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Child Abuse: Signs, Types, Impact

Elizabeth is a freelance health and wellness writer. She helps brands craft factual, yet relatable content that resonates with diverse audiences.

Ann-Louise T. Lockhart, PsyD, ABPP, is a board-certified pediatric psychologist, parent coach, author, speaker, and owner of A New Day Pediatric Psychology, PLLC.

LumiNola / Getty Images

Indicators of Child Abuse

Types of child abuse, impact of child abuse, how to manage the effects of child abuse.

Child abuse is the wrongful treatment of a child. It may be in the form of physical, emotional , or sexual abuse . This form of abuse may also be recognized as the exploitation of a child, as well as the failure to properly care for a child, otherwise known as neglect .

Children that are subjected to abuse usually experience harm to their health, welfare, and self-respect.

This article covers the many forms of child abuse, how each form impacts a child's mental and physical well-being, and discusses how childhood trauma can be treated.

If you are a victim of child abuse or know someone who might be, call or text the Childhelp National Child Abuse Hotline at 1-800-422-4453 to speak with a professional crisis counselor.

For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database .

When a child is experiencing ill-treatment from a caregiver or other person, there are signs that may indicate abuse. These include:

Signs of Physical Abuse

• Unexplained facial injuries
• Injuries on forearms
• Burn marks on the skin
• Bruises on the ears
• Oral and dental injuries
• Dislocations around the body
• Internal damage 
• Vomiting or breathing difficulties due to head trauma

Signs of Sexual Abuse

• Bruising around the genitals
• Painful urination or defecation
• Discharge around the genital or rectal areas
• Difficulty walking or sitting

Signs of Neglect

• Poor hygiene
• Improper clothing during the seasons
• Lack of access to medical care
• Worsening medical conditions
• Poorly-tended wounds
• Malnutrition

Behavioral Cues of Child Abuse

• Excessive crying in infants
• Poor concentration
• Development of phobias
• Eating issues
• Displays fear around parents/caregivers
• Speech difficulties
• Poor performance at school
• Substance abuse
• Discomfort while undressing
• Docile during physical exams
• Withdrawing when touched

Child abuse is committed in epidemic proportions in the United States. Every year, approximately one million children are deprived of a normal, harm-free childhood. Instead, they are subjected to the horrors of maltreatment in their formative stages.

The abuse of children may take different forms, listed below.

Physical Abuse

This form of abuse refers to the deliberate physical harm of a child by parents or caregivers. Physical abuse affects around 18% of maltreated children, and is a leading cause of child deaths—homicide falling in second for the loss of infant lives younger than one.

Physical abuse may involve hitting a child with hands or an object. Burning, biting, or physically restraining a child with the intent to do harm is also considered physical abuse.

Children of all races, ethnicities and economic groups may be subject to physical abuse. It is, however, more commonly observed in boys and infant children.

A child is also at a higher risk of physical abuse where they live with a disability or are under the care of an unmarried mother.

There is also an increased chance of violence where a child is raised in poverty, or in a home where domestic violence is rampant. The same goes in situations where a child grows up with an unrelated adult, or with more than two siblings at home.

Emotional Abuse

This form of abuse may not always have the immediately apparent signs of physical harm but is no less painful.

Emotional abuse occurs where a child is degraded, terrorized, isolated, or exploited by a parent/caregiver. This is seen where a child is constantly criticized, threatened, rejected, or given no support or love while growing up.

In 2010, The Federal Report of Child Maltreatment Statistics stated that 8% of all reported cases of child maltreatment involve emotional abuse. There is a chance that cases of emotional abuse may be even higher than those reported.

Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse refers to the forceful participation of children in sexual acts. It may also involve forcing a child to engage in sexual acts that they do not fully understand.  This abuse may also force children to engage in sexual acts that they do not fully understand.

Sexual abuse includes sexual assault, rape, incest, fondling, oral sexual contact, the commercial sexual exploitation of children, or genital/anal penetration. Sexual abuse is a worryingly common form of child abuse. By adulthood, it is estimated that 26% of girls and 5% of boys will experience this maltreatment.

While sexual contact typically makes up sexual abuse, non-contact improper treatment may also come under the abuse classification. This includes the exposure of a child to sexual activity or taking inappropriate photographs of children.

This is the failure of a caregiver/parent to meet the most basic needs of a child. It is the most common form of child abuse where approximately two-thirds of reports to child protective services are made over concerns of child neglect.

Neglect takes many forms and can be observed where a child is not taken for regular doctor appointments, or is denied access to healthcare by a caregiver.

This form of abuse is also apparent where a child is not given the right nutritional care, or when children are exposed to harmful substances like drugs.

Abuse has far-reaching effects on every aspect of a child’s well-being.

Impact of Physical Abuse

Physically, children may suffer the pains of fractures, burns, facial or bodily disfigurement, and even seizures brought on by bodily maltreatment. The mental effects of this treatment may leave children with PTSD or even cognitive retardation.

Impact of Emotional Abuse

Emotional abuse may cause a disconnect in a child’s sense of self. This abuse could be responsible for negative disruptions in the brain, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem , hostile behaviors , and noticeable delinquent habits such as alcohol use in early adulthood.  

Impact of Sexual Abuse

The sexual abuse of children has both immediate and long-term effects on their well-being. Survivors of child sexual abuse may feel anger, guilt, and shame over the treatment they have endured.

Children who have experienced sexual abuse are also at a higher risk of developing anxiety, depression, and inappropriate sexual behaviors in life. In later years, these survivors may experience problems like alcoholism , drug dependency, marriage/family difficulties, and a  worrying preoccupation with suicide .

Impact of Neglect

A child left without the useful tools and care for proper development may perform poorly in school. This child is also likely to display emotional and behavioral problems as a result of their abandonment. 

Later difficulties in life like liver and heart disease may also be traceable to poor treatment received in childhood.

In suspected cases of child abuse at the hands of a parent or caregiver, this treatment should be reported to child protection services or other relevant law enforcement agencies. 

Children that have been physically abused should then be stabilized, with examinations carried out to determine the extent of the ill-treatment endured. 

Physical, emotional, and sexual abuse victims, as well as children that have lived through neglect, need appropriate care. These children may be protected using treatments like psychotherapy , medication, or a combination of both.

Therapy is useful for addressing the issues linked with abuse and neglect. It is also necessary to teach a child appropriate behaviors for adult-child relationships. Therapy can also provide a support system for poorly treated children.

Medication may be recommended for the PTSD, anxiety, depression, and other pains associated with abusive treatment.

Maltreatment is a painful thing to experience during development. The different forms of child abuse have far-reaching effects on welfare, but may be managed using the right methods.

A Word From Verywell

Child abuse is an alarmingly common form of abuse. With many different forms, children are exposed to multiple ripple effects from the maltreatment they've been subjected to. While recovery from a life punctuated by physical assault, sexual violence, or neglect can be difficult, healing is possible. Putting a child affected by abuse in therapy, or placing them on medication to manage adverse outcomes are effective ways to manage child abuse. To protect a child against abuse, it's important to report suspected cases of ill-treatment to the correct authorities.

Gonzalez D, Bethencourt Mirabal A, McCall JD. Child Abuse and Neglect .In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan. 

Stanford Medicine. Child abuse .

Mahoney J. Types of abuse . Nurs Clin North Am . 2011;46(4):385-v. doi:10.1016/j.cnur.2011.08.005

Brown CL, Yilanli M, Rabbitt AL. Child Physical Abuse And Neglect . In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan. 

Shin SH, Lee S, Jeon SM, Wills TA. Childhood emotional abuse, negative emotion-driven impulsivity, and alcohol use in young adulthood . Child Abuse Negl . 2015;50:94-103. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.02.010

Murray LK, Nguyen A, Cohen JA. Child sexual abuse . Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am . 2014;23(2):321-337. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.01.003

Melmer MN, Gutovitz S. Child Sexual Abuse And Neglect . In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan. 

Dubowitz H. Neglect in children . Pediatr Ann . 2013;42(4):73-77. doi:10.3928/00904481-20130326-11

Childwelfare.gov. Anthony U., Cynthia W. Treatment for Abused and Neglected Children: Infancy to Age 18 .

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons with Child Abuse and Neglect Issues . Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US); 2000. (Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 36.) Chapter 3—Comprehensive Treatment for Adult Survivors of Child Abuse and Neglect. 

By Elizabeth Plumptre Elizabeth is a freelance health and wellness writer. She helps brands craft factual, yet relatable content that resonates with diverse audiences.

127 Captivating Child Abuse Essay Ideas, Research Questions & Essay Examples

Child abuse is one of the crucial problems that has been overlooked for many centuries. At the same time, it is an extremely sensitive issue and should be recognized and reduced as much as possible.

In this article, you will find child abuse research topics and ideas to use in your essay.

Let’s start!

📝 The Child Abuse Essay Structure

🏆 best child abuse topics & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on child abuse, 📌 simple research topics about child abuse, 💡 interesting topics on child abuse, ❓ child abuse research questions.

Child abuse is one of the most problematic topics in today’s society. Writing child abuse essays may be challenging because it requires analyzing sensitive issues.

The problem refers to physical, psychological, or sexual mistreatment of children. It is vital to discuss this acute issue in studies and essays on child abuse.

Before working on your essay, you should select a topic for discussion. Here are some child abuse essay topics that we can suggest:

• The problem of child abuse in the US (Canada, the UK)
• Child abuse: Types and definitions
• Child neglect crimes and their causes
• Current solutions to the problem of sexual abuse of children
• The importance of child maltreatment prevention programs
• Child abuse: Legal implications
• Consequences of child abuse and neglect

If you are looking for other possible titles for your paper, you can check out child abuse essays samples online. Remember to only use them as examples to guide your work, and do not copy the information you will find.

One of the most important features of an outstanding essay is its structure. Here are some tips on how you can organize your essay effectively:

• Do preliminary research before writing your paper. It will help you to understand the issues you will want to discuss and outline which of them you will include in the essay. Remember to keep in mind the type of essay you should write, too.
• An introductory paragraph is necessary. In this paragraph, you will present background information on the issue and the aspects that you will cover in the paper. Remember to include a thesis statement at the end of this section.
• Think of the main arguments of your paper. You will present them in the body paragraphs of the essay. What child abuse issues do you want your reader to know about? Dedicate a separate section for each of the arguments. Remember to make smooth transitions between the paragraphs.
• Remember to dedicate a paragraph to identifying the problem of the essay and explaining the main terms. For example, if you are writing a child labor essay, you can discuss the countries in which this practice is present. You can also reflect on the outcomes of this problem.
• Include a refutation section if you are writing an argumentative essay. Discuss an alternative perspective on each of your arguments and prove that your opinion is more reliable than the alternative ones.
• Remember that you should not make paragraphs and sentences too long. It is easier for the reader to comprehend shorter sentences compared to complex ones. You can write between 65 and 190 words per paragraph and include at least 10 words in a sentence. It is a good idea to make all sections of the body paragraphs of similar length.
• A concluding paragraph or a summary is also very important. In this paragraph, you will discuss the arguments and counter-arguments of your paper.
• Do not forget to add a reference page in which you will include the sources used in the paper. Ask your professor whether you need a title page and an outline too.
• If you are not sure that the selected structure is good, check out child abuse essay examples online. Pay attention to how they are organized but do not copy the facts you will find in them.

For extra help, see our free samples and get some ideas for your paper!

• Ethical Dilemma of Child Abuse In the above example, a nurse has to apply rational judgment to analyze the extent and threats when making decisions in the best interest of the victim of child abuse.
• Daniel Valerio Child Abuse In the end, it was an electrician who identified the typical signs of abuse in Daniel that finally led police to investigate, thereby exposing the weakness and ineffectiveness of the Dual Track System; the child […]
• Child Abuse: Preventive Measures My artifact is an infographic that communicates the various forms of child abuse and how to report them to the necessary authorities.
• Problem of Child Abuse The most common form of child abuse in America and in most parts of the world is child abuse. The cost of child abuse is dire to both the children, healthcare organizations, parents, and the […]
• Child Abuse in the Victorian Era in Great Britain This was unacceptable in the eyes of the factory owners resulting in the implementation of the practice of children being sent into the mechanisms of machines while they were still operating since they were supposedly […]
• Physical Child Abuse Usually the child is unaware of the abuse due to the na ve state of mind or innocence. Physical abuse also lowers the social-economic status and thus high chances of neglect or abuse due to […]
• The Prevention of Child Abuse From the interview conducted with the school administrator of the local elementary school and the director of a local preschool, it is clear that both institutions have some advocacy plans for the prevention of child […]
• The Causes and Effects of Child Abuse The main problem of the project is the presence of a number of effects of child abuse and parental neglect on children, their development, and communication with the world.
• Child Abuse: A Case for Imposing Harsher Punishments to Child Abusers While harsh punishments appear to offer a solution to the problem, this measure may be detrimental to the welfare of the child in the case where the abuser is its guardian.
• Hidden Epidemic of Child Abuse and Neglect Child abuse should be perceived as a form of deviant behavior to which researchers give different explanations: biological, psychological, socio-cultural.
• Child Abuse: History and Causes The purpose of this paper is to explore the history, and causes of child abuse as well as the legislation implemented to address its cases.
• Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect Antisocial behaviour is one of the outcomes of child abuse and parental neglect that may be disclosed in a variety of forms.
• Child Abuse Issues and Its Effects The recognition of child abuse signs is a very important step as it is wrong to believe that child maltreatment takes place because of the presence of a single sing or poor understanding of child […]
• Child Abuse and Capstone Project This is why the problem of child abuse remains to be crucial for analysis, as people have to understand its urgency and effects on human behavior.
• Child Abuse Versus Elder Abuse The second distinction is that older people frequently encounter issues that might lead to abuse or neglect, particularly in nursing homes, such as mental disability, loneliness, and physical limitation.
• The Relationship Between Child Abuse and Embitterment Disorder Some emotions, like the dread of tests in school or sibling rivalry and conflicts, are a regular part of growing up.
• Trafficking Causes Child Abuse and Neglect The dissociation of children from their families and the exposure to intense trauma they are subjected to during and after trafficking may cause the minors to have attachment problems.
• Child Abuse and Maltreatment Discussion Additionally, this may cause a child’s behavior to change, such as making a sad or melancholy face or becoming furious with parents or other adults. When it comes to emotional abuse, a child may feel […]
• Impact of Child Abuse on Adulthood: An Idea Worth Spreading A frequent argument of those who do not want to recognize the scale of the problem of abuse in the world is “Beating is a sign of love!”.
• Effects of Child Abuse on Adults Second, she was so irrationally averse to the idea of having children that I knew immediately that it would be a contentious point in her future relationships.
• Domestic Violence, Child Abuse, or Elder Abuse In every health facility, a nurse who notices the signs of abuse and domestic violence must report them to the relevant authorities.
• Child Abuse: Screening Methods and Creating Financial Programs When the reporting is mandatory, it is easy to follow its guidelines which should be carefully elaborated not to be harsh on parents and at the same time offer protection to a child.
• Mandated Reporter Statute in Case of Child Abuse The mandated reporter statute recognizes such steps of reporting child abuse, abandonment, and neglect: The signs of abuse, abandonment, or neglect should be reported immediately to the Florida Department of Children and Families through the […]
• Discussion of Child Abuse: Case of COVID-19 In Cincinnati, 3-year-old Nylo Lattimore was missed in December 2020, and only after 143 days, the child’s body was discovered in the Ohio River.
• Child Abuse Allegations: Multidisciplinary Team Approach In children with allegations of child abuse, what is the effectiveness of the multidisciplinary team approach compared to the non-multidisciplinary team approach on prosecution rates, mental health referrals, and provision of medical examinations?
• Criminal Justice System: Child Abuse During the consideration of cases as part of a grand jury, citizens perform some functions of the preliminary investigation bodies.
• Promoting Child Abuse Prevention Services in Oahu, Hawaii, and the US The primary goal the Hui Hawaii organization is trying to achieve is to improve the well-being of American children by preventing abuse, neglect, and depression.
• Child Abuse in Singapore The second reason for child abuse in Singapore to continue being one of the most underreported illegal offenses is the country’s collectivist culture.
• Protocol for Pre-Testing the Child Abuse and Neglect Public Health Policy Based on the above, it is necessary to identify the conditions of child abuse like the quality of family relations and improper upbringing.
• Child Abuse: Term Definition However, there is a component that is not so clearly represented in other crimes: a third party, who has observed the abuse or the consequences of abuse has the legal obligation and reasonable cause of […]
• Discipline and Child Abuse: Motivation and Goals The first proof of the justice and reasonableness of discipline is that it is permitted by law to be considered to be the most authoritative source to consult.
• Sociological Perspective on “Punishment” as a Major Contributor to Child Abuse This is done with the aim of ensuring that the child is disciplined and is perceived as a legitimate punishment. This has offered a loophole to parents to abuse the child in the name of […]
• Critical Statistical Data Regarding the Issues Related to Child Abuse Due to acts of abuse children suffer greatly and it will not be wrong to say that these experiences are definitely engraved into the child’s personality.
• Socio-Economic Standing and Propensity for Child Abuse Physicians were the first to notice and report evidence of child abuse and neglect in the 1960s. The UNICEF corroborates the relationship of poverty with child abuse, neglect, and maltreatment.
• Child Abuse and Culture: Juan’s Case Analysis The following is the list of reflective insights that I came to while getting myself familiarized with Juan’s case and analyzing this case’s discursive implications: When addressing the issue of children being suspected to have […]
• Child Abuse: Altruistic Behavior Intervention plays a crucial role in the prevention of child abuse, as it helps to eliminate the possibility of the recurrence of events.
• New Jersey’s Bill on Child Abuse and Neglect The legislation’s impact is expected to be large because it is targeted at raising awareness of the pervasive issue of child abuse and encouraging the public to stay active and not to disregard any signs […]
• Child Abuse in the UAE and Explaining Theories The interest of carrying out the study on child abuse is based on the fact that it is a critical issue in any society, especially due to the actual and possible consequences on the child […]
• Child Abuse and Neglect and Family Practice Model Also, psychological violence can be either the only form of violence or the consequence of psychological or sexual abuse or neglect. Inadequate evaluation of the child’s capabilities and overstated requirements can also be a form […]
• Child Abuse and Protective Act in Idaho Also, abandonment is recognized in Idaho’s definition of child abuse, and, according to the Act, it means the failure of the parent or the guardian to foster a normal relationship with the child.
• Child Abuse and Neglect: Drug and Alcohol Problems The families of individuals who have committed a drug related offense should be investigated in order to ensure the practice is acceptable and capable of supporting the needs of more societies.
• Child Abuse as a Result of Insufficient Policies According to Latzman and Latzman, child abuse may be manifested in the use of excessive physical force when disciplining a child or an adolescent.
• Child Abuse and Neglect A church/synagogue/mosque retreat activity for parents and they children can be beneficial in strengthening parents to deal with the issues of child abuse and neglect.
• Child Abuse Problem The study of the problem of child abuse has begun in the 60s with focusing attention to children problems. In such a case the early recognition of child abuse is of great importance.
• A True Nature of the Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect in a Society The outcomes of child abuse usually depend on a variety of factors like the age of a child, the type of relation between a child and a perpetrator, and, of course, the type of maltreatment.
• A True Nature of the Effects of Child Abuse A society is in need of powerful and effective research that can prove the necessity to introduce the issue of child abuse and its effects as a leading problem the solution of which requires the […]
• Child Abuse Problems and Its Effects on a Future Child’s Life In fact, there were the three main challenges in writing the literature review just completed that were overcome due to the ability to organize the work, follow the suggestions of the experts, and keep in […]
• Effects of Child Abuse The nature of the effects of child abuse, their consequences in a society, and the most appropriate preventive methods should be considered.
• The Effects of Child Abuse: Capstone Project Time Line The development of a Capstone Project will become a new step in solving the problem and thinking about the possible ways of improvement the situation and creation the most appropriate living conditions for children.
• Introducing Improvements to Children Abuse Reporting System The paper is connected with the analysis of the quality of the current child abuse report systems because of the serious problems in the sphere of childcare.
• Biological Underpinnings Behind Child Abuse The dimension of the baby’s head is also seen to decrease in quantity from on third of the whole body at birth, to a quarter at the age of two years and to an eighth […]
• Cause and Effect of Child Abuse Parental response to the children is also presented in a form of abuse of the rights of the children, as they feel neglected or disowned.
• Abuse in Childhood Common Among Alcohol Addicts Dwelling upon the impact of the violence and abuse during childhood, the connection with the further disabilities and disorders is obvious.
• Child Abuse and Neglect Children in Court The objective of this paper was to determine the level of knowledge and nature of attitudes among maltreated children who appeared in court during their detention case hearings.
• Randomized Trial of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders in Adult Female Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse However, in spite of the fact that there exist a wealth of clinical literature on treatment methodologies of victims of sexual abuse, the evidence base concerning the treatment of victims of childhood sexual abuse exhibiting […]
• Child Sexual Abuse: Impact and Consequences Due to the adverse consequences of sexual abuse, efforts to have Jody share her ordeal and get immediate help would be my priority.
• Educational Program on Child Abuse The report “Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect” by Bernstein, Fink and Handelsman provides the findings of the consistency and validity of some of the conservative measures […]
• Public Health Media Campaign Proposal for Child Abuse
• Child Abuse and Lack of Communication in Marriages the Main Factors of Failed Family
• The Reasons and Three Most Common Factors Contributing to Child Abuse in Our Society
• Child Abuse and Its Effects on Social and Personality Development
• Neo-Liberal and Neo-Conservative Perspectives on Child Abuse
• Physical and Behavioural Indicators of Possible Child Abuse
• Defining Child Abuse and Its Different Forms in the 21st Century
• Child Abuse and Neglect: Recognizing the Signs and Symptoms
• Behind Closed Doors: The Correlation Between Multiple Personality Disorder and Child Abuse
• Child Abuse and Later Maladjustment in Adulthood
• Modern Beliefs Regarding the Treatment of Child Abuse Victims
• Neighborhood Poverty and Child Abuse and Neglect: The Mediating Role of Social Cohesion
• The Connection Between Child Abuse, Child Discipline, and Adult Behavior
• State the Possible Types, Signs and Symptoms of Child Abuse and Why It Is Important to Follow the Policies and Procedures of the Work Place
• Child Abuse and Its Effects on the Physical, Mental, and Emotional State of a Child
• Child Abuse, and Neglect and Speech and Language Development
• Social Issue: Child Abuse and How It Affects Early Childhood Development
• Child Abuse Scandal Publicity and Catholic School Enrollment
• Physical Abuse: The Different Types of Child Abuse
• Promoting Help for Victims of Child Abuse: Which Emotions Are Most Appropriate to Motivate Donation Behavior
• Describing Child Abuse, Its Different Forms, and Solutions to the Problem
• Child Abuse: The Four Major Types of Abuse, Statistics, Prevention, and Treatment
• Causes and Risk Factors Behind Child Abuse
• Child Abuse, Cause, and Effect on the Rest of Their Lives
• Child Abuse Has Severe Negative Psychological Effects on Children
• Child Abuse and the Professional Network Working Within the Child Protec
• Child Abuse Prevention and Control: Can Physical, Sexual or Psychological Abuse Be Controlled Within the Household?
• Child Abuse and the Effect on Development Into Adulthood
• Child Abuse: Victim Rights & the Role of Legal Representative
• Child Abuse and the Legal System – Developmental Forensic Psychology: Unveiling Four Common Misconceptions
• Parent Stress Factors and Child Abuse: A Tutoring Proposal
• Approaching Child Abuse From a Multi-Dimensional Perspective
• Child Abuse, Alcoholism, and Proactive Treatment
• Adverse Effects and Prevention of Child Abuse
• Suspected Child Abuse and the Teacher´S Role in Reporting It
• Child Abuse and Its Correlation to Poverty
• Sexual Child Abuse Exploring the Mind of the Perpetrator
• Relationship Between Domestic Violence and Child Abuse and How to Protect the Children From It
• Child Abuse Saddest and Most Tragic Problem Today
• Child Abuse and Academic Performance of Children
• Why Should People Care About Child Abuse?
• Why Should Child Abuse Be Addressed as a Social Problem?
• How Child Abuse and Neglect Affect Childhood?
• How Has Child Abuse Been Conceptualised and Addressed in Policy and Law?
• How to Protect Children From Abuse and Neglect?
• What Are the Negative Effects of Child Abuse?
• How Is the United States Dealing With Child Abuse Problem?
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• What Cause Child Abuse?
• Does Child Abuse and Neglect Lead To Bullying?
• How Do the Government and Society Have a Responsibility to Help Child Abuse Victims?
• Parent Support Groups Can Reduce Child Abuse?
• When Child Abuse Overlaps With Domestic Violence: The Factors Influencing Child Protection Workers’ Beliefs?
• How Can Spanking Lead to Child Abuse?
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• How Child Abuse Affects a Hero, a God, and a Monster in Greek Mythology?
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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Child Abuse — Child Abuse: Forms, Causes, Consequences, Prevention

Child Abuse: Forms, Causes, Consequences, Prevention

• Categories: Child Abuse Depression

About this sample

Words: 784 |

Published: Jan 31, 2024

Words: 784 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

References:

• U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2018). Child Maltreatment 2018. Retrieved from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatment
• Stith, S. M., Liu, T., Davies, L. C., Boykin, E. L., Alder, M. C., Harris, J. M., ... & Dees, J. E. M. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(1), 13-29.
• Wekerle, C., & Wall, A. M. (2003). The impact of childhood maltreatment on adolescent school performance: A multilevel model. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(5), 155-171.

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Child abuse is a pervasive issue that has serious implications for society as a whole. It not only affects the immediate victims but also has far-reaching consequences that can impact communities and future generations. [...]

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• v.5(2); Apr-Jun 2014

Child abuse: A classic case report with literature review

Arthur m. kemoli.

Department of Paediatric Dentistry and Orthodontics, University of Nairobi, Kenya

Mildred Mavindu

Child abuse and neglect are serious global problems and can be in the form of physical, sexual, emotional or just neglect in providing for the child's needs. These factors can leave the child with serious, long-lasting psychological damage. In the present case report, a 12-year-old orphaned boy was physically abused by a close relative who caused actual bodily and emotional trauma to the boy. After satisfactorily managing the trauma and emotional effects to the patient, in addition to the counseling services provided to the caregiver, the patient made a steady recovery. He was also referred to a child support group for social support, and prepare him together with his siblings for placement in a children's home in view of the hostile environment in which they were living.

Introduction

For a long time, child protection in general has been perceived as a matter for the professionals specializing in social service, health, mental health, and justice systems. However, this problem remains a duty to all, and more so a concern for other social scientists such as anthropologists, economists, historians, planners, political scientists, sociologists, and humanists (e.g., ethicists, legal scholars, political theorists, and theologians) who contribute to the understanding of the concepts of and strategies in child protection and the responsibility for adults and institutions with roles in ensuring the safety and the humane care of children under their care. Child abuse, therefore, is when harm or threat of harm is made to a child by someone acting in the role of caretaker.[ 1 , 2 ] It is a worldwide problem with no social, ethnic, and racial bounds.[ 3 ] Child abuse can be in the form of physical abuse, when the child suffers bodily harm as a result of a deliberate attempt to hurt the child, or severe discipline or physical punishment inappropriate to the child's age. It can be sexual abuse arising from subjecting the child to inappropriate exposure to sexual acts or materials or passive use of the child as sexual stimuli and/or actual sexual contacts. Child abuse can also be in the form of emotional abuse involving coercive, constant belittling, shaming, humiliating a child, making negative comparisons to others, frequent yelling, threatening, or bullying of the child, rejecting and ignoring the child as punishment, having limited physical contact with the child (e.g., no hugs, kisses, or other signs of affection), exposing the child to violence or abuse of others or any other demeaning acts. All these factors can lead to interference with the child's normal social or psychological development leaving the child with lifelong psychological scars. Lastly, child abuse can be in the form of child neglect, when an able caregiver fails to provide basic needs, adequate food, clothing, hygiene, supervision shelter, supervision, medical care, or support to the child.[ 4 ]

It is usually difficult to detect child abuse, unless one creates an atmosphere that would encourage disclosure by the child being abused.[ 5 ] Nonetheless, a good medical and social history may help to unravel the problem. Signs and symptoms of child abuse commonly include subnormal growth of the child, unexplained head and dental injuries, soft-tissue injuries like bruises and bite marks, burns and bony injuries like broken ribs, in the absence of a history pointing to the cause or causes of the trauma. The present case report describes a child who was abuse by a very close relative, and who caused physical and psychological trauma to the young lad.

Case Report

Peter, a 12-year-old boy, accompanied by his maternal aunt, presented at the local university Dental Hospital (Pediatric Dental Clinic) in Kenya in October 2012, with a complaint of a large, painful left facial swelling related to the left upper incisors. He had been referred from a local rural hospital where he had been taken by the same aunt, for treatment of the swelling. The swelling had occurred only 2 days prior to visiting the local hospital, and 4 days before presenting himself at the University Dental Hospital. Enquiry about the causes of the swelling provided unclear answers. Family history indicated that the young boy was a first-born among three siblings (9-year-old girl, 5-year-old boy), and that their single parent (mother) had been deceased for 6 years due to HIV-related complications. The three children had moved to live with their maternal grandparents and their seven sons. The patient had no adverse past medical history and had never consulted a dentist previous to the present problem. The boy was in grade seven in a local primary school and had the aspiration of becoming a medical doctor in future. It was not possible to establish from the aunt or the boy the situation of the patient's other siblings.

An extra-oral examination showed a young boy with a normal gait, sickly, unkempt, rather withdrawn, and small for his age. He had asymmetrical face due to the swelling involving his left submandibular region and spreading upwards to the inferior orbital margin, febrile (39.1°C), a marked submandibular lymphadenopathy on the left side, the skin overlying the swelling was warm, shiny and fluctuant, and the lips were dry and incompetent (2 cm) and as shown in [Figures ​ [Figures1a 1a – c ]. However, the temporomandibular joint movements were normal. The patient was also found to have a big, healing scar on the dorsal surface of the left foot, the cause of which was also unclear [ Figure 1 ].

(a) Frontal and (b) lateral (c) profiles of the patient showing the facial asymmetry with the left submandibular to infra-orbital and the healing scar on the foot

Intra-oral examination revealed a young boy in the permanent dentition with un-erupted third permanent molars, poor oral hygiene with heavy plaque deposits on the tongue and a generalized but moderate inflammation of the gingiva. There was a grade three mobility in relation to 11, 12, 21, 22 and a grade two mobility in relation to 23, 24, 25 (Miller mobility index). There was intramucosal swelling in relation to 21-24 extending labially/buccally (measuring 4 cm × 3 cm) and palatally (measuring 3 cm × 2 cm). On elevation of the upper lip, active discharge of pus mixed with blood and some black granules could be seen emanating from the abscess. There were no alveolar/bone fractures elicited, but carious lesions were present on 46 (occlusal), 47 and 37 (buccal). Orthodontic evaluation showed Angles class I molar relation on the left and edge to edge tending to class II on the right side. The canines were in class I relationship bilaterally. There was an anterior over-jet of 3 mm (11/21), an overbite of 20%, coincidental dental/facial midline and crowding on the upper right arch with 15 palatally displaced as can be seen in Figure ​ Figure2a 2a – c .

(a) Intra-oral photographs of the patient showing the labial and (b) palatial swelling in relation to displaced 21 and 22 (c), generalized marginal gingival inflammation, palatally displaced 15, moderate dental plaque deposits and a moderate anterior dental crowding in the lower dental arch

For investigations, orthopantogram, intra-oral periapical 11, 12, upper and lower standard occlusal and bite wing radiographs were taken and examined. In addition, clinical photographs, study models, and vitality tests for the traumatized teeth were undertaken. A diet and nutrition assessment, full blood count, stool microscopic analysis for ova and cyst and bacterial culture and sensitivity were also undertaken.

The results of the radiographs showed un-erupted with potential impaction of 48 and 38, an upper midline radioluscence, widened periodontal space in relation to 11, 21 (with a mesial tilt), 22, occlusal caries on 46 and buccal caries on 47 and 37. There was the presence of root fractures involving the apical one-third of 21, 22. Vitality tests conducted on the traumatized incisors showed false positive (may be due to the presence of infection). The blood analysis showed the presence of neutrophilia (suggestive of bacterial infection), mild iron deficiency, but he was sero-negative. From the diet chart, the boy was generally on a noncariogenic diet that lacked the intake of fruits and animal proteins. Nutritional assessment revealed a boy with a height of 144 cm, a weight of 28 kg, and a body mass index (BMI) of 13.5 Kg/m 2 (below 5 th percentile (given the ideal BMI should be 17.8 Kg/m 2 in the 50 th percentile).

From the history adduced and the results of the investigations, a diagnosis of child abuse and neglect was reached, with the boy having suffered traumatic injuries resulting in facial cellulitis, Ellis class VI fracture involving 21, 22 associated dentoalveolar abscess and subluxation of 11, 12. In addition, there were dental carious lesions on 46 (occlusally), 47 and 37 (buccally) and a relatively severe malnutrition. The patient had also moderate plaque induced gingivitis, mild anemia (microcytic and iron deficiency), mild dental fluorosis, potentially impacted 48 and 38 and crowding in the upper right and lower anterior arches.

The objective of treating the boy was to eliminate the pain, infection, improve the general and oral health, restore carious teeth, improve esthetic and report the child abuse and neglect to the relevant authorities. In the initial phase of treatment, the patient was admitted for 4 days and placed on dexamethasone 8 mg stat, cefuroxime 750 mg 3 times a day, metronidazole 500 mg 3 times a day, diclofenac 50 mg tablets alternating 4 hourly with oral paracetamol 1000 mg 3 times a day, to run for 5 days. Patient was also placed on chlorhexidine mouthwash 10 ml twice daily for 7 days and ranferon (hematinics) 10 ml to be used twice a day for 1 month. The second phase of treatment included incision and drainage of the abscess, followed by the splinting of the mobile teeth in the upper dental arch using semi-rigid splint of 0.6 mm stainless steel round wire for 4 weeks while. Root canal treatment of 11, 21, 12, and 22 followed thereafter.[ 6 ] A referral of the patient was made the child support center in the main referral hospital, plus the patient was placed on future recalls to determine whether the patient would have overcome the problem and the oral health was maintained in good condition.

The third phase of treatment involved interceptive orthodontics with the extraction of 15 to relieve the crowding in the area. Oral hygiene instructions were availed to the patient and the guardian, placement of fissure sealants was done for the premolars and molars to help reduce plaque retention on these teeth, preventive resin restorations were placed on 37, 46, and 47. The root fractures involving the apical one-third of 21 and 22 meant that the two teeth were to be initially dressed using non setting calcium hydroxide, and after healing, root canals are filled in the usual manner [ Figure 3 ].

Postobturation intraoral periapial radiograph showing the restoration on 12, 11, 21, and 22

Nutrition evaluation had initially been done and when the patient was re-evaluated after 1 month, he had gained bodyweight up to 1 kg. The child support center continued to carry out psychotherapy, and during one of the sessions, the patient confessed to having undergone physical abuse and threatened not to divulge any information by one of the uncles. The center considered placing the boy into a children's home, probably together with his siblings. Radiographic examinations evaluation after 3 months indicated some external apical root resorption taking place on 21 and 22. Further follows-ups were to continue.[ 7 ] After 10 months, the oral health and general heath of the patient had remarkably improved as shown in Figure 4 .

Posttreatment photographs taken after 10 months showing improved oral health of the patient and the glimmer of confidence in the patient as shown in a-d respectively

All types of child abuse and neglect leave the affected child with long-lasting scars that may be physical or psychological, but they are the emotional scars that leave the child with life-long effects, damage to the child's sense of self, the ability to build healthy relationships and function at home, work or school. This situation can in turn result in the child turning to alcohol or drugs to numb the painful feelings. On the other hand, the exposure by the child to violence during childhood can increase vulnerability of that child to mental and physical health problems like anxiety disorder, depression, etc.,[ 8 , 9 ] and make victims more likely to become perpetrators of violence later in life.[ 10 ] The oral cavity can be a central focus for physical abuse due to its significance in communication and nutrition.[ 3 , 11 ]

A neglected and abused child like the one described here, can become helpless and passive, displaying less affect to anything whether positive or negative in his or her encounters.[ 12 ] The patient described was vulnerable to abuse as he already lacked the parental protection in his early life, and was living in a poor, but large family where competition for available resources must have been stiff. The abuser, therefore, his own uncle, probably did not like their presence gave him the assumption that the children would grow up to take away what he probably thought would be his dues from the family.

In Kenya and even in many other countries, data on the prevalence of child abuse is still scarce. A Kenyan study undertaken in 2013 showed that violence against children was very high, with 31.9% and 17.5% female and male, respectively reporting having been exposed to sexual violence, 65.8% and 72.9% female and male respectively to physical violence. In the same study, 18.2% and 24.5% female and male, respectively had been abused prior to attaining 18 years of age, and only 23.8% female and 20.6% male reported not having experienced any form of violence during childhood.[ 13 ] Child abuse in Kenya, therefore, appears to be a rampant problem within the society. In all cases of abuse reported in the literature, the perpetrators were most often well-known to the children. The motive of child abuse has not always clear, just as it was the case with the patient described here. The patient under study here hailed from a family with low socio-economic background where providing for extra needs in the family could have been a problem. Even during treatment of the patient the family found the cost of treatment to be very high and unaffordable to them, and a waiver of the cost had to be sought and obtained from the University Dental Hospital. Further, the child having been orphaned with the death of their single parent (mother) left these children unprotected and vulnerable to such abuse from uncles who may have been competing for same needs in an already crowded family. It is possible that factors as poverty, social isolation, and familial disruption could have contributed to the abuse meted by this boy.[ 1 ] The fact that the problem was established at this stage, it probably provided the patient and his siblings with the opportunity to get early support and avert serious health problems for them. The referral to the local child protection authority was done to attain this goal and also to have the children monitored consistently for their safety from further child abuse. The child protection agency was indeed considering placing them in the custody of a children's home, though sadly, according to a report by the Kenyan Government, the utilization of these support services had not been very high,[ 13 ] for reasons unknown.

The treatment of the patient was carried out in a humane manner, and assistance provided whenever possible to have the full treatment completed. The problem of nutrition was still a difficult one for this large family with a poor background. Nonetheless, the guardian was still briefed on the issue, and informed about the importance of a balanced diet for optimal growth and immunity boosting for such young child, and suggestions for alternative cost-effective foods for the child. It was hoped that the support services of giving the patient and probably his siblings a new home would help the young child to grow and develop normally without fear of abuse.

The management of child abuse can be complicated, and often require a multidisciplinary approach, encompass professionals who will identifying the cause of the abuse or neglect, treatment of the immediate problems and referral of the child to the relevant child protection authority for action. Counseling services for the child and the caregivers should form part of the management regime. In the present case, the objectives were met and the patient got full benefits of this approach.

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

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Melissa T. Merrick, PhD, is President and CEO of Prevent Child Abuse America (PCA America), the nation’s oldest and largest nonprofit organization dedicated to the primary prevention of child abuse and neglect.

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Ten Ways to Help Prevent Child Abuse

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Have you ever found yourself thinking about the ways in which you can make a difference in a child’s life? Here is a list of ten ways to help prevent child abuse that are simple, every day actions that can make a big impact.

After you read these tips, check out Connect the Dots to learn more about how you can make a difference and to connect with others in your community who are working to deliver the great childhoods that all children deserve.

• Be a nurturing parent. Children need to know that they are special, loved, and capable of following their dreams.
• Help a friend, neighbor, or relative. Being a parent isn’t easy. Offer a helping hand take care of the children, so the parent(s) can rest or spend time together.
• Help yourself. When the big and little problems of your everyday life pile up to the point you feel overwhelmed and out of control—take time out. Don’t take it out on your kid.
• If your baby cries… It can be frustrating to hear your baby cry. Learn what to do if your baby won’t stop crying. Never shake a baby—shaking a child may result in severe injury or death.
• Get involved. Ask your community leaders, clergy, library, and schools to develop services to meet the needs of healthy children and families.
• Help to develop parenting resources at your local library. Find out whether your local library has parenting resources, and if it does not, offer to help obtain some.
• Promote programs in school. Teaching children, parents, and teachers prevention strategies can help to keep children safe.
• Monitor your child’s television, video, and internet viewing/usage. Excessively watching violent films, TV programs, and videos can harm young children.
• Volunteer at a local child abuse prevention program. For information about volunteer opportunities, call 1.800.CHILDREN or contact your local Prevent Child Abuse America chapter.
• Report suspected abuse or neglect. If you have reason to believe a child has been or may be harmed, call your local department of children and family services or your local police department.

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Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect (1993)

Chapter: 1 introduction, 1 introduction.

Child maltreatment is a devastating social problem in American society. In 1990, over 2 million cases of child abuse and neglect were reported to social service agencies. In the period 1979 through 1988, about 2,000 child deaths (ages 0-17) were recorded annually as a result of abuse and neglect (McClain et al., 1993), and an additional 160,000 cases resulted in serious injuries in 1990 alone (Daro and McCurdy, 1991). However tragic and sensational, the counts of deaths and serious injuries provide limited insight into the pervasive long-term social, behavioral, and cognitive consequences of child abuse and neglect. Reports of child maltreatment alone also reveal little about the interactions among individuals, families, communities, and society that lead to such incidents.

American society has not yet recognized the complex origins or the profound consequences of child victimization. The services required for children who have been abused or neglected, including medical care, family counseling, foster care, and specialized education, are expensive and are often subsidized by governmental funds. The General Accounting Office (1991) has estimated that these services cost more than $500 million annually. Equally disturbing, research suggests that child maltreatment cases are highly related to social problems such as juvenile delinquency, substance abuse, and violence, which require additional services and severely affect the quality of life for many American families.

The Importance Of Child Maltreatment Research

The challenges of conducting research in the field of child maltreatment are enormous. Although we understand comparatively little about the causes, definitions, treatment, and prevention of child abuse and neglect, we do know enough to recognize that the origins and consequences of child victimization are not confined to the months or years in which reported incidents actually occurred. For those who survive, the long-term consequences of child maltreatment appear to be more damaging to victims and their families, and more costly for society, than the immediate or acute injuries themselves. Yet little is invested in understanding the factors that predispose, mitigate, or prevent the behavioral and social consequences of child maltreatment.

The panel has identified five key reasons why child maltreatment research should be viewed as a central nexus of more comprehensive research activity.

Research On Child Maltreatment Is Currently Undervalued And Undeveloped

Research in the field of child maltreatment studies is relatively undeveloped when compared with related fields such as child development, so-

cial welfare, and criminal violence. Although no specific theory about the causes of child abuse and neglect has been substantially replicated across studies, significant progress has been gained in the past few decades in identifying the dimensions of complex phenomena that contribute to the origins of child maltreatment.

Efforts to improve the quality of research on any group of children are dependent on the value that society assigns to the potential inherent in young lives. Although more adults are available in American society today as service providers to care for children than was the case in 1960, a disturbing number of recent reports have concluded that American children are in trouble (Fuchs and Reklis, 1992; National Commission on Children, 1991; Children's Defense Fund, 1991).

Efforts to encourage greater investments in research on children will be futile unless broader structural and social issues can be addressed within our society. Research on general problems of violence, substance addiction, social inequality, unemployment, poor education, and the treatment of children in the social services system is incomplete without attention to child maltreatment issues. Research on child maltreatment can play a key role in informing major social policy decisions concerning the services that should be made available to children, especially children in families or neighborhoods that experience significant stress and violence.

As a nation, we already have developed laws and regulatory approaches to reduce and prevent childhood injuries and deaths through actions such as restricting hot water temperatures and requiring mandatory child restraints in automobiles. These important precedents suggest how research on risk factors can provide informed guidance for social efforts to protect all of America's children in both familial and other settings.

Not only has our society invested relatively little in research on children, but we also have invested even less in research on children whose families are characterized by multiple problems, such as poverty, substance abuse, violence, welfare dependency, and child maltreatment. In part, this slower development is influenced by the complexities of research on major social problems. But the state of research on this topic could be advanced more rapidly with increased investment of funds. In the competition for scarce research funds, the underinvestment in child maltreatment research needs to be understood in the context of bias, prejudice, and the lack of a clear political constituency for children in general and disadvantaged children in particular (Children's Defense Fund, 1991; National Commission on Children, 1991). Factors such as racism, ethnic discrimination, sexism, class bias, institutional and professional jealousies, and social inequities influence the development of our national research agenda (Bell, 1992, Huston, 1991).

The evolving research agenda has also struggled with limitations im-

posed by attempting to transfer the results of sample-specific studies to diverse groups of individuals. The roles of culture, ethnic values, and economic factors pervade the development of parenting practices and family dynamics. In setting a research agenda for this field, ethnic diversity and multiple cultural perspectives are essential to improve the quality of the research program and to overcome systematic biases that have restricted its development.

Researchers must address ethical and legal issues that present unique obligations and dilemmas regarding selection of subjects, provision of services, and disclosure of data. For example, researchers who discover an undetected incident of child abuse in the course of an interview are required by state laws to disclose the identities of the victim and offender(s), if known, to appropriate child welfare officials. These mandatory reporting requirements, adopted in the interests of protecting children, may actually cause long-term damage to children by restricting the scope of research studies and discouraging scientists from developing the knowledge base necessary to guide social interventions.

Substantial efforts are now required to reach beyond the limitations of current knowledge and to gain new insights that can improve the quality of social service efforts and public policy decisions affecting the health and welfare of abused and neglected children and their families. Most important, collaborative long-term research ventures are necessary to diminish social, professional, and institutional prejudices that have restricted the development of a comprehensive knowledge base that can improve understanding of, and response to, child maltreatment.

Dimensions Of Child Abuse And Neglect

The human dimensions of child maltreatment are enormous and tragic. The U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect has called the problem of child maltreatment ''an epidemic" in American society, one that requires a critical national emergency response.

The scale and severity of child abuse and neglect has caused various public and private organizations to mobilize efforts to raise public awareness of individual cases and societal trends, to improve the reporting and tracking of child maltreatment cases, to strengthen the responses of social service systems, and to develop an effective and fair system for protecting and offering services to victims while also punishing adults who deliberately harm children or place them in danger. Over the past several decades, a growing number of state and federal funding programs, governmental reports, specialized journals, and research centers, as well as national and international societies and conferences, have examined various dimensions of the problem of child maltreatment.

The results of these efforts have been inconsistent and uneven. In addressing aspects of each new revelation of abuse or each promising new intervention, research efforts often have become diffuse, fragmented, specific, and narrow. What is lacking is a coordinated approach and a general conceptual framework that can add new depth to our understanding of child maltreatment. A coordinated approach can accommodate diverse perspectives while providing direction and guidance in establishing research priorities and synthesizing research knowledge. Organizational mechanisms are also needed to facilitate the application and integration of research on child maltreatment in related areas such as child development, family violence, substance abuse, and juvenile delinquency.

Child maltreatment is not a new problem, yet concerted service, research, and policy attention toward it is just beginning. Although isolated studies of child maltreatment appeared in the medical and sociological literature in the first half of the twentieth century, the publication of "The Battered Child Syndrome" by C. Henry Kempe and associates (1962) is generally considered the first definitive paper in the field in the United States. The efforts of Kempe and others to publicize disturbing medical experience with child abuse and neglect led to the passage of the first Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act in 1974 (P.L. 93-247). The act, which has been amended several times (most recently in 1992), established a governmental program designed to guide and consolidate national and state data collection efforts regarding reports of child abuse and neglect, conduct national surveys of household violence, and sponsor research and demonstration programs to prevent, identify, and treat child abuse and neglect.

However, the federal government's leadership role in building a research base in this area has been complicated by changes and inconsistencies in research plans and priorities, limited funding, politicized peer review, fragmentation of effort among various federal agencies, poorly scheduled proposal review deadlines, and bias introduced by competing institutional objectives. 1 The lack of comprehensive, long-term planning for a research base has resulted in a field characterized by contradictions, conflict, and fragmentation. The role of the National Center for Child Abuse and Neglect as the lead federal agency in supporting research in this field has been sharply criticized (U.S. Advisory Board, 1991). Many observers believe that the federal government lacks leadership, funding, and an effective research program for studies on child maltreatment.

The Complexity Of Child Maltreatment

Child maltreatment was originally seen in the form of "the battered child," often portrayed in terms of physical abuse. Today, four general categories of child maltreatment are generally recognized: (1) physical

abuse, (2) sexual abuse, (3) neglect, and (4) emotional maltreatment. Each category covers a range of behaviors, as discussed in Chapter 2.

These four categories have become the focus of separate studies of incidence and prevalence, etiology, prevention, consequences, and treatment, with uneven development of research within each area and poor integration of knowledge across areas. Each category has developed its own typology and framework of reference terms, revealing certain similarities (such as the importance of developmental perspectives in considering the consequences of maltreatment) but also important differences (such as the predatory behavior associated with some forms of sexual abuse that do not appear in the etiology of other forms of child maltreatment).

In addition to the category of child maltreatment, the duration, source, intensity, timing, and situational context of incidents of child victimization are now recognized as important factors in studying the origin and consequences of child maltreatment. Yet information about these factors is rarely requested or recorded by social agencies or health professionals in the process of identifying or documenting reports of child maltreatment. Furthermore, research is often weakened by variation in research definitions of child maltreatment, bias in the recruitment of research subjects, the absence of information regarding circumstances surrounding maltreatment reports, the absence of measures to assess selected variables under study, and the absence of a developmental perspective in many research studies.

The co-occurrence of different forms of child maltreatment has been examined only to a limited extent. Relatively little is known about areas of similarity and differences in terms of causes, consequences, prevention, and treatment of selected types of child abuse and neglect. Inconsistencies in definitions often preclude comparative analyses of clinical studies. For example, studies of sexual abuse have indicated wide variations in its prevalence, often as a result of differences in the types of behavior that might be included in the definition adopted by each research investigator. Emotional abuse is also a matter of controversy in some quarters, primarily because of broad variations in its definition.

Research on child maltreatment is also complicated by the fragmentation of services and responses by which our society addresses specific reports of child maltreatment. Cases may involve children who are victims or witnesses to single or repeated incidents of child abuse and neglect. Sadly, child maltreatment often involves various family members, relatives, or other individuals who reside in the homes or neighborhoods of the affected children. Adult figures may be perpetrators of offensive incidents or mediators in intervention or prevention efforts.

The importance of the social ecological framework of the child has only recently been recognized in studies of maltreatment. Responses to child abuse and neglect involve a variety of social institutions, including commu-

nities, schools, hospitals, churches, youth associations, the media, and other social structures that provide services for children. Such groups and organizations present special intervention opportunities to reduce the scale and scope of the problem of child maltreatment, but their activities are often poorly documented and uncoordinated. Finally, governmental offices at the local, state, and federal levels have legal and social obligations to develop programs and resources to address child maltreatment, and their role is critical in developing a research agenda for this field.

In the past, the research agenda has been determined predominantly by pragmatic needs in the development and delivery of treatment and prevention services rather than by theoretical paradigms, a process that facilitates short-term studies of specialized research priorities but impedes the development of a well-organized, coherent body of scientific knowledge that can contribute over time to understanding fundamental principles and issues. As a result, the research in this field has been generally viewed by the scientific community as fragmented, diffuse, decentralized, and of poor quality.

Selection of Research Studies

The research literature in the field of child maltreatment is immense—over 2000 items are included in the panel's research bibliography, a portion of which is referenced in this report. Despite this quantity of literature, researchers generally agree that the quality of research on child maltreatment is relatively weak in comparison to health and social science research studies in areas such as family systems and child development. Only a few prospective studies of child maltreatment have been undertaken, and most studies rely on the use of clinical samples (which may exclude important segments of the research population) or adult memories. Both types of samples are problematic and can produce biased results. Clinical samples may not be representative of all cases of child maltreatment. For example, we know from epidemiologic studies of disease of cases that were derived from hospital records that, unless the phenomenon of interest always comes to a service provider for treatment, there exist undetected and untreated cases in the general population that are often quite different from those who have sought treatment. Similarly, when studies rely on adult memories of childhood experiences, recall bias is always an issue. Longitudinal studies are quite rare, and some studies that are described as longitudinal actually consist of hybrid designs followed over time.

To ensure some measure of quality, the panel relied largely on studies that had been published in the peer-reviewed scientific literature. More rigorous scientific criteria (such as the use of appropriate theory and methodology in the conduct of the study) were considered by the panel, but were not adopted because little of the existing work would meet such selection

criteria. Given the early stage of development of this field of research, the panel believes that even weak studies contain some useful information, especially when they suggest clinical insights, a new perspective, or a point of departure from commonly held assumptions. Thus, the report draws out issues based on clinical studies or studies that lack sufficient control samples, but the panel refrains from drawing inferences based on this literature.

The panel believes that future research reviews of the child maltreatment literature would benefit from the identification of explicit criteria that could guide the selection of exemplary research studies, such as the following:

For the most part, only a few studies will score well in each of the above categories. It becomes problematic, therefore, to rate the value of studies which may score high in one category but not in others.

The panel has relied primarily on studies conducted in the past decade, since earlier research work may not meet contemporary standards of methodological rigor. However, citations to earlier studies are included in this report where they are thought to be particularly useful and when research investigators provided careful assessments and analysis of issues such as definition, interrelationships of various types of abuse, and the social context of child maltreatment.

A Comparison With Other Fields of Family and Child Research

A comparison with the field of studies on family functioning may illustrate another point about the status of the studies on child maltreatment. The literature on normal family functioning or socialization effects differs in many respects from the literature on child abuse and neglect. Family sociology research has a coherent body of literature and reasonable consensus about what constitutes high-quality parenting in middle-class, predominantly White populations. Family functioning studies have focused predominantly on large, nonclinical populations, exploring styles of parenting and parenting practices that generate different kinds and levels of competence, mental health, and character in children. Studies of family functioning have tended to follow cohorts of subjects over long periods to identify the effects of variations in childrearing practices and patterns on children's

competence and adjustment that are not a function of social class and circumstances.

By contrast, the vast and burgeoning literature on child abuse and neglect is applied research concerned largely with the adverse effects of personal and social pathology on children. The research is often derived from very small samples selected by clinicians and case workers. Research is generally cross-sectional, and almost without exception the samples use impoverished families characterized by multiple problems, including substance abuse, unemployment, transient housing, and so forth. Until recently, researchers demonstrated little regard for incorporating appropriate ethnic and cultural variables in comparison and control groups. In the past decade, significant improvements have occurred in the development of child maltreatment research, but key problems remain in the area of definitions, study designs, and the use of instrumentation.

As the nature of research on child abuse and neglect has evolved over time, scientists and practitioners have likewise changed. The psychopathologic model of child maltreatment has been expanded to include models that stress the interactions of individual, family, neighborhood, and larger social systems. The role of ethnic and cultural issues are acquiring an emerging importance in formulating parent-child and family-community relationships. Earlier simplistic conceptionalizations of perpetrator-victim relationships are evolving into multiple-focus research projects that examine antecedents in family histories, current situational relationships, ecological and neighborhood issues, and interactional qualities of relationships between parent-child and offender-victim. In addition, emphases in treatment, social service, and legal programs combine aspects of both law enforcement and therapy, reflecting an international trend away from punishment, toward assistance, for families in trouble.

Charge To The Panel

The commissioner of the Administration for Children, Youth, and Families in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services requested that the National Academy of Sciences convene a study panel to undertake a comprehensive examination of the theoretical and pragmatic research needs in the area of child maltreatment. The Panel on Research on Child Abuse and Neglect was asked specifically to:

The report resulting from this study provides recommendations for allocating existing research funds and also suggests funding mechanisms and topic areas to which new resources could be allocated or enhanced resources could be redirected. By focusing this report on research priorities and the needs of the research community, the panel's efforts were distinguished from related activities, such as the reports of the U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect, which concentrate on the policy issues in the field of child maltreatment.

The request for recommendations for research priorities recognizes that existing studies on child maltreatment require careful evaluation to improve the evolution of the field and to build appropriate levels of human and financial resources for these complex research problems. Through this review, the panel has examined the strengths and weaknesses of past research and identified areas of knowledge that represent the greatest promise for advancing understanding of, and dealing more effectively with, the problem of child maltreatment.

In conducting this review, the panel has recognized the special status of studies of child maltreatment. The experience of child abuse or neglect from any perspective, including victim, perpetrator, professional, or witness, elicits strong emotions that may distort the design, interpretation, or support of empirical studies. The role of the media in dramatizing selected cases of child maltreatment has increased public awareness, but it has also produced a climate in which scientific objectivity may be sacrificed in the name of urgency or humane service. Many concerned citizens, legislators, child advocates, and others think we already know enough to address the root causes of child maltreatment. Critical evaluations of treatment and prevention services are not supported due to both a lack of funding and a lack of appreciation for the role that scientific analysis can play in improving the quality of existing services and identifying new opportunities for interventions. The existing research base is small in volume and spread over a wide variety of topics. The contrast between the importance of the problem and the difficulty of approaching it has encouraged the panel to proceed carefully, thoroughly distinguishing suppositions from facts when they appear.

Research on child maltreatment is at a crossroads—we are now in a position to merge this research field with others to incorporate multiple perspectives, broaden research samples, and focus on fundamental issues that have the potential to strengthen, reform, or replace existing public policy and social programs. We have arrived at a point where we can

recognize the complex interplay of forces in the origins and consequences of child abuse and neglect. We also recognize the limitations of our knowledge about the effects of different forms of social interventions (e.g., home visitations, foster care, family treatment programs) for changing the developmental pathways of abuse victims and their families.

The Importance Of A Child-Oriented Framework

The field of child maltreatment studies has often divided research into the types of child maltreatment under consideration (such as physical and sexual abuse, child neglect, and emotional maltreatment). Within each category, researchers and practitioners have examined underlying causes or etiology, consequences, forms of treatment or other interventions, and prevention programs. Each category has developed its own typology and framework of reference terms, and researchers within each category often publish in separate journals and attend separate professional meetings.

Over a decade ago, the National Research Council Committee on Child Development Research and Public Policy published a report titled Services for Children: An Agenda for Research (1981). Commenting on the development of various government services for children, the report noted that observations of children's needs were increasingly distorted by the "unmanageably complex, expensive, and confusing" categorical service structure that had produced fragmented and sometimes contradictory programs to address child health and nutrition requirements (p. 15-16). The committee concluded that the actual experiences of children and their families in different segments of society and the conditions of their homes, neighborhoods, and communities needed more systematic study. The report further noted that we need to learn more about who are the important people in children's lives, including parents, siblings, extended family, friends, and caretakers outside the family, and what these people do for children, when, and where.

These same conclusions can be applied to studies of child maltreatment. Our panel considered, but did not endorse, a framework that would emphasize differences in the categories of child abuse or neglect. We also considered a framework that would highlight differences in the current system of detecting, investigating, or responding to child maltreatment. In contrast to conceptualizing this report in terms of categories of maltreatment or responses of the social system to child maltreatment, the panel presents a child-oriented research agenda that emphasizes the importance of knowing more about the backgrounds and experiences of developing children and their families, within a broader social context that includes their friends, neighborhoods, and communities. This framework stresses the importance of knowing more about the qualitative differences between children who suffer episodic experiences of abuse or neglect and those for whom mal-

treatment is a chronic part of their lives. And this approach highlights the need to know more about circumstances that affect the consequences, and therefore the treatment, of child maltreatment, especially circumstances that may be affected by family, cultural, or ethnic factors that often remain hidden in small, isolated studies.

An Ecological Developmental Perspective

The panel has adopted an ecological developmental perspective to examine factors in the child, family, or society that can exacerbate or mitigate the incidence and destructive consequences of child maltreatment. In the panel's view, this perspective reflects the understanding that development is a process involving transactions between the growing child and the social environment or ecology in which development takes place. Positive and negative factors merit attention in shaping a research agenda on child maltreatment. We have adopted a perspective that recognizes that dysfunctional families are often part of a dysfunctional environment.

The relevance of child maltreatment research to child development studies and other research fields is only now being examined. New methodologies and new theories of child maltreatment that incorporate a developmental perspective can provide opportunities for researchers to consider the interaction of multiple factors, rather than focusing on single causes or short-term effects. What is required is the mobilization of new structures of support and resources to concentrate research efforts on significant areas that offer the greatest promise of improving our understanding of, and our responses to, child abuse and neglect.

Our report extends beyond what is, to what could be, in a society that fosters healthy development in children and families. We cannot simply build a research agenda for the existing social system; we need to develop one that independently challenges the system to adapt to new perspectives, new insights, and new discoveries.

The fundamental theme of the report is the recognition that research efforts to address child maltreatment should be enhanced and incorporated into a long-term plan to improve the quality of children's lives and the lives of their families. By placing maltreatment within the framework of healthy development, for example, we can identify unique sources of intervention for infants, preschool children, school-age children, and adolescents.

Each stage of development presents challenges that must be resolved in order for a child to achieve productive forms of thinking, perceiving, and behaving as an adult. The special needs of a newborn infant significantly differ from those of a toddler or preschool child. Children in the early years of elementary school have different skills and distinct experiential levels from those of preadolescent years. Adolescent boys and girls demon-

strate a range of awkward and exploratory behaviors as they acquire basic social skills necessary to move forward into adult life. Most important, developmental research has identified the significant influences of family, schools, peers, neighborhoods, and the broader society in supporting or constricting child development.

Understanding the phenomenon of child abuse and neglect within a developmental perspective poses special challenges. As noted earlier, research literature on child abuse and neglect is generally organized by the category or type of maltreatment; integrated efforts have not yet been achieved. For example, research has not yet compared and contrasted the causes of physical and sexual abuse of a preschool child or the differences between emotional maltreatment of toddlers and adolescents, although all these examples fall within the domain of child maltreatment. A broader conceptual framework for research will elicit data that can facilitate such comparative analyses.

By placing research in the framework of factors that foster healthy development, the ecological developmental perspective can enhance understanding of the research agenda for child abuse and neglect. The developmental perspective can improve the quality of treatment and prevention programs, which often focus on particular groups, such as young mothers who demonstrate risk factors for abuse of newborns, or sexual offenders who molest children. There has been little effort to cut across the categorical lines established within these studies to understand points of convergence or divergence in studies on child abuse and neglect.

The ecological developmental perspective can also improve our understanding of the consequences of child abuse and neglect, which may occur with increased or diminished intensity over a developmental cycle, or in different settings such as the family or the school. Initial effects may be easily identified and addressed if the abuse is detected early in the child's development, and medical and psychological services are available for the victim and the family. Undetected incidents, or childhood experiences discovered later in adult life, require different forms of treatment and intervention. In many cases, incidents of abuse and neglect may go undetected and unreported, yet the child victim may display aggression, delinquency, substance addiction, or other problem behaviors that stimulate responses within the social system.

Finally, an ecological developmental perspective can enhance intervention and prevention programs by identifying different requirements and potential effects for different age groups. Children at separate stages of their developmental cycle have special coping mechanisms that present barriers to—and opportunities for—the treatment and prevention of child abuse and neglect. Intervention programs need to consider the extent to which children may have already experienced some form of maltreatment in order to

evaluate successful outcomes. In addition, the perspective facilitates evaluation of which settings are the most promising locus for interventions.

Previous Reports

A series of national reports associated with the health and welfare of children have been published in the past decade, many of which have identified the issue of child abuse and neglect as one that deserves sustained attention and creative programmatic solutions. In their 1991 report, Beyond Rhetoric , the National Commission on Children noted that the fragmentation of social services has resulted in the nation's children being served on the basis of their most obvious condition or problem rather than being served on the basis of multiple needs. Although the needs of these children are often the same and are often broader than the mission of any single agency emotionally disturbed children are often served by the mental health system, delinquent children by the juvenile justice system, and abused or neglected children by the protective services system (National Commission on Children, 1991). In their report, the commission called for the protection of abused and neglected children through more comprehensive child protective services, with a strong emphasis on efforts to keep children with their families or to provide permanent placement for those removed from their homes.

In setting health goals for the year 2000, the Public Health Service recognized the problem of child maltreatment and recommended improvements in reporting and diagnostic services, and prevention and educational interventions (U.S. Public Health Service, 1990). For example, the report, Health People 2000 , described the four types of child maltreatment and recommended that the rising incidence (identified as 25.2 per 1,000 in 1986) should be reversed to less than 25.2 in the year 2000. These public health targets are stated as reversing increasing trends rather than achieving specific reductions because of difficulties in obtaining valid and reliable measures of child maltreatment. The report also included recommendations to expand the implementation of state level review systems for unexplained child deaths, and to increase the number of states in which at least 50 percent of children who are victims of physical or sexual abuse receive appropriate treatment and follow-up evaluations as a means of breaking the intergenerational cycle of abuse.

The U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect issued reports in 1990 and 1991 which include national policy and research recommendations. The 1991 report presented a range of research options for action, highlighting the following priorities (U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect, 1991:110-113):

This report differs from those described above because its primary focus is on establishing a research agenda for the field of studies on child abuse and neglect. In contrast to the mandate of the U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect, the panel was not asked to prepare policy recommendations for federal and state governments in developing child maltreatment legislation and programs. The panel is clearly aware of the need for services for abused and neglected children and of the difficult policy issues that must be considered by the Congress, the federal government, the states, and municipal governments in responding to the distress of children and families in crisis. The charge to this panel was to design a research agenda that would foster the development of scientific knowledge that would provide fundamental insights into the causes, identification, incidence, consequences, treatment, and prevention of child maltreatment. This knowledge can enable public and private officials to execute their responsibilities more effectively, more equitably, and more compassionately and empower families and communities to resolve their problems and conflicts in a manner that strengthens their internal resources and reduces the need for external interventions.

Report Overview

Early studies on child abuse and neglect evolved from a medical or pathogenic model, and research focused on specific contributing factors or causal sources within the individual offender to be discovered, addressed, and prevented. With the development of research on child maltreatment over the past several decades, however, the complexity of the phenomena encompassed by the terms child abuse and neglect or child maltreatment has become apparent. Clinical studies that began with small sample sizes and weak methodological designs have gradually evolved into larger and longer-term projects with hundreds of research subjects and sound instrumentation.

Although the pathogenic model remains popular among the general public in explaining the sources of child maltreatment, it is limited by its primary focus on risk and protective factors within the individual. Research investigators now recognize that individual behaviors are often influenced by factors in the family, community, and society as a whole. Elements from these systems are now being integrated into more complex theories that analyze the roles of interacting risk and protective factors to explain and understand the phenomena associated with child maltreatment.

In the past, research on child abuse and neglect has developed within a categorical framework that classifies the research by the type of maltreatment typically as reported in administrative records. Although the quality of research within different categories of child abuse and neglect is uneven and problems of definitions, data collection, and study design continue to characterize much research in this field, the panel concluded that enough progress has been achieved to integrate the four categories of maltreatment into a child-oriented framework that could analyze the similarities and differences of research findings. Rather than encouraging the continuation of a categorical approach that would separate research on physical or sexual abuse, for example, the panel sought to develop for research sponsors and the research community a set of priorities that would foster the integration of scientific findings, encourage the development of comparative analyses, and also distinguish key research themes in such areas as identification, incidence, etiology, prevention, consequences, and treatment. This approach recognizes the need for the construction of collaborative, long-term efforts between public and private research sponsors and research investigators to strengthen the knowledge base, to integrate studies that have evolved for different types of child maltreatment, and eventually to reduce the problem of child maltreatment. This approach also highlights the connections that need to be made between research on the causes and the prevention of child maltreatment, for the more we learn about the origins of child abuse and neglect, the more effective we can be in seeking to prevent it. In the same manner, the report emphasises the connections that need to be made between research on the consequences and treatment of child maltreatment, for knowledge about the effects of child abuse and neglect can guide the development of interventions to address these effects.

In constructing this report, the panel has considered eight broad areas: Identification and definitions of child abuse and neglect (Chapter 2) Incidence: The scope of the problem (Chapter 3) Etiology of child maltreatment (Chapter 4) Prevention of child maltreatment (Chapter 5) Consequences of child maltreatment (Chapter 6) Treatment of child maltreatment (Chapter 7)

Human resources, instrumentation, and research infrastructure (Chapter 8) Ethical and legal issue in child maltreatment research (Chapter 9)

Each chapter includes key research recommendations within the topic under review. The final chapter of the report (Chapter 10) establishes a framework of research priorities derived by the panel from these recommendations. The four main categories identified within this framework—research on the nature and scope of child maltreatment; research on the origins and consequences of child maltreatment; research on the strengths and limitations of existing interventions; and the need for a science policy for child maltreatment research—provide the priorities that the panel has selected as the most important to address in the decade ahead.

1. The panel received an anecdotal report, for example, that one federal research agency systematically changed titles of its research awards over a decade ago, replacing phrases such as child abuse with references to maternal and child health care, after political sensitivities developed regarding the appropriateness of its research program in this area.

Bell, D.A. 1992 Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism . New York: Basic Books.

Children's Defense Fund 1991 The State of America's Children . Washington, DC: The Children's Defense Fund.

Daro, D. 1988 Confronting Child Abuse: Research for Effective Program Design . New York: The Free Press, Macmillan. Cited in the General Accounting Office, 1992. Child Abuse: Prevention Programs Need Greater Emphasis. GAO/HRD-92-99.

Daro, D., and K. McCurdy 1991 Current Trends in Child Abuse Reporting and Fatalities: The Results of the 1990 Annual Fifty State Survey . Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse.

Fuchs, V.R., and D.M. Reklis 1992 America's children: Economic perspectives and policy options. Science 255:41-46.

General Accounting Office 1991 Child Abuse Prevention: Status of the Challenge Grant Program . May. GAO:HRD91-95. Washington, DC.

Huston, A.C., ed. 1991 Children in Poverty: Child Development and Public Policy . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kempe, C.H., F.N. Silverman, B. Steele, W. Droegemueller, and H.R. Silver 1962 The battered child syndrome. Journal of the American Medical Association 181(1): 17-24.

McClain, P.W., J.J. Sacks, R.G. Froehlke, and B.G. Ewigman 1993 Estimates of fatal child abuse and neglect, United States, 1979 through 1988. Pediatrics 91(2):338-343.

National Commission on Children 1991 Beyond Rhetoric: A New American Agenda for Children and Families . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

National Research Council 1981 Services for Children: An Agenda for Research . Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect 1990 Child Abuse and Neglect: Critical First Steps in Response to a National Emergency . August. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. August. 1991 Creating Caring Communities . September. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

U.S. Public Health Service 1990 Violent and abusive behavior. Pp. 226-247 (Chapter 7) in Healthy People 2000 Report . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

The tragedy of child abuse and neglect is in the forefront of public attention. Yet, without a conceptual framework, research in this area has been highly fragmented. Understanding the broad dimensions of this crisis has suffered as a result.

This new volume provides a comprehensive, integrated, child-oriented research agenda for the nation. The committee presents an overview of three major areas:

• Definitions and scope —exploring standardized classifications, analysis of incidence and prevalence trends, and more.
• Etiology, consequences, treatment, and prevention —analyzing relationships between cause and effect, reviewing prevention research with a unique systems approach, looking at short- and long-term consequences of abuse, and evaluating interventions.
• Infrastructure and ethics —including a review of current research efforts, ways to strengthen human resources and research tools, and guidance on sensitive ethical and legal issues.

This volume will be useful to organizations involved in research, social service agencies, child advocacy groups, and researchers.

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• About Child Abuse and Neglect
• Risk and Protective Factors
• Public Health Strategy
• Essentials for Childhood Framework

Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect

• Offering children safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments prevents child abuse and neglect.
• Training and treatment for children and families can reduce short- and long-term effects of child abuse and neglect.
• Everyone has a role to play in preventing child abuse and neglect.

Creating safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments is essential for helping children and families thrive. These relationships and environments also help protect children against or lessen the negative effects of violence.

Safety, stability, and nurturing are defined as follows:

• Safety: extent to which a child is free from fear and secure from physical or psychological harm within their social and physical environment.
• Stability: degree of predictability and consistency in a child's social, emotional, and physical environment.
• Nurturing: extent to which a child's physical, emotional, and developmental needs are sensitively and consistently met.

Everyone has a role to play in preventing child abuse and neglect and helping all children reach their full potential.

Parents and Caregivers

Young children experience the world through their relationships with parents and other caregivers. The quality of these relationships and the environment in which they develop, play a significant role in a child's development. Parents and caregivers can:

• Set aside time each day to talk or play with your child.
• Establish routines. Children feel secure when the environment is structured for them.
• Validate your child's feelings and offer physical and emotional support.
• Know who is supervising your child when they're outside your home.
• Teach your child how to stay safe when they're online or on digital devices.
• Seek parenting skill training programs to help build stronger relationships with your children.

Raising children can be challenging— ask for help when needed . Reach out to babysitters, family members, or close friends. Discuss your concerns with your child's doctor. Also consider finding out if your community offers support groups or programs for parents and caregivers.

Resource‎

Ensuring the well-being of children is a shared responsibility. Friends, family, and other trusted adults can help by developing nurturing, supportive relationships with the children in their lives. Volunteering as a mentor at an afterschool program or offering to babysit are other ways to help.

Neighborhood associations can connect families to resources and other neighborhood adults to help with household tasks or with childcare.

Employers can adopt or support workplace policies that help families, such as livable wages, paid leave, and flexible and consistent schedules.

Everyone can recognize the challenges that families face and offer support and encouragement to reduce stress. Help encourage parents and caregivers to ask for help when they need it. Everyone can also support efforts to:

• Adopt policies in support of families (such as family-friendly work policies).
• Increase access to high-quality childcare and education.
• Create safe places or neighborhood activities where children are supervised, and families can gather.
• Provide access to free or low-cost evidence-based parent training.
• Discourage violence and help ensure the safety of all members of a community.

Public health practitioners, partners, and other professionals also play a vital role in preventing child abuse and neglect.

Training and treatment for children and families can reduce the short- and long-term effects of child abuse and neglect exposure. These effects can include physical, emotional, behavioral, and mental health issues. It can also improve parent-child interactions, parenting behaviors, and family functioning. Treatment for children and families can also help prevent later involvement in violence.

These are a few evidence-based resources that promote safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments.

• Early Head Start : These programs are designed to nurture healthy attachments. Services encompass the full range of a family's needs from pregnancy through a child's third birthday.
• Adults and Children Together Against Violence: Parents Raising Safe Kids (ACT) : The program teaches positive parenting skills to parents and caregivers of children from birth to age 10.
• SafeCare : The program focuses on creating positive relationships between caregivers and their children, ensuring homes are safe to reduce the risk of child unintentional injury, and keeping children as healthy as possible.

Child Abuse and Neglect Prevention

Child abuse and neglect can have long-term impact on health, opportunity, and well-being. CDC works to understand the problems of child abuse and neglect and prevent them.

For Everyone

Public health.

Anne Arundel teacher arrested on charges of sexually abusing multiple students

by Project Baltimore

An Anne Arundel County elementary school teacher has been arrested on charges of sexually abusing multiple students.

Matthew Schlegel, 44, was taken into custody Thursday morning at his home in Severna Park. He faces more than 30 charges, ranging from second-degree assault to sex abuse of a minor. Schlegel is a third-grade math teacher at Severna Park Elementary School. The charges confirm much of what Project Baltimore last month.

Project Baltimore was on scene early Thursday morning as police officers searched Schlegel's home and vehicle. According to charging documents, the alleged victims are all current or former students of Schlegel who say he touched them inappropriately. The girls told police the alleged abuse occurred in class during the school day.

Detectives also spoke with additional witnesses who, according to charging documents, said they "observed the victims on Schlegel's lap during class." The alleged abuse dates back to August 2022 up until March 2024, occurring when each of the alleged victims was in third grade.

Schlegel was removed from Severna Park Elementary school on March 15, following the initial allegation. Three days later, on March 18, Severna Park Principal Kyle Butler sent an email to parents of third -grade students, explaining that Schlegel had been removed from the school “indefinitely”. Parents were not informed why Schlegel, reportedly a popular teacher, was suddenly gone.

In April, Project Baltimore first broke the news that Schlegel was being investigated by police. At the time, we were able to confirm the school was aware of at least four alleged victims.

ALSO READ | New details emerge in Severna Park Elementary’s alleged teacher misconduct

On April 7, parents at Severna Park learned more information when the principal sent a second email to the entire school community.

The email said an allegation involving Schlegel had been reported to the school system’s Office of Investigations. Following the initial allegation, the principal said he met with “several other sets of families” and provided their information to authorities as well.

Schlegel has been teaching in Anne Arundel County Public Schools since 2008. He spent his first eight years at Tyler Heights Elementary in Annapolis, where he taught second grade. In 2016, he moved to Severna Park Elementary. On Friday, a judge ordered Schlegel be held without bail, but his attorney is pushing to get him released by arguing that his client is being illegally detained.

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Geographic coordinates of Elektrostal, Moscow Oblast, Russia

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Coordinates of Elektrostal in decimal degrees

Coordinates of elektrostal in degrees and decimal minutes, utm coordinates of elektrostal, geographic coordinate systems.

WGS 84 coordinate reference system is the latest revision of the World Geodetic System, which is used in mapping and navigation, including GPS satellite navigation system (the Global Positioning System).

Geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) define a position on the Earth’s surface. Coordinates are angular units. The canonical form of latitude and longitude representation uses degrees (°), minutes (′), and seconds (″). GPS systems widely use coordinates in degrees and decimal minutes, or in decimal degrees.

Latitude varies from −90° to 90°. The latitude of the Equator is 0°; the latitude of the South Pole is −90°; the latitude of the North Pole is 90°. Positive latitude values correspond to the geographic locations north of the Equator (abbrev. N). Negative latitude values correspond to the geographic locations south of the Equator (abbrev. S).

Longitude is counted from the prime meridian ( IERS Reference Meridian for WGS 84) and varies from −180° to 180°. Positive longitude values correspond to the geographic locations east of the prime meridian (abbrev. E). Negative longitude values correspond to the geographic locations west of the prime meridian (abbrev. W).

UTM or Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system divides the Earth’s surface into 60 longitudinal zones. The coordinates of a location within each zone are defined as a planar coordinate pair related to the intersection of the equator and the zone’s central meridian, and measured in meters.

Elevation above sea level is a measure of a geographic location’s height. We are using the global digital elevation model GTOPO30 .

Elektrostal , Moscow Oblast, Russia