corruption in cambodia essay

Corruption: Why More Has to Be Done in Cambodia

• By Phoung Vantha
• January 22, 2022 5:13 PM

An expert highlights the progress made and weaknesses to address in Cambodia to eliminate corruption and create an environment conducive to business investments and building public trust 

Pech Pisey is executive director of Transparency International Cambodia , which is the country chapter of the NGO Transparency International whose goal is to stop corruption and promote accountability and integrity in all sectors of society.

Holding a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy from the Royal University of Phnom Penh, and a Master Degree in Globalisation, Development and Transition, International Relation and Affairs from the University of Westminster in London, United Kingdom, Pisey has worked for several international organizations including the United Nations Development Programme and BBC Media Action before joining TI Cambodia in 2012.

Pech Pisey was asked to talk of the situation in the country regarding corruption, the effects this may have on the population and business sector, and what needs done to improve the situation.

Phoung Vantha:  Firstly, would you explain how you came to work for Transparency International Cambodia? What attracted you to this field? And how does it work: Do you investigate mainly based on complaints or information you receive, or based on your own research?

Pech Pisey: The journey that has led me to Transparency International's anti-corruption movement was my passion for positive social changes and the understanding of the root causes and fundamental problems that Cambodia is facing and the devastating ripple effects that corruption has caused on the governance system and the people it supposes to serve.

Corruption can negatively affect people's livelihood, health, rights, freedom and even lives. It erodes democratic freedom, the rule of law and trust in government. Corruption reduces the chances of a healthy environment and a sustainable future. People's future of a better life will be lost if the state budget on critical infrastructure, health, education and social protection is stolen.

People's chances of fair access to justice will be denied if corruption is used to evade justice. Corruption is like a cancer that each country needs to detect as early as possible to increase the chance of appropriate cures before it is too late. And I would like to be one of the people who can increase Cambodia's opportunity to survive from this cancer and secure its prosperous future beyond this cancer. 

Phoung Vantha: What are the key issues that Cambodia faces in terms of corruption? How have things evolved – improving or getting worse – in recent years? And which sectors or areas still need the most work?

Pech Pisey: Cambodia is performing well economically and the Royal Government of Cambodia has taken measures to deliver impressive economic achievements. Prior to the COVID-19 crisis, Cambodia enjoyed decades of strong growth, which averaged 7.6 percent between 1994 and 2015. The World Bank reported Cambodia as one of the 10 fastest-growing economies in the world over the past 20 years, moving Cambodia from a low-income to a low-middle income country in 2016. Despite this impressive economic growth, Cambodia is still facing tremendous challenges in terms of democratic governance, human rights violation, weak rule of law, shrinking civic space and widespread corruption.

To sustain growth and ensure long-term social cohesion and economic sustainability, Cambodia must face and systematically address these fundamental challenges, and cope with the growing public demands for transparency, anti-corruption action and public accountability. There are, however, some positive signs of progress that are worth recognizing such as the significant efforts of the government on reform of public financial management, public administration and decentralization.

Evidence has shown that Cambodia has reduced petty corruption and public services have improved. On the other hand, grand corruption and political corruption remain to be the most critical challenges to be addressed. Cambodia also needs to improve better access to justice and the independence of the judiciary, which is the cornerstone of social justice and rule of law. Cambodia can do much more and strengthen itself by reducing corruption and improving the judicial system. The more Cambodia can eliminate corruption in all forms, the more people will want to invest in the country, which would lead to further growth and strengthen Cambodia's financial independence as well as its sovereignty.      

Phoung Vantha: Do you feel the government has been successful in systematically fighting corruption? How does the Anti-Corruption Unit work and has it produced results?

Pech Pisey: The government has made notable efforts to address corruption, thanks to the commitments of the Anti-Corruption Unit (ACU) to implement its education and prevention strategy, and the Ministry of Interior to increase accountability and improve public services, especially basic public services, which has led to a decrease in petty corruption.

It is important to also highlight the progress that has been made by the ACU and the Ministry of Information to address key recommendations under the United Nations Convention against Corruption reviews such as the development of draft laws on whistleblower protection and access to information. More needs to be done to systematically reduce corruption in Cambodia, and the public has high expectations of the government's Anti-Corruption Unit taking the lead in eradicating corruption and give a leadership that can respond effectively to the gravity of corruption issues. 

Phoung Vantha: What steps do you see as necessary for both the government and the private sector to take in order to reduce corruption? And do you think there is much will in the government or the private sector to take action?

Pech Pisey: To become an attractive investment destination, especially for large-scale and genuine investment projects, Cambodia needs to address key barriers to investments, improve the investment climate and promote fair competition through eliminating corruption, reducing its bureaucratic burdens, and increasing corporate compliance.

With SMEs [small and medium-sized enterprises] overwhelmingly dominating economic activities, the government needs to develop and implement pro-poor and pro-SME policies as well as attractive tax incentives that support and encourage businesses to move from shadowy business activities to formal business activities that comply with rules and regulations. The private sector has an influential role to play when it comes to supporting and convincing the government to address the above key challenges and promote clean businesses. But to be frank, I think the private sector did not use that leverage well to address their fundamental problems. Moreover, Cambodia is still stuck in a deep-rooted patronage system that requires the current and new leadership to break the chains. It is a politically risky move but it is absolutely necessary to secure Cambodia's future, sustain growth and address social division. 

Phoung Vantha: Finally, how many corruption cases were submitted to TI Cambodia by people in 2021, compared to 2020? If there was increase or decrease, to what would you attribute this? Did you see any connection between the impact of the pandemic and the prevalence of corruption?

Pech Pisey: The second half of 2021 saw a drastic drop in the number of people approaching TI Cambodia's Advocacy and Legal Advice Centre (ALAC): 19 (of whom six were female) people contacting for legal advice on various issues compared to 86 cases in 2020, with the COVID-19 community outbreaks and the subsequent lockdown and restrictive measures likely being the main cause. It is fair to say that, as COVID-19 wreaked havoc on the population and affected their livelihoods, public demands for anti-corruption has decreased.

Phoung Vantha: To what extent is corruption rooted in Cambodian society and how do we go about making the country more accountable and transparent when corruption exists at almost every level of governance?

Pech Pisey: There is no denying that Cambodia suffers severe and widespread corruption at all levels and people are frustrated about it and the effects it causes on their daily lives as well as the devastating effects of corruption on Cambodia politically, socially and economically. It is critical that the government and stakeholders acknowledge the problems, understand their root causes and be willing to address these root causes systematically.

Cambodia needs leaders who can provide the leadership that the enormity of the corruption issues demands, and they need to understand that there is an urgency about the corruption situation. Both bottom-up and top-down approaches are required but the top leadership must be the role model and walk the walk if they want the public, officials and the ordinary citizens to follow suit.

It is important that the government make good governance and the issues of corruption a priority. But to tackle this effectively, the government needs to design a comprehensive anti-corruption strategy and implement corruption risk management that fosters collective action from all stakeholders at all levels including relevant government institutions, development partners, non-governmental organizations, media, the private sector and ordinary citizens.

TI Cambodia's youth survey showed that over 96 percent of young people said they are aware of the issues of corruption and the harmful effects it causes on society. However, the survey also found that only a small proportion of them would be willing to take action against corruption due to the elements of fear, intimidation and shrinking civic space.

It is fair to say that, after more than three decades of social and political transformation, Cambodia's population has moved beyond awareness-raising, and the main focus should be on the ability of the state and partners to rally people and competent authorities in taking concrete actions to fight corruption and other challenges. To effectively engage the public and stakeholders in the fight against corruption, Cambodia also needs to hasten the adoption of laws on whistleblower protection and access to Information.

Cambodia's poor accountability has also resulted from poor oversight and lack of independence of the oversight institutions, especially from the judiciary, the legislative branch, the audit commission, the anti-corruption unit and public procurement. It is crucial to have effective and independent oversight bodies in democratic governance. More importantly, the government and relevant authorities should invest more energy and resources in effective law enforcement. TI Cambodia's study consistently showed that Cambodia suffers significant gaps in law enforcement on all fronts. 

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Chêne, M.; (2009) Overview of corruption in Cambodia. Bergen: U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, Chr. Michelsen Institute (U4 Helpdesk Answer Helpdesk)

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Preventing Corruption in Public Procurement in Cambodia

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Cambodia ranked most corrupt in the region — juridical system the main cause

• 26 January 2022 9:29 AM
• Sorn Sarath

Cambodia’s juridical system has been found to be the country’s main source of corruption, earning it the lowest score in the region on Transparency International’s 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI).

The non-profit released its findings on Tuesday, which revealed that Cambodia had improved by two points – from 21 in 2020 to 23 in 2021 (out of a best possible score of 100) – and ranked 157 among 180 countries and territories globally.

The report also revealed that Cambodia ranked as the most corrupt among ASEAN countries – below even Myanmar, which scored 28 points. The valuation for Myanmar was made before the military coup that took over the country.

In the Asia Pacific, Cambodia placed third from the bottom, above only Afghanistan and North Korea.

Singapore continued to be ranked among the top 10 “cleanest” countries globally, earning the same score this year (85), which ties it with Sweden and Norway in fourth place.

Other countries in the region saw a decline in scores compared to the previous year: Malaysia (down from 51 to 48), Thailand (36 to 35), and the Philippines (34 to 33).

Others have improved: Vietnam (up from 36 to 39), Indonesia (37 to 38), and Lao PDR (29 to 30).

Pech Pisey, the executive director of Transparency International Cambodia, said that Cambodia’s slight increase in points on the CPI is due to the improved ease of doing business and the decline in small-scale corruption act mostly in publishing services. However, Pisey said that corruption remains a serious issue in public-sector bureaucracy.

“The corruption level in Cambodia remains high. And this is an ongoing concern for the people, the private sector, and stakeholders,” he said, adding that the influx of Chinese investors has also brought  more corruption in business dealings

“They bribe to speed up the process of doing business and this would cause corruption in the public sector,” he said. “The government should address the issue, or we would only attract unclean investors.”

Pisey also said that the juridical system, since it’s found to be the main source of corruption, needs to be urgently addressed.

“Any law implementation needs an independent juridical system that will bring justice for all. The corruption in our juridical system would limit the rights to access justice and it also lead to social status division,” he said.

According to the European Chamber of Commerce’s 2021 Business Confidence Survey in the time of COVID-19, some level of discontent was expressed with the current state of doing business in Cambodia. Concerns were voiced over non-transparent practices and unofficial fees that have to be paid as growing obstacles.

Moreover, Cambodia’s judicial system has been accused of being corrupt and frequently following the ruling party’s demands. According to the former UN Special Rapporteur on Cambodia, more than a third of the nation’s prison population is in pre-trial detention – though some rights groups estimate the figure to be closer to 75 percent.

In 2021, Cambodia’s justice minister pledged to crack down on corruption in the nation’s judicial system, declaring the fight against corruption to be a key part of a now year-long campaign to clear the backlog of cases in Cambodia’s courts.

However, a Cambodian government’s spokesman, Phay Siphan, calls the report untrustworthy and unacceptable.

“We have done a lot of things related to social accountability and we are transforming our financial management with more accountability by establishing a transparent system,” he said. “They do not know what the government has been doing. We do not value the finding [by Transparency International Cambodia] and the government does not trust its methodology.”

He said the Anti-Corruption Unit (ACU) is working secretly to track prosecutors’ activities to ensure legal institutions are free of corruption.

“We cannot jail all judges. ACU is the justice police and are authorized to arrest those who commit corruption,” he said.

According to Transparency International, the CPI’s conclusions are based on data from eight international institutions, including the World Bank and the World Economic Forum.

Chak Sopheap, executive director of the Cambodian Center for Human Rights, said that corruption has been affecting the upholding of human rights in the country, especially the right to property.

“Land disputes have become a chronic issue and it comes from the corruption related to land registration and the process of addressing the disputes,” she said.

The CPI recommends that the Cambodian government end restrictions on freedom of expression and make the pursuit of justice for crimes against human rights defenders an urgent priority. It also recommends restoring and strengthening institutional checks on power, and amending anti-corruption legislation to meet international standards.

• corrupt , juridical system

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Somalia has been suffering from the fierce effects of corruption on economic and social development. Corruption in Somalia is subject to a variety of political, economic, institutional, and societal conditions. This study shines a light on the prevalence of corruption in Somalia; as matter of public perception. The study comprehensively surveys and analyzes the reports, policy papers, and research on corruption to present and discuss the diverse insights of the empirical and theoretical research findings. This study examined on the prevalence of corruption in Somalia; as matter of public perception. A total of 80 prospective respondents were selected from different institutions were conducted, including Ministry of Information, Ministry of Finance and State Attorney General, Office of Audit General, central banks, Office of Public Accountant and local government of Somalia. using stratified, random and systematic sampling techniques. Besides, to substantiate quantitative data questionnaire were filled by 80 respondents. The data obtained were analyzed by using descriptive statistical techniques such as frequencies and percentage and analyzed using by SPSS. The multistage sampling technique was applied in choosing the 80 study participants. In this study, it was found that the public perceived corruption as a serious problem which must be stopped. Factors responsible for corruption in Somalia were found to include among others poverty and unemployment, lack of patriotism, weak judicial system, negative value system and lack of social and economic security, it was found that the effects of corruption in Somalia-2-include retardation of economic growth and development, poor infrastructural development, poverty and unemployment, non-provision of basic amenities and reduction of investment potentials of the society. Also this study revealed that there were variations in understanding of corruption. The analysis further revealed that respondents were less concerned in reporting corruption. Based on findings of the study, it was recommended that, the ministry of information should conduct comprehensive awareness towards corruption and the way public reporting corruption matters. This study recommended the need for attitudinal change. This involves changing the value system which emphasizes unbridled penchant for materialism.

Adam Graycar

Abadi: Journal of Administration and Business

Mohammad Agus Yusoff

Acts of corruption in Indonesia today are like an illegitimate inheritance without wills, corruption remains sustainable even though regulations and laws have been made for its prevention by each period of leadership, but all of them have not been tested and run well, because in general none government institutions and agencies that are not infected with corruption. The article aims to reveal what are the patterns and causes of corruption by government officials in Indonesia. The methodology used in writing this article is content analysis, one approach to writing scientific work in qualitative research. All data comes from the results of the authors' reading of various theories, expert opinions and the results of previous research related to the issues discussed. all data collected, reduced, analyzed, presented and closed with conclusions. Based on the results of the analysis, the authors conclude that, there are six patterns of corruption committed by officials, namely, conventional patterns, giving tribute and commissions, fictitious financial receipts, abuse of authority and collusion of partner companies. Furthermore, there are five factors caused corruption, namely greedy behavior of individuals, government organizations, weak legal system, weak supervision and low practice of religion.

Problems and Perspectives in Management

Darsono Darsono

Corruption in government organizations is an important and relevant topic to study because of its impact on the state in terms of financial losses and a decrease in the quality of human development. This study is also relevant because previous analyses are still limited in their modeling and measuring comprehensive fiscal decentralization variables. This study aims to examine the effect of fiscal decentralization and quality of government on the level of corruption and the impact of corruption on the human development index. The sample of this paper comprises 113 local governments on the island of Java, Indonesia, for the period 2015–2018. Statistical testing was carried out using Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The test results show that fiscal decentralization has a positive effect on corruption with a path coefficient of 0.100 and is significant at 5% alpha. Likewise, poor governance (proxied by internal control weaknesses) has a positive effect on t...

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Cambodian Education Forum

A forum for education.

• Posted on September 18, 2023 September 18, 2023
• by CambodianEducationForum

Corruption in Cambodia’s General Education: Causes, Impacts, and Recommendations

Molina Leng Cambodian Education Forum Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Innovations and Challenges in Cambodian Education: Youth’s Perspectives

Edited by Kimkong Heng, Koemhong Sol, Sopheap Kaing, and Sereyrath Em © Cambodian Education Forum 2023

Corruption in education is a key issue for many countries because education remains the most important sector and the first priority for every country to develop their human resources. Since the education sector plays an essential role in national development, the risk of its destruction is most likely higher than that of other sectors. For this reason, corruption in education needs to be immediately addressed before it is too late in order to foster the development of human resources in any country. This chapter aims to raise awareness and attention about the corruption issue in the general education system and bring back the positive impact of this sector. This chapter will also discuss the causes and impacts of corruption in Cambodia’s general education as well as provide some recommendations to deal with this critical issue.

Keywords: Corruption; general education; impacts; recommendations  

Introduction

After an education reform in 1996, Cambodia’s general education system was formulated as 6+3+3, which means there are 12 years of completion for general education, with six years for primary school, three years for lower secondary school, and another three years for higher secondary school or high school (Bookbridge Foundation, n.d.). Most Cambodian schools are under state governance, which means general education is free of charge for students entering school. While school is considered the most significant step for developing human resources, the issue of corruption inside the Cambodian school system remains a critical concern. Several reasons for corruption in schools include low salaries of teachers, corrupt culture, poor governance structure, and student cooperation in engaging in corruption (Sara, 2022).

When education is free of charge for students, many teachers in Cambodia, who receive a low salary, decide to commit corruption inside the classroom in many forms in order to earn more income for their living (Sao, n.d.). Besides, there is a lack of strict law enforcement from school management, allowing many teachers to continue to commit corruption. The high return rate from students who willingly engage in corruption is the reason why corruption in Cambodia’s general education remains and should be addressed (Sara, 2022). 

This chapter aims to discuss the issue of corruption in Cambodia’s general education system. It begins by defining the general definition of corruption in education before discussing its main root causes and impacts on the general education system and students. The chapter ends with some recommendations on how to tackle corruption in general education.

What is corruption in general education?

According to UNESCO (n.d.-a), corruption in the education sector is characterized as the systematic use of public office for private gain, with substantial implications for the availability and equity of educational goods and services, as well as access and educational quality. Corruption in the education system is most likely worse than corruption in other sectors since it badly affects the potential growth and human resources of the whole country. In Cambodia, corruption in the general education system is primarily committed by both teachers and students, who are all committed to engaging in corruption based on their individual interests (Ponniah, 2014).

Main causes of corruption in the general education system

Corruption in the general education sector has threatened the quality of Cambodia’s general school system, contributing to many negative impacts (Wilwohl, 2014). This section discusses the major causes of corruption in education in the context of Cambodia’s general education. Major causes of corruption in education include low teaching salaries, corrupt cooperation between teachers and students, and a lack of strict law enforcement.

Low teaching salaries

Corruption in general education usually happens in poor or developing countries like Cambodia. Low salaries are one of the main reasons for teachers to commit corruption in school. According to Hammond (2018), Cambodian education has been slowly rebuilding since the Khmer Rouge regime (1975-1979). Cambodian education used to depend primarily on foreign aid because of the lack of resources and the low salaries of Cambodian teachers. As a result, in order to find a way to survive, many teachers conducted extra classes to make more money and forced their students to attend the extra classes (Soeung, 2021). Besides paying for extra classes, students also need to pay for exam papers charged by their teacher. After the new reform introduced in 2014, charging for exam papers or selling exam lesson papers is illegal for teachers (Chea, n.d.). It was also reported that a similar corrupt practice in the education sector was that school administrators forced teachers to pay for the facilitation fees to receive their monthly salary (The ASEAN Post, 2020).

Corrupt cooperation between teachers and students

Teachers alone cannot commit corruption in the classroom. Corruption in Cambodia’s general education system is also caused by the involvement or cooperation of students and their parents. When teachers force students to pay for exam papers, attend extra classes, and commit other corrupted activities, students are most willing to do so because they want to get a higher score and fear failing classes. According to Han (2021), the engagement between teachers and students in committing corruption in the classroom became a very normal thing in Cambodia’s general school classrooms, creating a corrupted culture. Students tend to willingly pay a high price for extra classes and exam papers, even though they know it is illegal or unethical. Although the students’ involvement is important, their parents are also the main actors in facilitating this corrupt culture. Han (2021) also mentioned that in the Cambodian context, some Cambodian parents normally give extra money to their kids’ teachers even though the teachers do not request it. The purpose is to ask for good care of their kids and sometimes to give them an extra score to pass an exam. This practice has become the norm in Cambodian society, perpetuating corruption in Cambodia’s general education.

Lack of strict law enforcement

The lack of strict law enforcement is an open door for corruption in Cambodia’s general education system. According to Bredenberg (2016), patronage networks in Cambodia are strongly rooted in all aspects of social organization, including schooling. Individuals such as district and school directors typically keep their posts not because of their talent or competency (although some of them may be competent), but because of their ties to a patron in a broad sense. A web of social reliance is widespread, reaching the provincial education offices and much further. It is, therefore, hardly surprising that people who engage in corrupt activities or are inadequately competent tend to keep their jobs in this climate. More importantly, rarely has anyone been fired for committing corruption. These practices remain common due mainly to the lack of strict and effective law enforcement (Bredenberg, 2016; Sara, 2022).

The impacts of corruption on Cambodia’s general education system

There are many negative impacts caused by corruption in the general education system. This chapter focuses on three impacts, such as contributing to poor educational outcomes, constraining human capital and socioeconomic development, and perpetuating educational inequality. 

Contributing to poor educational outcome s

Due to the corrupt collaboration between teachers and students, some students could pass an exam or get into the next grade without proper merit or real knowledge. This has led to poor educational outcomes within the education system. Although the new examination reform introduced in 2014 has produced desirable results, as students could not access their phones, calculators, or any electronic devices during the exam, and the examination process was held under the fair and strict surveillance of Cambodia’s anti-corruption unit (Ouch, 2015), corruption in education remains a critical issue. For example, in the 2019 Corruption Perceptions Index, Cambodia’s education was reportedly ranked 8th among the 10 countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (Heng, 2022). According to Sheith (2020), Cambodia was ranked 162 globally, making it one of the most corrupt and impoverished education systems in the world.

Constraining human capital and socioeconomic development

Human resources are essential for a country’s development. As corruption in the general education system has had a negative impact on human resource development, Cambodia suffers from a lack of qualified human resources to drive its development. Due to the limited quality of Cambodian general education, Cambodian students graduating from high school tended to have limited knowledge (Open Development Cambodia, 2014; Sao, n.d.). This is exacerbated by the presence of corruption in education, which allows some students to pass exams without real knowledge. This issue sparks concern for human capital and socioeconomic development in the country, making it difficult for Cambodia to realize its aspirations to become a knowledge-based society (see Heng, 2023). 

Perpetuating educational inequality

Another negative impact caused by corruption in education is the perpetuation of educational inequality. According to Sao (n.d.), as teachers commit corruption in the classroom, they tend to give no care to their professionalism and morality. They focus only on earning more money via private tutoring or other forms of income-generating activities such as selling exam and lesson papers. In this situation, education inequality is sustained because students from affluent families can pay for extra classes or utilize their financial resources to take advantage of the presence of corruption, but those from lower-income families may not be able to do so (Sara, 2022).

Possible solutions to combat corruption in Cambodia’s general education

Corruption is a cancer that negatively impacts the whole education system and can threaten the development of other sectors. This issue, therefore, needs to be addressed as soon as possible. This chapter proposes three possible solutions to combat the corruption crisis in Cambodia’s general education system. These include introducing salary reform, implementing new education reform, and enhancing strict law enforcement.

Introducing salary reform for teachers

One possible anti-corruption strategy is introducing salary reform for teachers. According to the Anti-Corruption Commission (n.d.), the increase in teacher salaries can be done with a better tax system in order to eliminate corruption in various sectors. As teachers commit corruption because they receive a low salary, introducing salary reform may be a way forward to combat corruption in education. Although the Cambodian government has increased teacher salaries over the years (Kay, 2018), the salary scale is still low, compared to the cost of living, particularly in urban areas. By implementing salary reform, it is likely that teachers will stop committing corruption in the classroom because they already receive reasonable salaries for their work. In this sense, teachers’ remuneration scales must be regularly reassessed to account for the rising cost of living.

Implementing new education reform

Since corruption threatens the education system as a whole, introducing new education reforms should be another way forward to address this issue. According to Hangchuon (2018), one of the most effective anti-corruption strategies to fight corruption is changing the corrupted education system and conducting new education reform. The education reform for the grade 12 national examination introduced in 2014 is a good example of strategies to address corruption in education. This reform started at a very critical stage with the main purpose of improving the national examination system for the high school exit exam and stopping corrupted behaviors during examinations. The reform has helped to improve the examination process, which has in turn helped to improve the quality of graduates. As this education reform has contributed to fighting corruption in the general education system, new education reforms are needed to further combat corruption in education and improve Cambodia’s education system.

Enhancing strict law enforcement

Another way forward to deal with this critical issue is to enhance strict law enforcement within the school system and impose severe punishment for those committing corruption. According to Hallak and Poisson (2005), in order to reduce corruption in the education system, the government and schools need to enhance strong regulations, management methods, and strict law enforcement within the school system. In fact, school principals in Cambodia should be working on this matter by setting strict rules for teachers and school administrators in order to ensure that school regulations are effective, and breaking them will lead to punishment. As UNESCO (n.d.-b) noted, corruption could be addressed if strict law enforcement is implemented. Thus, teachers who break the rules or commit corrupt behaviors inside the classroom should receive punishment in terms of administrative sanctions, warnings, salary suspension, work suspension, or other forms of punishment. Strict law enforcement will raise teachers’ awareness of the consequences of committing corruption in education, potentially leading to the avoidance or reduction of corrupted practices in Cambodia’s general education.

This chapter has discussed the causes of corruption in education, including low teaching salaries, corrupt cooperation between teachers and students, and a lack of strict law enforcement. The impacts of corruption included contributing to poor educational outcomes, constraining human capital and socioeconomic development, and perpetuating educational inequality. The chapter has also discussed possible solutions to combat corruption, including the introduction of salary reform for teachers, the implementation of new education reform, and the enhancement of strict law enforcement.

As teachers are one of the most important actors in the education sector, they play a crucial role in improving the quality of education and developing human resources. However, since the reality in Cambodian society is that teachers carry out many responsibilities but are poorly paid, some of them decide to earn more money by committing corruption or other unethical behaviors. In addition to the strategies to combat corruption discussed above, it is important that the Cambodian government should prioritize the teaching career by providing a salary at an appropriate level compared to other positions.

It is also important to improve school resources. Because most public high schools in Cambodia continue to struggle with a lack of resources and facilities for teachers to carry out their day-to-day duties, the government should increase the national budget and invest more in the education sector to provide sufficient resources, including digital resources and other much-needed materials, so that schools can provide the best learning outcomes to students and teachers can no longer exploit their students. Finally, a true commitment to dealing with corruption in the education sector is needed to allow Cambodia to upgrade its education system and transform itself from a country with a poor education system to one with no or little corruption in its general education system.

Anti-Corruption Commission. (n.d.). Hungry teachers need better pay, educator says. https://www.acc.org.bt/?q=node/983

Bookbridge Foundation. (n.d.). The education in Cambodia . https://www.bookbridge.org/post/the-education-system-in-cambodia

Bredenberg, K. (2008). Discussion paper: Poor governance issues within the formal education sector . https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309607354_Poor_Governance_Issues_within_the_Formal_Education_Sector_in_Cambodia

Chea, P.  (n.d.). Education reform in Cambodia . https://riseprogramme.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Politics_of_Change_Phalla_Chea.pdf

Hallak, J., & Poisson, M. (2005). Ethics and corruption in education: An overview. Journal of Education for International Development, 1 (1), 1-16. https://etico.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/1-3.pdf

Hammond, C. (2018). Corruption in the classroom: The dilemma of public school teachers in Cambodia providing private torturing to their own students. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327971826_Corruption_in_the_Classroom_The_Dilemma_of_Public_School_Teachers_in_Cambodia_Providing_Private_Tutoring_to_Their_Own_Students

Han, N. (2021, June 1). Corruption in Cambodia: Causes, impact and ways forward to eliminate it . Politikoffee. https://www.politikoffee.com/en/koffee/64628

Hangchuon, N. (2018). Education reform in Cambodia towards a knowledge-based society and shared prosperity . Sipar Publishing. https://oer.moeys.gov.kh/article-detail/education-reform-in-cambodia-towards-a-knowledge-based-society-and-shared-prosperity

Heng, K. (2022, March 11). Cambodia’s education system: Looking back to move forward . Fulcrum . https://fulcrum.sg/cambodias-education-system-looking-back-to-move-forward/

Heng, K. (2023). Cambodia’s aspirations to become a knowledge-based society: Perspectives of Cambodian university students . Working Paper Series No. 138. Cambodia Development Resource Institute. https://cdri.org.kh/publication/cambodia-s-aspirations-to-become-a-knowledge-based-society-perspectives-of-cambodian-university-students

Kay, K. (2018). Education Ministry boosts teachers’ salaries amid reforms. Khmer Times. https://www.khmertimeskh.com/563279/education-ministry-boosts-teachers-salaries-amid-reforms/

Khidhir, S. (2020, February 11). A rot in Cambodia’s education system? The ASEAN Post. https://theaseanpost.com/article/rot-cambodias-education-system

Open Development Cambodia. (2014). Cambodia has shortage of capable human resource . https://opendevelopmentcambodia.net/news/cambodia-has-shortage-of-capable-human-resource/

Ouch, K. (2015, October 9). The perspective of students on the reform of grade 12 national exam in Cambodia . https://www.academia.edu/23506711/The_perspectives_of_students_on_the_reform_of_grade_12_national_exam_in_Cambodia

Ponniah, K. (2014, September 2). Cambodia crackdown on corruption in schools scores low with exam cheats. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/sep/02/cambodia-corruption-crackdown-exam-cheats

Sao, D. (n.d.). Human resources and development in Cambodia. https://donainfo.wordpress.com/my-writing/education/human-resource-and-development-in-cambodia/

Sara, T. (2022). Corruption in education: Causes, impacts, and recommendations. In K. Heng, K. Sol, C. Hum, S. Yen, & S. Ren (Eds.), Critical issues in Cambodian education: Insights from youth (pp. 86-97).Cambodian Education Forum. https://cefcambodia.com/2022/02/12/critical-issues-in-cambodian-education-insights-from-youth/

Soeung, S. (2021). Revisiting Cambodian private Tutoring: Insight into teachers’ professional misconduct. Journal of International and Comparative Education, 10 (1), 3-17 . https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1294393.pdf

The ASEAN Post. (2022, January 4). Cambodia’s failing education system . https://theaseanpost.com/article/cambodias-failing-education-system

UNESCO. (n.d.-a). Corruption . https://etico.iiep.unesco.org/en/corruption

UNESCO. (n.d.-b). Teacher behavior . https://policytoolbox.iiep.unesco.org/policy-option/teacher-behavior/ Wilwohl, J. (2014). We need to discuss how corruption negatively affects students. The Cambodia Daily. https://english.cambodiadaily.com/news/we-need-to-discuss-how-corruption-negatively-affects-students-58492/

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Spanish court summons prime minister’s wife in corruption probe. Government alleges a smear campaign

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A Spanish investigative judge on Tuesday summoned the wife of Spain’s prime minister to give testimony as part of a probe into allegations that she used her position to influence business deals.

Begoña Gómez is to appear at the Madrid-based court on July 5 to answer questions.

Gómez has yet to speak out about the probe that was made public in April, but Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez has repeatedly called it a “smear campaign” to damage Spain’s leftist coalition government led by his Socialist party.

The probe is based on allegations against Gómez made by a group called Manos Limpias, or “Clean Hands.” Manos Limpias describes itself as a union, but its main activity is as a platform pursuing legal cases. Many have been linked to right-wing causes targeting leftist politicians, and most of them never succeed.

After the probe was launched, Sánchez stunned the nation by saying in an open letter published on social media that he would contemplate stepping down for what he said was the “attack without precedent” against his wife. After five days of silence, Sánchez said he had decided to remain in office .

On Tuesday, Sánchez responded to the summoning of his wife with another letter published on his X account.

“We are absolutely calm,” Sánchez wrote. “There is nothing behind these accusations, only a cheap hoax created by far-right groups.”

The summoning of Gómez comes before this week’s European Parliament election , with Spaniards voting on Sunday. Far-right parties across Europe aim for big gains.

“I want to express our surprise for the fact and coincidence that this news is coming out precisely this week,” said Pilar Alegría, spokeswoman for Spain’s government.

“We are absolutely calm because we know there is nothing (to the allegations),” Alegría said. “What does exist is a mudslinging campaign by the right and far right.”

Manos Limpias has said its allegations against Gómez were entirely based on media reports: “If they are not true, it would be up to those who published them to admit to their falsehood, but if they are true, then we believe that the legal case should continue forward.”

Spain’s public prosecutors’ office recommended the probe be thrown out, but a provincial court ruled that the lower-court judge could continue the investigation. The judge will either table the probe or recommend it go to trial.

Earlier this year, Spain’s government watchdog for conflicts of interest tossed out a complaint made by the Popular Party against Sánchez in which the opposition party claimed that Gómez had influenced her husband in a decision related to an airline.

Gómez, 49, does not hold public office and maintains a low political profile. She studied marketing and has been involved with fundraising projects and non-governmental organizations.

The Popular Party insisted that Sánchez should offer explanations.

“That the prime minister’s wife is under investigation and has been summoned for questioning does not mean that she will be found guilty, but it does obligate Sánchez to immediately accept his political responsibility,” party leader Alberto Núñez Feijóo said.

Sánchez said in his second letter that he hopes that voters will support his party in the European elections to fight what he called the “mud machine” that he accused Feijóo of promoting.

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