich	December 27 [1852]	, December 29, 1852
"The Light of the World"	Denmark Hill	May 4 [1854]	, May 15, 1854
"The Awakening Conscience"	[Denmark Hill	May 24 [1854]	, May 25, 1854
The Turner Bequest	Denmark Hill	October 27 [1856]	, October 28, 1856
On the Gentian	Denmark Hill	February 10 [1857]	, February 14, 1857
The Turner Bequest & National Gallery	[Denmark Hill	July 8, 1857]	, July 9, 1857
The Castle Rock (Edinburgh)	Dunbar	14th September, 1857	(Edinburgh), Sept. 16, 1857
The Arts as a Branch of Education	Penrith	September 25, 1857	"New Oxford Examinations, etc.," 1858
Edinburgh Castle	Penrith	27th September [1857]	(Edinburgh), Sept. 30, 1857
The Character of Turner	[	1857]	Thornbury's Life of Turner. Preface, 1861
Pre-Raphaelitism in Liverpool	[	January, 1858]	, January 11, 1858
Generalization & Scotch Pre-Raphaelites	[	March. 1858]	(Edinburgh), March 27, 1858
Gothic Architecture & Oxford Museum, I.	[	June, 1858]	"The Oxford Museum," 1859.
The Turner Sketches and Drawings	[	November, 1858]	, Nov. 13, 1858
Turner's Sketch Book (extract)	[	] 1858	List of Turner's Drawings, Boston, 1874
The Liber Studiorum (extract)	[	] 1858	List of Turner's Drawings, Boston, 1874
Gothic Architecture & Oxford Museum, II.	[	January 20, 1859	"The Oxford Museum," 1859
The Turner Gallery at Kensington	Denmark Hill	October 20 [1859]	, October 21, 1859
Mr. Thornbury's "Life of Turner" (extract)	Lucerne	December 2, 1861	Thornbury's Life of Turner. Ed. 2, Pref.
Art Teaching by Correspondence	Denmark Hill	November, 1860	, December 1, 1866
On the Reflection of Rainbows	[     ]	7th May, 1861	, May 16, 1861
The Conformation of the Alps	Denmark Hill	10th November, 1864	, November 12, 1864
Concerning Glaciers	Denmark Hill	November 21 [1864]	, November 26, 1864
English Alpine Geology	Denmark Hill	29th November [1864]	, December 3, 1864
Concerning Hydrostatics	Norwich	5th December [1864]	, December 10, 1864
The British Museum	Denmark Hill	Jan. 26 [1866]	, January 27, 1866
Copies of Turner's Drawings (extract)	[	] 1867	List of Turner's Drawings, Boston, 1874
Notre Dame de Paris	[Denmark Hill	January 18, 1871]	, January 19, 1871
"Turners" False and True	Denmark Hill	January 23 [1871]	, January 24, 1871
Castles and Kennels	Denmark Hill	December 20 [1871]	, December 22, 1871
Verona Warwick	Denmark Hill, S. E.	24th (for 25th) Dec. [1871]	, December 25, 1871
Mr. Ruskin's Influence: a Defence	Denmark Hill	March 15 [1872]	, March 16, 1872
Mr. Ruskin's Influence: a Rejoinder	Denmark Hill	March 21 [1872]	, March 21, 1872
John Leech's Outlines	[	1872]	The Catalogue to the Exhibition, 1872
Ernest George's Etchings	[Denmark Hill	December, 1873]	, December 27, 1873
James David Forbes: his Real Greatness	[	1874]	"Rendu's Glaciers of Savoy," 1874
The Frederick Walker Exhibition	[	January, 1876]	, January 20, 1876
Copies of Turner's Drawings	Peterborough	April 23 [1876]	, April 25, 1876
Turner's Drawings, I.	Brantwood	July 3 [1876]	, July 5, 1876
Turner's Drawings, II.	Brantwood, Coniston, Lancashire	July 16 [1876]	, July 19, 1876
Modern Restoration	Venice	15th April, 1877	, June 9, 1877
Ribbesford Church	Brantwood, Coniston, Lancashire	July 24, 1877	, July 28, 1877
St. Mark's Venice--Circular relating to	[Brantwood	Winter 1879]	See the Circular
St. Mark's Venice--Letters	[Brantwood	Winter 1879]	, Nov. 27, 1879
On the Purchase of Pictures	[Brantwood	January 1880]	, January 31, 1880
Copy of Turner's "Fluelen"	London	20th March, 1880	Lithograph copy issued by Mr. Ward, 1880
The Study of Natural History	[     ]	Undated	Letter to Adam White [unknown]

VOLUME II. LETTERS ON POLITICS, ECONOMY, AND MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS

Contents of volume ii..

				PAGE
Chronological List of the Letters contained in Vol. II.
Letters on Politics and War:
	The Italian Question. 1859.
		Three letters:	June 6
			June 15
			August 1
	The Foreign Policy of England. 1863
	The Position of Denmark. 1864
	The Jamaica Insurrection. 1865
	The Franco-Prussian War. 1870.
		Two letters:	October 6
			October 7
	Modern Warfare. 1876
Letters on Political Economy:
	The Depreciation of Gold. 1863
	The Law of Supply and Demand. 1864.
		Three letters:	October 26
			October 29
			November 2
	Mr. Ruskin and Professor Hodgson. 1873.
		Two letters:	November 8
			November 15
	Strikes Arbitration. 1865
	Work and Wages. 1865.
		Five letters:	April 20
			April 22
			April 29
			May 4
			May 20
	The Standard of Wages. 1867
	How the Rich spend their Money. 1873.
		Three letters:	January 23
			January 28
			January 30
	Commercial Morality. 1875
	The Definition of Wealth. 1875
	The Principles of Property. 1877
	On Co-operation. 1879-80.
		Two letters:	August, 1879
			April 12, 1880
Miscellaneous Letters:
I.	The Management of Railways.
	Is England Big Enough? 1868
	The Ownership of Railways. 1868
	Railway Economy. 1868
	Our Railway System. 1865
	Railway Safety. 1870
II.	Servants and Houses.
	Domestic Servants—Mastership. 1865
	Domestic Servants—Experience. 1865
	Domestic Servants—Sonship and Slavery. 1865
	Modern Houses. 1865
III.	Roman Inundations.
	A King's First Duty. 1871
	A Nation's Defences. 1871
	The Waters of Comfort. 1871
	The Streams of Italy. 1871
	The Streets of London. 1871
IV.	Education for Rich and Poor.
	True Education. 1868
	The Value of Lectures. 1874
	The Cradle of Art. 1876
	St. George's Museum. 1875
	The Morality of Field Sports. 1870
	Drunkenness and Crime. 1871
	Madness and Crime. 1872
	Employment for the Destitute Poor and Criminal Classes. 1868
	Notes on the General Principles of Employment for the Destitute and Criminal Classes (a Pamphlet). 1868
	Blindness and Sight. 1879
	The Eagle's Nest. 1879
	Politics in Youth. 1879
	"Act, Act in the Living Present." 1873
	"Laborare est Orare." 1874
	A Pagan Message. 1878
	The Foundations of Chivalry. 1877-8.
		Five letters:	February 8, 1877
			February 10, 1877
			February 11, 1877
			February 12, 1877
			July 3, 1878
V.	Women: Their Work and Their Dress
	Woman's Work. 1873
	Female Franchise. 1870
	Proverbs on Right Dress. 1862
	Sad-colored Costumes. 1870
	Oak Silkworms. 1862
VI.	Literary Criticism.
	The Publication of Books. 1875
	A Mistaken Review. 1875
	The Position of Critics. 1875
	Coventry Patmore's "Faithful for Ever." 1860
	"The Queen of the Air." 1871
	The Animals of Scripture: a Review. 1856
	"Limner" and Illumination. 1854
	Notes on a Word in Shakespeare. 1878.
		Two letters:	September
			September 29
	"The Merchant of Venice." 1880
	Recitations. 1880
Appendix.
	Letter to W. C. Bennett, LL.D. 1852
	Letter to Thomas Guthrie, D.D. 1853
	The Sale of Mr. Windus' Pictures. 1859
	At the Play. 1867
	An Object of Charity. 1868
	Excuses from Correspondence. 1868
	Letter to the Author of a Review. 1872
	An Oxford Protest. 1874
	Mr. Ruskin and Mr. Lowe. 1877
	The Bibliography of Ruskin. 1878.
		Two letters:	September 30
			October 23
	The Society of the Rose. 1879
	Letter to W. H. Harrison. 1865
	Dramatic Reform. 1880. (Two letters)
	The Lord Rectorship of Glasgow University. 1880. (Five letters)
Epilogue
Chronological List of the Letters contained in Both Volumes
Index

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF THE LETTERS CONTAINED IN THE SECOND VOLUME.

Note.— In the second and third columns the bracketed words and figures are more or less certainly conjectured; whilst those unbracketed give the actual dating of the letters.

Title of Letter.	Where Written.	When Written.	Where and When First Published.	Page.
Letter To W. C. Bennett, LL.D.	Herne Hill, Dulwich	December 28th, 1852	"Testimonials of W. C. Bennett," 1871
Letter To Dr. Guthrie	[Edinburgh]	Saturday, 26th [Nov. ?] 1853	"Memoir of Thomas Guthrie, D.D.," (1875)
Letter To W. H. Harrison	[Herne Hill	1853]	, Dec. 23, 1865
"Limner" and Illumination	[Denmark Hill	December 3, 1854]	, Dec. 9, 1854
The Animals of Scripture: a Review	[Denmark Hill	January, 1855]	, Jan. 20, 1855
The Sale of Mr. Windus' Pictures	Denmark Hill	March 28 [1859]	, March 29, 1859
The Italian Question	Berlin	June 6, 1859	, July 20, 1859
" "	Berlin	June 15 [1859]	" July 23, 1859
" "	Schaffhausen	August 1, 1859	" Aug. 6, 1859
Coventry Patmore's "Faithful for Ever"	Denmark Hill	[October 21, 1860]	, Oct. 27, 1860
Proverbs on Right Dress	Geneva	October 20th, 1862	, Nov. 1863
Oak Silkworms	Geneva	October 20th [1862]	, Oct. 24, 1862
The Depreciation of Gold	Chamounix	October 2 [1863]	, Oct. 8, 1863
The Foreign Policy of England	Zurich	October 25th, 1863	, Nov. 2, 1863
The Position of Denmark	Denmark Hill	July 6 [1864]	, July 7, 1864
The Law of Supply and Demand	Denmark Hill	October 26 [1864]	, Oct. 28, 1864
" " "	Denmark Hill	October 29 [1864]	" " Oct. 31, 1864
" " "	Denmark Hill	November 2 [1864]	" " Nov. 3, 1864
Strikes Arbitration	[Denmark Hill]	Easter Monday, 1865	, April 18, 1865
Work and Wages	Denmark Hill	Thursday, April 20 [1865]	" " April 21, 1865
" "	Denmark Hill	Saturday, April 22, 1865	" " April 25, 1865
" "	[Denmark Hill]	Saturday, 29th April, 1865	" " May 2, 1865
" "	Denmark Hill	May 4 [1865]	" " May 9, 1865
" "	[Denmark Hill]	May 20, 1865	" " May 22, 1865
Domestic Servants—Mastership	Denmark Hill	September 2 [1865]	, September 5, 1865
" " Experience	Denmark Hill	September 6 [1865]	" " September 7, 1865
" " Sonship and Slavery	Denmark Hill	September 16, 1865]	" " September 18, 1865
Modern Houses	Denmark Hill	October 16 [1865]	" " October 17, 1865
Our Railway System	Denmark Hill	December 7 [1865]	" " December 8, 1865
The Jamaica Insurrection	Denmark Hill	December 19 [1865]	" " December 20, 1865
At the Play	Denmark Hill	February 28, 1867	, March 1, 1867
The Standard of Wages	Denmark Hill	April 30, 1867	" " May 1, 1867
An Object of Charity	Denmark Hill, S.	January 21, 1868	, January 22, 1868
True Education	Denmark Hill, S.	January 31, 1868	, January 31, 1868
Excuse from Correspondence	Denmark Hill, S.	2d February, 1868	Circular printed by Mr. Ruskin, 1868
Is England Big Enough?	Denmark Hill	July 30 [1868]	, July 31, 1868
The Ownership of Railways	Denmark Hill	August 5 [1868]	" " August 6, 1868
Railway Economy	Denmark Hill	August 9 [1868]	" " August 10, 1868
Employment for the Destitute Poor, etc.	Denmark Hill, S.E.	December 24 [1868]	" " December 26, 1868
Notes on the Destitute Classes, Etc.	[Denmark Hill]	Autumn, 1868]	Pamphlet for private circulation, 1868
The Morality of Field Sports	Denmark Hill	January 14 [1870]	, January 15, 1870
Female Franchise	Venice	29th May, 1870	Date and place of publication unknown
The Franco-Prussian War	Denmark Hill, S.E.	October 6 [1870]	, Oct. 7, 1870
" " "	[Denmark Hill, S.E.]	October 7 [1870]	" " Oct. 8, 1870
Sad-Colored Costumes	Denmark Hill, S.E.	14th October, 1870	, Nov. 1870
Railway Safety	Denmark Hill	November 29, 1870	, Nov. 30, 1870
A King's First Duty	[Denmark Hill]	January 10 [1871]	" " January 12, 1871
A Nation's Defences	Denmark Hill	January 19, 1871	, Jan. 19, 1871
The Waters of Comfort	Oxford	February 3 [1871]	, Feb. 4, 1871
The Streams of Italy	Oxford	February 3 [1871]	" " Feb. 7, 1871
Woman's Sphere (extract)	[Oxford	February 19, 1871]	" " Feb. 21, 1871
The "Queen of the Air"	[Denmark Hill]	May 18, 1871	, May 23, 1871
Drunkenness and Crime	Denmark Hill	December 9 [1871]	, Dec. 11, 1871
The Streets of London	[Denmark Hill]	December 27, 1871	, Dec. 28, 1871
Madness and Crime	Oxford	November 2 [1872]	" " Nov. 4, 1872
Letter to the Author of a Review	Oxford	Wednesday, Oct. 30 [1872]	, Nov. 9, 1872
"act, Act in the Living Present"	Oxford	Christmas Eve, '72	New Year's Address, etc., 1873
How the Rich spend their Money	Brantwood, Coniston	January 23 [1873]	, Jan. 24, 1873
" " "	[Brantwood, Coniston]	January 28 [1873]	" " Jan. 29, 1873
" " "	Brantwood, Coniston	King Charles the Martyr, 1873	" " Jan. 31, 1873
Woman's Work	[ ]	[May, 1873]	, May 8, 1873
Mr. Ruskin and Professor Hodgson	Oxford	November 8, 1873	, November 10, 1873
" " "	Oxford	November 15, 1873	" November 18, 1873
"Laborare est Orare"	Oxford	December, 1873	New Year's Address, etc., 1874
The Value of Lectures	Rome	26th May, 1874	, June 5, 1874
An Oxford Protest	[Oxford	October 29, 1874	, Oct. 29, 1874
A Mistaken Review	Brantwood	January 10 [1875]	, January 11, 1875
The Position of Critics	Brantwood	January 18 [1875]	" " January 19, 1875
Commercial Morality	[Herne Hill	February, 1875]	Date and place of publication unknown
The Publication of Books	Oxford	June 6, 1875	, June 9, 1875
St. George's Museum	Brantwood, Coniston	[September, 1875]	, Sept. 6, 1875
The Definition of Wealth	Oxford	9th November, 1875	, Nov. 13, 1875
The Cradle of Art!	[Oxford]	18th February, 1876	Date and place of publication unknown
Modern Warfare	[Brantwood]	June, 1876	, July, 1876
The Foundations of Chivalry	Venice	February 8th, 1877	"The Science of Life" (second edit.), 1878
" " "	Venice	February 10th [1877]	" " (first edition), 1877
" " "	Venice	11th February [1877]	" " " " 1877
" " "	Venice	12th February, '77]	" " " " 1877
Mr. Ruskin and Mr. Lowe	Brantwood, Coniston	August 24 [1877]	, August 28, 1877
The Principles of Property	[Brantwood]	10th October, 1877	, November, 1887
A Pagan Message	Herne Hill, London, S. E.	19th December, 1877	New Year's Address, etc., 1878
Despair (extract)	[Oxford	February, 1878]	, February 12, 1878
The Foundations of Chivalry	Malham	July 3d, 1878	"The Science of Life" (second edit.), 1878
Notes on a Word in Shakespeare	Brantwood	[September, 1878]	New Shakspere Soc. Trans. 1878-9
" " "	Edinburgh	29th September, 1878	" " " "
The Bibliography of Ruskin	Brantwood, Coniston	September 30, 1878	"Bibliography of Dickens" (advt.), 1880
" " "	Brantwood, Coniston	October 23, 1878	" " " "
The Society of the Rose	[Brantwood	Early in 1879]	Report of Ruskin Soc., Manchester, 1880
Blindness and Sight	Brantwood, Coniston	18th July, 1879	, Sept., 1879
"The Eagle's Nest"	Brantwood, Coniston	August 17th, 1879	" " October, 1879
On Coöperation. I.	Brantwood, Coniston	[August, 1879]	, December 20, 1879
Politics in Youth	Sheffield	October 19th, 1879	, Nov., 1879
The Merchant of Venice (extract)	[Herne Hill, S. E.]	6th February, 1880	, March, 1880
Recitations	Sheffield	16th February, 1880	Circular printed by Mr. R. T. Webling
Excuse from Correspondence	[Brantwood]	March, 1880	List of Mr. Ruskin's Writings, Mar., 1880
On Coöperation. II.	Brantwood, Coniston	April 12th, 1880	, June 19, 1880
The Glasgow Lord Rectorship	Brantwood, Coniston	10th June, 1880	, Oct. 7, 1880
" " "	[Brantwood]	10th June, 1880	" " Oct. 7, 1880
" " "	[Brantwood]	24th June, 1880	" " Oct. 7, 1880
" " "	Brantwood, Coniston	[July, 1880]	" " Oct. 12, 1880
Dramatic Reform. I.	Brantwood	July 30th, 1880	, Nov., 1880
The Glasgow Lord Rectorship	Rouen	28th September, 1880	, Oct. 7, 1880
Dramatic Reform. II.	Amiens	October 12th, 1880	, Nov., 1880

MODERN PAINTERS

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Of the nature of the ideas conveyable by art., chapter i., introductory.

	Public opinion no criterion of excellence, except after long periods of time.
	And therefore obstinate when once formed.
	The author's reasons for opposing it in particular instances.
	But only on points capable of demonstration.
	The author's partiality to modern works excusable.

Chapter II., Definition of Greatness in Art

	Distinction between the painter's intellectual power and technical knowledge.
	Painting, as such, is nothing more than language.
	"Painter," a term corresponding to "versifier."
	Example in a painting of E. Landseer's.
	Difficulty of fixing an exact limit between language and thought.
	Distinction between decorative and expressive language.
	Instance in the Dutch and early Italian schools.
	Yet there are certain ideas belonging to language itself.
	The definition.

Chapter III.Of Ideas of Power

	What classes of ideas are conveyable by art.
	Ideas of power vary much in relative dignity.
	But are received from whatever has been the subject of power. The meaning of the word "excellence."
	What is necessary to the distinguishing of excellence. [Page liv]
	The pleasure attendant on conquering difficulties is right.

Chapter IV. Of Ideas of Imitation

	False use of the term "imitation" by many writers on art.
	Real meaning of the term.
	What is requisite to the sense of imitation.
	The pleasure resulting from imitation the most contemptible that can be derived from art.
	Imitation is only of contemptible subjects.
	Imitation is contemptible because it is easy.
	Recapitulation.

Chapter V., Of Ideas of Truth

	Meaning of the word "truth" as applied to art.
	First difference between truth and imitation.
	Second difference.
	Third difference.
	No accurate truths necessary to imitation.
	Ideas of truth are inconsistent with ideas of imitation.

Chapter VI., Of Ideas of Beauty

	Definition of the term "beautiful."
	Definition of the term "taste."
	Distinction between taste and judgment.
	How far beauty may become intellectual.
	The high rank and function of ideas of beauty.
	Meaning of the term "ideal beauty."

Chapter VII., Of Ideas of Relation

	General meaning of the term.
	ideas are to be comprehended under it.
	The exceeding nobility of these ideas.
	Why no subdivision of so extensive a class is necessary.

SECTION II., OF POWER.

Chapter i., general principles respecting ideas of power.

	No necessity for detailed study of ideas of imitation.
	Nor for separate study of ideas of power.
	Except under one particular form.
	There are two modes of receiving ideas of power, commonly inconsistent. [Page lv]
	First reason of the inconsistency.
	Second reason for the inconsistency.
	The sensation of power ought not to be sought in imperfect art.
	Instances in pictures of modern artists.
	Connection between ideas of power and modes of execution.

Chapter II., Of Ideas of Power, as they are dependent upon Execution

	Meaning of the term "execution."
	The first quality of execution is truth.
	The second, simplicity.
	The third, mystery.
	The fourth, inadequacy; and the fifth, decision.
	The sixth, velocity.
	Strangeness an illegitimate source of pleasure in execution.
	Yet even the legitimate sources of pleasure in execution are inconsistent with each other.
	And fondness for ideas of power leads to the adoption of the lowest.
	Therefore perilous.
	Recapitulation.

Chapter III., Of the Sublime

	Sublimity is the effect upon the mind of anything above it.
	Burke's theory of the nature of the sublime incorrect, and why.
	Danger is sublime, but not the fear of it.
	The highest beauty is sublime.
	And generally whatever elevates the mind.
	The former division of the subject is therefore sufficient.

PART II. OF TRUTH.

General principles respecting ideas of truth., chapter i., of ideas of truth in their connection with those of beauty and relation.

	The two great ends of landscape painting are the representation of facts and thoughts.
	They induce a different choice of material subjects. [Page lvi]
	The first mode of selection apt to produce sameness and repetition.
	The second necessitating variety.
	Yet the first is delightful to all.
	The second only to a few.
	The first necessary to the second.
	The exceeding importance of truth.
	Coldness or want of beauty no sign of truth.
	How truth may be considered a just criterion of all art.

Chapter II., That the Truth of Nature is not to be discerned by the Uneducated Senses

	The common self-deception of men with respect to their power of discerning truth.
	Men usually see little of what is before their eyes.
	But more or less in proportion to their natural sensibility to what is beautiful.
	Connected with a perfect state of moral feeling.
	And of the intellectual powers.
	How sight depends upon previous knowledge.
	The difficulty increased by the variety of truths in nature.
	We recognize objects by their least important attributes. Compare Part I. Sect. I. Chap. 4.

Chapter III., Of the Relative Importance of Truths:—First, that Particular Truths are more important than General Ones.

	Necessity of determining the relative importance of truths.
	Misapplication of the aphorism: "General truths are more important than particular ones."
	Falseness of this maxim, taken without explanation.
	Generality important in the subject, particularity in the predicate.
	The importance of truths of species is not owing to their generality.
	All truths valuable as they are characteristic.
	Otherwise truths of species are valuable, because beautiful.
	And many truths, valuable if separate, may be objectionable in connection with others.
	Recapitulation.

Chapter IV., Of the Relative Importance of Truths:—Secondly, that Rare Truths are more important than Frequent Ones

	No accidental violation of nature's principles should be represented.
	But the cases in which those principles have been strikingly exemplified.
	Which are comparatively rare.
	All repetition is blamable.
	The duty of the painter is the same as that of a preacher.

Chapter V., Of the Relative Importance of Truths:—Thirdly, that Truths of Color are the least important of all Truths

	Difference between primary and secondary qualities in bodies.
	The first are fully characteristic, the second imperfectly so.
	Color is a secondary quality, therefore less important than form.
	Color no distinction between objects of the same species.
	And different in association from what it is alone.
	It is not certain whether any two people see the same colors in things.
	Form, considered as an element of landscape, includes light and shade.
	Importance of light and shade in expressing the character of bodies, and unimportance of color.
	Recapitulation.

Chapter VI. Recapitulation

	The importance of historical truths.
	Form, as explained by light and shade, the first of all truths. Tone, light, and color, are secondary.
	And deceptive chiaroscuro the lowest of all.

Chapter VII., General Application of the Foregoing Principle

	The different selection of facts consequent on the several aims at imitation or at truth.
	The old masters, as a body, aim only at imitation.
	What truths they gave.
	The principles of selection adopted by modern artists.
	General feeling of Claude, Salvator, and G. Poussin, contrasted with the freedom and vastness of nature.
	Inadequacy of the landscape of Titian and Tintoret. [Page lviii]
	Causes of its want of influence on subsequent schools.
	The value of inferior works of art, how to be estimated.
	Religious landscape of Italy. The admirableness of its completion.
	Finish, and the want of it, how right—and how wrong.
	The open skies of the religious schools, how valuable. Mountain drawing of Masaccio. Landscape of the Bellinis and Giorgione.
	Landscape of Titian and Tintoret.
	Schools of Florence, Milan, and Bologna.
	Claude, Salvator, and the Poussins.
	German and Flemish landscape.
	The lower Dutch schools.
	English school, Wilson and Gainsborough.
	Constable, Callcott.
	Peculiar tendency of recent landscape.
	G. Robson, D. Cox. False use of the term "style."
	Copley Fielding. Phenomena of distant color.
	Beauty of mountain foreground.
	De Wint.
	Influence of Engraving. J. D. Harding.
	Samuel Prout. Early painting of architecture, how deficient.
	Effects of age upon buildings, how far desirable.
	Effects of light, how necessary to the understanding of detail.
	Architectural painting of Gentile Bellini and Vittor Carpaccio.
	And of the Venetians generally.
	Fresco painting of the Venetian exteriors. Canaletto.
	Expression of the effects of age on Architecture by S. Prout.
	His excellent composition and color.
	Modern architectural painting generally. G. Cattermole.
	The evil in an archæological point of view of misapplied invention, in architectural subject.
	Works of David Roberts: their fidelity and grace.
	Clarkson Stanfield.
	J. M. W. Turner. Force of national feeling in all great painters.
	Influence of this feeling on the choice of Landscape subject.
	Its peculiar manifestation in Turner.
	The domestic subjects of the Liber Studiorum.
	Turner's painting of French and Swiss landscape. The latter deficient.
	His rendering of Italian character still less successful. His large compositions how failing.
	His views of Italy destroyed by brilliancy and redundant quantity. [Page lix]
	Changes introduced by him in the received system of art.
	Difficulties of his later manner. Resultant deficiencies.
	Reflection of his very recent works.
	Difficulty of demonstration in such subjects.

SECTION II.

Of general truths., chapter i., of truth of tone.

	Meanings of the word "tone:"—First, the right relation of objects in shadow to the principal light.
	Secondly, the quality of color by which it is felt to owe part of its brightness to the hue of light upon it.
	Difference between tone in its first sense and aerial perspective.
	The pictures of the old masters perfect in relation of middle tints to light.
	And consequently totally false in relation of middle tints to darkness.
	General falsehood of such a system.
	The principle of Turner in this respect.
	Comparison of N. Poussin's "Phocion."
	With Turner's "Mercury and Argus."
	And with the "Datur Hora Quieti."
	The second sense of the word "tone."
	Remarkable difference in this respect between the paintings and drawings of Turner.
	Not owing to want of power over the material.
	The two distinct qualities of light to be considered.
	Falsehoods by which Titian attains the appearance of quality in light.
	Turner will not use such means.
	But gains in essential truth by the sacrifice.
	The second quality of light.
	The perfection of Cuyp in this respect interfered with by numerous solecisms.
	Turner is not so perfect in parts—far more so in the whole.
	The power in Turner of uniting a number of tones.
	Recapitulation.

Chapter II., Of Truth of Color

	Observations on the color of G. Poussin's La Riccia.
	As compared with the actual scene.
	Turner himself is inferior in brilliancy to nature.
	Impossible colors of Salvator, Titian.
	Poussin, and Claude.
	Turner's translation of colors.
	Notice of effects in which no brilliancy of art can even approach that of reality.
	Reasons for the usual incredulity of the observer with respect to their representation.
	Color of the Napoleon.
	Necessary discrepancy between the attainable brilliancy of color and light.
	This discrepancy less in Turner than in other colorists.
	Its great extent in a landscape attributed to Rubens.
	Turner scarcely ever uses pure or vivid color.
	The basis of gray, under all his vivid hues.
	The variety and fulness even of his most simple tones.
	Following the infinite and unapproachable variety of nature.
	His dislike of purple, and fondness for the opposition of yellow and black. The principles of nature in this respect.
	His early works are false in color.
	His drawings invariably perfect.
	The subjection of his system of color to that of chiaroscuro.

Chapter III., Of Truth of Chiaroscuro

	We are not at present to examine particular effects of light.
	And therefore the distinctness of shadows is the chief means of expressing vividness of light.
	Total absence of such distinctness in the works of the Italian school.
	And partial absence in the Dutch.
	The perfection of Turner's works in this respect.
	The effect of his shadows upon the light.
	The distinction holds good between almost all the works of the ancient and modern schools.
	Second great principle of chiaroscuro. Both high light and deep shadow are used in equal quantity, and only in points.
	Neglect or contradiction of this principle by writers on art.
	And consequent misguiding of the student.
	The great value of a simple chiaroscuro.
	The sharp separation of nature's lights from her middle tint.
	The truth of Turner.

Chapter IV., Of Truth of Space:—First, as Dependent on the Focus of the Eye

	Space is more clearly indicated by the drawing of objects than by their hue.
	It is impossible to see objects at unequal distances distinctly at one moment.
	Especially such as are both comparatively near.
	In painting, therefore, either the foreground or distance must be partially sacrificed.
	Which not being done by the old masters, they could not express space.
	But modern artists have succeeded in fully carrying out this principle.
	Especially of Turner.
	Justification of the want of drawing in Turner's figures.

Chapter V., Of Truth of Space:—Secondly, as its Appearance is dependent on the Power of the Eye

	The peculiar indistinctness dependent on the retirement of objects from the eye.
	Causes confusion, but not annihilation of details.
	Instances in various objects.
	Two great resultant truths; that nature is never distinct, and never vacant.
	Complete violation of both these principles by the old masters. They are either distinct or vacant.
	Instances from Nicholas Poussin.
	From Claude.
	And G. Poussin.
	The imperative necessity, in landscape painting, of fulness and finish.
	Breadth is not vacancy.
	The fulness and mystery of Turner's distances.
	Farther illustrations in architectural drawing.
	In near objects as well as distances.
	Vacancy and falsehood of Canaletto.
	Still greater fulness and finish in landscape foregrounds.
	Space and size are destroyed alike by distinctness and by vacancy.
	Swift execution best secures perfection of details.
	Finish is far more necessary in landscape than in historical subjects.
	Recapitulation of the section.

SECTION III., OF TRUTH OF SKIES

Chapter i., of the open sky..

	The peculiar adaptation of the sky to the pleasing and teaching of man.
	The carelessness with which its lessons are received.
	The most essential of these lessons are the gentlest.
	Many of our ideas of sky altogether conventional.
	Nature, and essential qualities of the open blue.
	Its connection with clouds.
	Its exceeding depth.
	These qualities are especially given by modern masters.
	And by Claude.
	Total absence of them in Poussin. Physical errors in his general treatment of open sky.
	Errors of Cuyp in graduation of color.
	The exceeding value of the skies of the early Italian and Dutch schools. Their qualities are unattainable in modern times.
	Phenomena of visible sunbeams. Their nature and cause.
	They are only illuminated mist, and cannot appear when the sky is free from vapor, nor when it is without clouds.
	Erroneous tendency in the representation of such phenomena by the old masters.
	The ray which appears in the dazzled eye should not be represented.
	The practice of Turner. His keen perception of the more delicate phenomena of rays.
	The total absence of any evidence of such perception in the works of the old masters.
	Truth of the skies of modern drawings.
	Recapitulation. The best skies of the ancients are, in , inimitable, but in rendering of various truth, childish.

Chapter II., Of Truth of Clouds:—First, of the Region of the Cirrus.

	Difficulty of ascertaining wherein the truth of clouds consists.
	Variation of their character at different elevations. The three regions to which they may conveniently be considered as belonging.
	Extent of the upper region.
	The symmetrical arrangement of its clouds. [Page lxiii]
	Their exceeding delicacy.
	Their number.
	Causes of their peculiarly delicate coloring.
	Their variety of form.
	Total absence of even the slightest effort at their representation, in ancient landscape.
	The intense and constant study of them by Turner.
	His vignette, Sunrise on the Sea.
	His use of the cirrus in expressing mist.
	His consistency in every minor feature.
	The color of the upper clouds.
	Recapitulation.

Chapter III., Of Truth of Clouds:—Secondly, of the Central Cloud Region

	Extent and typical character of the central cloud region.
	Its characteristic clouds, requiring no attention nor thought for their representation, are therefore favorite subjects with the old masters.
	The clouds of Salvator and Poussin.
	Their essential characters.
	Their angular forms and general decision of outline.
	The composition of their minor curves.
	Their characters, as given by S. Rosa.
	Monotony and falsehood of the clouds of the Italian school generally.
	Vast size of congregated masses of cloud.
	Demonstrable by comparison with mountain ranges.
	And consequent divisions and varieties of feature.
	Not lightly to be omitted.
	Imperfect conceptions of this size and extent in ancient landscape.
	Total want of transparency and evanescence in the clouds of ancient landscape.
	Farther proof of their deficiency in space.
	Instance of perfect truth in the sky of Turner's Babylon.
	And in his Pools of Solomon.
	Truths of outline and character in his Como.
	Association of the cirrostratus with the cumulus.
	The deep-based knowledge of the Alps in Turner's Lake of Geneva.
	Farther principles of cloud form exemplified in his Amalfi.
	Reasons for insisting on the of Turner's works. Infinity is almost an unerring test of truth [Page lxiv]
	Instances of the total want of it in the works of Salvator.
	And of the universal presence of it in those of Turner. The conclusions which may be arrived at from it.
	The multiplication of objects, or increase of their size, will not give the impression of infinity, but is the resource of novices.
	Farther instances of infinity in the gray skies of Turner.
	The excellence of the cloud-drawing of Stanfield.
	The average standing of the English school.

Chapter IV.,Of Truth of Clouds:—Thirdly, of the Region of the Rain-Cloud.

	The apparent difference in character between the lower and central clouds is dependent chiefly on proximity.
	Their marked differences in color.
	And in definiteness of form.
	They are subject to precisely the same great laws.
	Value, to the painter, of the rain-cloud.
	The old masters have not left a single instance of the painting of the rain-cloud, and very few efforts at it. Gaspar Poussin's storms.
	The great power of the moderns in this respect.
	Works of Copley Fielding.
	His peculiar truth.
	His weakness, and its probable cause.
	Impossibility of reasoning on the rain-clouds of Turner from engravings.
	His rendering of Fielding's particular moment in the Jumieges.
	Illustration of the nature of clouds in the opposed forms of smoke and steam.
	Moment of retiring rain in the Llanthony.
	And of commencing, chosen with peculiar meaning for Loch Coriskin.
	The drawing of transparent vapor in the Land's End.
	The individual character of its parts.
	Deep-studied form of swift rain-cloud in the Coventry.
	Compared with forms given by Salvator.
	Entire expression of tempest by minute touches and circumstances in the Coventry.
	Especially by contrast with a passage of extreme repose.
	The truth of this particular passage. Perfectly pure blue sky only seen after rain, and how seen. [Page lxv]
	Absence of this effect in the works of the old masters.
	Success of our water-color artists in its rendering. Use of it by Turner.
	Expression of near rain-cloud in the Gosport, and other works.
	Contrasted with Gaspar Poussin's rain-cloud in the Dido and Æneas.
	Turner's power of rendering mist.
	His effects of mist so perfect, that if not at once understood, they can no more be explained or reasoned on than nature herself.
	Various instances.
	Turner's more violent effects of tempest are never rendered by engravers.
	General system of landscape engraving.
	The storm in the Stonehenge.
	General character of such effects as given by Turner. His expression of falling rain.
	Recapitulation of the section.
	Sketch of a few of the skies of nature, taken as a whole, compared with the works of Turner and of the old masters. Morning on the plains.
	Noon with gathering storms.
	Sunset in tempest. Serene midnight.
	And sunrise on the Alps.

Chapter V., Effects of Light rendered by Modern Art.

	Reasons for merely, at present, naming, without examining the particular effects of light rendered by Turner.
	Hopes of the author for assistance in the future investigation of them.

SECTION IV.

Of truth of earth., chapter i., of general structure.

	First laws of the organization of the earth, and their importance in art.
	The slight attention ordinarily paid to them. Their careful study by modern artists.
	General structure of the earth. The hills are its action, the plains its rest. [Page lxvi]
	Mountains come out from underneath the plains, and are their support.
	Structure of the plains themselves. Their perfect level, when deposited by quiet water.
	Illustrated by Turner's Marengo.
	General divisions of formation resulting from this arrangement. Plan of investigation.

Chapter II., Of the Central Mountains

	Similar character of the central peaks in all parts of the world.
	Their arrangements in pyramids or wedges, divided by vertical fissures.
	Causing groups of rock resembling an artichoke or rose.
	The faithful statement of these facts by Turner in his Alps at Daybreak.
	Vignette of the Andes and others.
	Necessary distance, and consequent aerial effect on all such mountains.
	Total want of any rendering of their phenomena in ancient art.
	Character of the representations of Alps in the distances of Claude.
	Their total want of magnitude and aerial distance.
	And violation of specific form.
	Even in his best works.
	Farther illustration of the distant character of mountain chains.
	Their excessive appearance of transparency.
	Illustrated from the works of Turner and Stanfield. The Borromean Islands of the latter.
	Turner's Arona.
	Extreme distance of large objects always characterized by very sharp outline.
	Want of this decision in Claude.
	The perpetual rendering of it by Turner.
	Effects of snow, how imperfectly studied.
	General principles of its forms on the Alps.
	Average paintings of Switzerland. Its real spirit has scarcely yet been caught.

Chapter III., Of the Inferior Mountains

	The inferior mountains are distinguished from the central, by being divided into beds.
	Farther division of these beds by joints.
	And by lines of lamination.
	Variety and seeming uncertainty under which these laws are manifested.
	The perfect expression of them in Turner's Loch Coriskin.
	Glencoe and other works.
	Especially the Mount Lebanon.
	Compared with the work of Salvator.
	And of Poussin.
	Effects of external influence on mountain form.
	The gentle convexity caused by aqueous erosion.
	And the effect of the action of torrents.
	The exceeding simplicity of contour caused by these influences.
	And multiplicity of feature.
	Both utterly neglected in ancient art.
	The fidelity of treatment in Turner's Daphne and Leucippus.
	And in the Avalanche and Inundation.
	The rarity among secondary hills of steep slopes or high precipices.
	And consequent expression of horizontal distance in their ascent.
	Full statement of all these facts in various works of Turner.—Caudebec, etc.
	The use of considering geological truths.
	Expression of retiring surface by Turner contrasted with the work of Claude.
	The same moderation of slope in the contours of his higher hills.
	The peculiar difficulty of investigating the more essential truths of hill outline.
	Works of other modern artists.—Clarkson Stanfield.
	Importance of particular and individual truth in hill drawing.
	Works of Copley Fielding. His high feeling.
	Works of J. D. Harding and others.

Chapter IV., Of the Foreground

	What rocks were the chief components of ancient landscape foreground.
	Salvator's limestones. The real characters of the rock. Its fractures, and obtuseness of angles.
	Salvator's acute angles caused by the meeting of concave curves. [Page lxviii]
	Peculiar distinctness of light and shade in the rocks of nature.
	Peculiar confusion of both in the rocks of Salvator.
	And total want of any expression of hardness or brittleness.
	Instances in particular pictures.
	Compared with the works of Stanfield.
	Their absolute opposition in every particular.
	The rocks of J. D. Harding.
	Characters of loose earth and soil.
	Its exceeding grace and fulness of feature.
	The ground of Teniers.
	Importance of these minor parts and points.
	The observance of them is the real distinction between the master and the novice.
	Ground of Cuyp.
	And of Claude.
	The entire weakness and childishness of the latter.
	Compared with the work of Turner.
	General features of Turner's foreground.
	Geological structure of his rocks in the Fall of the Tees.
	Their convex surfaces and fractured edges.
	And perfect unity.
	Various parts whose history is told us by the details of the drawing.
	Beautiful instance of an exception to general rules in the Llanthony.
	Turner's drawing of detached blocks of weathered stone.
	And of complicated foreground.
	And of loose soil.
	The unison of all in the ideal foregrounds of the Academy pictures.
	And the great lesson to be received from all.

OF TRUTH OF WATER.

Chapter I., Of Water, as Painted by the Ancients

	Sketch of the functions and infinite agency of water.
	The ease with which a common representation of it may be given. The impossibility of a faithful one.
	Difficulty of properly dividing the subject.
	Inaccuracy of study of water-effect among all painters.
	Difficulty of treating this part of the subject.
	General laws which regulate the phenomena of water. First, The imperfection of its reflective surface. [Page lxix]
	The inherent hue of water modifies dark reflections, and does not affect right ones.
	Water takes no shadow.
	Modification of dark reflections by shadow.
	Examples on the waters of the Rhone.
	Effect of ripple on distant water.
	Elongation of reflections by moving water.
	Effect of rippled water on horizontal and inclined images.
	To what extent reflection is visible from above.
	Deflection of images on agitated water.
	Necessity of watchfulness as well as of science. Licenses, how taken by great men.
	Various licenses or errors in water painting of Claude, Cuyp, Vandevelde.
	And Canaletto.
	Why unpardonable.
	The Dutch painters of sea.
	Ruysdael, Claude, and Salvator.
	Nicolo Poussin.
	Venetians and Florentines. Conclusion.

Chapter II., Of Water, as Painted by the Moderns

	General power of the moderns in painting quiet water. The lakes of Fielding.
	The calm rivers of De Wint, J. Holland, &c.
	The character of bright and violent falling water.
	As given by Nesfield.
	The admirable water-drawing of J. D. Harding.
	His color; and painting of sea.
	The sea of Copley Fielding. Its exceeding grace and rapidity.
	Its high aim at character.
	But deficiency in the requisite quality of grays.
	Variety of the grays of nature.
	Works of Stanfield. His perfect knowledge and power.
	But want of feeling. General sum of truth presented by modern art.

Chapter III., Of Water, as Painted by Turner

	The difficulty of giving surface to smooth water.
	Is dependent on the structure of the eye, and the focus by which the reflected rays are perceived.
	Morbid clearness occasioned in painting of water by distinctness of reflections.
	How avoided by Turner.
	All reflections on distant water are distinct. [Page lxx]
	The error of Vandevelde.
	Difference in arrangement of parts between the reflected object and its image.
	Illustrated from the works of Turner.
	The boldness and judgment shown in the observance of it.
	The of surface in Turner's painting of calm water.
	Its united qualities.
	Relation of various circumstances of past agitation, &c., by the most trifling incidents, as in the Cowes.
	In scenes on the Loire and Seine.
	Expression of contrary waves caused by recoil from shore.
	Various other instances.
	Turner's painting of distant expanses of water.—Calm, interrupted by ripple.
	And rippled, crossed by sunshine.
	His drawing of distant rivers.
	And of surface associated with mist.
	His drawing of falling water, with peculiar expression of weight.
	The abandonment and plunge of great cataracts. How given by him.
	Difference in the action of water, when continuous and when interrupted. The interrupted stream fills the hollows of its bed.
	But the continuous stream takes the shape of its bed.
	Its exquisite curved lines.
	Turner's careful choice of the historical truth.
	His exquisite drawing of the continuous torrent in the Llanthony Abbey.
	And of the interrupted torrent in the Mercury and Argus.
	Various cases.
	Sea painting. Impossibility of truly representing foam.
	Character of shore-breakers, also inexpressible.
	Their effect how injured when seen from the shore.
	Turner's expression of heavy rolling sea.
	With peculiar expression of weight.
	Peculiar action of recoiling waves.
	And of the stroke of a breaker on the shore.
	General character of sea on a rocky coast given by Turner in the Land's End.
	Open seas of Turner's earlier time.
	Effect of sea after prolonged storm.
	Turner's noblest work, the painting of the deep open sea in the Slave Ship.
	Its united excellences and perfection as a whole.

SECTION VI.

Of truth of vegetation.—conclusion., chapter i., of truth of vegetation.

	Frequent occurrence of foliage in the works of the old masters.
	Laws common to all forest trees. Their branches do not taper, but only divide.
	Appearance of tapering caused by frequent buds.
	And care of nature to conceal the parallelism.
	The degree of tapering which may be represented as continuous.
	The trees of Gaspar Poussin.
	And of the Italian school generally, defy this law.
	The truth, as it is given by J. D. Harding.
	Boughs, in consequence of this law, diminish where they divide. Those of the old masters often do not.
	Boughs must multiply as they diminish. Those of the old masters do not.
	Bough-drawing of Salvator.
	All these errors especially shown in Claude's sketches, and concentrated in a work of G. Poussin's.
	Impossibility of the angles of boughs being taken out of them by wind.
	Bough-drawing of Titian.
	Bough-drawing of Turner.
	Leafage. Its variety and symmetry.
	Perfect regularity of Poussin.
	Exceeding intricacy of nature's foliage.
	How contradicted by the tree-patterns of G. Poussin.
	How followed by Creswick.
	Perfect unity in nature's foliage.
	Total want of it in Both and Hobbima.
	How rendered by Turner.
	The near leafage of Claude. His middle distances are good.
	Universal termination of trees in symmetrical curves.
	Altogether unobserved by the old masters. Always given by Turner.
	Foliage painting on the Continent.
	Foliage of J. D. Harding. Its deficiencies.
	His brilliancy of execution too manifest.
	His bough-drawing, and choice of form.
	Local color, how far expressible in black and white, and with what advantage. [Page lxxii]
	Opposition between great manner and great knowledge.
	Foliage of Cox, Fielding, and Cattermole.
	Hunt and Creswick. Green, how to be rendered expressive of light, and offensive if otherwise.
	Conclusion. Works of J. Linnel and S. Palmer.

Chapter II., General remarks respecting the Truth of Turner

	No necessity of entering into discussion of architectural truth.
	Extreme difficulty of illustrating or explaining the highest truth.
	The rank of Turner is in no degree shown in the foregoing pages, but only his relative rank.
	The exceeding refinement of his truth.
	There is nothing in his works which can be enjoyed without knowledge.
	And nothing which knowledge will not enable us to enjoy.
	His former rank and progress.
	Standing of his present works. Their mystery is the consequence of their fulness.

Chapter III., Conclusion.-Modern Art and Modern Criticism

	The entire prominence hitherto given to the works of one artist caused only by our not being able to take cognizance of .
	The feelings of different artists are incapable of full comparison.
	But the fidelity and truth of each are capable of real comparison.
	Especially because they are equally manifested in the treatment of all subjects.
	No man draws one thing well, if he can draw nothing else.
	General conclusions to be derived from our past investigation.
	Truth, a standard of all excellence.
	Modern criticism. Changefulness of public taste.
	Yet associated with a certain degree of judgment.
	Duty of the press.
	Qualifications necessary for discharging it.
	General incapability of modern critics.
	And inconsistency with themselves.
	How the press may really advance the cause of art. [Page lxxiii]
	Morbid fondness at the present day for unfinished works.
	By which the public defraud themselves.
	And in pandering to which, artists ruin themselves.
	Necessity of finishing works of art perfectly.
	not sufficiently encouraged.
	Brilliancy of execution or efforts at invention not to be tolerated in young artists.
	The duty and after privileges of all students.
	Necessity among our greater artists of more singleness of aim.
	What should be their general aim.
	Duty of the press with respect to the works of Turner.

LIST OF PLATES TO VOLUME I.

Casa Contarini Fasan, Venice
From a drawing by Ruskin.
The Dogana, and Santa Maria della Salute, Venice
From a painting by Turner.
Okehampton Castle
From a painting by Turner.
Port Ruysdael
From a painting by Turner.

CONTAINING PART III., SECTIONS I. AND II. OF THE IMAGINATIVE AND THEORETIC FACULTIES.

Of ideas of beauty., of the theoretic faculty., chapter i.-of the rank and relations of the theoretic faculty..

		page
	With what care the subject is to be approached.
	And of what importance considered.
	The doubtful force of the term "utility".
	Its proper sense.
	How falsely applied in these times.
	The evil consequences of such interpretation. How connected with national power.
	How to be averted.
	Division of the pursuits of men into subservient and objective.
	Their relative dignities.
	How reversed through erring notions of the contemplative and imaginative faculties.
	Object of the present section.

Chapter II.-Of the Theoretic Faculty as concerned with Pleasures of Sense.

	Explanation of the term "theoretic".
	Of the differences of rank in pleasures of sense.
	Use of the terms Temperate and Intemperate.
	Right use of the term "intemperate".
	Grounds of inferiority in the pleasures which are subjects of intemperance.
	Evidence of higher rank in pleasures of sight and hearing.
	How the lower pleasures may be elevated in rank.
	Ideas of beauty how essentially moral.
	How degraded by heartless reception.
	How exalted by affection.

Chapter III.-Of Accuracy and Inaccuracy in Impressions of Sense.

	By what test is the health of the perceptive faculty to be determined?
	And in what sense may the terms Right and Wrong be attached to its conclusions?
	What power we have over impressions of sense.
	Depends on acuteness of attention.
	Ultimate conclusions universal.
	What duty is attached to this power over impressions of sense.
	How rewarded.
	Especially with respect to ideas of beauty.
	Errors induced by the power of habit.
	The necessity of submission in early stages of judgment.
	The large scope of matured judgment.
	How distinguishable from false taste.
	The danger of a spirit of choice.
	And criminality.
	How certain conclusions respecting beauty are by reason demonstrable.
	With what liabilities to error.
	The term "beauty" how limitable in the outset. Divided into typical and vital.

Chapter IV.-Of False Opinions held concerning Beauty.

	Of the false opinion that truth is beauty, and vice versa.
	Of the false opinion that beauty is usefulness. Compare .
	Of the false opinion that beauty results from custom. Compare .
	The twofold operation of custom. It deadens sensation, but confirms affection.
	But never either creates or destroys the essence of beauty.
	Instances.
	Of the false opinion that beauty depends on the association of ideas.
	Association. Is, 1st, rational. It is of no efficiency as a cause of beauty.
	Association accidental. The extent of its influence.
	The dignity of its function.
	How it is connected with impressions of beauty.
	And what caution it renders necessary in the examination of them.

Chapter V.-Of Typical Beauty:-First, of Infinity, or the Type of Divine Incomprehensibility.

	Impossibility of adequately treating the subject.
	With what simplicity of feeling to be approached.
	The child instinct respecting space.
	Continued in after life.
	Whereto this instinct is traceable.
	Infinity how necessary in art.
	Conditions of its necessity.
	And connected analogies.
	How the dignity of treatment is proportioned to the expression of infinity.
	Examples among the Southern schools.
	Among the Venetians.
	Among the painters of landscape.
	Other modes in which the power of infinity is felt.
	The beauty of curvature.
	How constant in external nature.
	The beauty of gradation.
	How found in nature.
	How necessary in Art.
	Infinity not rightly implied by vastness.

Chapter VI.-Of Unity, or the Type of the Divine Comprehensiveness.

	The general conception of divine Unity.
	The glory of all things is their Unity.
	The several kinds of unity. Subjectional. Original. Of sequence, and of membership.
	Unity of membership. How secured.
	Variety. Why required.
	Change, and its influence on beauty.
	The love of change. How morbid and evil.
	The conducing of variety towards unity of subjection.
	And towards unity of sequence.
	The nature of proportion. 1st, of apparent proportion.
	The value of apparent proportion in curvature.
	How by nature obtained.
	Apparent proportion in melodies of line.
	Error of Burke in this matter.
	Constructive proportion. Its influence in plants.
	And animals.
	Summary.

Chapter VII.-Of Repose, or the Type of Divine Permanence.

	Universal feeling respecting the necessity of repose in art. Its sources.
	Repose how expressed in matter.
	The necessity to repose of an implied energy.
	Mental repose, how noble.
	Its universal value as a test of art.
	Instances in the Laocoon and Theseus.
	And in altar tombs.

Chapter VIII.-Of Symmetry, or the Type of Divine Justice.

	Symmetry, what and how found in organic nature.
	How necessary in art.
	To what its agreeableness is referable. Various instances.
	Especially in religious art.

Chapter IX.-Of Purity, or the Type of Divine Energy.

	The influence of light as a sacred symbol.
	The idea of purity connected with it.
	Originally derived from conditions of matter.
	Associated ideas adding to the power of the impression. Influence of clearness.
	Perfect beauty of surface, in what consisting.
	Purity only metaphorically a type of sinlessness.
	Energy, how expressed by purity of matter.
	And of color.
	Spirituality, how so expressed.

Chapter X.-Of Moderation, or the Type of Government by Law.

	Meaning of the terms Chasteness and Refinement.
	How referable to temporary fashions.
	How to the perception of completion.
	Finish, by great masters esteemed essential.
	Moderation, its nature and value.
	It is the girdle of beauty.
	How found in natural curves and colors.
	How difficult of attainment, yet essential to all good.

Chapter XI.-General Inferences respecting Typical Beauty.

	The subject incompletely treated, yet admitting of general conclusions.
	Typical beauty not created for man's sake.
	But degrees of it for his sake admitted.
	What encouragement hence to be received.

Chapter XII.-Of Vital Beauty:-First, as Relative.

	Transition from typical to vital Beauty.
	The perfection of the theoretic faculty as concerned with vital beauty, is charity.
	Only with respect to plants, less affection than sympathy.
	Which is proportioned to the appearance of energy in the plants.
	This sympathy is unselfish, and does not regard utility.
	Especially with respect to animals.
	And it is destroyed by evidences of mechanism.
	The second perfection of the theoretic faculty as concerned with life is justice of moral judgment.
	How impeded.
	The influence of moral signs in expression.
	As also in plants.
	Recapitulation.

Chapter XIII.-Of Vital Beauty:-Secondly, as Generic.

	The beauty of fulfilment of appointed function in every animal.
	The two senses of the word "ideal." Either it refers to action of the imagination.
	Or to perfection of type.
	This last sense how inaccurate, yet to be retained.
	Of Ideal form. First, in the lower animals.
	In what consistent.
	Ideal form in vegetables.
	The difference of position between plants and animals.
	Admits of variety in the ideal of the former.
	Ideal form in vegetables destroyed by cultivation.
	Instance in the Soldanella and Ranunculus.
	The beauty of repose and felicity, how consistent with such ideal.
	The ideality of Art.
	How connected with the imaginative faculties.
	Ideality, how belonging to ages and conditions.

Chapter XIV.-Of Vital Beauty:-Thirdly, in Man.

	Condition of the human creature entirely different from that of the lower animals.
	What room here for idealization.
	How the conception of the bodily ideal is reached.
	Modifications of the bodily ideal owing to influence of mind. First, of intellect.
	Secondly, of the moral feelings.
	What beauty is bestowed by them.
	How the soul culture interferes harmfully with the bodily ideal.
	The inconsistency among the effects of the mental virtues on the form.
	Is a sign of God's kind purpose towards the race.
	Consequent separation and difference of ideals.
	The of the Adamite curse are to be distinguished from signs of its immediate activity.
	Which latter only are to be banished from ideal form.
	Ideal form is only to be obtained by portraiture.
	Instances among the greater of the ideal Masters.
	Evil results of opposite practice in modern times.
	The right use of the model.
	Ideal form to be reached only by love.
	Practical principles deducible.
	Expressions chiefly destructive of ideal character. 1st, Pride.
	Portraiture ancient and modern.
	Secondly, Sensuality.
	How connected with impurity of color.
	And prevented by its splendor.
	Or by severity of drawing.
	Degrees of descent in this respect: Rubens, Correggio, and Guido.
	And modern art.
	Thirdly, ferocity and fear. The latter how to be distinguished from awe.
	Holy fear, how distinct from human terror.
	Ferocity is joined always with fear. Its unpardonableness.
	Such expressions how sought by painters powerless and impious.
	Of passion generally.
	It is never to be for itself exhibited—at least on the face.
	Recapitulation.

Chapter XV.-General Conclusions respecting the Theoretic Faculty.

	There are no sources of the emotion of beauty more than those found in things visible.
	What imperfection exists in visible things. How in a sort by imagination removable.
	Which however affects not our present conclusions.
	The four sources from which the pleasure of beauty is derived are all divine.
	What objections may be made to this conclusion.
	Typical beauty may be æsthetically pursued. Instances.
	How interrupted by false feeling.
	Greatness and truth are sometimes by the Deity sustained and spoken in and through evil men.
	The second objection arising from the coldness of Christian men to external beauty.
	Reasons for this coldness in the anxieties of the world. These anxieties overwrought and criminal.
	Evil consequences of such coldness.
	Theoria the service of Heaven.

OF THE IMAGINATIVE FACULTY.

Chapter i.-of the three forms of imagination..

	A partial examination only of the imagination is to be attempted.
	The works of the metaphysicians how nugatory with respect to this faculty.
	The definition of D. Stewart, how inadequate.
	This instance nugatory.
	Various instances.
	The three operations of the imagination. Penetrative, associative, contemplative.

Chapter II.-Of Imagination Associative.

	Of simple conception.
	How connected with verbal knowledge.
	How used in composition.
	Characteristics of composition.
	What powers are implied by it. The first of the three functions of fancy.
	Imagination not yet manifested.
	Imagination is the correlative conception of imperfect component parts.
	Material analogy with imagination.
	The grasp and dignity of imagination.
	Its limits.
	How manifested in treatment of uncertain relations. Its deficiency illustrated.
	Laws of art, the safeguard of the unimaginative.
	Are by the imaginative painter despised. Tests of imagination.
	The monotony of unimaginative treatment.
	Imagination never repeats itself.
	Relation of the imaginative faculty to the theoretic.
	Modification of its manifestation.
	Instances of absence of imagination.—Claude, Gaspar Poussin.
	Its presence.—Salvator, Nicolo Poussin, Titian, Tintoret.
	And Turner.
	The due function of Associative imagination with respect to nature.
	The sign of imaginative work is its appearance of absolute truth.

Chapter III.-Of Imagination Penetrative.

	Imagination penetrative is concerned not with the combining but apprehending of things.
	Milton's and Dante's description of flame.
	The imagination seizes always by the innermost point.
	It acts intuitively and without reasoning.
	Signs of it in language.
	Absence of imagination, how shown.
	Distinction between imagination and fancy.
	Fancy how involved with imagination.
	Fancy is never serious.
	Want of seriousness the bar to high art at the present time.
	Imagination is quiet; fancy, restless.
	The detailing operation of fancy.
	And suggestive, of the imagination.
	This suggestiveness how opposed to vacancy.
	Imagination addresses itself to imagination.
	Instances from the works of Tintoret.
	The entombment.
	The Annunciation.
	The Baptism of Christ. Its treatment by various painters.
	By Tintoret.
	The Crucifixion.
	The Massacre of innocents.
	Various works in the Scuola di San Rocco.
	The Last Judgment. How treated by various painters.
	By Tintoret.
	The imaginative verity, how distinguished from realism.
	The imagination how manifested in sculpture.
	Bandinelli, Canova, Mino da Fiesole.
	Michael Angelo.
	Recapitulation. The perfect function of the imagination is the intuitive perception of ultimate truth.
	Imagination how vulgarly understood.
	How its cultivation is dependent on the moral feelings.
	On independence of mind.
	And on habitual reference to nature.

Chapter IV.-Of Imagination Contemplative.

	Imagination contemplative is not part of the essence, but only a habit or mode of the faculty.
	The ambiguity of conception.
	Is not in itself capable of adding to the charm of fair things.
	But gives to the imagination its regardant power over them.
	The third office of fancy distinguished from imagination contemplative.
	Various instances.
	Morbid or nervous fancy.
	The action of contemplative imagination is not to be expressed by art.
	Except under narrow limits.—1st. Abstract rendering of form without color.
	Of color without form.
	Or of both without texture.
	Abstraction or typical representation of animal form.
	Either when it is symbolically used.
	Or in architectural decoration.
	Exception in delicate and superimposed ornament.
	Abstraction necessary from imperfection of materials.
	Abstractions of things capable of varied accident are not imaginative.
	Yet sometimes valuable.
	Exaggeration. Its laws and limits. First, in scale of representation.
	Secondly, of things capable of variety of scale.
	Thirdly, necessary in expression of characteristic features on diminished scale.
	Recapitulation.

Chapter V.-Of the Superhuman Ideal.

	The subject is not to be here treated in detail.
	The conceivable modes of manifestation of Spiritual Beings are four.
	And these are in or through creature forms familiar to us.
	Supernatural character may be impressed on these either by phenomena inconsistent with their common nature (compare ).
	Or by inherent Dignity.
	1st. Of the expression of inspiration.
	No representation of that which is more than creature is possible.
	Supernatural character expressed by modification of accessories.
	Landscape of the religious painters. Its character is eminently symmetrical.
	Landscape of Benozzo Gozzoli.
	Landscape of Perugino and Raffaelle.
	Such Landscape is not to be imitated.
	Color, and Decoration. Their use in representations of the Supernatural.
	Decoration so used must be generic.
	And color pure.
	Ideal form of the body itself, of what variety susceptible.
	Anatomical development how far admissible.
	Symmetry. How valuable.
	The influence of Greek art, how dangerous.
	Its scope, how limited.
	Conclusion.

ADDENDA.

LIST OF PLATES TO VOLUME II.

Court of the Ducal Palace, Venice
From a drawing by Ruskin.
Tomb of the Ilaria di Caretto, Lucca
From a photograph.
The Adoration of the Magi
From a painting by Ruskin, after Tintoret.
Study of Stone Pine, at Sestri
From a drawing by Ruskin.

CONTAINING PART IV., OF MANY THINGS.

Table of contents., part iv., of many things.

			PAGE
Chapter	I.—		1
"	II.—		16
"	III.—		23
"	IV.—		44
"	V.—		61
"	VI.—		70
"	VII.—		77
"	VIII.—		92
"	IX.—		108
"	X.—		124
"	XI.—		144
"	XII.—		152
"	XIII.—		168
"	XIV.—		191
"	XV.—		229
"	XVI.—		248
"	XVII.—		280
"	XVIII.—		308
	I.—		333
	II.—		336
	III.—		338

LIST OF PLATES TO VOL. III.

     

		Drawn by	Engraved by
	J. C. Armytage.
Plate			Facing page
1.			R. P. Cuff	106
2.			J. H. Le Keux	114
3.			J. H. Le Keux	116
4.			J. H. Le Keux	117
5.			J. Cousen	118
6.			J. C. Armytage	121
7.			Henry Shaw	203
8.			R. P. Cuff	204
9.			Cuff; H. Swan	207
10.			R. P. Cuff	238
11.			J. C. Armytage	313
12.			The Author	314
13.			J. H. Le Keux	315
14.			Thos. Lupton	315
15.			Thos. Lupton	315
16.			J. C. Armytage	316
17.			J. C. Armytage	316

VOLUME IV., CONTAINING PART V., OF MOUNTAIN BEAUTY.

Of mountain beauty..

			page
Chapter	I.—	Of the Turnerian Picturesque
"	II.—	Of Turnerian Topography
"	III.—	Of Turnerian Light
"	IV.—	Of Turnerian Mystery: First, as Essential
"	V.—	Of Turnerian Mystery: Secondly, Wilful
"	VI.—	The Firmament
"	VII.—	The Dry Land
"	VIII.—	Of the Materials of Mountains: First, Compact Crystallines
"	IX.—	Of the Materials of Mountains: Secondly, Slaty Crystallines
"	X.—	Of the Materials of Mountains: Thirdly, Slaty Coherents
"	XI.—	Of the Materials of Mountains: Fourthly, Compact Coherents
"	XII.—	Of the Sculpture of Mountains: First, the Lateral Ranges
"	XIII.—	Of the Sculpture of Mountains: Secondly, the Central Peaks
"	XIV.—	Resulting Forms: First, Aiguilles
"	XV.—	Resulting Forms: Second, Crests
"	XVI.—	Resulting Forms: Third, Precipices
"	XVII.—	Resulting Forms: Fourthly, Banks
"	XVIII.—	Resulting Forms: Fifthly, Stones
"	XIX.—	The Mountain Gloom
"	XX.—	The Mountain Glory

I.	Modern Grotesque
II.	Rock Cleavage
III.	Logical Education

LIST OF PLATES TO VOL. IV.

		Drawn by	Engraved by
Frontispiece. The Gates of the Hills			J. Cousen
Plate		Facing page
18.	The Transition from Ghirlandajo to Claude		J. H. Le Keux
19.	The Picturesque of Windmills		J. H. Le Keux
20.	The Pass of Faïdo. 1. Simple Topography		The Author
21.	The Pass of Faïdo 2. Turnerian Topography		The Author
22.	Turner's Earliest Nottingham		T. Boys
23.	Turner's Latest Nottingham		T. Boys
24.	The Towers of Fribourg		J. C. Armytage
25.	Things in General		J. H. Le Keux
26.	The Law of Evanescence		R. P. Cuff
27.	The Aspen under Idealization		J. Cousen
28.	The Aspen Unidealized		J. C. Armytage
29.	Aiguille Structure		J. C. Armytage
30.	The Ideal of Aiguilles		R. P. Cuff
31.	The Aiguille Blaitière		J. C. Armytage
32.	Aiguille-drawing		J. H. Le Keux
33.	Contours of Aiguille Bouchard		R. P. Cuff
34.	Cleavage of Aiguille Bouchard		The Author
35.	Crests of La Côte and Taconay		The Author
36.	Crest of La Côte		T. Lupton
37.	Crests of the Slaty Crystallines		The Author
38.	The Cervin, from the East and North-east		J. C. Armytage
39.	The Cervin from the North-west		J. C. Armytage
40.	The Mountains of Villeneuve		J. H. Le Keux
12.	A. The Shores of Wharfe		Thos. Lupton
41.	The Rocks of Arona		J. H. Le Keux
42.	Leaf Curvature Magnolia and Laburnum		R. P. Cuff
43.	Leaf Curvature Dead Laurel		R. P. Cuff
44.	Leaf Curvature Young Ivy		R. P. Cuff
45.	Débris Curvature		R. P. Cuff
46.	The Buttresses of an Alp		J. H. Le Keux
47.	The Quarry of Carrara		J. H. Le Keux
48.	Bank of Slaty Crystallines		J. C. Armytage
49.	Truth and Untruth of Stones		Thos. Lupton
50.	Goldau		J. Cousen

VOLUME V., COMPLETING THE WORK AND CONTAINING:

Parts vi. of leaf beauty. vii. of cloud beauty. viii. of ideas of relation. 1. of invention formal. ix. of ideas of relation. 2. of invention spiritual., table of contents.

PART VI.
ON LEAF BEAUTY.
			PAGE
	Preface		v
Chapter	I.	—The Earth-Veil
”	II.	—The Leaf Orders
”	III.	—The Bud
”	IV.	—The Leaf
”	V.	—Leaf Aspects
”	VI.	—The Branch
”	VII.	—The Stem
”	VIII.	—The Leaf Monuments
”	IX.	—The Leaf Shadows
”	X.	—Leaves Motionless
—————
PART VII.
OF CLOUD BEAUTY.
—————
Chapter	I.	—The Cloud Balancings
”	II.	—The Cloud-Flocks
”	III.	—The Cloud-Chariots
”	IV.	—The Angel of the Sea
—————
PART VIII.
OF IDEAS OF RELATION:—I. OF INVENTION FORMAL.
—————
Chapter	I.	—The Law of Help
”	II.	—The Task of the Least
”	III.	—The Rule of the Greatest
”	IV.	—The Law of Perfectness
—————
PART IX.
OF IDEAS OF RELATION:—II. OF INVENTION SPIRITUAL.
—————
Chapter	I.	—The Dark Mirror
”	II.	—The Lance of Pallas
”	III.	—The Wings of the Lion
”	IV.	—Durer and Salvator
”	V.	—Claude and Poussin
”	VI.	—Rubens and Cuyp
”	VII.	—Of Vulgarity
”	VIII.	—Wouvermans and Angelico
”	IX.	—The Two Boyhoods
”	X.	—The Nereid’s Guard
”	XI.	—The Hesperid Æglé
”	XII.	—Peace
—————
	Local Index.
	Index to Painters and Pictures.
	Topical Index.

LIST OF PLATES TO VOL. V.

	Drawn by	Engraved by
Frontispiece, Ancilla Domini		Wm. Hall
Plate		Facing page
51. The Dryad’s Toil		J. C. Armytage
52. Spirals of Thorn		R. P. Cuff
53. The Dryad’s Crown		J. C. Armytage
54. Dutch Leafage		J. Cousen
55. By the Way-side		J. C. Armytage
56. Sketch by a Clerk of the Works		J. Emslie
57. Leafage by Durer and Veronese		R. P. Cuff
58. Branch Curvature		R. P. Cuff
59. The Dryad’s Waywardness		R. P. Cuff
60. The Rending of Leaves		J. Cousen
61. Richmond, from the Moors		J. C. Armytage
62. By the Brookside		J. C. Armytage
63. The Cloud Flocks		J. C. Armytage
64. Cloud Perspective (Rectilinear)		J. Emslie
65. Cloud Perspective (Curvilinear)		J. Emslie
66. Light in the West, Beauvais		J. C. Armytage
67. Clouds		J. C. Armytage
68. Monte Rosa		J. C. Armytage
69. Aiguilles and their Friends		J. C. Armytage
70. The Graiæ		J. C. Armytage
71. “Venga Medusa”		J. C. Armytage
72. The Locks of Typhon		J. C. Armytage
73. Loire Side		J. Ruskin
74. The Mill Stream		J. Ruskin
75. The Castle of Lauffen		R. P. Cuff
76. The Moat of Nuremberg		J. H. Le Keux
78. Quivi Trovammo		J. Ruskin
79. Hesperid Æglé		Wm. Hall
80. Rocks at Rest		J. C. Armytage
81. Rocks in Unrest		J. C. Armytage
82. The Nets in the Rapids		J. H. Le Keux
83. The Bridge of Rheinfelden		J. H. Le Keux
84. Peace		J. H. Le Keux

SEPARATE ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD

Figure	56,	to face page
”	61,	”
”	75 to 78,	”
”	85,	”
”	87,	”
”	88 to 90,	”
”	98,	”
”	100,	”

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The Works of John Ruskin

• Volume 27, Fors Clavigera II-III, Part 2
• John Ruskin
• Edited by Edward Tyas Cook , Alexander Wedderburn
• Published online: 05 March 2014 Print publication: 18 February 2010
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• Volume 39, General Index
• Published online: 05 June 2014 Print publication: 18 February 2010
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This thirty-ninth and final volume contains the index to the entire edition.

• Part 2, Volumes II and III, Dilecta and Appendix

• Volume 29, Fors Clavigera VII–VIII
• Published online: 07 September 2011 Print publication: 18 February 2010
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This twenty-ninth volume contains the seventh and eighth volumes of Fors Clavigera.

• Volume 3, Modern Painters I
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This third volume contains Volume 1 of Modern Painters.

• Volume 36, Letters of Ruskin I
• Published online: 05 November 2011 Print publication: 18 February 2010
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This thirty-sixth volume contains Volume 1 of Ruskin's letters, covering the years 1827–1869.

• Volume 27, Fors Clavigera I-III
• Published online: 05 July 2015 Print publication: 18 February 2010
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays – almost all highly illustrated – are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' – extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. Volume 27, in two parts, contains the first three volumes of Fors Clavigera.

• Volume 37, Letters of Ruskin II
• Published online: 04 April 2011 Print publication: 18 February 2010
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This thirty-seventh volume contains Volume 2 of Ruskin's letters, covering the years 1870–1889.

• Volume 28, Fors Clavigera VI, Part 2

• Volume 13, Turner; the Harbours of England
• Published online: 05 April 2012 Print publication: 18 February 2010
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This thirteenth volume contains The Harbours of England and other writings on Turner.

• Volume 18, Sesame and Lilies
• Published online: 05 June 2015 Print publication: 18 February 2010
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This eighteenth volume contains Ruskin's writings on the nature of society, including Sesame and Lilies.

• Volume 38, Bibliography
• Published online: 07 September 2011 Print publication: 18 February 2010 First published in: 1912
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This thirty-eighth volume contains a bibliography of Ruskin's own writings and of the writings of otherS about him.

• Volume 34, The Storm-Cloud of the Nineteenth Century
• Published online: 05 February 2015 Print publication: 18 February 2010 First published in: 1908
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This thirty-fourth volume contains essays and lectures including 'The Storm-Cloud of the Nineteenth Century'.

• Volume 33, The Bible of Amiens; Valle Crucis; The Art of England
• Published online: 05 April 2012 Print publication: 18 February 2010 First published in: 1908
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This thirty-third volume contains essays and lectures on art and architecture, including 'The Bible of Amiens'.

• Volume 35, Praeterita and Dilecta
• Published online: 05 July 2015 Print publication: 18 February 2010 First published in: 1908
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays – almost all highly illustrated – are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' – extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences by and about Ruskin. This thirty-fifth volume, in two parts, contains Praeterita, Ruskin's autobiography, and Dilecta, his own published selection of his letters.

• Volume 31, Bibliotheca Pastorum
• Published online: 07 September 2011 Print publication: 18 February 2010 First published in: 1907
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This thirty-first volume contains the Bibliotheca pastorum.

• Volume 30, The Guild and Museum of St George
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This thirtieth volume contains writings on the Guild of St George and the Ruskin Museum.

• Volume 26, Deucalion
• Published online: 05 March 2012 Print publication: 18 February 2010 First published in: 1906
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This twenty-sixth volume contains Ruskin's writings on geology, including Deucalion.

• Volume 22, Lectures on Landscape; Michaelangelo; Tintoret
• Published online: 07 September 2011 Print publication: 18 February 2010 First published in: 1906
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This twenty-second volume contains essays on art and science, including 'Lectures on Landscape' and 'The Eagle's Nest'.

• Volume 21, The Ruskin Art Collection at Oxford
• View description The influence of John Ruskin (1819–1900), both on his own time and on artistic and social developments in the twentieth century, cannot be over-stated. He changed Victorian perceptions of art, and was the main influence behind 'Gothic revival' architecture. As a social critic, he argued for the improvement of the condition of the poor, and against the increasing mechanisation of work in factories, which he believed was dull and soul-destroying. The thirty-nine volumes of the Library Edition of his works, published between 1903 and 1912, are themselves a remarkable achievement, in which his books and essays - almost all highly illustrated - are given a biographical and critical context in extended introductory essays and in the 'Minor Ruskiniana' - extracts from letters, articles and reminiscences both by and about Ruskin. This twenty-first volume contains the catalogues of the Ruskin Art Collection at Oxford.

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5 Themes in the Works of John Ruskin

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• Doctor of Arts, University of Albany, SUNY
• M.S., Literacy Education, University of Albany, SUNY
• B.A., English, Virginia Commonwealth University

We live in interesting technological times. As the 20th century turned into the 21st century, the Information Age took hold. Digital parametric design has changed the face of how architecture is practiced. Manufactured building materials are often synthetic. Some of today's critics caution against today's ubiquitous machine, that computer-aided design has become computer-driven design. Has artificial intelligence gone too far?

London-born John Ruskin (1819 to 1900) addressed similar questions in his time. Ruskin came of age during Britain's domination of what became known as the Industrial Revolution . Steam-powered machinery quickly and systematically created products that once had been hand-hewn. High-heating furnaces made hand-hammered wrought iron irrelevant to a new cast iron, easily molded into any shape without the need of the individual artist. Artificial perfection called cast-iron architecture was prefabricated and shipped around the world.

Ruskin's 19th-century cautionary criticisms are ones applicable to today's 21st-century world. In the following pages, explore some of the thoughts of this artist and social critic, in his own words. Although not an architect, John Ruskin influenced a generation of designers and continues to be on the must-read lists of today's architecture student.

Two of the best-known treatises in architecture were written by John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture , 1849, and The Stones of Venice , 1851.

Ruskin's Themes

Ruskin studied the architecture of northern Italy. He observed Verona's San Fermo, its arch being "wrought in fine stone, with a band of inlaid red brick, the whole chiseled and fitted with exquisite precision." * Ruskin noted a sameness in the Gothic palaces of Venice, but it was a sameness with a difference. Unlike today's Cape Cods in Suburbia, architectural details were not manufactured or prefabricated in the medieval town he sketched. Ruskin said:

"...the forms and mode of decoration of all the features were universally alike; not servilely alike, but fraternally; not with the sameness of coins cast from one mould, but with the likeness of the members of one family." — Section XLVI, Chapter VII Gothic Palaces, The Stones of Venice, Volume II

*Section XXXVI, Chapter VII

Rage Against the Machine

Throughout his life, Ruskin compared the industrialized English landscape with the great Gothic architecture of medieval cities. One can only imagine what Ruskin would say about today's engineered wood or vinyl siding. Ruskin said:

"It is only good for God to create without toil; that which man can create without toil is worthless: machine ornaments are no ornaments at all." — Appendix 17, The Stones of Venice, Volume I

Dehumanization of Man in an Industrial Age

Who today is encouraged to think? Ruskin acknowledged that a man can be trained to produce perfect, quickly made products, just like a machine can do. But do we want humanity to become mechanical beings? How dangerous is thinking in our own commerce and industry today? Ruskin said:

"Understand this clearly: You can teach a man to draw a straight line, and to cut one; to strike a curved line, and to carve it; and to copy and carve any number of given lines or forms, with admirable speed and perfect precision; and you find his work perfect of its kind: but if you ask him to think about any of those forms, to consider if he cannot find any better in his own head, he stops; his execution becomes hesitating; he thinks, and ten to one he thinks wrong; ten to one he makes a mistake in the first touch he gives to his work as a thinking being. But you have made a man of him for all that. He was only a machine before, an animated tool." — Section XI, Chapter VI - The Nature of Gothic, The Stones of Venice, Volume II

What is architecture?

Answering the question " What is architecture? " is not an easy task. John Ruskin spent a lifetime expressing his own opinion, defining the built environment in human terms. Ruskin said:

"Architecture is the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by man for whatsoever uses, that the sight of them contributes to his mental health, power and pleasure." — Section I, Chapter I The Lamp of Sacrifice, The Seven Lamps of Architecture

Respecting the Environment, Natural Forms, and Local Materials

Today's green architecture and green design is an afterthought for some developers. To John Ruskin, natural forms are all that should be. Ruskin said:

"...for whatever is in architecture fair or beautiful, is imitated from natural forms....An architect should live as little in cities as a painter. Send him to our hills, and let him study there what nature understands by a buttress, and what by a dome." — Sections II and XXIV, Chapter III The Lamp of Power, The Seven Lamps of Architecture

Ruskin in Verona: Artistry and Honesty of the Hand-Crafted

As a young man in 1849, Ruskin railed against cast-iron ornamentation in the "Lamp of Truth" chapter of one of his most important books, The Seven Lamps of Architecture . How did Ruskin come to these beliefs?

As a youth, John Ruskin traveled with his family to mainland Europe, a custom he continued throughout his adult life. Travel was a time to observe architecture, sketch, and paint, and continue to write. While studying the northern Italian cities of Venice and Verona, Ruskin realized that the beauty he saw in architecture was created by man's hand. Ruskin said:

"The iron is always wrought, not cast, beaten first into thin leaves, and then cut either into strips or bands, two or three inches broad, which are bent into various curves to form the sides of the balcony, or else into actual leafage, sweeping and free, like the leaves of nature, with which it is richly decorated. There is no end to the variety of design, no limit to the lightness and flow of the forms, which the workman can produce out of iron treated in this manner; and it is very nearly as impossible for any metal-work, so handled, to be poor, or ignoble in effect, as it is for cast metal-work to be otherwise." — Section XXII, Chapter VII Gothic Palaces, The Stones of Venice Volume II

Ruskin's praise of the hand-crafted not only influenced the Arts & Crafts Movement but also continues to popularize Craftsman-style houses and furniture like Stickley.

Ruskin's Rage Against the Machine

John Ruskin lived and wrote during the explosive popularity of cast-iron architecture , a manufactured world he despised. As a boy, he had sketched the Piazza delle Erbe in Verona, shown here, remembering the beauty of the wrought iron and the carved stone balconies. The stone balustrade and the chiseled gods atop the Palazzo Maffei were worthy details to Ruskin, architecture, and ornamentation made by man and not by machine.

"For it is not the material, but the absence of the human labor, which makes the thing worthless," Ruskin wrote in "The Lamp of Truth." His most common examples were these:

Ruskin on Cast Iron

"But I believe no cause to have been more active in the degradation of our natural feeling for beauty, than the constant use of cast iron ornaments. The common iron work of the middle ages was as simple as it was effective, composed of leafage cut flat out of sheet iron, and twisted at the workman's will. No ornaments, on the contrary, are so cold, clumsy, and vulgar, so essentially incapable of a fine line, or shadow, as those of cast iron....there is no hope of the progress of the arts of any nation which indulges in these vulgar and cheap substitutes for real decoration." — Section XX, Chapter II The Lamp of Truth, The Seven Lamps of Architecture

Ruskin on Glass

"Our modern glass is exquisitely clear in its substance, true in its form, accurate in its cutting. We are proud of this. We ought to be ashamed of it. The old Venice glass was muddy, inaccurate in all its forms, and clumsily cut, if at all. And the old Venetian was justly proud of it. For there is this difference between the English and Venetian workman, that the former thinks only of accurately matching his patterns, and getting his curves perfectly true and his edges perfectly sharp, and becomes a mere machine for rounding curves and sharpening edges, while the old Venetian cared not a whit whether his edges were sharp or not, but he invented a new design for every glass that he made, and never moulded a handle or a lip without a new fancy in it. And therefore, though some Venetian glass is ugly and clumsy enough, when made by clumsy and uninventive workmen, other Venetian glass is so lovely in its forms that no price is too great for it; and we never see the same form in it twice. Now you cannot have the finish and the varied form too. If the workman is thinking about his edges, he cannot be thinking of his design; if of his design, he cannot think of his edges. Choose whether you will pay for the lovely form or the perfect finish, and choose at the same moment whether you will make the worker a man or a grindstone." — Section XX, Chapter VI The Nature of Gothic, The Stones of Venice Volume II

The writings of critic John Ruskin influenced social and labor movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. Ruskin did not live to see Henry Ford's Assembly Line , but he predicted that untethered mechanization would lead to labor specialization. In our own day, we wonder if an architect's creativity and ingenuity would suffer if asked to perform only one digital task, whether in a studio with a computer or on a project site with a laser beam. Ruskin said:

"We have much studied and much perfected, of late, the great civilized invention of the division of labor; only we give it a false name. It is not, truly speaking, the labor that is divided; but the men: — Divided into mere segments of men — broken into small fragments and crumbs of life; so that all the little piece of intelligence that is left in a man is not enough to make a pin, or a nail, but exhausts itself in making the point of a pin, or the head of a nail. Now it is a good and desirable thing, truly, to make many pins in a day; but if we could only see with what crystal sand their points were polished — sand of human soul, much to be magnified before it can be discerned for what it is — we should think there might be some loss in it also. And the great cry that rises from all our manufacturing cities, louder than their furnace blast, is all in very deed for this — that we manufacture everything there except men; we blanch cotton, and strengthen steel, and refine sugar, and shape pottery; but to brighten, to strengthen, to refine, or to form a single living spirit, never enters into our estimate of advantages."—Section XVI, Chapter VI The Nature of Gothic, The Stones of Venice, Volume II

When in his 50s and 60s, John Ruskin continued his social writings in monthly newsletters collectively called Fors Clavigera: Letters to the Workmen and Labourers of Great Britain . See the Ruskin Library News to download a PDF file of Ruskin's voluminous pamphlets written between 1871 and 1884. During this time period, Ruskin also established the Guild of St George , an experimental Utopian society similar to the American communes established by the Transcendentalists in the 1800s. This "alternative to industrial capitalism" might be known today as a "Hippie Commune."

Source: Background , Guild of St George website [accessed February 9, 2015]

What is Architecture: Ruskin's Lamp of Memory

In today's throw-away society, do we build buildings to last through the ages or is cost too much a factor? Can we create lasting designs and build with natural materials that future generations will enjoy? Is today's Blob Architecture beautifully crafted digital art, or will it seem just too silly in years hence?

John Ruskin continually defined architecture in his writings. More specifically, he wrote that we cannot remember without it, that architecture is memory . Ruskin said:

"For, indeed, the greatest glory of a building is not in its stones, or in its gold. Its glory is in its Age, and in that deep sense of voicefulness, of stern watching, of mysterious sympathy, nay, even of approval or condemnation, which we feel in walls that have long been washed by the passing waves of humanity....it is in that golden stain of time, that we are to look for the real light, and color, and preciousness of architecture...." — Section X, The Lamp of Memory, The Seven Lamps of Architecture

John Ruskin's Legacy

As today's architect sits at his computer machine, dragging and dropping design lines as easily as (or easier than) skipping stones on Britain's Coniston Water, the 19th-century writings of John Ruskin make us stop and think — is this design architecture? And when any critic-philosopher allows us to partake in the human privilege of thought, his legacy is established. Ruskin lives on.

Ruskin's Legacy

• Created new interest in reviving Gothic architecture
• Influenced the Arts & Crafts Movement and hand-crafted workmanship
• Established interest in social reforms and labor movements from his writings on man's dehumanization in an Industrial Age

John Ruskin spent his final 28 years at Brantwood , overlooking the Lake District's Coniston. Some say he went mad or fell into dementia; many say his later writings show signs of a troubled man. While his personal life has titillated some 21st-century film-goers, his genius has influenced the more serious-minded for more than a century. Ruskin died in 1900 at his home, which is now a museum open to visitors of Cumbria .

If John Ruskin's writings do not appeal to a modern audience, his personal life certainly does. His character appears in a film about British painter J.M.W. Turner and, also, a film about his wife, Effie Gray.

• Mr. Turner , a film directed by Mike Leigh (2014)
• Effie Gray , a film directed by Richard Laxton (2014)
• " John Ruskin: Mike Leigh and Emma Thompson have got him all wrong " by Philip Hoare, The Guardian , October 7, 2014
• Marriage of Inconvenience by Robert Brownell (2013)
• Biography and Influence of John Ruskin, Writer and Philosopher
• Biography of William Morris, Leader of the Arts and Crafts Movement
• Biography of Philip Webb
• Maya Lin. The Architect, Sculptor, and Artist
• Eero Saarinen Portfolio of Selected Works
• Henry Hobson Richardson, The All-American Architect
• Interior Design - Looking Inside Frank Lloyd Wright
• Sir Christopher Wren, the Man Who Rebuilt London After the Fire
• Designing for Disney
• 15 Important African American Architects
• Florence Knoll, Designer of the Corporate Board Room
• I.M. Pei, Architect of Glass Geometries
• Frank Lloyd Wright Architecture by City and State
• Biography of Le Corbusier, Leader of the International Style
• Biography of John Augustus Roebling, Man of Iron
• Louis I. Kahn, a Premier Modernist Architect