essay cognitive psychology

7.1 What Is Cognition?

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe cognition
• Distinguish concepts and prototypes
• Explain the difference between natural and artificial concepts
• Describe how schemata are organized and constructed

Imagine all of your thoughts as if they were physical entities, swirling rapidly inside your mind. How is it possible that the brain is able to move from one thought to the next in an organized, orderly fashion? The brain is endlessly perceiving, processing, planning, organizing, and remembering—it is always active. Yet, you don’t notice most of your brain’s activity as you move throughout your daily routine. This is only one facet of the complex processes involved in cognition. Simply put, cognition is thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory. Scientists who study cognition are searching for ways to understand how we integrate, organize, and utilize our conscious cognitive experiences without being aware of all of the unconscious work that our brains are doing (for example, Kahneman, 2011).

Upon waking each morning, you begin thinking—contemplating the tasks that you must complete that day. In what order should you run your errands? Should you go to the bank, the cleaners, or the grocery store first? Can you get these things done before you head to class or will they need to wait until school is done? These thoughts are one example of cognition at work. Exceptionally complex, cognition is an essential feature of human consciousness, yet not all aspects of cognition are consciously experienced.

Cognitive psychology is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think. It attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying the interactions among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to other cognitive processes. Cognitive psychologists strive to determine and measure different types of intelligence, why some people are better at problem solving than others, and how emotional intelligence affects success in the workplace, among countless other topics. They also sometimes focus on how we organize thoughts and information gathered from our environments into meaningful categories of thought, which will be discussed later.

Concepts and Prototypes

The human nervous system is capable of handling endless streams of information. The senses serve as the interface between the mind and the external environment, receiving stimuli and translating it into nervous impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brain then processes this information and uses the relevant pieces to create thoughts, which can then be expressed through language or stored in memory for future use. To make this process more complex, the brain does not gather information from external environments only. When thoughts are formed, the mind synthesizes information from emotions and memories ( Figure 7.2 ). Emotion and memory are powerful influences on both our thoughts and behaviors.

In order to organize this staggering amount of information, the mind has developed a "file cabinet" of sorts. The different files stored in the file cabinet are called concepts. Concepts are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences. Concepts are, in many ways, big ideas that are generated by observing details, and categorizing and combining these details into cognitive structures. You use concepts to see the relationships among the different elements of your experiences and to keep the information in your mind organized and accessible.

Concepts are informed by our semantic memory (you will learn more about semantic memory in a later chapter) and are present in every aspect of our lives; however, one of the easiest places to notice concepts is inside a classroom, where they are discussed explicitly. When you study United States history, for example, you learn about more than just individual events that have happened in America’s past. You absorb a large quantity of information by listening to and participating in discussions, examining maps, and reading first-hand accounts of people’s lives. Your brain analyzes these details and develops an overall understanding of American history. In the process, your brain gathers details that inform and refine your understanding of related concepts such as war, the judicial system, and voting rights and laws.

Concepts can be complex and abstract, like justice, or more concrete, like types of birds. In psychology, for example, Piaget’s stages of development are abstract concepts. Some concepts, like tolerance, are agreed upon by many people, because they have been used in various ways over many years. Other concepts, like the characteristics of your ideal friend or your family’s birthday traditions, are personal and individualized. In this way, concepts touch every aspect of our lives, from our many daily routines to the guiding principles behind the way governments function.

Another technique used by your brain to organize information is the identification of prototypes for the concepts you have developed. A prototype is the best example or representation of a concept. For example, what comes to your mind when you think of a dog? Most likely your early experiences with dogs will shape what you imagine. If your first pet was a Golden Retriever, there is a good chance that this would be your prototype for the category of dogs.

Natural and Artificial Concepts

In psychology, concepts can be divided into two categories, natural and artificial. Natural concepts are created “naturally” through your experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences. For example, if you live in Essex Junction, Vermont, you have probably had a lot of direct experience with snow. You’ve watched it fall from the sky, you’ve seen lightly falling snow that barely covers the windshield of your car, and you’ve shoveled out 18 inches of fluffy white snow as you’ve thought, “This is perfect for skiing.” You’ve thrown snowballs at your best friend and gone sledding down the steepest hill in town. In short, you know snow. You know what it looks like, smells like, tastes like, and feels like. If, however, you’ve lived your whole life on the island of Saint Vincent in the Caribbean, you may never actually have seen snow, much less tasted, smelled, or touched it. You know snow from the indirect experience of seeing pictures of falling snow—or from watching films that feature snow as part of the setting. Either way, snow is a natural concept because you can construct an understanding of it through direct observations, experiences with snow, or indirect knowledge (such as from films or books) ( Figure 7.3 ).

An artificial concept , on the other hand, is a concept that is defined by a specific set of characteristics. Various properties of geometric shapes, like squares and triangles, serve as useful examples of artificial concepts. A triangle always has three angles and three sides. A square always has four equal sides and four right angles. Mathematical formulas, like the equation for area (length × width) are artificial concepts defined by specific sets of characteristics that are always the same. Artificial concepts can enhance the understanding of a topic by building on one another. For example, before learning the concept of “area of a square” (and the formula to find it), you must understand what a square is. Once the concept of “area of a square” is understood, an understanding of area for other geometric shapes can be built upon the original understanding of area. The use of artificial concepts to define an idea is crucial to communicating with others and engaging in complex thought. According to Goldstone and Kersten (2003), concepts act as building blocks and can be connected in countless combinations to create complex thoughts.

A schema is a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts (Bartlett, 1932). There are many different types of schemata, and they all have one thing in common: schemata are a method of organizing information that allows the brain to work more efficiently. When a schema is activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed.

There are several types of schemata. A role schema makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave (Callero, 1994). For example, imagine you meet someone who introduces himself as a firefighter. When this happens, your brain automatically activates the “firefighter schema” and begins making assumptions that this person is brave, selfless, and community-oriented. Despite not knowing this person, already you have unknowingly made judgments about them. Schemata also help you fill in gaps in the information you receive from the world around you. While schemata allow for more efficient information processing, there can be problems with schemata, regardless of whether they are accurate: Perhaps this particular firefighter is not brave, they just work as a firefighter to pay the bills while studying to become a children’s librarian.

An event schema , also known as a cognitive script , is a set of behaviors that can feel like a routine. Think about what you do when you walk into an elevator ( Figure 7.4 ). First, the doors open and you wait to let exiting passengers leave the elevator car. Then, you step into the elevator and turn around to face the doors, looking for the correct button to push. You never face the back of the elevator, do you? And when you’re riding in a crowded elevator and you can’t face the front, it feels uncomfortable, doesn’t it? Interestingly, event schemata can vary widely among different cultures and countries. For example, while it is quite common for people to greet one another with a handshake in the United States, in Tibet, you greet someone by sticking your tongue out at them, and in Belize, you bump fists (Cairns Regional Council, n.d.)

Because event schemata are automatic, they can be difficult to change. Imagine that you are driving home from work or school. This event schema involves getting in the car, shutting the door, and buckling your seatbelt before putting the key in the ignition. You might perform this script two or three times each day. As you drive home, you hear your phone’s ring tone. Typically, the event schema that occurs when you hear your phone ringing involves locating the phone and answering it or responding to your latest text message. So without thinking, you reach for your phone, which could be in your pocket, in your bag, or on the passenger seat of the car. This powerful event schema is informed by your pattern of behavior and the pleasurable stimulation that a phone call or text message gives your brain. Because it is a schema, it is extremely challenging for us to stop reaching for the phone, even though we know that we endanger our own lives and the lives of others while we do it (Neyfakh, 2013) ( Figure 7.5 ).

Remember the elevator? It feels almost impossible to walk in and not face the door. Our powerful event schema dictates our behavior in the elevator, and it is no different with our phones. Current research suggests that it is the habit, or event schema, of checking our phones in many different situations that makes refraining from checking them while driving especially difficult (Bayer & Campbell, 2012). Because texting and driving has become a dangerous epidemic in recent years, psychologists are looking at ways to help people interrupt the “phone schema” while driving. Event schemata like these are the reason why many habits are difficult to break once they have been acquired. As we continue to examine thinking, keep in mind how powerful the forces of concepts and schemata are to our understanding of the world.

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What Does 'Cognitive' Mean in Psychology?

How People Think and What's Involved in Cognitive Processes

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

Verywell / Laura Porter

• Improving Cognitive Skills

Frequently Asked Questions

'Cognitive' is a term used in psychology to describe anything related to thinking, learning, and understanding. So when you hear people talk about cognitive skills or processes, they are referring to different aspects of how the brain works—things like remembering information, learning new things, paying attention, and processing all of the information you encounter each day. 

Cognitive abilities are something you use each and every day. For example, when you are learning a new instrument, you are using your cognitive skills to learn the basics of music theory, pick up melodies, learn the notes, and put that information together to produce music.

'Cognitive' refers to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension. Some of the many different cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving .

These are higher-level brain functions that encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning. Cognitive psychology is the field of psychology that investigates how people think and the processes involved in cognition. 

At a Glance

Cognitive psychology seeks to understand all of the mental processes involved in human thought and behavior. It focuses on cognitive processes such as decision-making, problem-solving, attention, memory, learning, and more. Keep reading to learn more about different types of cognitive processes, factors that can affect cognition, and the different uses for these cognitive processes.

Types of Cognitive Processes

There are many different types of cognitive processes. They include:

Attention is a cognitive process that allows people to focus on a specific environmental stimulus. Attention is an important cognitive ability because it allows us to focus on the information we need, while also filtering out irrelevant distractions.

Language and language development are cognitive processes that involve the ability to understand and express thoughts through spoken and written words. This allows us to communicate with others, including conveying our own thoughts and learning about others. It also plays an important role in thought.

Learning requires cognitive processes involved in taking in new things, synthesizing information, and integrating it with prior knowledge. Cognitive psychologists often study the mental processes that involved in processing, comprehending, and remembering information.

Memory is an important cognitive process that allows people to encode, store, and retrieve information. It is a critical component in the learning process and allows people to retain knowledge about the world and their personal histories.

Perception is a cognitive process that allows people to take in information through their senses, then utilize this information to respond and interact with the world.

Thought is an essential part of every cognitive process. It allows people to engage in decision-making , problem-solving, and higher reasoning.

Hot Cognition vs. Cold Cognition

Some split cognition into two categories: hot and cold. Hot cognition refers to mental processes in which emotion plays a role, such as reward-based learning . Conversely, cold cognition refers to mental processes that don't involve feelings or emotions, such as working memory .

What is an example of cognition?

Cognition includes all of the conscious and unconscious processes involved in thinking, perceiving, and reasoning. Examples of cognition include paying attention to something in the environment, learning something new, making decisions, processing language, sensing and perceiving environmental stimuli, solving problems, and using memory. 

History of the Study of Cognition

The study of how humans think dates back to the time of ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle.

Philosophical Origins

Plato's approach to the study of the mind suggested that people understand the world by first identifying basic principles buried deep inside themselves, then using rational thought to create knowledge. This viewpoint was later advocated by philosophers such as Rene Descartes and linguist Noam Chomsky. It is often referred to as rationalism.

Aristotle, on the other hand, believed that people acquire knowledge through their observations of the world around them. Later thinkers such as John Locke and B.F. Skinner also advocated this point of view, which is often referred to as empiricism.

Early Psychology

During the earliest days of psychology—and for the first half of the 20th century—psychology was largely dominated by psychoanalysis , behaviorism , and humanism .

Eventually, a formal field of study devoted solely to the study of cognition emerged as part of the "cognitive revolution" of the 1960s. This field is known as cognitive psychology.

The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology

One of the earliest definitions of cognition was presented in the first textbook on cognitive psychology, which was published in 1967. According to Ulric Neisser, a psychologist and the book's author, cognition is "those processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used."

What Can Affect Cognitive Processes?

It is important to remember that these cognitive processes are complex and often imperfect. Some of the factors that can affect or influence cognition include:

Research indicates that as we age, our cognitive function tends to decline. Age-related cognitive changes include processing things more slowly, finding it harder to recall past events, and a failure to remember information that was once known (such as how to solve a particular math equation or historical information).

Attention Issues

Selective attention is a limited resource, so there are a number of things that can make it difficult to focus on everything in your environment. Attentional blink , for example, happens when you are so focused on one thing that you completely miss something else happening right in front of you.

Cognitive Biases

Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking related to how people process and interpret information about the world. Confirmation bias is one common example that involves only paying attention to information that aligns with your existing beliefs while ignoring evidence that doesn't support your views. 

Some studies have connected cognitive function with certain genes. For example, a 2020 study published in Brain Communications found that a person's level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is 30% determined by heritability, can impact the rate of brain neurodegeneration, a condition that ultimately impacts cognitive function.

Memory Limitations

Short-term memory is surprisingly brief, typically lasting just 20 to 30 seconds, whereas long-term memory can be stable and enduring, with memories lasting years and even decades. Memory can also be fragile and fallible. Sometimes we forget and other times we are subject to misinformation effects that may even lead to the formation of false memories .

Uses for Cognitive Processes

Cognitive processes affect every aspect of life, from school to work to relationships. Some specific uses for these processes include the following.

Learning New Things

Learning requires being able to take in new information, form new memories, and make connections with other things that you already know. Researchers and educators use their knowledge of these cognitive processes to create instructive materials to help people learn new concepts .

Forming Memories

Memory is a major topic of interest in the field of cognitive psychology. How we remember, what we remember, and what we forget reveal a great deal about how cognitive processes operate.

While people often think of memory as being much like a video camera—carefully recording, cataloging, and storing life events away for later recall—research has found that memory is much more complex.

Making Decisions

Whenever people make any type of a decision, it involves making judgments about things they have processed. This might involve comparing new information to prior knowledge, integrating new information into existing ideas, or even replacing old knowledge with new knowledge before making a choice.

Impact of Cognition

Our cognitive processes have a wide-ranging impact that influences everything from our daily life to our overall health.

Perceiving the World

As you take in sensations from the world around you, the information that you see, hear, taste, touch, and smell must first be transformed into signals that the brain can understand. The perceptual process allows you to take in this sensory information and convert it into a signal that your brain can recognize and act upon.

Forming Impressions

The world is full of an endless number of sensory experiences . To make meaning out of all this incoming information, it is important for the brain to be able to capture the fundamentals. Events are reduced to only the critical concepts and ideas that we need.

Filling in the Gaps

In addition to reducing information to make it more memorable and understandable, people also elaborate on these memories as they reconstruct them. In some cases, this elaboration happens when people are struggling to remember something . When the information cannot be recalled, the brain sometimes fills in the missing data with whatever seems to fit.

Interacting With the World

Cognition involves not only the things that go on inside our heads but also how these thoughts and mental processes influence our actions. Our attention to the world around us, memories of past events, understanding of language, judgments about how the world works, and abilities to solve problems all contribute to how we behave and interact with our surrounding environment.

Tips for Improving Cognitive Skills

Cognitive processes are influenced by a range of factors, including genetics and experiences. While you cannot change your genes or age, there are things that you can do to protect and maximize your cognitive abilities:

• Stay healthy . Lifestyle factors such as eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise can have a positive effect on cognitive functioning.  
• Think critically . Question your assumptions and ask questions about your thoughts, beliefs, and conclusions.
• Stay curious and keep learning . A great way to flex your cognitive abilities is to keep challenging yourself to learn more about the world.
• Skip multitasking . While it might seem like doing several things at once would help you get done faster, research has shown it actually decreases both productivity and work quality.

In psychology, the term 'cognitive' refers to all of the different mental events involved in thinking, learning, and comprehending. Cognitive processes such as learning, attention, perception, and memory are important parts of the human experience. Understanding how they function can provide insight into normal human thought and behavior and how different cognitive conditions might create problems and impairments. 

Thinking is an important component, but cognition also encompasses unconscious and perceptual processes as well. In addition to thinking, cognition involves language, attention, learning, memory, and perception.

People utilize cognitive skills to think, learn, recall, and reason. Five important cognitive skills include short-term memory, logic, processing speed, attention, and spatial recognition.

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Li S, Weinstein G, Zare H, et al. The genetics of circulating BDNF: Towards understanding the role of BDNF in brain structure and function in middle and old ages . Brain Commun . 2020;2(2):fcaa176. doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcaa176

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Petroutsatou K, Sifiniadis A. Exploring the consequences of human multitasking in industrial automation projects: A tool to mitigate impacts - Part II . Organiz Techn Manage Construct . 2018;10(1):1770-1777. doi:10.2478/otmcj-2016-0031

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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114 Cognitive Psychology Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Cognitive psychology is a fascinating field that explores how our minds process and interpret information. From memory and perception to problem-solving and decision-making, cognitive psychology covers a wide range of topics that can be explored through essays. If you're looking for inspiration for your next cognitive psychology essay, we've compiled a list of 114 topic ideas and examples to get you started.

The role of attention in cognitive processing.

How memory is affected by age.

The influence of emotions on cognitive functioning.

The cognitive processes involved in decision-making.

The relationship between language and thought.

The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance.

The role of schemas in cognitive development.

The cognitive processes involved in problem-solving.

The impact of technology on cognitive abilities.

The cognitive processes involved in creativity.

The effects of stress on cognitive functioning.

The role of cognitive biases in decision-making.

The relationship between intelligence and cognitive abilities.

The cognitive processes involved in learning.

The impact of multitasking on cognitive performance.

The role of attention in learning and memory.

The effects of meditation on cognitive functioning.

The cognitive processes involved in perception.

The impact of social media on cognitive development.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and academic performance.

The cognitive processes involved in language comprehension.

The effects of nutrition on cognitive performance.

The role of working memory in cognitive functioning.

The cognitive processes involved in attentional control.

The impact of video games on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and job performance.

The cognitive processes involved in face recognition.

The effects of exercise on cognitive functioning.

The role of executive functions in cognitive development.

The cognitive processes involved in decision-making under uncertainty.

The impact of music on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and mental health.

The cognitive processes involved in reading comprehension.

The effects of caffeine on cognitive performance.

The role of metacognition in cognitive functioning.

The cognitive processes involved in spatial navigation.

The impact of bilingualism on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and creativity.

The cognitive processes involved in problem-solving strategies.

The effects of mindfulness on cognitive functioning.

The role of attentional biases in cognitive development.

The cognitive processes involved in time perception.

The impact of sleep quality on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and decision-making skills.

The cognitive processes involved in visual search.

The effects of aging on cognitive performance.

The role of cognitive load in cognitive functioning.

The cognitive processes involved in emotion regulation.

The impact of technology use on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and social skills.

The cognitive processes involved in memory consolidation.

The effects of chronic stress on cognitive functioning.

The role of cognitive schemas in cognitive development.

The cognitive processes involved in problem-solving heuristics.

The impact of social media use on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and learning styles.

The cognitive processes involved in auditory perception.

The effects of nutrition on cognitive development.

The role of working memory capacity in cognitive functioning.

The cognitive processes involved in attentional biases.

The impact of video game violence on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and job satisfaction.

The cognitive processes involved in face perception.

The effects of exercise intensity on cognitive performance.

The role of inhibitory control in cognitive development.

The cognitive processes involved in risky decision-making.

The impact of music training on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and academic achievement.

The cognitive processes involved in reading fluency.

The effects of alcohol on cognitive functioning.

The role of metacognitive awareness in cognitive development.

The cognitive processes involved in spatial cognition.

The impact of bilingual education on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills.

The cognitive processes involved in visual attention.

The effects of cognitive training on cognitive performance.

The role of cognitive flexibility in cognitive functioning.

The cognitive processes involved in emotion recognition.

The impact of screen time on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and mental flexibility.

The cognitive processes involved in memory retrieval.

The effects of acute stress on cognitive functioning.

The role of cognitive development in moral reasoning.

The cognitive processes involved in decision-making biases.

The impact of social media addiction on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and academic motivation.

The cognitive processes involved in speech perception.

The effects of sleep duration on cognitive performance.

The role of visuospatial abilities in cognitive development.

The cognitive processes involved in attentional control training.

The impact of violent video games on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and job performance evaluations.

The cognitive processes involved in facial expression recognition.

The effects of physical fitness on cognitive functioning.

The role of inhibitory control in cognitive development disorders.

The cognitive processes involved in decision-making under risk.

The impact of music listening on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and academic self-efficacy.

The cognitive processes involved in reading comprehension strategies.

The effects of caffeine withdrawal on cognitive performance.

The role of attentional biases in cognitive development disorders.

The cognitive processes involved in time perception biases.

The impact of sleep disorders on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and decision-making styles.

The cognitive processes involved in visual memory.

The effects of cognitive enhancers on cognitive functioning.

The role of cognitive control in cognitive development disorders.

The cognitive processes involved in emotion regulation strategies.

The impact of technology addiction on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and social anxiety.

The cognitive processes involved in memory reconstruction.

The effects of chronic sleep deprivation on cognitive performance.

The role of cognitive schemas in cognitive development disorders.

The cognitive processes involved in problem-solving biases.

These cognitive psychology essay topic ideas provide a broad range of possibilities for exploration and analysis. Remember to choose a topic that interests you the most and aligns with your course requirements. Good luck with your essay!

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What Is the Cognitive Psychology Approach? 12 Key Theories

Maintaining focus on the oncoming traffic is paramount, yet I am barely aware of the seagulls flying overhead.

These noisy birds only receive attention when I am safely walking up the other side of the road, their cries reminding me of childhood seaside vacations.

Cognitive psychology focuses on the internal mental processes needed to make sense of the environment and decide on the next appropriate action (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

This article explores the cognitive psychology approach, its origins, and several theories and models involved in cognition.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is the cognitive psychology approach, a brief history of cognitive psychology, cognitive psychology vs behaviorism, 12 key theories, concepts, and models, fascinating research experiments, a look at positive cognitive psychology, interesting resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

The upsurge of research into the mysteries of the human brain and mind has been considerable in recent decades, with recognition of the importance of cognitive process in clinical psychology and social psychology  (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

As a result, cognitive psychology has profoundly affected the field of psychology and our understanding of what it is to be human.

Perhaps more surprisingly, it has had such an effect without clear boundaries, an integrated set of assumptions and concepts, or a recognizable spokesperson (Gross, 2020).

So, what exactly is the cognitive psychology approach?

Cognitive psychology attempts to understand human cognition by focusing on what appear to be cognitive tasks that require little effort (Goldstein, 2011).

Let’s return to our example of walking down the road. Imagine now that we are also taking a call. We’re now combining several concurrent cognitive tasks:

• Perceiving the environment Distinguishing cars from traffic signals and discerning their direction and speed on the road as well as the people ahead standing, talking, and blocking the sidewalk.
• Paying attention Attending to what our partner is asking us on the phone, above the traffic noise.
• Visualizing Forming a mental image of items in the house, responding to the question, “Where did you leave your car keys?”
• Comprehending and producing language Understanding the real question (“I need to take the car. Where are your keys?”) from what is said and formulating a suitable reply.
• Problem-solving Working out how to get to the next appointment without the car.
• Decision-making Concluding that the timing of one meeting will not work and choosing to push it to another day.

While cognitive psychologists initially focused firmly on an analogy comparing the mind to a computer, their understanding has moved on.

There are currently four approaches, often overlapping and frequently combined, that science uses to understand human cognition (Eysenck & Keane, 2015):

• Cognitive psychology The attempt to “understand human cognition by using behavioral evidence” (Eysenck & Keane, 2015, p. 2).
• Cognitive neuropsychology Understanding ‘normal’ cognition through the study of patients living with a brain injury.
• Cognitive neuroscience Combining evidence from the brain with behavior to form a more complete picture of cognition.
• Computational cognitive science Using computational models to understand and test our understanding of human cognition.

Cognitive psychology plays a massive and essential role in understanding human cognition and is stronger because of its close relationships and interdependencies with other academic disciplines (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

In 1868, a Dutch physiologist, Franciscus Donders, began to measure reaction time – something we would now see as an experiment in cognitive psychology (Goldstein, 2011).

Donders recognized that mental responses could not be measured directly but could be inferred from behavior. Not long after, Hermann Ebbinghaus began examining the nature and inner workings of human memory using nonsense syllables (Goldstein, 2011).

By the late 1800s, Wilhelm Wundt had set up the first laboratory dedicated to studying the mind scientifically. His approach became known as structuralism . His bold aim was to build a periodic table of the mind , containing all the sensations involved in creating any experience (Goldstein, 2011).

However, the use of analytical introspection to uncover hidden mental processes was gradually dropped when John Watson proposed a new psychological approach that became known as behaviorism (Goldstein, 2011).

Watson rejected the introspective approach and instead focused on observable behavior. His idea of classical conditioning – the connection of a new stimulus with a previously neutral one – was later surpassed by B. F. Skinner’s idea of operant conditioning , which focused on positive reinforcement (Goldstein, 2011).

Both theories sought to understand the relationship between stimulus and response rather than the mind’s inner workings (Goldstein, 2011).

Prompted by a scathing attack by linguist and cognitive scientist Noam Chomsky, by the 1950s behaviorism as the dominant psychological discipline was in decline. The introduction of the digital computer led to the information-processing approach , inspiring psychologists to think of the mind in terms of a sequence of processing stages (Goldstein, 2011).

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Moore (1996) recognized the tensions of the paradigm shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology.

While research into cognitive psychology, cognitive neuropsychology, cognitive neuroscience , and computational cognitive science is now widely accepted as the driving force behind understanding mental processes (such as memory, perception, problem-solving, and attention), this was not always the case (Gross, 2020).

Moore (1996) highlighted the relationship between behaviorism and the relatively new field of cognitive psychology, and the sometimes mistaken assumptions regarding the nature of the former approach:

• Behaviorism is typically only associated with studying publicly observable behavior. Unlike behaviorism, cognitive psychology is viewed as free of the restrictions of logical positivism, which rely on verification through observation.

Since then, modern cognitive psychology has incorporated findings from many other disciplines, including evolutionary psychology , computer science, artificial intelligence , and neuroscience (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

• Unlike behaviorism, cognitive psychology is theoretical and explanatory. Behaviorism is often considered merely descriptive, while cognitive psychology is seen as being able to explain what is behind behavior.

Particular ongoing advances in cognitive psychology include perception, language comprehension and production, and problem-solving (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

• Behaviorism cannot incorporate theoretical terms. While challenged by some behaviorists at the time, it was argued that behaviorism could not incorporate theoretical terms unless related to directly observable behavior.

At the time, cognitive psychologists also argued that it was wrong of behaviorists to interpret mental states in terms of brain states.

Neuroscience advances, such as new imaging techniques like functional MRI, continue to offer fresh insights into the relationship between the brain and mental states (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Clearly, the relationship between behaviorism and the developing field of cognitive psychology has been complex. However, cognitive psychology has grown into a school of thought that has led to significant advances in understanding cognition, especially when teamed up with other developments in computing and neuroscience.

This may not have been possible without the shift in the dominant schools of thought in psychology (Gross, 2020; Goldstein, 2011; Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

And while it is beyond the scope of this article to cover the full breadth or depth of the areas of research, we list several of the most important and fascinating specialties and theories below.

It is hardly possible to imagine a world in which attention doesn’t play an essential role in how we interact with the environment, and yet, we rarely give it a thought.

According to cognitive psychology, attention is most active when driven by an individual’s expectations or goals, known as top-down processing . On the other hand, it is more passive when controlled by external stimuli, such as a loud noise, referred to as bottom-up processing (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

A further distinction exists between focused attention (selective) and divided attention . Research into the former explores how we are able to focus on one item (noise, image, etc.) when there are several. In contrast, the latter looks at how we can maintain attention on two or more stimuli simultaneously.

Donald Broadbent proposed the bottleneck model to explain how we can attend to just one message when several are presented, for example, in dichotic listening experiments, where different auditory stimuli are presented to each ear. Broadbent’s model suggests multiple processing stages, each one progressively restricting the information flow (Goldstein, 2011).

As with all other areas of cognition, perception is far more complicated than we might first imagine. Take, for example, vision. While a great deal of research has “involved presenting a visual stimulus and assessing aspects of its processing,” there is also the time aspect to consider (Eysenck & Keane, 2015, p. 121).

We need to not only perceive objects, but also make sense of their movement and detect changes in the visual environment over time (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Research suggests perception, like attention, combines bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing involves neurons that fire in response to specific elements of an image – perhaps aspects of a face, nose, eyebrows, jawline, etc. Top-down processing considers how the knowledge someone brings with them affects their perception.

Bottom-down processing helps explain why two people, presented with the same stimuli, experience different perceptions as a result of their expectations and prior knowledge (Goldstein, 2011).

Combining bottom-up and top-down processing also enables the individual to make sense of both static and moving images when limited information is available; we can track a person walking through a crowd or a plane disappearing in and out of clouds (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

The mirror neuron system is incredibly fascinating and is proving valuable in our attempts to understand biological motion. Observing actions activates similar areas of the brain as performing them. The model appears to explain how we can imitate the actions of another person – crucial to learning (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Language comprehension

Whether written or spoken, understanding language involves a high degree of multi-level processing (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Comprehension begins with an initial analysis of sentence structure (larger language units require additional processing). Beyond processing syntax (the rules for building and analyzing sentences), analysis of sentence meaning ( semantics ) is necessary to understand if the interpretation should be literal or involve irony, metaphor, or sarcasm (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Pragmatics examines intended meaning. For example, shouting, “That’s the doorbell!” is not likely to be a simple observation, but rather a request to answer the door (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Several models have been proposed to understand the analysis and comprehension of sentences, known as parsing , including (Eysenck & Keane, 2015):

• Garden-path model This model attempts to explain why some sentences are ambiguous (such as, “The horse raced past the barn fell.”). It suggests they are challenging to comprehend because the analysis is performed on each individual unit of the sentence with little feedback, and correction is inhibited.
• Constraint-based model The interpretations of a sentence may be limited by several constraints, including syntactic, semantic, and general world knowledge.
• Unrestricted race model This model combines the garden-path and constraint-based model, and suggests all sources of information inform syntactic structure. One such interpretation is selected until it is discarded, with good reason, for another.
• Good-enough representation This model proposes that parsing provides a ‘good-enough’ interpretation rather than something detailed, accurate, and complete.

The research and theories above hint at the vast complexity of human cognition and explain why so many models and concepts attempt to answer what happens when it works and, equally important, when it doesn’t.

A level of psychology: the cognitive approach – Atomi

There are many research experiments in cognitive psychology that highlight the successes and failings of human cognition. Each of the following three offers insight into the mental processes behind our thinking and behavior.

Cocktail party phenomenon

Selective attention – or in this case, selective listening – is often exemplified by what has become known as the cocktail party phenomenon  (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Even in a busy room and possibly mid-conversation, we can often hear if someone else mentions our name. It seems we can filter out surrounding noise by combining bottom-up and top-down processing to create a “winner takes it all” situation where the processing of one high-value auditory input suppresses the brain activity of all others (Goldstein, 2011).

While people may believe that the speed of hand movement allows magicians to trick us, research suggests the main factor is misdirection (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

A 2010 study of a trick involving the disappearance of a lighter identified that when the lighter was dropped (to hide it from a later hand-opening finale), it was masked by directing attention from the fixation point – known as covert attention – with surprising effectiveness.

However, subjects were able to identify the drop when their attention was directed to the fixation point – known as overt attention (Kuhn & Findlay, 2010).

In a thought-provoking study exploring freewill, participants were asked to consciously decide whether to move their finger left or right while a functional MRI scanner monitored their prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex (Soon, Brass, Heinze, & Haynes, 2008).

Brain activity predicted the direction of movement a full seven seconds before they consciously became aware of their decision. While follow-up research has challenged some of the findings, it appears that brain activity may come before conscious thinking (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Associations have been found between positive emotions, creative thinking, and overall wellbeing, suggesting environmental changes that may benefit staff productivity and innovation in the workplace (Yuan, 2015).

Factors explored include creating climates geared toward creativity, boosting challenge, trust, freedom, risk taking, low conflict, and even the beneficial effects of humor.

Undoubtedly, further innovation will be seen from marrying the two powerful and compelling new fields of positive psychology and cognitive psychology.

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Why not download our free emotional intelligence pack and try out the powerful tools contained within?

• Building Emotional Awareness In this exercise, we foster emotional intelligence by mindfully attending to existing emotional states.
• Identifying False Beliefs About Emotions Our beliefs often operate outside of conscious awareness. This exercise addresses clients’ basic and often unconscious assumptions about their emotions.

Other free resources include:

• Skills for Regulating Emotion We can learn to manage our emotions by focusing on more positive experiences than negative ones.
• Emotional Repetition and Attention Remodeling Identifying phrases used to describe ourselves can help desensitize negative feelings .

More extensive versions of the following tools are available with a subscription to the Positive Psychology Toolkit© , but here is a brief overview:

• Creating Savoring Rituals It’s possible to increase positive emotions by sharpening our sensory perceptions via savoring.

Learning to focus can help.

Step one – Identify everyday activities that bring you pleasure. Step two – Focus on experiencing pleasure as it happens when doing these activities.

At the end of the week, take some time to record your reflections on creating savoring rituals.

• Extracting Strengths From Problems Surprisingly, using our strengths too much can harm our problem-solving ability.

In this exercise, we examine an existing issue in a client’s life:

Step one – Describe a current problem. Step two – Identify the problematic context or life domain. Step three – Identify the problematic behavior in yourself. Step four – Recognize your underlying strength. Step five – Identify what you can do to remedy the problem.

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Cognitive psychology is crucial in our search for understanding how we interact with and make sense of a constantly changing and potentially harmful environment.

Not only that, it offers insight into what happens when things go wrong and the likely impact on our wellbeing and ability to cope with life events.

Cognitive psychology’s strength is its willingness to embrace research findings from many other disciplines, combining them with existing psychological theory to create new models of cognition.

The tasks we appear to carry out unconsciously are a great deal more complex than they might first appear. Perception, attention, problem-solving, language comprehension and production, and decision-making often happen without intentional thought and yet have enormous consequences on our lives.

Use this article as a starting point to explore the many and diverse aspects of cognitive psychology. Consider their relationships with associated research fields and reflect on the importance of understanding cognition in helping clients overcome complex events or circumstances.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

• Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive psychology: A student’s handbook . Psychology Press.
• Goldstein, E. B. (2011). Cognitive psychology . Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
• Gross, R. D. (2020). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour . Hodder and Stoughton.
• Kuhn, G., & Findlay, J. M. (2010). Misdirection, attention and awareness: Inattentional blindness reveals temporal relationship between eye movements and visual awareness. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 63 (1), 136–146.
• Moore, J. (1996). On the relation between behaviorism and cognitive psychology. Journal of Mind and Behavior , 17 (4), 345–367
• Soon, C. S., Brass, M., Heinze, H., & Haynes, J. (2008). Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain. Nature Neuroscience , 11 (5), 543–545.
• Yuan, L. (2015). The happier one is, the more creative one becomes: An investigation on inspirational positive emotions from both subjective well-being and satisfaction at work. Psychology , 6 , 201–209.

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What our readers think.

As a widowed Mother and Grandmother, whom was recently told by an adult child that maybe I should have “cognitive” testing done, I found this article to be very informative and refreshing. Having the ability to read and and learn about cognitive psychology is interesting as their are so many ways our brains are affected from the time we are born until the time we reach each and every stage in life. I have spent time with my grandchildren who are from age 19 months, through 15 years old , and spend time with children who are 35, 34, and 32, and my parents who are 88 and 84. I appreciate your article and your time in writing it. Sincerely,

Cognitive Psychology creates & build human capacity to push physical and mental limits. My concept of cognition in human behavior was judged by the most time I met my lawyer or the doctor. Most of the time while listening a pause, oh I see and it is perpetual transition to see. Cognition emergence is very vital support as we see & perceive. My practices in engineering solution are base on my cognitive sensibilities.You article provokes the same perceptions. Thank you

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Kelly's cognitive theory

1. introduction to kelly's cognitive theory.

George A. Kelly's (1955) cognitive theory expands on the cognitive accounts of perception, cognition, and personality since it attempts to explain events in the fullest manner possible. The issues connected with it will be discussed at the end of the volume, however. The theory also permits an account of how cultural differences arise, a matter which has not usually been considered in psychological formulations and to which Kelly has contributed a series of unread chapters in a formidable book. It was first presented in its essentials in 1955, and included two features in relation to an expanded and larger theoretical model. This is what we propose to describe in the following pages. It was recognized by Kelly, in 1955, that the study of anticipation is as foundational to an understanding of human behavior as are most sensory studies in many of the biological fields, in most physical sciences, and in some technological areas of human activity and thus it should be possible to develop a system for the study of anticipation which parallels more general developments in such other fields. The purpose of this chapter has not been to provide a comprehensive summary of Kelly's theory, but rather has to point to the presence of some basic features.

2. Biographical Background of George Kelly

Whatever the role of psychologists may have been in former centuries, it is evident that they have the responsibility of being engaged in the comprehensive worldwide problem of men. As psychologists, we recognize that we do not know all the factors nor the vast potentiality lying in man's adaptive processes. There are some who deplore the inroads made by psychologists upon other related fields, but apparently they are not impressed with the magnitude of the problems. Psychologists should explore every possible avenue of knowledge and contribute to the welfare of man. The field of empirical research is not full but is in need of additional workers, more salient hypotheses, and more extensive explorations. To approach the living human being, we as psychologists must first understand him, and to understand him we must regard his capacities, his desires, his goals, and his sufferings, for by these attributes alone is he alive. If George Kelly's lasting contribution to psychology is to be recognized only partially and come to full understanding, a further body of research must be added to his contribution. This research emerges in different areas and at different levels, forms, and patterns of his theory. Kelly was certainly aware of this and indeed encouraged his colleagues and students to contribute to achieving a better understanding of the human being. Of course, important research bearing directly on his theory has been carried out and reported, but the major research and achievements in most areas of the theory are still to come. The purpose of this present study is to make a substantive contribution to at least part of each of the above levels of Kelly's theoretical complex. It is a completest of his Cognitive Theory that is perhaps the wisest course, particularly when such notions as bipolarism, construct revision, etc., are in need of further description and understanding.

3. Fundamental Concepts of Kelly's Cognitive Theory

Kelly's cognitive theory is based upon five fundamental concepts: person as scientist, construction corollary, individuality corollary, organizational corollary, and dichotomy corollary. A person cannot be understood unless it is realized that this person is a scientific problem solver - in other words, the person must be considered as a scientist. This concept is the most important concept of Kelly's theory and also provides the foundation for the theory itself. The way a person behaves is the only indisputable evidence of his or her science. When a scientist constructs a scientific theory, he or she forms a hypothesis, tests this hypothesis, and based upon the results of the tests, refines the hypothesis. After repeated testing, the validity of the scientist's hypothesis may be verified, and it may become a scientific law. According to Kelly, our efforts to understand man are simplified if we consider that a person behaves like the physicist, the chemist, and the biologist, who is devising laws to account for events that are associated with inanimate things. How a person makes sense of the world leads to the construction corollary, which is an extremely important concept in giving clarity to Kelly's theory. Specifically, a person's process of action, of acting like a scientist as he or she goes through life, is viewed as self-focused. The person is involved with apprehending relationships amongst elements and the participant at the same instant. As Kelly says in his theory, "Man reaches a state of affairs called understanding by drawing upon the constructions which he himself creates". The empirical implications of the construction corollary indicate that every human being uses the alternative interpretations that he or she constructs to anticipate or predict, control or manipulate, and explain the world with which he or she gets involved. It is through this process that people find relevancies in their world. Either people conjure their life or life conjures the people.

3.1. Constructive Alternativism

Among George Kelly's fundamental postulates of the personal construct theory, the most important and encompassing of his ideas is his view of man as a scientist. Kelly's explanation of the processes through which human beings go about knowing stands out as his most enduring and useful contribution. The theory of constructive alternativism has been developed to expound the characteristics of this important conception. In demonstrating the scope of constructive alternativism, factors are reviewed which claim exemption from the theory and principles are given for evaluating the extent to which problems established in these areas can be dealt with in terms of the system. Preliminary ideas have been set forth concerning the kind of building process which may take place. In conclusion, the empirical scientists are invited to turn his attention to the subject of constructive alternativism in the hope that he may become engaged in the process of conversion to the new realism. If one is to accept this notion of man as investigator, how does he go about determining the range of this inquiry? Or if one were pursuing this line of interest, doing what would foster, interfere or hinder his research? And lastly, what kind of enlightenment would one expect to achieve in the various directions indicated? These are some of the questions which have already elicited generalized minimized attention from George Kelly, the originator and with his helpers, the revised and molder of the personal construct theory. We can, of course, begin to isolate places in his systematic elaboration of this radical emphasis on man as scientist, and for the maturation and refinement of this principle, predictable sources can be looked to. Then we wondered what constructive alternativism might have to instruct us along these lines. Our task is to attempt a comprehensive, if not an in-depth, analysis of the concept and to set down some propositions indicative of the possible generality and utility of constructive alternativism as an important aspect of the personal construct theory. In that connection, it is worth investigating what useful, unifying guides to practice may be found in the formulations and underlying ideas of the personal construct theory. We predict that we are not aware of any previous theoretical attempts to so delineate the methodology of a discipline. Such an analysis, particularly if supported by empirical data, also has many important functions for the further development of the personal construct theory in that it provides data and ideas which are needed to test and to extend the theory, and it indicates the directions in which we may expect to find particularly fertile fields for broadening our understanding of people.

3.2. Personal Constructs

We proceed with the analysis of Kelly's cognitive theory by lifting our discussion from the general to the specific - from the general laws of personal constructs to Kelly's specific proposals. We are now ready to see how Kelly frames his assumptions about the nature of human cognition. 3.2.1. Personal Construct Personal construct hypothesis: A person's processes are channeled by anticipations of events. Fundamental postulates: (a) A person's processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he or she anticipates events. (b) Anticipations of events provide him with a means of risk definition. (c) When such anticipations are rigidly applied, they induce in him a psychological constraint. (d) A person's construction system varies as he successively construes the replication of events. (e) He or she may successively employ a variety of construction subsystems (dichotomous). (f) Some of these subordinate constructions are more nearly anticipations of the behavior of others, and some are anticipations of his or her own future behavior.

4. Application of Kelly's Theory in Psychology

Relevance determines the application of an observed universe, but psychology may not even match any other particular field of science in the solutions it can provide until it assumes greater relevance. Neurosis, in Kelly's opinion, is coupled with the discovery of expectancy failures. The mental health professional may be instrumental in providing a system of education for citizens about the informal framework upon which they are being guided through their personal lives. The brief listing of the principles emphasizes the fundamental importance to the future psychological science of assumptive man in his experiences and beliefs about his nexus of guidance. An in-depth analysis of Kelly's theory forms the dynamic center for my research. It is my contention that for spread and growth over that unique form of knowledge which psychology can uniquely provide, psychology as a particular science must utilize the empirical laws supplied by Kelly to the same extent that all specialists in the physical sciences utilize their particular empirical laws of a unique scientific province.

4.1. Therapeutic Techniques

As previously discussed, for a concept to be operational, it must be capable of being both defined and measured. Kelly's cognitive theory places a heavy emphasis on cognitive processes, and many of Kelly's therapeutic techniques stress the imperatives of thinking before taking a particular action. Members are instructed to examine thought content as opposed to thought processes or logic. In essence, Kelly stresses the importance of thought content in the genesis of behavior. The cognitive therapist, as well, is focused upon ascertaining the thought content of the client. To do so, several modes are employed. The therapist may encourage the client to engage in introspection, challenging him to learn what it is he is actually thinking. Similarly, the therapist may seek to lead the client to discover for himself what his thoughts are. However, however much the therapist may try or however hard the client may try, this is not always possible. It is always possible to state what one is thinking. When this is the case, personal constructs are evoked, facilitating a better understanding of thought content. These techniques are not without value, and it is felt that significant insights are brought about. However, these modes are laborious, time-consuming, and interpretations as to the actual meaning of nouns and situation-place adjectives are often vague and not clearly defined. These phrases are extremely difficult to operationalize and may be distorted prior to the therapist's having the opportunity to interpret them. It is of no surprise then that the corpus of ABC (attendance, behavior content) rationales that have been sought and accumulated is relatively large while that of such complimentary phrases is quite modest.

4.2. Personality Assessment

It is interesting to note that even though Kelly downplayed the concept of personality as a process of assessment, he did build a Personality Assessment Device to test his theory. To a large extent, what Kelly was assessing may best be considered the degree of support for his theory. Nevertheless, his approach to the P.A.D. is quite intriguing. He classified all manner of personal constructs and then developed a categorized inventory of these elements. Participants rate themselves on the various elements and then, of course, the data are subjected to factor analysis (assuming a principal components analysis). Data in this area have been patterned in that participants generally found about the predicted factor structure based on their self-assessment, but never 100%. Unfortunately, participant responses to the self-assessment arise from the tacit knowledge people possess about their behavior and are amenable to the power of social causes, efficiency of not having to know everything, and effects of strong desire and strong belief.

5. Critiques and Contemporary Relevance of Kelly's Theory

Although Kelly clearly states that a comprehensive theory should also be able to predict the behavior of human beings, few of his works have been devoted to empirical applications. Most of these studies have been congruence level research, with 20th century culture tentatively generalizing some of these experiments' results. Tendentious testing was always loved and protected by Kelly. It was the way of removing a conjecture from speculation and exposing it to the buffetings all sensible hypotheses must eventually endure. And to escape the horrors of attempting these taxing tasks, one or other CMR model of reality has dominated individual theorists and theorists in particular generations. Nevertheless and in time opposition to many critiques, George Kelly's theory remains a very thought-provoking approach. If, for example, one uses the term "individuality" as a synonym for one's unique way of examining the world, it becomes clear how hard a task it is trying to encompass this wide breadth of activity within a single system of beliefs. In many aspects, Kelly's theory is also the most outstanding proposal as it portrays man as an active decision maker, struggling to fit his demand for prediction and control of environmental events into what is knowable. People consistently strive to predict and control the events in their personal world, and much that they predictably do serves to maximize the pleasure and fulfill their dreams. Any other proposal trying to explain the cognitive underpinnings of the behavior in which humans engage within the complex world they inhabit should return to George Kelly's insightful ideas.

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How to Get Started on Your First Psychology Experiment

Acquiring even a little expertise in advance makes science research easier..

Updated May 16, 2024 | Reviewed by Ray Parker

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• Becoming something of an "expert" on a topic in advance makes designing a study go more smoothly.

One of the most rewarding and frustrating parts of my long career as a psychology professor at a small liberal arts college has been guiding students through the senior capstone research experience required near the end of their college years. Each psychology major must conduct an independent experiment in which they collect data to test a hypothesis, analyze the data, write a research paper, and present their results at a college poster session or at a professional conference.

The rewarding part of the process is clear: The students' pride at seeing their poster on display and maybe even getting their name on an article in a professional journal allows us professors to get a glimpse of students being happy and excited—for a change. I also derive great satisfaction from watching a student discover that he or she has an aptitude for research and perhaps start shifting their career plans accordingly.

The frustrating part comes at the beginning of the research process when students are attempting to find a topic to work on. There is a lot of floundering around as students get stuck by doing something that seems to make sense: They begin by trying to “think up a study.”

The problem is that even if the student's research interest is driven by some very personal topic that is deeply relevant to their own life, they simply do not yet know enough to know where to begin. They do not know what has already been done by others, nor do they know how researchers typically attack that topic.

Students also tend to think in terms of mission statements (I want to cure eating disorders) rather than in terms of research questions (Why are people of some ages or genders more susceptible to eating disorders than others?).

Needless to say, attempting to solve a serious, long-standing societal problem in a few weeks while conducting one’s first psychology experiment can be a showstopper.

Even a Little Bit of Expertise Can Go a Long Way

My usual approach to helping students get past this floundering stage is to tell them to try to avoid thinking up a study altogether. Instead, I tell them to conceive of their mission as becoming an “expert” on some topic that they find interesting. They begin by reading journal articles, writing summaries of these articles, and talking to me about them. As the student learns more about the topic, our conversations become more sophisticated and interesting. Researchable questions begin to emerge, and soon, the student is ready to start writing a literature review that will sharpen the focus of their research question.

In short, even a little bit of expertise on a subject makes it infinitely easier to craft an experiment on that topic because the research done by others provides a framework into which the student can fit his or her own work.

This was a lesson I learned early in my career when I was working on my own undergraduate capstone experience. Faced with the necessity of coming up with a research topic and lacking any urgent personal issues that I was trying to resolve, I fell back on what little psychological expertise I had already accumulated.

In a previous psychology course, I had written a literature review on why some information fails to move from short-term memory into long-term memory. The journal articles that I had read for this paper relied primarily on laboratory studies with mice, and the debate that was going on between researchers who had produced different results in their labs revolved around subtle differences in the way that mice were released into the experimental apparatus in the studies.

Because I already had done some homework on this, I had a ready-made research question available: What if the experimental task was set up so that the researcher had no influence on how the mouse entered the apparatus at all? I was able to design a simple animal memory experiment that fit very nicely into the psychological literature that was already out there, and this prevented a lot of angst.

Please note that my undergraduate research project was guided by the “expertise” that I had already acquired rather than by a burning desire to solve some sort of personal or social problem. I guarantee that I had not been walking around as an undergraduate student worrying about why mice forget things, but I was nonetheless able to complete a fun and interesting study.

My first experiment may not have changed the world, but it successfully launched my research career, and I fondly remember it as I work with my students 50 years later.

Frank McAndrew, Ph.D., is the Cornelia H. Dudley Professor of Psychology at Knox College.

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Writing in Psychology

The goal of scientific writing is effective communication, communication of abstract propositions, logical arguments, empirical observations, experimental results, and their interrelations and interactions.  Clear organization, as well as lucid and precise writing, are very important conditions for such communication.  This guide is designed to help you produce clear and well written papers, no matter what the topic or format.

To achieve clarity, good writing must be precise in it use of words, free of ambiguity, orderly in its presentation of ideas, economical in expression, smooth in flow, and considerate of the reader.

Strive to choose words which convey the intended meaning. Qualifiers are often a source of imprecision. Expressions such as “quite a large part,” “practically all,” “very few,” and the like are interpreted differently by different readers or in different contexts. They weaken statements, especially those dealing with empirical observations.

Do not use words incorrectly (when you mean think do not write feel), and avoid coined terms (use concept not conceptum).

Avoiding ambiguity. The referent for each term should be so apparent that the reader will not have to search over prior material. Ambiguity is avoided by indicating the referent every time you use this, that, these, and those (e.g., this test and that trial). Also, make certain that the first sentence of a paragraph is comprehensible by itself; do not depend on a vague reference to earlier statements.

Economy of expression.   Strive for clear, economical expression. Avoid overly sophisticated terms, as well as overly complex sentences.

Smoothness of expression.  Do not introduce a topic abruptly. If the reader is likely to ask “How does this fit in?” more transition is necessary. Similarly, do not abandon an argument suddenly. If a reader feels “left hanging,” the discussion needs a concluding statement.

Sudden shifts in tense should be avoided. Do not move capriciously between past and present tense within the same paragraph or successive paragraphs. Past tense is usually appropriate for a literature review (Smith reported) or the experimental design or procedure (the animals were injected), inasmuch as it is an historical account. Using present tense suggests a dialogue between the author and reader and should be used where that situation is appropriate. Future tense is rarely appropriate.

Verbs must agree with their subjects, and pronouns with the nouns to which they refer. This simple rule is usually not troublesome except with plural words of Latin or Greek origin that end in a. For example, data, criteria, and phenomena are plural.

Consideration of the reader

In scientific writing, devices that attract attention to words, sounds or other embellishments, instead of ideas, are inappropriate. Heavy alliteration, accidental rhyming, poetic expression, and clichés are suspect. They are unsuitable in scientific writing because they lead the reader, who is looking for information, away from the theme of the paper. Metaphors are sometimes helpful, but use them sparingly. Avoid mixed metaphors. Literal and figurative usage mix badly; for example, “During the interview, the client sat with her head in her hands and her eyes on the floor.”

Absolute insistence on the third person and the passive voice (“it is thought” or “it is suggested”) has been a strong tradition in scientific writing. It is now thought that this results in a deadly, pompous style known as “scientificese,” and is no longer seen as essential to the preservation of objectivity. However, despite a slight relaxation of these rules, the use of the passive voice and the third person is still the norm in most scientific writing. See the section below for additional information on person and voice.

Avoiding Sexism

Sexism can spring from subtle errors in research design, inaccurate interpretation, or imprecise word choices. An investigator may unintentionally introduce bias into the research design, for example, by using stimulus materials and measures that suggest to one sex or the other what responses are “appropriate.” Or, in interpretation, an investigator may make unwarranted generalizations about both men and women from data about one sex. Imprecise word choices, which occur frequently in journal writing, may be interpreted as biased, discriminatory, or demeaning even if they are not intended to be.

Problems of designation.   When you refer to a person or persons, choose words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias. For example, the use of “man” as a generic noun can be ambiguous and may convey an implicit message that women are of secondary importance. You can choose nouns, pronouns, and adjectives to eliminate, or at least to minimize, the possibility of ambiguity in sex role identity. Problems of designation are divided into two subcategories: ambiguity of referent, when it is unclear whether the author means one sex or both, and stereotyping, when the author conveys unsupported or biased connotations about sex roles and identity.

Problems of evaluation.   Scientific writing, as an extension of science, should be free of implied or irrelevant evaluation of the sexes. Difficulties may derive from the use of clichés, such as “man and wife,” which is non-parallel and implies differences in status and lifestyle (husband and wife” are parallel, or “man and woman”). Problems of evaluation, like problems of designation, are divided into ambiguity of referent and stereotyping.

Avoiding sexist language.  The task of changing language may seem awkward at first. Nevertheless, careful attention to meaning and practice in rephrasing will overcome any initial difficulty. The result of such effort is accurate, unbiased communication. For example, instead of “Much has been written about the effect that a child’s position among his siblings has on his intellectual development”, you might say, “Much has been written about the relationship between sibling position and intellectual development in children.”

Avoiding Ethnic Bias

Like language that may be interpreted as sexist, language that may be construed as ethnically biased can be classified into problems of designation and problems of evaluation.

Problems of designation.   Styles and preferences for nouns referring to ethnic groups change over time. In some cases, even members of a group disagree about the preferred name at a specific time. Ascertain the most acceptable current terms and use them.

Problems of evaluation.   The majority of instances of implied irrelevant evaluation seem to occur when the writer uses one group (usually the writer’s own group) as the standard against which others are assessed. Unfortunately, the basis for negative comparisons is usually established during the planning of the research, for example, by the choice of empirical measures.

At the writing stage, avoid language that suggests evaluation. An example of implied evaluation is found in the phrase “culturally deprived” when it is used to describe a single group rather than to compare two or more groups. Using the term to describe one group of participants implies that one culture is a universally accepted standard against which others are judged. As a test of implied evaluation, substitute another group (e.g., your own) for the group being discussed.  If you are offended by the revised statement, there is probably bias in the original statement.

Types of Papers in Psychology

Writing papers in psychology is much like writing papers in any other discipline. Nevertheless, in psychology, there are a number of different types of papers which may be required. As always, it is best to consult with your instructor, or carefully read the syllabus, to know what is expected of you in any particular course. The following provides a brief description of the types of papers which may be assigned.

Report . In a report, a student is expected to accurately and concisely convey the arguments contained in the book or article read. There is no interpretation in most reports. Instead, the goal is to summarize what the author has said.

Review . In a review, one analyzes a work written by someone else. Generally, the thesis of the paper is either agreement or disagreement with the position taken by the author. The opening paragraph provides a brief synopsis of the book or article ending with a thesis statement which states your evaluation. The body of the paper then presents the arguments and associated evidence justifying your viewpoint.

Critical Analysis . A critical analysis is known by a number of different names. It is sometimes called a literature review, a policy paper, or even simply a term paper. In a critical analysis, the point of the paper is to integrate a number of works by different people relevant to a specific topic or issue. In many ways, it combines and extends the type of writing contained in reports and reviews. Like a report you must accurately present the positions of others and like a critical analysis your evaluation of that body of research and/or theory is critical. A critical analysis usually begins with an opening paragraph which presents the problem or topic in general terms. The opening should lead the reader to a clear thesis statement which is often the final sentence in the opening paragraph. The thesis statement should indicate what you intend to show in the paper. Thus, the thesis should take a position. The body of the paper then presents the arguments you will use to justify your thesis. What is important is that you use research/theory to justify your position. You must interpret the research/theory rather than simply report it. Interpretation means that you must explain how a particular finding or method is relevant to your thesis statement. Everything contained in a critical analysis should help you justify your thesis.

Research Proposal . Some courses require research proposals. Since the format for the proposal may depend on the course for which it is written, it is important to ask the instructor for any special instructions. In the absence of special instructions/requirements, the following should apply.

A research proposal has two basic sections. The introduction has as its basic goal the presentation and justification of a testable hypothesis. The opening paragraph of a research proposal generally identifies a problem and indicates the independent variables of the proposed study. The final paragraph of a research proposal usually provides a brief narrative description of the proposed research and ends with a statement of the hypotheses to be tested. Given that you now have a general sense of where to begin (the opening) and where you want to end (the hypotheses), the trick is figure out how to get there from here. The purpose of the body of the paper is to justify the hypotheses through a careful analysis of the available research and theory. Thus, the body of the paper must review the research relevant to the independent variables in your proposal. Again, interpretation of the research rather than simply reporting is the goal. You must state what the research means for the hypotheses you are trying to develop. A research proposal is successful if a reader can easily understand how your interpretation of the research/theory led you to the specific hypotheses presented.

The second section, titled methods, describes the way you are planning to test the hypotheses. It is frequently sub-divided into sections titled, subjects, design, and procedure. Individual instructors may ask for additional sections. Check to see that you are following the instructor’s recommendations.

Lab Report . A lab report usually contains the same sections as a research proposal with the addition of a results section which contains the data and a discussion which addresses the implications of the data for the hypotheses which prompted the study. Instructors generally have a format for lab reports. Check with the instructor for the format to use in that course.

Writing the Paper

Choosing a topic . If your professor has given you a list of suggested topics, of course, take those suggestions seriously. Often, however, you are asked to choose a topic on your own. One way to do this is to step back from your day-to-day immersion in the course and take a broad view of the course content, the breadth of the topics covered, their meaning to you, and their application to your experience, or to “real world” situations that interest you. Examining your textbook from this perspective, skimming its table of contents, index, and chapter subheadings (especially those chapters you haven’t read yet), can be very helpful, and should help you decide on a topic that will sustain your interest and enthusiasm. It is also helpful at this stage to look for a topic that, perhaps from class lectures or your text, you know generates controversy or interesting questions, or leaves you room to participate in problem solving.

Once you have some preliminary ideas, read what is readily available on the topic in your text or the library. Talk to other students and with your professor. Remember that the professor can be a major resource and should be approached early in the process to help you clarify your choice. However, do not expect your professor to welcome a visit which begins with, “I can’t think of anything to write a paper on.” Professors much prefer directing your thinking to doing it for you!

It is important to select a topic which is appropriate in terms of its level of difficulty. A topic which is too broad will lead to a superficial paper without an adequate focus. A topic which is too narrow will make it difficult for you to find enough relevant material, or what you discover may be too complex for you. What is appropriate will also depend upon the level of your course. Some examples will illustrate this problem.

Too Broad:  Emotional disturbances schizophrenia

Too narrow:  Habit disorder in children speech problems in childhood schizophrenia

Better:  Behavioral models of causal factors in emotional disturbances schizophrenia

One test of the appropriateness of your topic will be the amount of relevant material you can find in the library. If you find too little, the topic may be too narrow; if you feel overwhelmed by the amount available, it may be too broad.

Searching the literature . Establish early the level of sophistication you expect to achieve with the topic you have chosen. If you are really interested in, or expect to achieve, state of the art knowledge in the area, you will need to start early and search the literature systematically. Frequently, professors set criteria for the minimum number of books, journals, or magazines cited. Bear in mind that asking questions such as: “How many references do I need?”, or “How long should my paper be?”, is comparable to asking, “How long is a piece of string?” Teachers give answers only to insure adequate work and to avoid having many unnecessarily long papers. The amount of information available and its relevance to the goals of your paper will more appropriately determine the length of your reference list.

Refer to the section of this manual that deals with the library to get some hints on how to proceed. Start with a preliminary look at the subject catalog for book holdings and check recent issues of the indexes and abstracts most likely to cover your topic to see if there is at least some literature available. You may find that the library’s findings must be supplemented by inter-library loans. This should cause no major difficulty if you allow sufficient time for materials to be located and sent.

Reading and organizing. As you read the literature concerning your topic, proceed by systematically taking notes; be sure to record what you feel is important. It is easy to get absorbed in the reading and to move on to other materials without pausing to take notes. However, every good writer needs to accumulate notes carefully before attempting to write a paper. It is very helpful to write notes on index cards so they may be reordered at a later date. Substantive notes summarizing a study or article can be written in the form they might be used in your paper. For instance, after reading a 10 page research report in a journal, your note could summarize the key points in a paragraph that begins:

Throckmorton and Doe (1979) tested the effect of humor on reducing pre-exam anxiety by showing videotapes of early Candid Camera TV shows during breakfast in a large dining hall on the campus of a small Midwestern liberal arts college. The subjects, 215 juniors and seniors, reported ….

By consistently taking the time to do this with material that has a high probability of being included in your paper, your literature review will largely be done when you sit down to write the paper. One word of caution is in order, however. Some detail oriented students get trapped by their note taking. They report finding it hard to screen their reading for importance or relevance and consequently write down everything they read. Some also find it hard to focus their reading and study in one area only; they end up with enough material for several papers instead of one. All of your reading and note taking need to be guided by an ever evolving game plan and goal for the paper.

After you have decided on a topic, collected the relevant research, and taken notes, you have to think about writing the paper. The following are some points to consider as you begin to write.

The Audience . Before you begin to write, ask yourself, “For whom am I writing this paper?” Your answer to this question will determine the amount of detail included in the paper and the amount of sophistication of the writing. For example, think about how you would present any topic to your younger brother or sister who is in elementary school, a fellow student, a senior psychology major, your professor, or the major researcher on your topic. Obviously, if you wrote for the major researcher, your younger brother or sister would not have a clue about what you are writing about. Similarly, if you wrote for your younger brother or sister, the major researcher would be insulted. It is important that you do not write in such a way that the reader is either insulted or confused. Unless your instructor tells you otherwise, assume that your audience is another student who is familiar with the basic concepts and ideas in psychology that you are covering. In other words, a fellow student in the course should be able read your paper, understand what you are arguing, and accurately report back to you what you have written.

The Opening Paragraph . The opening paragraph introduces the reader to the problem or issue to be addressed in the paper, it limits what the paper will cover, and it provides a central thesis for the paper. Edit out those vague, general throw away sentences often found in an opening paragraph. The following are examples of those sentences:

Since humans are social beings, we are all affected by people around us. B. F. Skinner, a famous psychologist who teaches at Harvard and invented the Skinner box which is used to study operant conditioning, is a controversial figure in psychology.

The opening paragraph should make the reader want to read the paper which follows. It should grab someone’s attention and identify quickly and clearly what the paper is about. If you are addressing a problem, note why the problem is important. If you are analyzing some variables, let the reader know what variables will be considered in the paper. Most importantly, the opening paragraph should lead to and end with a clear, concise thesis statement.

The Thesis Statement . The thesis statement tells the reader what your paper is all about. It takes a position. It tells the reader what you plan to show in the paper. Writing a paper can be compared to taking a trip. Knowing where you want to end up is like having a clear thesis statement. You can organize your arguments to lead the reader to your conclusion. Not having a clear thesis statement is like not knowing where you want to end up. Almost any piece of information is relevant and your paper is confused. The following are some examples of vague thesis statements:

Men and women differ in the influence strategies they use. This paper explores the differences between behavioral and cognitive therapies.

The intergroup contact hypothesis can be used to reduce prejudice other than racial prejudice.

Compare the thesis statements above with those below. Can you see why the statements below are clearer and more focused?

Discrimination against women will continue as long as women use indirect power while men exercise direct power. Cognitive therapies are superior to behavioral therapies because they consider both behavior and the client’s thought processes.

Use of the intergroup contact hypothesis can reduce prejudice against handicapped people

When you have a clear, focused thesis, you know what you have to show in the paper. In the first example, you would have to show how gender differences in power lead to discrimination. In the second, you would have to show why altering the client’s thinking is more important than just changing inappropriate behavior. In the third, you would have to show how the intergroup contact hypothesis can be used to reduce prejudice against the handicapped.

Remember that an interesting opening paragraph and a clear thesis statement is important regardless of the type of paper you are writing. The body of the paper may differ, however, as a function of paper type. In a report, the body of the paper conveys the basic ideas contained in the book or article you read. In a review, the body of the paper presents the reasons, and supporting evidence, for why you agree or disagree with the article or book. In a literature review, the body of the paper presents the arguments or points you are trying to make, interpreting the research/theory to provide support for those arguments. In a research proposal, the body of the paper interprets the research/theory to show why the hypothesis is legitimate.

Outlining your paper before you begin is always a good idea. It helps you organize your ideas and more importantly prevents you from leaving something out. Some outline and other simply write and then edit. If you can teach yourself to use outlines effectively, do so. It will save you time in the long run. If you cannot outline, allow yourself extra time for editing. Nevertheless, always realize that editing will be required.

Writing the First Draft

Some worry so much about every word that they become paralyzed and unable to write. Allow yourself the luxury of putting words down on paper the first time without worrying about whether they are absolutely correct. Our advice to procrastinators and worriers is to write first, edit second, and save the worrying for the outcome of the next national election. You can always edit yesterday’s awkward writing, but only if you wrote the first draft yesterday.

Editing and Rewriting.  With a first draft in the computer, the hard part is over. Now you can concentrate on refining what you said without the worry of what to say. You now want to edit for content, style, and organization. Have you said everything you wanted to say? Are all the sections consistent with the outline? Does some material need to be moved to another section, or should you revise the outline? Are you writing clearly? Have you used consistent style throughout and adhered to the proper guidelines for quotations, headings, referencing others’ work, and so forth?

The number of drafts necessary for a really “good” piece of writing depends on an individual’s ability and experience, as well as his or her criteria for good. While students rarely allow sufficient time for many drafts, professional writers often do four or more drafts and then turn their work over to a copy editor for polishing. Like any highly refined technique, good writing is the result of practice.

When you have done one or more rewrites of your paper, consider these two suggestions before preparing a final copy for your professor. First, let someone else read your paper for style, flow, and clarity. Of course, your paper must remain only your work, but there is no reason why you can’t make use of your friend’s evaluation of your style.

Style and Technical Considerations

The paragraph. The basic unit of writing is the paragraph. Rarely can a sentence stand alone. When you introduce an idea, it should be developed. In some ways a paragraph is like a mini-paper in that it starts with a central concept, develops that concept, and summarizes it. A good paragraph has two characteristics. First, it is unified: each sentence within a paragraph contributes to the same basic concept. You will usually state the concept in a topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. Second, the sentences in a paragraph should flow naturally. That is, the ideas presented in each sentence should relate to those contained in the sentences before and after.

Transitional devices.  One key to making your paper flow is to use transitional words or devices. Transitional words are helpful in tying one sentence to another and connecting different ideas within the same paragraph or paper. Common kinds of transitional devices include pronouns (e.g., “Lewin was a father of social psychology. He also …”), repeating words or phrases (e.g., “Werner proposed the orthogenic theory of development. Many current developmental theorists have a foundation in Werner’s work.”), and using synonyms or closely related works (e.g., “Cats are a favorite laboratory animal for the study of sleep. As we all know, felines like to sleep.”).

Transitional words can be used in many other ways. You probably already use transitional devices to make comparisons, provide examples, or enumerate. Table 1 provides some examples of transitional phrases and their functions.

Table 1. Examples of Transitional Phrases and Their Functions.

Make comparisons:  Similarly/however/in contrast/on the other hand but/likewise/yet/nevertheless

Augment your point:  In addition/also/too/and/furthermore

Enumerate:  First/second/next/finally/last

Give examples:  For example/to illustrate

Reach conclusions: As a result/as a consequence/therefore/thus

Summarize:  In summary/in short/to summarize

The first sentence of each paragraph may contain a transitional expression relating it to the preceding paragraph. If the new paragraph continues the theme of the preceding paragraph, use a transition like “in addition,” or “furthermore.” If you intend to introduce a new concept or wish to contrast, use “on the other hand” or “in contrast.” Use “in conclusion” or “to summarize” if you are summarizing or reaching a conclusion.

Supporting statements.  A key to writing clearly is being specific. Avoid using broad generalizations unless you follow them with concrete examples. Document or validate your point with data. If you state, “The intelligence scores of mothers and their children are strongly related.” support this statement with research findings or theory. For example, “In a study of 2,500 17 year-olds, Hollister (1983) found the strongest predictor of IQ was the mother’s IQ.”

The proper tense.  Choosing the correct tense in which to write your psychology paper can be confusing. The basic rule is to avoid the future tense. Most of your paper should be written in the past tense. The reason is that most of what you are describing has already been done. That is, the literature you cite has already been written, and the studies have already been conducted. As a general rule, discussions of prior research, descriptions of procedure, or statements of results, are in the past tense. For example:

Literature review:  Mitchell’s study found (not finds) …

Procedure:  The subjects were (not are) …

Results:  Mean scores were (not are) …

While most of your paper will be written in the past tense, certain statements may be in the present tense. A rule of thumb is to use the present tense in a scientific paper for statements which have continuing or general applicability. Therefore, definitions or statements from a well-defined theory should be stated in the present tense. For example:

Definition:  Drever defines …; in this experiment pain is …

Theory:  The orthogenetic theory states that …; Freud says …

Hypothesis:  Memory was not expected to correlate with motivation.

Results:  Mitchell demonstrated (past tense when referring to a particular study) that person nodes are used (present tense   when referring to general findings) …

References to tables or figures: Table 1 shows …

Correct person and voice.  In addition to tense, verbs can show voice and person. The active voice implies action by the subject (“The butler committed the crime.”), while the passive voice indicates something is happening to the actor (“The crime was committed by the butler.”). Traditionally, scientific papers have been written in the third person and the passive voice, i.e., “The researcher administered the survey.” The purpose of this writing style is to de-emphasize the personal nature of the report. The procedures and data are to stand on their own. However, this often results in clumsy prose that is difficult or boring to read. In term papers it is usually better to use the active voice. “Jones found …” rather than “It was found by Jones …” The use of the first person, “I,” should be reserved for those situations where the writer is clearly expressing his or her own views. Avoid the use of “we.”

Agreement of subject and verb.  The most common grammatical errors concern subject verb agreement. Singular and plural forms of a verb are sometimes incorrectly matched with a subject noun or pronoun. Every sentence must have both a subject and a verb. The subject is that part of the sentence that performs. For example, “Mark is an industrial psychologist.” In the case of a passive sentence, the subject receives the action of the verbs (e.g., “The shot was given to Smedley.”). The verb expresses action or a state of being. For example, “Mabel ran in the Boston Marathon.” or “The rats were psychotic.”

Correct singular and plural forms.  Many psychology students get confused about the singular and plural forms of certain scientific terms. The following list should be helpful.

Table 2. Singular and Plural Forms for a Number of Words

Singular                                 Plural

criterion                                  criteria

phenomenon                         phenomena

apparatus                               apparatus or apparatuses

stimulus                                 stimuli

analysis                                 analyses

datum                                     data

appendix                                appendixes or appendices

Avoiding sexist language.  You may have learned to write using the generic words he, him, his, man, and mankind to refer to people in general. In addition, you may have habits that either subtly or blatantly support sex role stereotypes. Until recently such sexist usage was not questioned. However, we encourage you to adopt a nonsexist alternative. Since 1977, the American Psychological Association has encouraged writing styles that support egalitarian attitudes and assumptions about people and sex roles. Below are some tips on writing in an appropriate, nonsexist manner.

1. Don’t use the words “girls” or “boys” unless you are speaking specifically about children; use “women” and “men” instead.

2. Substitute “person” for “man” and “people” for “men” unless you are talking specifically about males.

3. Use the plural when you are referring to a class of people. For example, “Students prefer their classes …,” rather than “A student prefers his classes…” The use of plurals will help you avoid the generic male pronoun.

4. Don’t designate gender unless it’s relevant. For example, use “minister” rather than “woman minister.”

5. Remember to use current job titles, instead of previous sexist ones. Examples of appropriate titles include: police officer, flight attendant, postal worker, secretary (not office girl).

Grammar and style.  Avoid the use of long involved sentences, inverted phrases, etc., which can lead to confusion. Simple, direct declarative sentences are usually the best. The style of psychology papers may seem dry but it is intended to be clear and consistent. Avoid emotionally loaded words (e.g., drastically significant, desperately needed). An evaluation need not have moral implications; an author may be incorrect without the results being unwarranted, bad, etc.

Titles and headings.  Except for very short papers (two or three pages) your paper should have a title page . Center the title about midway down the title page. Under the title, center your name. In the lower right hand corner of the page, include the number and name of the course for which the paper is being prepared, the date it is submitted, and your pledge. Remember to type of word “pledge” and sign your name.

The next page begins the body of your paper. Center your title in uppercase and lowercase letters about two inches below the top of the page (do not underline). In the upper right hand corner of this and the following pages should be a page number. Make this page one. Page numbering and headers, as they are called, can be done automatically with PC-Write.

Effective use of headings helps the writer to organize a paper effectively and the reader to better understand a paper’s content. Therefore, we encourage you to make appropriate use of headings as a means of organizing your paper. You can see how headings and titles are used in the paper in Appendix A.

Three levels of headings are sufficient for most student papers. They are illustrated below:

Usually the material which follows the title on the second page is introductory. The purpose of such material is presumed by a reader and no heading such as “Introduction” is used. The first time you use a heading will be for a section later in the body of the paper.

Items in a series.  Sometimes it is very helpful to organize material using a list. When this appears within a paragraph or sentence, items should be noted alphabetically: (a) first item, (b) second item, and so on.

Another type of list is one made up of a series of conclusions or steps in some procedure which need to be entered on separate lines for emphasis. Each item is treated as a separate paragraph. These should be indented and listed as follows:

1. Item number one. The first line of each item should be indented. Additional material continues on subsequent lines.

2. Item number two.

3. Item number three and so forth.

Numbers in the text. The use of numbers in psychology is somewhat different from other styles of writing. In psychology it is important to ensure precision and clarity with the statistics often included in a paper.

A rule of thumb for using numbers in your paper is that all numbers 10 and above should be expressed in Arabic figures, and all numbers below 10 should be expressed in words. There are, however, some important exceptions. For example, a sentence should never begin with an Arabic number. The table which follows summarizes the use of numbers in the text of a paper. Table 3.  Use of Numbers in Text.

Express as Numbers                                                 Express as Words

Numbers 10 and above                                          Numbers less than 10

Ages and dates                                                        Common fractions (two thirds of the U.S. population)

Groups of numbers with some above and some below 10

Percentages and percentiles                             Numbers that begin a sentence

Ratios                                                                         Precise measures or quantities (Fifty-four percent of the group)

Scores                                                                        Usual expressions (Fourth of July)

Statistical functions                                              Street numbers in addresses

Sums of money

Abbreviations.  Abbreviations are used in a paper when they will help make a reader’s task easier, but it is possible to overuse abbreviations. When in doubt, avoid an abbreviation. Certain terms and titles have meaning to almost everyone familiar with the field. For example, MMPI can be used as a clear substitute for Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and almost any reader would comprehend the use of IQ instead of Intelligence Quotient. These abbreviations make the task of reading simpler.

References.  One of the most important tasks in the preparation of papers is the proper citation of references. This may seem a little confusing since most students are used to thinking of bibliographies. There are some important differences between the two. A reference section includes only those literature items that are actually cited in the paper. A bibliography will include items that served as background material but which were not explicitly cited (also, see the Citation Guidelines page for more information on referencing).

References in the text.  When you discuss almost anything that is not original with you, such as a book, journal article, or even a lecture, it must have a reference. Psychology papers use the name/date method of noting such citations, not footnotes.

For every statement that you have adapted from another source, there should be both a name or names and a publication date included in the body of the paper. There are a three basic ways in which a reference can be cited. First, the sentence containing the material can begin with the author and date:

Jones (1983) was one of the first researchers to study carefully the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches.

Second, the above style could be changed to the following:

In 1983 Jones first began to study carefully the annual spring …

Third, the author’s name and the date of publication may be placed in parentheses at the conclusion of the statement:

One recent study examined the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches (Jones, 1983).

The reference may be linked with a single sentence or even a paragraph, but the material to which you are referring should be clear from the way you have entered the citation. If you refer to one article or book several times in the same paragraph, or on the same page, you need only use the date once, unless the reader would be confused by such things as other references with the same author which have different dates. The best rule to follow in this case is common sense. Always ask yourself, will the reader easily understand the source of the material referenced?

Multiple authors.  There are instances when you use references with several authors, or several references which address the same material. Some of the ways in which this can be handled are illustrated below:

Several early studies (Good & John, 1955; James & Stevens, 1962) collected data on student sleeping habits.

Note that the ampersand (&) is used between authors’ names when they are enclosed in parentheses, and a semicolon separates different references. Also note that the references are listed alphabetically and in order of publication.

Sometimes you will use a reference in your paper with more than two authors. The first time you cite such a reference in your paper, list all of the authors:

Perhaps the most comprehensive study of “walkman” listening behavior was done by Johnson, Jones, and James (1982).

If you cite the same study again, you may omit the names of all but the first author and substitute “et al.” for the other authors:

One of the most interesting conclusions of Johnson et al. (1962) …

Secondary sources.  You may find it necessary to cite a reference from a secondary source. For example, you might find a pertinent article discussed in your textbook but discover that the study is unavailable in the library. This is most likely to occur with older articles or articles from foreign journals. While you should be careful this doesn’t occur too often in a paper, it is usually acceptable to use such a reference in the text. However, it should be followed by the notation in parentheses such as:

Pavlov (cited in Hilgard & Bower, 1966) was the first to study …

Since you have read about Pavlov in Hilgard and Bower , only the secondary source is listed in the reference section at the end of the paper.

Quotations.  You may wish to include quotations to emphasize important points in your paper. Brief quotations can be marked with quotation marks and included as a part of the text. Quotations longer than one sentence or 40 words should be set in an indented block without quotation marks, as illustrated below. Whenever you use a quotation, it should be referenced in the same way as other material, with the important addition of the page number(s) on which the original appeared.

An important issue is raised by Walker (1978) who indicates “the unusual habit of compulsive and repetitive running back and forth in confined space while attempting to force a large ball through a metal hoop high above the ground” (p. 363) requires more careful study by behavioral scientists.  Miller (1973) has also studied these behaviors and draws the following conclusion:

It is clear that the individuals who engage in this activity are often above average in height and lanky in physical build. This common characteristic adds credibility to the hypothesis that the compulsion to engage in such behavior is biologically based. (p. 18)

In looking at these samples, note that the page numbers follow the quotation marks, or, in the case of the longer block quote, follows the period at the end of the quote. It would also have been possible to arrange the material so that the author’s name, the date of the reference and the page number follow the quote in parentheses.

One author dismissed the conjecture about basketball as “a case of behavioral scientists failing to see ‘the forest through the trees’” (Doe, 1982, p. 343).

Web-Based References.  APA has recently updated the format for citing material taken from the World Wide Web.  A summary of the format rules for web material can be found at:  https://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html

Reference Lists.  At the conclusion of your paper should be a list of all the references cited in the text. Only references which have actually been used in preparation of the paper should be included here. You must be sure that there is consistency between the citation in the text and the reference list.

The style we are describing is consistent with the American Psychological Association style. The two major types of references are those taken from journals (technical, professional magazines) and those from books. The examples below should cover most of the more common types of references. If you have questions about how to present an unusual source of material, check with your professor. And note that the first line of a reference is flush with the left margin but subsequent lines are indented.

Murray, R., & Jones, J. (1982). Mating behavior of squirrels on the capitol mall. Journal of Squirrel Psychology, 2 , 123-128.

Jackson, J. K., Jackson, K. J., & Jackson, J. J. (1952). The effects of birth order on career selection (2nd ed.). Green Bay, WI: Green Bay Press.

Bindrim, P. (1980, July). Group therapy: Protecting privacy. PsychologyToday , pp. 24, 27-28.

Zuzman, J. (1975). Recognition and management of psychiatric emergencies. In H. L. P. Resnik & H. L. Ruben (Eds.), Emergency psychiatric care (pp. 35-59). Bowie, MD: Charles Press.

Kopolow, L. E., Brands, A. B., Burton, J. L., & Ochberg, F. (1975). Litigation and mental health services (National Institute of Mental Health, DHEW Publication No. ADM 76-261). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

NSF commission looks at science education. (1983, May). APA Monitor , p.34.

The first reference is a standard journal article. Note carefully the punctuation and capitalization. The 2 is the volume number of the journal.

The next reference is a book. Note that only the first letter of the first word is capitalized. The book was published in Green Bay, WI by Green Bay Press.

Professional journals have continuous page numbering. That is, page numbering continues from one issue to the next for an entire year. When this system is used, it is not necessary to include the month of publication as part of the date. However, most popular magazines begin each issue with page 1. In this situation, it is necessary to include the month as part of the date. See example three above.

There are a number of special situations that require special reference formats. The fourth example above is a situation where several authors have contributed chapters to a book. Zuzman is the author of a chapter in a book edited by Resnik and Ruben.

The final two examples are a government publication and a news article without an author. The final item would be noted as NSF (1983) in the body of the paper.

References are listed alphabetically by author, or in order of publication if there are several items by the same author. Where there is more than one author, all single author references by an author come first. Then the listing proceeds alphabetically by second author, then third author, etc.

References are typed in the following way. The first line of each reference begins at the left-hand margin of the paper. The following lines are indented five spaces, making it easy for the reader to quickly locate a reference by the author’s name.

Grading Standards

Although professors use varying grading standards, most can tell you what an “A” paper should be like. The following grading standards are meant to be general guidelines only.

An “A” paper has a clear point that the average reader could express in one sentence if asked to do so. This point is substantiated, developed, or discussed with evidence or examples or detail that is concrete, vivid, and logically arranged. The sentences in the “A” paper invite re-reading because they are interesting. The “A” paper is excellent for this level of instruction.

A “B” paper also has a clear point with pertinent concrete detail used to support or explain that point. It too shows above-average usage and control of punctuation, but sentence patterns and length may not indicate the writing competence of the “A” paper. Diction may be not quite as precise. It too may invite re-reading.

A “C” paper makes a fairly clear point but may include occasional irrelevant information or misplaced ideas. It won’t have the clear organization of the “A” or “B” papers. Nor will sentences be as varied. Minor usage errors (such as pronoun references and noun agreement) and some punctuation errors may occur, and words may be used inaccurately on occasion. The “C” paper is average work for this level of instruction.

The “D” and “F” papers are difficult to process because of the “static” at the sentence level and foggy meaning due to uncontrolled diction and sentence structure. Words may be used inaccurately so frequently as to confuse readers. Ideas are difficult to get at because of uncontrolled sentences. Such papers are exhausting to the reader and invite only masochists to re-read them.

Plagiarism and the Honor Code

Using an idea, phrase, sentence, paragraph, etc., from someone else, whether a published writer or friend, (unless given credit in the text via a reference), is plagiarizing. Both direct quotes and paraphrased material must be credited by referencing. Paraphrasing means thinking through a point made by another person and restating it in your own words. It does not mean taking a phrase or sentence from another person and substituting a synonym here and there.   For more details see the document on proper citations .

Presenting Results

While experimental and library projects often require different writing styles and rules, there are many commonalities including scholarly work, clarity of expression, adherence to format, and appearance. The following applies to both experimental and library project papers.

Preliminary Pages (in order of appearance).  Title and signature pages. Note that the title of the paper (in capital letters) and your name are centered in the upper part of the page. The purpose of the paper is indicated at the bottom of the page. (Example of Title Page ; Example of Signature Page .)

The signature page indicates that the advisor and the second reader have approved the final draft of the project. The title and your name appear on this page using the same format as that used in the title page. Along the lower left hand margin of the signature page there should be places for both your advisor and the second reader to sign the comp after the orals.

Acknowledgments page.  An acknowledgments page is optional. However, it is customary to acknowledge those individuals who have provided significant assistance in the preparation of the project. Likely candidates include persons who helped prepare stimulus materials, persons who helped type the manuscript (if they were not paid), advisors who provided conceptual assistance, etc. If you decide to include an acknowledgments page, the word ACKNOWLEDGMENTS should be centered and typed in capital letters at the top of the page.

Table of contents (required). TABLE OF CONTENTS should be centered and typed in capital letters at the top of the page. All headings and subheadings in the paper should be included in the table of contents.

List of tables.  If your comp includes tables, a LIST OF TABLES page should be added. This page lists the titles of the tables and the pages on which they may be found. As with the table of contents, the title is centered and typed in capital letters.

List of figures .  The same rules used for a list of tables page would be used for a LIST OF FIGURES if figures are included in the comp.

Abstract (required).  An abstract is a synopsis of the comp. If your paper is reporting an experiment, the abstract should include a statement of the problem, type of subjects used, independent and dependent variables, the major findings, conclusions, and implications. For an experiment, abstracts are generally 100 to 150 words. Abstracts for library comprehensives are 75 to 100 words. Include the topic, thesis, sources used (e.g., published literature), conclusions, and implications. Abstracts should be succinct, accurate, and provide an informative overview of the project. Abstracts are typed in a one-paragraph double-spaced block (no indentation at the beginning). Center the word ABSTRACT at the top of the page in capital letters.

Numbering Preliminary Pages.  All the pages to this point (excepting the title and signature pages ) should be numbered using lower case Roman numerals, e.g., i, ii, etc. The page numbers should be placed on the upper right hand corner of the page.

Requirements of Style

The most basic requirement of style is adherence to the elementary rules of grammar and good usage. Following are some explicit suggestions about the use of tense, person, voice and number which are relevant in scientific writing.

Tense . Scientific reports are written in a combination of present and past tense. The literature cited has already been written, the study’s procedure has been carried out, and the results have been obtained, therefore these are written in the past tense (“the subjects performed”). Conclusions, on the other hand, are written in the present tense (“the data indicate”). This draws the reader into a “current” conversation with the writer.

Certain other statements are often written in the present tense. A useful rule is that the present tense indicates statements which have a continuing or general applicability. Definitions, statements from a well-defined theory, and hypotheses are stated in the present tense.

Illustrations:

Definition: “Webster defines …”

“In this study, a discrepancy is defined as …”

Theory: “The Gestalt theory holds that …”

Hypothesis: “It is hypothesized that intelligence is (not, “will be”) positively correlated with …”

Results: “Jones established (past tense, particular study) that auditory stimuli are (present tense, general findings) most effective …”

Person and voice .  Scientific communications are usually written in the third person, which often troubles inexperienced writers. There are occasions when the use of the first person is permissible (or even preferable).

The passive voice is used extensively, especially in describing procedures. Do not, however, let the passive voice lead to into clumsy, involved expression. Problems of person and voice are illustrated by these examples:

Bad : “We classified the subject’s responses…” (“We” is faulty, unless it refers to two or more defined persons. Never use “we” as a substitute for “I”.)

Better : “The investigator classified the subject’s responses…” (The statement tells who classified the responses, but without self-consciousness. Third-person references to “the experimenter” or “the investigator” are usual and acceptable. References to “the author” or “the writer” are generally avoided as self-conscious, except in theoretical arguments.)

Bad : “The classification of the subjects’ responses was carried out by dividing them …” (Clumsy use of passive voice. The writing is self-conscious, emphasizing the process of classifying.)

Better : “The subjects’ responses were divided…” (Better use of passive voice. The focus is on the research, not on the researcher.)

Headings .  In psychology it is appropriate to use two or three levels of headings positioned in this way:

The three headings would look like this in a manuscript:

If the paper requires four levels of headings, subordinate the three levels above by introducing another centered heading using upper and lower case letters and omitting the underlining.

Abbreviations .  Use abbreviations: (a) if the reader is more familiar with the abbreviation than with the complete form (LSD or ESP); (b) if the use of the abbreviation is conventional (IQ or REM), or (c) if considerable space can be saved and cumbersome repetition avoided.

Because the acronyms that psychologists employ in their daily writing may not be familiar to students or readers in other disciplines or locales, acronyms and abbreviations should be explained. A term to be abbreviated must, on its first appearance be spelled out completely and immediately followed by its abbreviation in parentheses. Thereafter, the abbreviation is used.

“Studies of simple reaction time (RT) to a visual target have found a strong negative relationship between RT and luminance.”

Note that no periods are used with these abbreviations

Statistics.  To present a statistic in the text, give the symbol, degrees of freedom, value, and probability level. In addition, give the mean, standard deviation, or other descriptive statistic to clarify the nature of the effect.

“As predicted, the first-grade girls reported a significantly greater liking for school ( M = 4.63) than did first-grade boys ( M = 1.38), t (22) = 2.62, p < .01.”

“The mean score for the long retention interval was 1.38, and the mean score for the short retention interval was 28.90. The analysis of variance indicated a significant retention interval effect, F (1, 34) = 123.07, p <.01.”

With chi-square, report degrees of freedom and sample size in parentheses:

X 2 (4, N = 90) = 10.51, p < .05

In scientific writing the word significant is only used when a statistical relationship at a specified level of confidence has been demonstrated. With the exception of Greek letters, underline or italisize all letters used as statistical symbols. This is true wherever they appear (text, tables, and figures).

MFdfrNSDtpnz

Numbers .  Use words to express numbers in the following cases:

(a) the numbers zero through nine, (b) any number, above or below 10, that begins a sentence.

Use numerals to express the following cases:

(a) number 10 or greater,

(b) any numbers above or below 10 that are:

(1) units of measurement or time “5-mg pellets for 3 days”

(2) ages “was 6 years old”

(3) times and dates “8:30 a.m. on May 6, 1972”

(4) percentages “a total of 6%”

(5) arithmetic manipulations “multiplied by 3”

(6) ratios “4:1”

(7) fractional or decimal quantities “on a 2 1/2-year old”

(8) scores and points on a scale “on a 7-point scale”

(9) actual numbers “the numerals 1-6”

(10) page numbers “on page 2”

(11) a series of four or more “1,3,5, and 7”

(12) numbers grouped for comparison within a sentence or a series of related sentences if any one of the numbers is 10 or above “of the 40 trails, 6 were practice trials” related sentences

Tables .  An informative table supplements–it does not duplicate–the text. In the text, refer to every table and its data. In the text tell the reader what to look for in the table, discussing the table’s highlights. If you discuss every item on the table in text, the table is unnecessary.

Tables must be intelligible without reference to the text. Explain all abbreviations (except such standard statistical abbreviations as M, SD, and df). In the text, refer to tables by their numbers:

…  as shown in Table 8, the responses …

… children with pretraining (see Table 8) …

Do not write “the table above/below” or “the table on page 32.”

When preparing tables, all number should be reported using the same number of decimal places. For example, instead of 3.4, 2.56, and 1, you should report 3.40, 2.56, 1.00.

Table numbers . Number all tables in the text with Arabic numerals in the order in which the tables are first mentioned in the paper. Identify tables of the appendix with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g., Table A-1 is the first table of Appendix A, Table C-2 is the second table of Appendix C).

Table titles . Give every table a brief but clear and explanatory title. The title should be left justified and either underlined or in italics.

Examples . Samples of well-prepared tables are provided in the Appendix. Examine them carefully. Pay special attention to Table 3, an example of an ANOVA table. Note that the table includes columns for df and F but none for SS or MS. MS error is given in parentheses. See your comp advisor for additional help in preparing correct tables.

Figures.  A well-prepared figure can convey the qualitative aspects of data, such as comparisons, relationships, and structural or pictorial concepts, more efficiently than can text or tables.

Standards for figures . The standards for good figures are simplicity, clarity, and continuity. A good figure

* augments rather than duplicates the text * conveys only essential facts * is easy to read, with elements (type, lines, labels, etc.) * is large enough to be read with ease * is easy to understand–its purpose is readily apparent

Types of figures . Graphs show relationships–comparisons and distributions–in a set of data. There are four major types of figures, line graphs, bar graphs, scatter graphs, and photographs.

1. Line graphs are used to show the relation between two quantitative variables. They are most often used to show continuous change or when the shape of the curve or curves is important.

2. Bar graphs or histograms are simple, adaptable, and telegraphic. They are used when the independent variable is categorical (e.g., as with different experimental conditions).

3. Scatter graphs consist of single dots plotted on a line graph; the dots are not joined by lines. A cluster of dots along a diagonal indicates a correlation.

4. Photographs have excellent eye appeal. They should be of professional quality and should be prepared with a background that produces the greatest contrast.

Many of the design and execution problems involved in producing figures are reduced with the use of the computer. See Figures and Tables for details.

Placement of Figures and Tables . Until recently figures and tables were placed on separate pages in a manuscript. The new convention is that figures and tables may be incorporated directly into the body of a paper, if that is convenient. A figure or a table should appear after the first reference to it. That is, a statement such as, “see Figure 1” should appear before the figure is placed in the paper. If figures or tables are on separate pages, number these pages just as you do all pages in the paper. You may also wish to look at the Figures and Tables page for more details.

Typing Instructions & Finishing Touches

Regardless of whether your comp is a library project or an empirical study, there are some rules of appearance which reflect professional interest and concern for your work. The appearance of your paper has an effect on how it is received. A neat, clean manuscript indicates that the writer cared about the paper.

Senior projects should be typed on white paper and double spaced, using 1 inch margins on top, bottom, left and right side.  The Psychology Department requires preparation of the original plus two copies of your comprehensive project. The original is placed in the library, one copy is retained by the first reader, and the second copy is kept by the student. As a courtesy, ask the second reader if he or she would like to keep a copy of the comp. In most cases, the second reader will not wish a copy. However, if the second reader is particularly interested in the topic or the presentation, a copy may be desired. The Psychology Department will pay for one copy of the paper. If additional copies are needed for the second reader, for an outside agency that provided participants, etc., the Department will pay for these copies as well.

All the copies of the paper should be submitted in hard cover, three hole red binders available from the Bookstore. In the final orals, there may be recommendations for rewriting a section of the paper or for correcting typographical errors. All such changes must be made and the corrected copies of the paper returned to the first reader within one week of the oral presentation.

Ordering and Numbering Pages .  Pages are ordered in the following manner: preliminary pages, the body of the paper including tables and figures, references, and appendices. All preliminary pages (except the title and signature pages) are numbered using lower case Roman numerals. All other pages are numbered in the upper right hand corner of the page.

Length.  There is no department policy on the length of a senior project. Length depends on the topic, the available literature, and a number of other factors. Make certain that your paper covers the topic and that you can defend its length. Consultation with both the first and second reader is advisable when determining the length of a paper.

Word Processing .  A single copy of the paper should be produced on a letter quality printer with other copies being made at the College Print Shop.

In addition to word processing, the college has other software that may be useful to the comp writer. These include spelling checkers, grammar checkers, and software to help organize and outline a paper.

Proofreading .  Carefully proofread the final copy of the comp before you turn it in. In the process of copying the comp, pages may be missed or be placed out of order. Be especially careful if someone has helped you type the paper. The typists may have made minor changes or errors which are difficult to catch, even if you have used a spelling checker.

Manuscript Checklist .  The most common oversights in manuscript preparation are listed below. Pay special attention to these items before submitting your comp.

________ Is the manuscript double-spaced with the exception of long quotations? Has the entire paper been proofread?

________ Have you provided an abstract of appropriate length?

________ Have you checked for appropriate placement of headings?

Mathematics and Statistics

________ Have you underlined all letters used as statistical symbols?

________ Are journal titles in the reference list spelled out fully?

________ Are all references cited in the body of the paper included in the reference list?

________ Is every item in the reference list cited in the body of the paper?

________ Have you included page numbers for quotations in the body of the paper?

________ Have you included page numbers in citations when the material which is  paraphrased is from a book?

Tables and Figures

________ Do all tables and figures meet specifications for complete title, adequate  headings, etc.?

The final copy of your paper should not be printed until after your orals. It is most likely that you will be asked to make changes in the manuscript. Put these preliminary copies in binders or envelopes for each reader. After the orals, make any changes that you have been asked to make, print a final copy, and have this duplicated, and then signed by the members of your committee. The project is not considered complete until all these steps have been taken.

The Final Copy of the Paper

Project feedback .  An important element of the senior project oral examination is the feedback that is provided to the student on his or her performance. Students will be advised at the end of the oral as to whether their project is acceptable or not, i.e., did the student pass or not. In addition, specific comments will be made regarding both the oral and the written presentations.  However, the actual grade on the comp will not be available at this time.  The Psychology 600 grade will be included on the grade report provided by the Registrar at the end of the semester.

As part of these comments, students may be asked to make minor revisions to their paper. These revisions will be limited to the correction of spelling errors, changing small technical details, etc. Since making these changes is considered part of the original effort, the project will be graded assuming that the changes will be made. However, a student who fails to complete the corrections as required may have his or her grade lowered accordingly.

Grading the senior project .  At the end of the final orals, the student is asked to leave the room for a few minutes while the faculty discuss the student’s performance. Although the criteria for each letter grade differ somewhat among faculty, just as they do for any course, the department has agreed upon a set of factors which will influence that final grade. These criteria differ slightly for laboratory and library projects.

Laboratory research.  The following items are used to judge performance of a laboratory project.

a) Quality of the research idea or hypothesis. (Including originality, utility, uniqueness, etc.)

b) Conduct of the research. (A qualitative evaluation of how well the student conducted the project, including diligence, adherence to methodology, etc.)

c) Quality of the paper.

Introduction . (Is the problem clearly specified: Are the hypotheses clear? Does the paper logically lead to the hypothesis? Is the relevant research reviewed?)

Method . (Could a reader replicate the research given the information provided in this section? Are subheadings used correctly?)

Results . (Are the results presented in a clear logical manner? Are appropriate statistical tests employed? Are all significance levels stated clearly and accurately?)

Discussion . (Do the results of the study support the discussion? Are all results mentioned in the results section discussed? Are implications and/or applications of the study clearly stated?)

Format and Mechanics. (Do the tables and figures supplement rather than substitute for the text? Are tables and figures clearly and accurately presented?)

(Are preliminary pages included? Are all cited studies referenced? Are references presented correctly? Are appendices included when necessary? Are appendices presented clearly?)

d) Final conference. (Does the student understand what he or she has done? Can he or she explain the methods and procedures in a clear and logical manner? Does the student understand the relationship between this project and the wider research area or theory involved?)

Remember that these criteria are designed to indicate the range of items that are considered in assigning a grade. The weight given to each factor will vary from instructor to instructor.

Library research . The following items are used to judge performance of a library project.

b) Conduct of the research. (A qualitative evaluation of how well the student conducted the project, including diligence, willingness to seek assistance, discussion of the project with the advisors during the formation of the project and its completion.)

Introduction . (Is the problem clearly specified? Will the reader understand the scope of the problem from the introduction?)

Organization . (Are the chapters of the paper organized logically? Does the organization of the chapters lead the reader to the writer’s conclusions? Within a chapter are arguments organized logically?)

Justification . (Are statements justified in terms of relevant research and/or theory? Are studies interpreted correctly? Cited appropriately?)

Conclusions . (Are the conclusions supported by the cited data? Are the conclusions linked to the available research and/or theory or merely stated? Implications and applications of the project noted and justified?)

Format and Mechanics . (Are necessary preliminary pages included? Are all cited studies referenced? Are references presented correctly? Are appendices included when appropriate? Are appendices presented clearly and correctly?)

d) Final conference (Comp Oral). (Does the student understand what he/she has done? Can he/she explain the methods and procedures in a clear and logical manner? Does the student understand the relationship between this project and the wider research area or theory being investigated?)

e) After you have completed all your revisions, you are ready to go to the print shop for your final copies. You need to have one copy for each of your readers, spiral bound. The library copy is to be submitted online through the Digital Asset Management site. You will also need to submit the Permissions Form to the library.

Cognitive-Behavioral Approach: Historical and Philosophical Bases Essay

The cognitive-behavioral approach to family therapy is one of the most popular and effective methods of treating various psychological problems. This method is based on the interaction between the doctor and the patient and the analysis of their relationships. In this paper, I will discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the cognitive-behavioral approach to family therapy and determine when it will be most effective.

The cognitive-behavioral approach to family therapy has a number of advantages. Firstly, this method focuses on practical solutions, allowing patients to resolve problems much faster. Secondly, the approach gives the patient and nurse the opportunity to work together to solve the problem (Dozois et al., 2019). Thirdly, during the therapy, the patient learns to recognize and change his thoughts and behavior, which can be very useful for further use of knowledge in life.

However, the cognitive-behavioral approach has a number of drawbacks. Firstly, this method can only be used in cases where the problem is not too complicated. Secondly, the system may seem less effective than other treatment methods that use more profound and more intensive processes. Thirdly, the approach can be pretty expensive and take a lot of time. The cognitive-behavioral approach to family therapy will be most effective if the problem is not too complicated and does not require deep analysis (Dozois et al., 2019). Therefore, it is best to use this method to solve problems that require quick solutions and practical applications.

One NASW value that is relevant to this approach is service. This approach places emphasis on providing assistance to the family by helping them understand and resolve their issues in a healthy way. Additionally, a behavior that could be utilized in this approach would be active listening (Dozois et al., 2019). This involves listening to the thoughts and feelings of the family members in order to better understand their perspectives and help them find ways to communicate more effectively.

In conclusion, it can be said that the cognitive-behavioral approach to family therapy has its advantages and disadvantages. It allows the patient to resolve problems faster, provides an opportunity for interaction between the patient and nurse, and helps the patient recognize and change his thoughts and behavior. But this method can only be used in uncomplicated situations and can be expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, the cognitive-behavioral approach will be most effective for solving problems that require quick solutions and practical applications.

Dozois, D. J., Dobson, K. S., & Rnic, K. (2019). Historical and philosophical bases of the cognitive-behavioral therapies.

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IvyPanda. (2024, May 24). Cognitive-Behavioral Approach: Historical and Philosophical Bases. https://ivypanda.com/essays/cognitive-behavioral-approach-historical-and-philosophical-bases/

"Cognitive-Behavioral Approach: Historical and Philosophical Bases." IvyPanda , 24 May 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/cognitive-behavioral-approach-historical-and-philosophical-bases/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Cognitive-Behavioral Approach: Historical and Philosophical Bases'. 24 May.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Cognitive-Behavioral Approach: Historical and Philosophical Bases." May 24, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/cognitive-behavioral-approach-historical-and-philosophical-bases/.

1. IvyPanda . "Cognitive-Behavioral Approach: Historical and Philosophical Bases." May 24, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/cognitive-behavioral-approach-historical-and-philosophical-bases/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Cognitive-Behavioral Approach: Historical and Philosophical Bases." May 24, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/cognitive-behavioral-approach-historical-and-philosophical-bases/.