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How To Write A Research Paper In Biotechnology

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Current research in biotechnology: Exploring the biotech forefront . Biotechnology is an evolving research field that covers a broad range of topics. Here we aimed to evaluate the latest research literature, to identify…

Highlights – View PDFCurrent research in biotechnology: Exploring the biotech forefrontUnder a Creative Commons licenseopen accessHighlights•Biotechnology literature since 2017 was analyzed. •The United States of America, China, Germany, Brazil and India were most productive. •Metabolic engineering was among the most prevalent study themes. •Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were frequently used. •Nanoparticles and nanotechnology are trending research themes in biotechnology. AbstractBiotechnology is an evolving research field that covers a broad range of topics. Here we aimed to evaluate the latest research literature, to identify prominent research themes, major contributors in terms of institutions, countries/regions, and journals. The Web of Science Core Collection online database was searched to retrieve biotechnology articles published since 2017. In total, 12,351 publications were identified and analyzed. Over 8500 institutions contributed to these biotechnology publications, with the top 5 most productive ones scattered over France, China, the United States of America, Spain, and Brazil.

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BMC Biotechnology

BMC Biotechnology is an open access, peer-reviewed journal that considers articles on the manipulation of biological macromolecules or organisms for use in …

• Ethics approval and consent to participate
• Consent for publication
• Availability of data and materials
• Competing interests
• Authors’ contributions
• Acknowledgements
• Authors’ information

All manuscripts must contain the following sections under the heading ‘Declarations’: Ethics approval and consent to participate Consent for publication Availability of data and materials Competing interests Funding Authors’ contributions Acknowledgements Authors’ information (optional)Please see below for details on the information to be included in these sections. If any of the sections are not relevant to your manuscript, please include the heading and write ‘Not applicable’ for that section. Ethics approval and consent to participateManuscripts reporting studies involving human participants, human data or human tissue must: include a statement on ethics approval and consent (even where the need for approval was waived) include the name of the ethics committee that approved the study and the committee’s reference number if appropriateStudies involving animals must include a statement on ethics approval and for experimental studies involving client-owned animals, authors must also include a statement on informed consent from the client or owner.

Top Ten Exclusive Research Paper Topics On Biotechnology

Looking for some unique ideas for your paper on biotechnology? Check out the list of suggestions provided in the article and feel free to take your pick.

A Selection Of Great Research Paper Topics On Biotechnology – Like a student, you’ll frequently need to write complex academic assignments that need effort, search, critically planning and exploring new aspects. You are able to only produce a winning assignment if you opt to talk about fresh ideas and new breakthroughs. Its likely the first couple of topics which come for your mind under this subject could be already taken. You have to make certain the niche you decide to address is exclusive and fresh. If other scientific study has already spoken relating to this before you decide to, then there’s no reason on paper it.

Free Term Papers On Biotechnology – Writing a good paper on biotechnology is a challenging task. If you struggling to complete it, be sure to take a quick look at the following article.

You can find free research papers online as well. There are several documents that are available online. You can download them. You can check the image search as well if you are having trouble locating one. Try typing it into the search engine of the web browser and the image browser for the best results.

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Guide for authors

Get more information about Current Research in Biotechnology. Check the Author information pack on Elsevier.com.

INTRODUCTION Current Research in Biotechnology is definitely an worldwide peer reviewed journal dedicated to publishing original research and short communications caused by research in Analytical biotechnology, Plant biotechnology, Food biotechnology, Energy biotechnology, Ecological biotechnology, Systems biology, Nanobiotechnology, Tissue, cell and path engineering, Chemical biotechnology, and Pharmaceutical biotechnology. The Journal publishes Research Papers, Short Communications, Graphical Reviews and Reviews. We offer the “Your Paper The Right Path” Elsevier guideline which enables authors to submit their primary manuscript file with no formatting needs. Research Papers aren’t limited in dimensions. However, we all do highly recommend to authors to become as succinct as you possibly can within the welfare from the readers and also the distribution from the work. Short Communications possess the following soft limits. The manuscript should ideally contain a maximum of 4-6 Figures/Tables and 4000 words, such as the title page, all parts of the manuscript (such as the references), and Figure/Table legends.

Structure for writing a scientific research proposal in biotechnology

The aim or goal and objective of the biotechnology research proposal should give a broad indication of the expected research outcome and the hypothesis to be tested can also be the aim of your study. The objective can be categorized as primary and secondary according to the parameters and tools used to achieve the goal.

Writing an investigation proposal in our era is definitely an entirely challenging mission due to the constant evolution within the research design and the necessity to incorporate innovative concepts and medical advances within the methodology section. A properly-formatted research proposal in the area of biotechnology is going to be written based on the needed guidelines forms the mainstay for that research, and therefore proposal writing is a vital step while performing research. The primary objective in preparing an investigation proposal would be to obtain approval from the 3 committees like the ethics committee and grant committee.

Research Papers – Learn more about research papers for the Master of Biotechnology Program at Northwestern University.

Alison Chow et al., “Metabolic engineering of the non-sporulating, non-solventogenic Clostridium acetobutylicum strain M5 to produce butanol without acetone demonstrate the robustness of the acid-formation pathways and the importance of the electron balance”, Metabolic Engineering 2008.

Natural Products and Biotechnology

Natural Products and Biotechnology (NatProBiotech) is an International Journal and only accepting English manuscripts. NatProBiotech publishes original research articles and review articles only.

• Research Article
• Review Article

Current Issue

Natural Products and Biotechnology (Nat. Pro. Biotech. ) (ISSN: 2791-674X) is an International Journal and only accepting English manuscripts. Natural Products and Biotechnology publishes original research articles and review articles only and publishes twice a year. There is no fee for article submission, article processing, or publication processes. Please write the article in good English. Choose only one of the British or American usage, you should not use both together. If the language of the article is not good enough, please have it edited by anEnglish Language Editing service. The article will be reviewed by the Spelling and Language editor, if the editor decides that it is not written in good English, your article will be send to corresponding author for edit before the referee process. Research articles should report the results of original research. The article should not have been published elsewhere. Review articles should cover current topics and comply with the journal’s publication guidelines and should not have been published anywhere before.

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What are the research topics in biotechnology?

• Research Areas.
• Cancer Biotechnology.
• Cardiovascular Biology & Transplantation Biology.
• Cell & Molecular Biology.
• Developmental Biology & Neurobiology.
• Diagnostics & Medical Devices.
• Drug Discovery & Delivery.
• Microbial & Environmental Biotechnology.

How do you publish a research paper in biotechnology?

How to publish your research paper in an international journal

• International journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) publish research paper of related fields. ...
• Your research paper that you are going to submit should follow the same format that is mentioned in journal.

How do you research biotechnology?

Step-By-Step Guide To Becoming a Biotechnologist

• Step One: Earn a Bachelor's Degree (Four years) ...
• Step Two: Gain Practical Work Experience (Optional, Timeline Varies) ...
• Step Three: Earn a Certificate or Master's Degree In Biotechnology (One to Three Years)

How do you write a research paper step by step?

Basic Steps in the Research Process

• Step 1: Identify and develop your topic. ...
• Step 2 : Do a preliminary search for information. ...
• Step 3: Locate materials. ...
• Step 4: Evaluate your sources. ...
• Step 5: Make notes. ...
• Step 6: Write your paper. ...
• Step 7: Cite your sources properly. ...
• Step 8: Proofread.

What is biotechnology research?

Biotechnologists identify practical uses of biological material – including the physical, chemical, and genetic properties of cells – to improve agricultural, environmental, or pharmaceutical products, although biotechnologists also work in related capacities, as in marine biotechnology. ...

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History of biotechnology

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Why is biotechnology important?

When did modern biotechnology emerge.

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• Table Of Contents

What is biotechnology?

Biotechnology is the use of  biology  to solve problems and make useful products. The most prominent approach used is genetic engineering, which enables scientists to tailor an organism’s DNA at will.

Biotechnology is particularly important in the field of medicine, where it facilitates the production of therapeutic proteins and other drugs. Synthetic insulin and synthetic growth hormone and diagnostic tests to detect various diseases are just some examples of how biotechnology is impacting medicine. Biotechnology has also proved helpful in refining industrial processes, in environmental cleanup, and in agricultural production.

The first molecular and cellular tools of modern biotechnology emerged in the 1960s and ’70s. A fledgling “biotech” industry began to coalesce in the mid- to late 1970s. Modern biotechnology stands in contrast to older forms of “biotechnology,” which emerged thousands of years ago, when humans began to domesticate plants and animals. Humans have also long tapped the biological processes of microorganisms to make bread, alcoholic beverages, and cheese.

biotechnology , the use of biology to solve problems and make useful products. The most prominent area of biotechnology is the production of therapeutic proteins and other drugs through genetic engineering .

People have been harnessing biological processes to improve their quality of life for some 10,000 years, beginning with the first agricultural communities . Approximately 6,000 years ago, humans began to tap the biological processes of microorganisms in order to make bread, alcoholic beverages, and cheese and to preserve dairy products. But such processes are not what is meant today by biotechnology , a term first widely applied to the molecular and cellular technologies that began to emerge in the 1960s and ’70s. A fledgling “biotech” industry began to coalesce in the mid- to late 1970s, led by Genentech , a pharmaceutical company established in 1976 by Robert A. Swanson and Herbert W. Boyer to commercialize the recombinant DNA technology pioneered by Boyer, Paul Berg , and Stanley N. Cohen. Early companies such as Genentech, Amgen, Biogen, Cetus, and Genex began by manufacturing genetically engineered substances primarily for medical and environmental uses.

For more than a decade, the biotechnology industry was dominated by recombinant DNA technology , or genetic engineering . This technique consists of splicing the gene for a useful protein (often a human protein) into production cells—such as yeast, bacteria , or mammalian cells in culture—which then begin to produce the protein in volume. In the process of splicing a gene into a production cell , a new organism is created. At first, biotechnology investors and researchers were uncertain about whether the courts would permit them to acquire patents on organisms; after all, patents were not allowed on new organisms that happened to be discovered and identified in nature. But, in 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court , in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty , resolved the matter by ruling that “a live human-made microorganism is patentable subject matter.” This decision spawned a wave of new biotechnology firms and the infant industry’s first investment boom. In 1982 recombinant insulin became the first product made through genetic engineering to secure approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Since then, dozens of genetically engineered protein medications have been commercialized around the world, including recombinant versions of growth hormone , clotting factors, proteins for stimulating the production of red and white blood cells, interferon s, and clot-dissolving agents.

In the early years, the main achievement of biotechnology was the ability to produce naturally occurring therapeutic molecules in larger quantities than could be derived from conventional sources such as plasma , animal organs, and human cadavers. Recombinant proteins are also less likely to be contaminated with pathogens or to provoke allergic reactions. Today, biotechnology researchers seek to discover the root molecular causes of disease and to intervene precisely at that level. Sometimes this means producing therapeutic proteins that augment the body’s own supplies or that make up for genetic deficiencies, as in the first generation of biotech medications. (Gene therapy—insertion of genes encoding a needed protein into a patient’s body or cells—is a related approach.)

The biotechnology industry has also expanded its research into the development of traditional pharmaceuticals and monoclonal antibodies that stop the progress of a disease. Successful production of monoclonal antibodies was one of the most important techniques of biotechnology to emerge during the last quarter of the 20th century. The specificity of monoclonal antibodies and their availability in quantity have made it possible to devise sensitive assays for an enormous range of biologically important substances and to distinguish cells from one another by identifying previously unknown marker molecules on their surfaces. Such advances were made possible through the study of genes ( genomics ), the proteins that they encode (proteomics), and the larger biological pathways in which they act.

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CBSE Class 12 Biotechnology Sample Paper 2021-2022 (PDF): Term 1 CBSE Academic Session 2021-2022

Cbse sample paper 2021-22 (term 1) for class 12 biotechnology subject is available here for download in pdf format..

CBSE Sample Paper 2021-22 (Term 1) for Class 12 Biotechnology subject is available here for download in PDF format. The link to download the PDF of CBSE Class 12 Biotechnology Sample Paper 2021-22 is given at the end of this article.

MCQ Based Sample Paper for (Term 1) CBSE Board Exam 2021-2022: CBSE Marking Scheme & Answers 2021-2022

9th, 10th, 11th, 12th - Revised & Reduced CBSE Syllabus Term 1 & 2 (Combined): Science, Commerce, Arts

CBSE Class 12 Biotechnology Sample Paper 2021-2022 (PDF):

Time: 90 Minutes

General Instructions:

1. The Question Paper contains three sections.

2. Section A has 24 questions. Attempt any 20 questions.

3. Section B has 24 questions. Attempt any 20 questions.

4. Section C has 12 questions. Attempt any 10 questions.

5. All questions carry equal marks.

6. There is no negative marking.

SECTION - A

Section – A consists of 24 questions. Attempt any 20 questions from this section.

The first attempted 20 questions would be evaluated

1.  It is possible to introduce colours into DNA by

B. Microaaray

C. Nick translation

2.  The protein that provides the body structure and protection to our bones is

A. collagen.

B. hemoglobin.

3.  Restriction enzymes were discovered by

A. W. Arber, H. Smith and D. Nathans

B. Paul Berg and Herbert Boyer

C. Annie Chang and Stanley Cohen

D. Kerry Mullis

4.  Foreign DNA is directly introduced in to the recipient cell using a fine micro-syringe to

transform it in the following techniqueA. Electroporation

B. Microinjection

C. Biolistics

D. Transfection

5.  Which feature of the vectors provides flexibility in the choice of restriction enzymes?

C. Unique restriction enzyme recognition site

6.  Interferon β is used for the treatment of

A. Hepatitis C

B. Hepatitis B

C. Multiple Sclerosis

D. Chronic Granulomatous disease

7.  In-situ activation of chymotrypsin takes place in the

A. jejunum.

B. duodenum.

D. pancreas.

8.  The enzymatic activity of subtilisin is contributed by

A. Ser 221, His 64 and Asp 32

B. Ser 32, His 221 and Asp 64

C. Ser 221, His 32 and Asp 64

D. Ser 32, His 64 and Asp 221

9.  The most common type of restriction enzymes used in recombinant DNA technology are

A. Type I restriction enzymes

B. Type II restriction enzymes

C. Type III restriction enzymes

D. Type IV restriction enzymes

10.  After n cycles, the number of DNA copies produced are

D. n÷2

Download CBSE Class 12 Biotechnology Sample Paper 2021-2022 (PDF): Term 1 

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Biotechnology in the Realm of History

Ashish swarup verma.

Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, Sector-125, NOIDA- 201303, (UP), India E-mail: ude.ytima@amrevsa

Shishir Agrahari

Shruti rastogi, anchal singh.

1 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kirksville College of Osteopathic Medicine, A.T. Still University of Health Sciences, 800 W Jefferson Street, Kirksville, MO 63501, USA

Biotechnology! Biotechnology! Biotechnology!!! Seems like this word has become a buzz word, nowadays. You will hear this word from classrooms to cafeterias. It can be commonly seen in newspapers, magazines, journals, and all sorts of media outlets, which include print media to electronic media. People are organizing huge meetings, conferences, and workshops on biotechnology, where participants come from different arenas like science, industry, administration, social work, and so on. As time goes by and the way our life is heading it seems as if biotechnology has become an essential component of our life. The day is not far, when we cannot fathom our life without biotechnology. If, we have to say it in simple words, it can be said that “We wake up with biotechnology and we go to bed with biotechnology”. It is also possible that in future our birth and death can also be determined by biotechnology.

The word ‘biotechnology’ has received enormous importance and significance during last two decades, which is just unprecedented. The probability and possibilities behind this kind of attention towards biotechnology may be due to its unlimited potential to serve and to benefit humanity. So far, biotechnology has touched our lives in all aspects, such as, food, health, and animal life. We have also noticed the importance and potential of biotechnology for the improvement of our environment and for better living, for example capability of biotechnology to meet the demand of depleting energy reserves of fossil fuels by replacing it with Bio-fuels, because availability of fossil-fuels are becoming limited to meet the demand of ever increasing population. In simpler terms, our life starts with biotechnologically developed toothpaste, to drive car with biotechnologically developed fuels, and we also retire for the day with bedside medicines either to keep us healthy or to control chronic diseases, like diabetes, which makes our life better. Rationally, the word ‘biotechnology’ has been derived from two simple terms of science, i.e., ‘Biology’ and ‘Technology’. If we try to decipher these two words, it simply suggests, in a lay-man's language, that it is the technology which makes our life convenient and comfortable with the employment of biological resources. The question still remains, ‘Is biotechnology such a new branch of science?’ The fact is that biotechnology has been in practice even much before the term ‘Biotechnology’ was coined, itself. It is interesting to learn and understand how and when biotechnology really evolved.

Biotechnology: What Does it Mean?

The term biotechnology was used for the first time by Karl Erkey, a Hungarian Engineer, in 1919. Was it the start of biotechnology? The answer is no&&& Later on biotechnology was defined by different scientists. As per one definition biotechnology is, “Application of the principles of engineering and biological science to create new products from raw materials of biological origin, for example, vaccines or food.” Or in other words, it can also be defined as, “the use of living organism/s or their product/s to modify or improve human health and human environment”. Apart from their beneficial applications, biotechnological principles has potential for destruction too, the best example for this is ‘bioterrorism’. Biotechnology from fiction, myth, and reality can be simply understood by reading the novel and watching movie “Frankenstein”. In this science fiction, Frankenstein has created a human life which became a monster, this monster became the reason for the destruction of Frankenstein, the creator of human life.

Biotechnology: A Basic Requirement

As we know, the technological application of biological material is considered as biotechnology. If, we want to understand how it works, then it is essential for us to know what is the starting point or material for biotechnology. In general, biotechnology uses either living material or biological products to create new products for their use in various pharmaceutical, medical, agricultural, and environmental applications, with the ultimate goal to benefit humanity, for example, production of recombinant proteins, resistant crops, vegetables, higher milk producing animals, and the list is endless.

Biotechnology and its Various Stages of Development

There are various stages in the development of biotechnology to meet the various needs of humans. Its development was basically based on observations, and applications of these observations to practical scenarios. The complexity of biotechnology is augmented due to evolution of new technologies with time, as these are based on the employment of improved technological advancements along with better understanding of various principles of life-science. If, we systemically study the developments of biotechnology up to its current stage, it can be divided into three different stages or categories: (1) Ancient Biotechnology, (2) Classical Biotechnology, and (3) Modern Biotechnology. Some important discoveries related to biotechnology have been shown in Figure 1 .

History of the development of biotechnology. Some of the important biotechnology discoveries have been plotted in this graph, with a possibility for its unlimited growth in the future

Ancient Biotechnology (Pre-1800)

Most of the developments in the ancient period i.e., before the year 1800, can be termed as ‘discoveries’ or ‘developments’. If we study all these developments, we can conclude that all these inventions were based on common observations about nature, which could be put to test for the betterment of human life at that point in time.

Food, clothes, and shelter are the most important basic needs of human beings irrespective of whether they lived in the ancient period or the modern period. The only factor that has changed is their types and origins. Food has been an inevitable need since the existence of man as well as for continuous existence of human beings. Early man used to eat raw meat, whenever they found a dead animal. However, during harsh weather, there was a paucity of food, hence, as per the saying, ‘necessity is the mother of all inventions’, which led to the domestication of food products, which is named as ‘agriculture’. In ancient times, humans explored the possibilities of making food available by growing it near their shelters, so that the basic need for food could be met easily. They brought seeds of plants (mostly grains) and sowed them near to their shelters. They understood the importance of water, light, and other requirements for the optimal growth of food plants. Similar principles and needs also led them to start domestication of different wild animals, which helped them to improve their living conditions and to satisfy their hunger. The need to hunt for animal was done away with it; as now animals were available to them at closer proximity, and also they did not have to deal with the dangerous conditions of hunting. Domestication of wild animals was the beginning of observation, implications, and applications of animal breeding. Certainly, we can say that this was the initial period of evolution of farming, which led to another needs like the development of methods for food preservation and storage. They used cold caves to preserve food for long-term storage. It also made the way for the evolution of pots to store food products, in the form of leather bags, clay jars, etc.

After domestication of food crops and wild animals, man moved on to other new observations like cheese, curd, etc. Certainly, cheese can be considered as one of the first direct products (or by-product) of biotechnology, because it was prepared by adding rennet (an enzyme found in the stomach of calves) to sour milk, which is possible only by exposing milk to microbes (although this understanding was not there, at that time). Yeast is one of the oldest microbes that have been exploited by humans for their benefit. Yeast has been widely used to make bread, vinegar production, and other fermentation products, which include production of alcoholic beverages like whiskey, wine, beer, etc. Vinegar has a significant importance because of its low pH. Vinegar is capable of preventing growth of certain microbes, and therefore, vinegar can be used successfully for food preservation. The discoveries and benefits of these observations led people to work on further improvement of the process. Fermentation was a powerful tool to improve their living conditions, even though they were ignorant about the principle behind it.

One of the oldest examples of crossbreeding for the benefit of humans is mule. Mule is an offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. People started using mules for transportation, carrying loads, and farming, when there were no tractors or trucks. Mule is comparatively easier to obtain than Hinny (offspring of a male horse and a female donkey). Mule and Hinny both have a chromosome number 63, unlike horse (64) and donkey (62).

Classical Biotechnology

The second phase of evolution and development of biotechnology can be called ‘Classical Biotechnology’. This phase existed from 1800 to almost the middle of the twentieth century. During this period various observations started pouring in, with scientific evidences. They were all very helpful toward solving the puzzle/s of biotechnology. Each and every contribution from different individuals helped to solve the puzzle and pave the path for new discoveries.

The basics for the transfer of genetic information are the core of biotechnology. This was, for the first time, deciphered in plants, i.e., Pisum sativum , commonly known as Pea plant. These observations were decoded by Gregor John Mendel (1822-1884), an Austrian Augustinian Monk. Mendel at that time presented “Laws of Inheritance” to the Natural Science Society in Brunn, Austria. Mendel proposed that invisible internal units of information account for observable traits, and that these ‘factors’ -later called as genes, which are passed from one generation to the next. However, the sad part of the story is that Mendel failed to get due recognition for his discovery for almost 34 years after his death, when other scientists like Hugo de Vries, Erich Von Tschermak, and Carl Correns validated Mendel's work in 1900. The reason why Mendel's study remained unnoticed for such a long period of time was because at the same time Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution was so consuming that it shadowed the significance of work done by Mendel.

Almost at the same time Robert Brown had discovered nucleus in cells, while in 1868, Fredrich Miescher, a Swiss biologist reported nuclein, a compound that consisted of nucleic acid that he extracted from pus cells i.e., white blood cells (WBC). These two discoveries became the basis of modern molecular biology, for the discovery of DNA as a genetic material, and the role of DNA in transfer of genetic information. 1n 1881, Robert Koch, a German physician described the bacterial colonies growing on potato slices (First ever solid medium). Walter Hesse, one of the co-workers in Koch's laboratory, discovered agar when he asked his wife what kept the jelly solid even at high temperature of summer. She told, it is agar agar, since then nutrient agar became the most acceptable and useful medium to obtain pure microbial cultures as well as for their identification. In 1888, Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Von Waldeyer-Hartz, a German scientist coined the term ‘Chromosome’, which is considered as an organized structure of DNA and protein present in cells or a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements, and other nucleotide sequences. Other important discoveries during this period were vaccination against small pox and rabies developed by Edward Jenner a British Physician and Louis Pasteur a French Biologist.

By this time the development and growth of biological sciences seemed to be reaching to the exponential phase. The principle of genetics in inheritance was redefined by T H Morgan, who has shown inheritance and the role of chromosomes in inheritance by using fruit flies, i.e., Drosophila melanogaster . This landmark work of T H Morgan was named, ‘The theory of the Gene’ in 1926. Before the publication of Morgan's work, in 1909, the term ‘Gene’ had already been coined by Wilhelm Johannsen (1857-1927), who described ‘gene’ as carrier of heredity. Johannsen coined the terms ‘genotype’ and ‘phenotype’. ‘Genotype’ was meant to describe the genetic constitution of an organism, while ‘Phenotype’ was meant to describe actual organism. By this time genetics started gaining its importance, which led to the start of Eugenic Movement in USA, in 1924. As a result of this, in 1924, the US Immigration Act was used to restrict the influx of poorly educated immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, on the grounds of their suspected genetic inferiority.

Almost at the same time, in Britain, Alexander Fleming a physician discovered antibiotics, when he observed that one microorganism can be used to kill another microorganism, a true representation of the ‘divide and rule’ policy of humans. Fleming noted that all bacteria (Staphylococci) died when a mold was growing in a petri-dish. Later he discovered ‘penicillin’ the antibacterial toxin from the mold Penicillium notatum , which could be used against many infectious diseases. Fleming wrote, “ When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn’t plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer ”. As a matter of fact vaccines and antibiotics turned out to be the best saviors of humanity. Can we attribute these two discoveries for the ever increasing population as well the ever ageing population of the world?

Modern Biotechnology

The Second World War became a major impediment in scientific discoveries. After the end of the second world war some, very crucial discoveries were reported, which paved the path for modern biotechnology and to its current status. In 1953, JD Watson and FHC Crick for the first time cleared the mysteries around the DNA as a genetic material, by giving a structural model of DNA, popularly known as, ‘Double Helix Model of DNA’. This model was able to explain various phenomena related to DNA replication, and its role in inheritance. Later, Jacob and Monad had given the concept of Operon in 1961, while Kohler and Milestein in 1975, came up with the concept of cytoplasmic hybridization and produced the first ever monoclonal antibodies, which has revolutionized the diagnostics.

By this time it seemed like the world's scientific community had almost all the basic tools available to them for their applications, along with majority of basic concepts had been elucidated, which has fast forwarded the path for important scientific discoveries. Dr. Hargobind Khorana was able to synthesize the DNA in test tube, while Karl Mullis added value to Khorana's discovery by amplifying DNA in a test tube, thousand times more than the original amount of DNA. Using this technological advancement, other scientists were able to insert a foreign DNA into another host and were even able to monitor the transfer of a foreign DNA into the next generation. The advent of HIV / AIDS as a deadly disease has helped tremendously to improve various tools employed by life-scientist for discoveries and applications in various aspects of day-to-day life. In the mean time Ian Wilmut an Irish scientist was successful to clone an adult animal, using sheep as model, and he named the cloned sheep as ‘Dolly’. Craig Venter, in 2000, was able to sequence the human genome; the first publically available genome is from JD Watson and Craig Venter, himself. These discoveries have unlimited implications and applications. In 2010, Craig Venter has been successful in demonstrating that a synthetic genome could replicate autonomously. Should that be considered as a new possibility for creating life in a test tube, which could be planned and designed by human being using a pen, pencil, computer, and bioinformatics as tools? In future, can we produce life as per our imagination and whims?

Biotechnology has brought humanity to this level of comfort; the next question is, where will it take us? Biotechnology has both beneficial and destructive potentials. It is, WE who should decide how to use this technology to help humanity rather than to destroy it.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to Prof. A. K. Srivastava, DG, AIB, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, NOIDA, India, for providing the necessary resources and facilities, for the completion of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to Mr. Dinesh Kumar for his secretarial and graphical designing assistance.

Biotechnology Research Paper Topics

This collection of biotechnology research paper topics provides the list of 10 potential topics for research papers and overviews the history of biotechnology.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 1. animal breeding: genetic methods.

Modern animal breeding relies on scientific methods to control production of domesticated animals, both livestock and pets, which exhibit desired physical and behavioral traits. Genetic technology aids animal breeders to attain nutritional, medical, recreational, and fashion standards demanded by consumers for animal products including meat, milk, eggs, leather, wool, and pharmaceuticals. Animals are also genetically designed to meet labor and sporting requirements for speed and endurance, conformation and beauty ideals to win show competitions, and intelligence levels to perform obediently at tasks such as herding, hunting, and tracking. By the late twentieth century, genetics and mathematical models were appropriated to identify the potential of immature animals. DNA markers indicate how young animals will mature, saving breeders money by not investing in animals lacking genetic promise. Scientists also successfully transplanted sperm-producing stem cells with the goal of restoring fertility to barren breeding animals. At the National Animal Disease Center in Ames, Iowa, researchers created a gene-based test, which uses a cloned gene of the organism that causes Johne’s disease in cattle in order to detect that disease to avert epidemics. Researchers also began mapping the dog genome and developing molecular techniques to evaluate canine chromosomes in the Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL). Bioinformatics incorporates computers to analyze genetic material. Some tests were developed to diagnose many of several hundred genetic canine diseases including hip dysplasia and progressive retinal atrophy (PRA). A few breed organizations modified standards to discourage breeding of genetically flawed animals and promote heterozygosity.

2. Antibacterial Chemotherapy

In the early years of the twentieth century, the search for agents that would be effective against internal infections proceeded along two main routes. The first was a search for naturally occurring substances that were effective against microorganisms (antibiosis). The second was a search for chemicals that would have the same effect (chemotherapy). Despite the success of penicillin in the 1940s, the major early advances in the treatment of infection occurred not through antibiosis but through chemotherapy. The principle behind chemotherapy was that there was a relationship between chemical structure and pharmacological action. The founder of this concept was Paul Erhlich (1854–1915). An early success came in 1905 when atoxyl (an organic arsenic compound) was shown to destroy trypanosomes, the microbes that caused sleeping sickness. Unfortunately, atoxyl also damaged the optic nerve. Subsequently, Erhlich and his co-workers synthesized and tested hundreds of related arsenic compounds. Ehrlich was a co-recipient (with Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov) of the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1908 for his work on immunity. Success in discovering a range of effective antibacterial drugs had three important consequences: it brought a range of important diseases under control for the first time; it provided a tremendous stimulus to research workers and opened up new avenues of research; and in the resulting commercial optimism, it led to heavy postwar investment in the pharmaceutical industry. The therapeutic revolution had begun.

3. Artificial Insemination and in Vitro Fertilization

Artificial insemination (AI) involves the extraction and collection of semen together with techniques for depositing semen in the uterus in order to achieve successful fertilization and pregnancy. Throughout the twentieth century, the approach has offered animal breeders the advantage of being able to utilize the best available breeding stock and at the correct time within the female reproductive cycle, but without the limitations of having the animals in the same location. AI has been applied most intensively within the dairy and beef cattle industries and to a lesser extent horse breeding and numerous other domesticated species.

Many of the techniques involved in artificial insemination would lay the foundation for in vitro fertilization (IVF) in the latter half of the twentieth century. IVF refers to the group of technologies that allow fertilization to take place outside the body involving the retrieval of ova or eggs from the female and sperm from the male, which are then combined in artificial, or ‘‘test tube,’’ conditions leading to fertilization. The fertilized eggs then continue to develop for several days ‘‘in culture’’ until being transferred to the female recipient to continue developing within the uterus.

4. Biopolymers

Biopolymers are natural polymers, long-chained molecules (macromolecules) consisting mostly of a repeated composition of building blocks or monomers that are formed and utilized by living organisms. Each group of biopolymers is composed of different building blocks, for example chains of sugar molecules form starch (a polysaccharide), chains of amino acids form proteins and peptides, and chains of nucleic acid form DNA and RNA (polynucleotides). Biopolymers can form gels, fibers, coatings, and films depending on the specific polymer, and serve a variety of critical functions for cells and organisms. Proteins including collagens, keratins, silks, tubulins, and actin usually form structural composites or scaffolding, or protective materials in biological systems (e.g., spider silk). Polysaccharides function in molecular recognition at cell membrane surfaces, form capsular barrier layers around cells, act as emulsifiers and adhesives, and serve as skeletal or architectural materials in plants. In many cases these polymers occur in combination with proteins to form novel composite structures such as invertebrate exoskeletons or microbial cell walls, or with lignin in the case of plant cell walls.

The use of the word ‘‘cloning’’ is fraught with confusion and inconsistency, and it is important at the outset of this discussion to offer definitional clarification. For instance, in the 1997 article by Ian Wilmut and colleagues announcing the birth of the first cloned adult vertebrate (a ewe, Dolly the sheep) from somatic cell nuclear transfer, the word clone or cloning was never used, and yet the announcement raised considerable disquiet about the prospect of cloned human beings. In a desire to avoid potentially negative forms of language, many prefer to substitute ‘‘cell expansion techniques’’ or ‘‘therapeutic cloning’’ for cloning. Cloning has been known for centuries as a horticultural propagation method: for example, plants multiplied by grafting, budding, or cuttings do not differ genetically from the original plant. The term clone entered more common usage as a result of a speech in 1963 by J.B.S. Haldane based on his paper, ‘‘Biological possibilities for the human species of the next ten-thousand years.’’ Notwithstanding these notes of caution, we can refer to a number of processes as cloning. At the close of the twentieth century, such techniques had not yet progressed to the ability to bring a cloned human to full development; however, the ability to clone cells from an adult human has potential to treat diseases. International policymaking in the late 1990s sought to distinguish between the different end uses for somatic cell nuclear transfer resulting in the widespread adoption of the distinction between ‘‘reproductive’’ and ‘‘therapeutic’’ cloning. The function of the distinction has been to permit the use (in some countries) of the technique to generate potentially beneficial therapeutic applications from embryonic stem cell technology whilst prohibiting its use in human reproduction. In therapeutic applications, nuclear transfer from a patient’s cells into an enucleated ovum is used to create genetically identical embryos that would be grown in vitro but not be allowed to continue developing to become a human being. The resulting cloned embryos could be used as a source from which to produce stem cells that can then be induced to specialize into the specific type of tissue required by the patient (such as skin for burns victims, brain neuron cells for Parkinson’s disease sufferers, or pancreatic cells for diabetics). The rationale is that because the original nuclear material is derived from a patient’s adult tissue, the risks of rejection of such cells by the immune system are reduced.

6. Gene Therapy

In 1971, Australian Nobel laureate Sir F. MacFarlane Burnet thought that gene therapy (introducing genes into body tissue, usually to treat an inherited genetic disorder) looked more and more like a case of the emperor’s new clothes. Ethical issues aside, he believed that practical considerations forestalled possibilities for any beneficial gene strategy, then or probably ever. Bluntly, he wrote: ‘‘little further advance can be expected from laboratory science in the handling of ‘intrinsic’ types of disability and disease.’’ Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum, 1958 Nobel laureates, theorized in the 1960s that genes might be altered or replaced using viral vectors to treat human diseases. Stanfield Rogers, working from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1970, had tried but failed to cure argininemia (a genetic disorder of the urea cycle that causes neurological damage in the form of mental retardation, seizures, and eventually death) in two German girls using Swope papilloma virus. Martin Cline at the University of California in Los Angeles, made the second failed attempt a decade later. He tried to correct the bone marrow cells of two beta-thalassemia patients, one in Israel and the other in Italy. What Cline’s failure revealed, however, was that many researchers who condemned his trial as unethical were by then working toward similar goals and targeting different diseases with various delivery methods. While Burnet’s pessimism finally proved to be wrong, progress in gene therapy was much slower than antibiotic or anticancer chemotherapy developments over the same period of time. While gene therapy had limited success, it nevertheless remained an active area for research, particularly because the Human Genome Project, begun in 1990, had resulted in a ‘‘rough draft’’ of all human genes by 2001, and was completed in 2003. Gene mapping created the means for analyzing the expression patterns of hundreds of genes involved in biological pathways and for identifying single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that have diagnostic and therapeutic potential for treating specific diseases in individuals. In the future, gene therapies may prove effective at protecting patients from adverse drug reactions or changing the biochemical nature of a person’s disease. They may also target blood vessel formation in order to prevent heart disease or blindness due to macular degeneration or diabetic retinopathy. One of the oldest ideas for use of gene therapy is to produce anticancer vaccines. One method involves inserting a granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene into prostate tumor cells removed in surgery. The cells then are irradiated to prevent any further cancer and injected back into the same patient to initiate an immune response against any remaining metastases. Whether or not such developments become a major treatment modality, no one now believes, as MacFarland Burnet did in 1970, that gene therapy science has reached an end in its potential to advance health.

7. Genetic Engineering

The term ‘‘genetic engineering’’ describes molecular biology techniques that allow geneticists to analyze and manipulate deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). At the close of the twentieth century, genetic engineering promised to revolutionize many industries, including microbial biotechnology, agriculture, and medicine. It also sparked controversy over potential health and ecological hazards due to the unprecedented ability to bypass traditional biological reproduction.

For centuries, if not millennia, techniques have been employed to alter the genetic characteristics of animals and plants to enhance specifically desired traits. In a great many cases, breeds with which we are most familiar bear little resemblance to the wild varieties from which they are derived. Canine breeds, for instance, have been selectively tailored to changing esthetic tastes over many years, altering their appearance, behavior and temperament. Many of the species used in farming reflect long-term alterations to enhance meat, milk, and fleece yields. Likewise, in the case of agricultural varieties, hybridization and selective breeding have resulted in crops that are adapted to specific production conditions and regional demands. Genetic engineering differs from these traditional methods of plant and animal breeding in some very important respects. First, genes from one organism can be extracted and recombined with those of another (using recombinant DNA, or rDNA, technology) without either organism having to be of the same species. Second, removing the requirement for species reproductive compatibility, new genetic combinations can be produced in a much more highly accelerated way than before. Since the development of the first rDNA organism by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer in 1973, a number of techniques have been found to produce highly novel products derived from transgenic plants and animals.

At the same time, there has been an ongoing and ferocious political debate over the environmental and health risks to humans of genetically altered species. The rise of genetic engineering may be characterized by developments during the last three decades of the twentieth century.

8. Genetic Screening and Testing

The menu of genetic screening and testing technologies now available in most developed countries increased rapidly in the closing years of the twentieth century. These technologies emerged within the context of rapidly changing social and legal contexts with regard to the medicalization of pregnancy and birth and the legalization of abortion. The earliest genetic screening tests detected inborn errors of metabolism and sex-linked disorders. Technological innovations in genomic mapping and DNA sequencing, together with an explosion in research on the genetic basis of disease which culminated in the Human Genome Project (HGP), led to a range of genetic screening and testing for diseases traditionally recognized as genetic in origin and for susceptibility to more common diseases such as certain types of familial cancer, cardiac conditions, and neurological disorders among others. Tests were also useful for forensic, or nonmedical, purposes. Genetic screening techniques are now available in conjunction with in vitro fertilization and other types of reproductive technologies, allowing the screening of fertilized embryos for certain genetic mutations before selection for implantation. At present selection is purely on disease grounds and selection for other traits (e.g., for eye or hair color, intelligence, height) cannot yet be done, though there are concerns for eugenics and ‘‘designer babies.’’ Screening is available for an increasing number of metabolic diseases through tandem mass spectrometry, which uses less blood per test, allows testing for many conditions simultaneously, and has a very low false-positive rate as compared to conventional Guthrie testing. Finally, genetic technologies are being used in the judicial domain for determination of paternity, often associated with child support claims, and for forensic purposes in cases where DNA material is available for testing.

9. Plant Breeding: Genetic Methods

The cultivation of plants is the world’s oldest biotechnology. We have continually tried to produce improved varieties while increasing yield, features to aid cultivation and harvesting, disease, and pest resistance, or crop qualities such as longer postharvest storage life and improved taste or nutritional value. Early changes resulted from random crosspollination, rudimentary grafting, or spontaneous genetic change. For centuries, man kept the seed from the plants with improved characteristics to plant the following season’s crop. The pioneering work of Gregor Mendel and his development of the basic laws of heredity showed for other first time that some of the processes of heredity could be altered by experimental means. The genetic analysis of bacterial (prokaryote) genes and techniques for analysis of the higher (eukaryotic) organisms such as plants developed in parallel streams, but the rediscovery of Mendel’s work in 1900 fueled a burst of activity on understanding the role of genes in inheritance. The knowledge that genes are linked along the chromosome thereby allowed mapping of genes (transduction analysis, conjugation analysis, and transformation analysis). The power of genetics to produce a desirable plant was established, and it was appreciated that controlled breeding (test crosses and back crosses) and careful analysis of the progeny could distinguish traits that were dominant or recessive, and establish pure breeding lines. Traditional horticultural techniques of artificial self-pollination and cross-pollination were also used to produce hybrids. In the 1930s the Russian Nikolai Vavilov recognized the value of genetic diversity in domesticated crop plants and their wild relatives to crop improvement, and collected seeds from the wild to study total genetic diversity and use these in breeding programs. The impact of scientific crop breeding was established by the ‘‘Green revolution’’ of the 1960s, when new wheat varieties with higher yields were developed by careful crop breeding. ‘‘Mutation breeding’’— inducing mutations by exposing seeds to x-rays or chemicals such as sodium azide, accelerated after World War II. It was also discovered that plant cells and tissues grown in tissue culture would mutate rapidly. In the 1970s, haploid breeding, which involves producing plants from two identical sets of chromosomes, was extensively used to create new cultivars. In the twenty-first century, haploid breeding could speed up plant breeding by shortening the breeding cycle.

10. Tissue Culturing

The technique of tissue or cell culture, which relates to the growth of tissue or cells within a laboratory setting, underlies a phenomenal proportion of biomedical research. Though it has roots in the late nineteenth century, when numerous scientists tried to grow samples in alien environments, cell culture is credited as truly beginning with the first concrete evidence of successful growth in vitro, demonstrated by Johns Hopkins University embryologist Ross Harrison in 1907. Harrison took sections of spinal cord from a frog embryo, placed them on a glass cover slip and bathed the tissue in a nutrient media. The results of the experiment were startling—for the first time scientists visualized actual nerve growth as it would happen in a living organism—and many other scientists across the U.S. and Europe took up culture techniques. Rather unwittingly, for he was merely trying to settle a professional dispute regarding the origin of nerve fibers, Harrison fashioned a research tool that has since been designated by many as the greatest advance in medical science since the invention of the microscope.

From the 1980s, cell culture has once again been brought to the forefront of cancer research in the isolation and identification of numerous cancer causing oncogenes. In addition, cell culturing continues to play a crucial role in fields such as cytology, embryology, radiology, and molecular genetics. In the future, its relevance to direct clinical treatment might be further increased by the growth in culture of stem cells and tissue replacement therapies that can be tailored for a particular individual. Indeed, as cell culture approaches its centenary, it appears that its importance to scientific, medical, and commercial research the world over will only increase in the twenty-first century.

History of Biotechnology

Biotechnology grew out of the technology of fermentation, which was called zymotechnology. This was different from the ancient craft of brewing because of its thought-out relationships to science. These were most famously conceptualized by the Prussian chemist Georg Ernst Stahl (1659–1734) in his 1697 treatise Zymotechnia Fundamentalis, in which he introduced the term zymotechnology. Carl Balling, long-serving professor in Prague, the world center of brewing, drew on the work of Stahl when he published his Bericht uber die Fortschritte der zymotechnische Wissenschaften und Gewerbe (Account of the Progress of the Zymotechnic Sciences and Arts) in the mid-nineteenth century. He used the idea of zymotechnics to compete with his German contemporary Justus Liebig for whom chemistry was the underpinning of all processes.

By the end of the nineteenth century, there were attempts to develop a new scientific study of fermentation. It was an aspect of the ‘‘second’’ Industrial Revolution during the period from 1870 to 1914. The emergence of the chemical industry is widely taken as emblematic of the formal research and development taking place at the time. The development of microbiological industries is another example. For the first time, Louis Pasteur’s germ theory made it possible to provide convincing explanations of brewing and other fermentation processes.

Pasteur had published on brewing in the wake of France’s humiliation in the Franco–Prussian war (1870–1871) to assert his country’s superiority in an industry traditionally associated with Germany. Yet the science and technology of fermentation had a wide range of applications including the manufacture of foods (cheese, yogurt, wine, vinegar, and tea), of commodities (tobacco and leather), and of chemicals (lactic acid, citric acid, and the enzyme takaminase). The concept of zymotechnology associated principally with the brewing of beer began to appear too limited to its principal exponents. At the time, Denmark was the world leader in creating high-value agricultural produce. Cooperative farms pioneered intensive pig fattening as well as the mass production of bacon, butter, and beer. It was here that the systems of science and technology were integrated and reintegrated, conceptualized and reconceptualized.

The Dane Emil Christian Hansen discovered that infection from wild yeasts was responsible for numerous failed brews. His contemporary Alfred Jørgensen, a Copenhagen consultant closely associated with the Tuborg brewery, published a widely used textbook on zymotechnology. Microorganisms and Fermentation first appeared in Danish 1889 and would be translated, reedited, and reissued for the next 60 years.

The scarcity of resources on both sides during World War I brought together science and technology, further development of zymotechnology, and formulation of the concept of biotechnology. Impending and then actual war accelerated the use of fermentation technologies to make strategic materials. In Britain a variant of a process to ferment starch to make butadiene for synthetic rubber production was adapted to make acetone needed in the manufacture of explosives. The process was technically important as the first industrial sterile fermentation and was strategically important for munitions supplies. The developer, chemist Chaim Weizmann, later became well known as the first president of Israel in 1949.

In Germany scarce oil-based lubricants were replaced by glycerol made by fermentation. Animal feed was derived from yeast grown with the aid of the new synthetic ammonia in another wartime development that inspired the coining of the word biotechnology. Hungary was the agricultural base of the Austro–Hungarian empire and aspired to Danish levels of efficiency. The economist Karl Ereky (1878–1952) planned to go further and build the largest industrial pig-processing factory. He envisioned a site that would fatten 50,000 swine at a time while railroad cars of sugar beet arrived and fat, hides, and meat departed. In this forerunner of the Soviet collective farm, peasants (in any case now falling prey to the temptations of urban society) would be completely superseded by the industrialization of the biological process in large factory-like animal processing units. Ereky went further in his ruminations over the meaning of his innovation. He suggested that it presaged an industrial revolution that would follow the transformation of chemical technology. In his book entitled Biotechnologie, he linked specific technical injunctions to wide-ranging philosophy. Ereky was neither isolated nor obscure. He had been trained in the mainstream of reflection on the meaning of the applied sciences in Hungary, which would be remarkably productive across the sciences. After World War I, Ereky served as Hungary’s minister of food in the short-lived right wing regime that succeeded the fall of the communist government of Bela Kun.

Nonetheless it was not through Ereky’s direct action that his ideas seem to have spread. Rather, his book was reviewed by the influential Paul Lindner, head of botany at the Institut fu¨ r Ga¨ rungsgewerbe in Berlin, who suggested that microorganisms could also be seen as biotechnological machines. This concept was already found in the production of yeast and in Weizmann’s work with strategic materials, which was widely publicized at that very time. It was with this meaning that the word ‘‘Biotechnologie’’ entered German dictionaries in the 1920s.

Biotechnology represented more than the manipulation of existing organisms. From the beginning it was concerned with their improvement as well, and this meant the enhancement of all living creatures. Most dramatically this would include humanity itself; more mundanely it would include plants and animals of agricultural importance. The enhancement of people was called eugenics by the Victorian polymath and cousin of Charles Darwin, Francis Galton. Two strains of eugenics emerged: negative eugenics associated with weeding out the weak and positive eugenics associated with enhancing strength. In the early twentieth century, many eugenics proponents believed that the weak could be made strong. People had after all progressed beyond their biological limits by means of technology.

Jean-Jacques Virey, a follower of the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste de Monet de Lamarck, had coined the term ‘‘biotechnie’’ in 1828 to describe man’s ability to make technology do the work of biology, but it was not till a century later that the term entered widespread use. The Scottish biologist and town planner Patrick Geddes made biotechnics popular in the English-speaking world. Geddes, too, sought to link life and technology. Before World War I he had characterized the technological evolution of mankind as a move from the paleotechnic era of coal and iron to the neotechnic era of chemicals, electricity, and steel. After the war, he detected a new era based on biology—the biotechnic era. Through his friend, writer Lewis Mumford, Geddes would have great influence. Mumford’s book Technics and Civilization, itself a founding volume of the modern historiography of technology, promoted his vision of the Geddesian evolution.

A younger generation of English experimental biologists with a special interest in genetics, including J. B. S. Haldane, Julian Huxley, and Lancelot Hogben, also promoted a concept of biotechnology in the period between the world wars. Because they wrote popular works, they were among Britain’s best-known scientists. Haldane wrote about biological invention in his far-seeing work Daedalus. Huxley looked forward to a blend of social and eugenics-based biological engineering. Hogben, following Geddes, was more interested in engineering plants through breeding. He tied the progressivism of biology to the advance of socialism.

The improvement of the human race, genetic manipulation of bacteria, and the development of fermentation technology were brought together by the development of penicillin during World War II. This drug was successfully extracted from the juice exuded by a strain of the Penicillium fungus. Although discovered by accident and then developed further for purely scientific reasons, the scarce and unstable ‘‘antibiotic’’ called penicillin was transformed during World War II into a powerful and widely used drug. Large networks of academic and government laboratories and pharmaceutical manufacturers in Britain and the U.S. were coordinated by agencies of the two governments. An unanticipated combination of genetics, biochemistry, chemistry, and chemical engineering skills had been required. When the natural mold was bombarded with high-frequency radiation, far more productive mutants were produced, and subsequently all the medicine was made using the product of these man-made cells. By the 1950s penicillin was cheap to produce and globally available.

The new technology of cultivating and processing large quantities of microorganisms led to calls for a new scientific discipline. Biochemical engineering was one term, and applied microbiology another. The Swedish biologist, Carl-Goran Heden, possibly influenced by German precedents, favored the term ‘‘Biotechnologi’’ and persuaded his friend Elmer Gaden to relabel his new journal Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering. From 1962 major international conferences were held under the banner of the Global Impact of Applied Microbiology. During the 1960s food based on single-cell protein grown in fermenters on oil or glucose seemed, to visionary engineers and microbiologists and to major companies, to offer an immediate solution to world hunger. Tropical countries rich in biomass that could be used as raw material for fermentation were also the world’s poorest. Alcohol could be manufactured by fermenting such starch or sugar rich crops as sugar cane and corn. Brazil introduced a national program of replacing oil-based petrol with alcohol in the 1970s.

It was not, however, just the developing countries that hoped to benefit. The Soviet Union developed fermentation-based protein as a major source of animal feed through the 1980s. In the U.S. it seemed that oil from surplus corn would solve the problem of low farm prices aggravated by the country’s boycott of the USSR in1979, and the term ‘‘gasohol‘‘ came into currency. Above all, the decline of established industries made the discovery of a new wealth maker an urgent priority for Western governments. Policy makers in both Germany and Japan during the 1970s were driven by a sense of the inadequacy of the last generation of technologies. These were apparently maturing, and the succession was far from clear. Even if electronics or space travel offered routes to the bright industrial future, these fields seemed to be dominated by the U.S. Seeing incipient crisis, the Green, or environmental, movement promoted a technology that would depend on renewable resources and on low-energy processes that would produce biodegradable products, recycle waste, and address problems of the health and nutrition of the world.

In 1973 the German government, seeking a new and ‘‘greener’’ industrial policy, commissioned a report entitled Biotechnologie that identified ways in which biological processing was key to modern developments in technology. Even though the report was published at the time that recombinant DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) was becoming possible, it did not refer to this new technique and instead focused on the use and combination of existing technologies to make novel products.

Nonetheless the hitherto esoteric science of molecular biology was making considerable progress, although its practice in the early 1970s was rather distant from the world of industrial production. The phrase ‘‘genetic engineering’’ entered common parlance in the 1960s to describe human genetic modification. Medicine, however, put a premium on the use of proteins that were difficult to extract from people: insulin for diabetics and interferon for cancer sufferers. During the early 1970s what had been science fiction became fact as the use of DNA synthesis, restriction enzymes, and plasmids were integrated. In 1973 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer successfully transferred a section of DNA from one E. coli bacterium to another. A few prophets such as Joshua Lederberg and Walter Gilbert argued that the new biological techniques of recombinant DNA might be ideal for making synthetic versions of expensive proteins such as insulin and interferon through their expression in bacterial cells. Small companies, such as Cetus and Genentech in California and Biogen in Cambridge, Massachusetts, were established to develop the techniques. In many cases discoveries made by small ‘‘boutique’’ companies were developed for the market by large, more established, pharmaceutical organizations.

Many governments were impressed by these advances in molecular genetics, which seemed to make biotechnology a potential counterpart to information technology in a third industrial revolution. These inspired hopes of industrial production of proteins identical to those produced in the human body that could be used to treat genetic diseases. There was also hope that industrially useful materials such as alcohol, plastics (biopolymers), or ready-colored fibers might be made in plants, and thus the attractions of a potentially new agricultural era might be as great as the implications for medicine. At a time of concern over low agricultural prices, such hopes were doubly welcome. Indeed, the agricultural benefits sometimes overshadowed the medical implications.

The mechanism for the transfer of enthusiasm from engineering fermenters to engineering genes was the New York Stock Exchange. At the end of the 1970s, new tax laws encouraged already adventurous U.S. investors to put money into small companies whose stock value might grow faster than their profits. The brokerage firm E. F. Hutton saw the potential for the new molecular biology companies such as Biogen and Cetus. Stock market interest in companies promising to make new biological entities was spurred by the 1980 decision of the U.S. Supreme Court to permit the patenting of a new organism. The patent was awarded to the Exxon researcher Ananda Chakrabarty for an organism that metabolized hydrocarbon waste. This event signaled the commercial potential of biotechnology to business and governments around the world. By the early 1980s there were widespread hopes that the protein interferon, made with some novel organism, would provide a cure for cancer. The development of monoclonal antibody technology that grew out of the work of Georges J. F. Kohler and Cesar Milstein in Cambridge (co-recipients with Niels K. Jerne of the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1986) seemed to offer new prospects for precise attacks on particular cells.

The fear of excessive regulatory controls encouraged business and scientific leaders to express optimistic projections about the potential of biotechnology. The early days of biotechnology were fired by hopes of medical products and high-value pharmaceuticals. Human insulin and interferon were early products, and a second generation included the anti-blood clotting agent tPA and the antianemia drug erythropoietin. Biotechnology was also used to help identify potential new drugs that might be made chemically, or synthetically.

At the same time agricultural products were also being developed. Three early products that each raised substantial problems were bacteria which inhibited the formation of frost on the leaves of strawberry plants (ice-minus bacteria), genetically modified plants including tomatoes and rapeseed, and the hormone bovine somatrotropin (BST) produced in genetically modified bacteria and administered to cattle in the U.S. to increase milk yields. By 1999 half the soy beans and one third of the corn grown in the U.S. were modified. Although the global spread of such products would arouse the best known concern at the end of the century, the use of the ice-minus bacteria— the first authorized release of a genetically engineered organism into the environment—had previously raised anxiety in the U.S. in the 1980s.

In 1997 Dolly the sheep was cloned from an adult mother in the Roslin agricultural research institute outside Edinburgh, Scotland. This work was inspired by the need to find a way of reproducing sheep engineered to express human proteins in their milk. However, the public interest was not so much in the cloning of sheep that had just been achieved as in the cloning of people, which had not. As in the Middle Ages when deformed creatures had been seen as monsters and portents of natural disasters, Dolly was similarly seen as monster and as a portent of human cloning.

The name Frankenstein, recalled from the story written by Mary Shelley at the beginning of the nineteenth century and from the movies of the 1930s, was once again familiar at the end of the twentieth century. Shelley had written in the shadow of Stahl’s theories. The continued appeal of this book embodies the continuity of the fears of artificial life and the anxiety over hubris. To this has been linked a more mundane suspicion of the blending of commerce and the exploitation of life. Discussion of biotechnology at the end of the twentieth century was therefore colored by questions of whose assurances of good intent and reassurance of safety could be trusted.

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Research Proposal Topics In Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a fascinating subject that blends biology and technology and provides a huge chance to develop new ideas. However, before pursuing a career in this field, a person needs to complete a number of studies and have a thorough knowledge of the matter. When we begin our career must we conduct study to discover some innovative innovations that could benefit people around the world. Biotechnology is one of a variety of sciences of life, including pharmacy. Students who are pursuing graduation, post-graduation or PhD must complete the research work and compose their thesis to earn the satisfaction in their education. When choosing a subject for biotechnology-related research it is important to choose one that is likely to inspire us. Based on our passion and personal preferences, the subject to study may differ.

What is Biotechnology?

In its most basic sense, biotechnology is the science of biology that enables technology Biotechnology harnesses the power of the biomolecular and cellular processes to create products and technologies that enhance our lives and the wellbeing of the planet. Biotechnology has been utilizing microorganisms' biological processes for over six thousand years to create useful food items like cheese and bread as well as to keep dairy products in good condition.

Modern biotechnology has created breakthrough products and technology to treat rare and debilitating illnesses help reduce our footprint on the environment and feed hungry people, consume less energy and use less and provide safer, more clean and productive industrial production processes.

Introduction

Biotechnology is credited with groundbreaking advancements in technological development and development of products to create sustainable and cleaner world. This is in large part due to biotechnology that we've made progress toward the creation of more efficient industrial manufacturing bases. Additionally, it assists in the creation of greener energy, feeding more hungry people and not leaving a large environmental footprint, and helping humanity fight rare and fatal diseases.

Our writing services for assignments within the field of biotechnology covers all kinds of subjects that are designed to test and validate the skills of students prior to awarding their certificates. We assist students to successfully complete their course in all kinds of biotechnology-related courses. This includes biological sciences for medical use (red) and eco-biotechnology (green) marine biotechnology (blue) and industrial biotechnology (white).

What do we hope to gain from all these Initiatives?

Our primary goal in preparing this list of the top 100 biotechnology assignment subjects is to aid students in deciding on effective time management techniques. We've witnessed a large amount of cases where when looking for online help with assignments with the topic, examining sources of information, and citing the correct order of reference students find themselves stuck at various points. In the majority of cases, students have difficulty even to get through their dilemma of choosing a topic. This is why we contribute in our effort to help make the process easier for students in biotech quickly and efficiently. Our students are able to save time and energy in order to help them make use of the time they are given to write the assignment with the most appropriate topics.

Let's look at some of the newest areas of biotechnology research and the related areas.

• Renewable Energy Technology Management Promoting Village
• Molasses is a molasses-based ingredient that can be used to produce and the treatment of its effluent
• Different ways to evapotranspirate
• Scattering Parameters of Circulator Bio-Technology
• Renewable Energy Technology Management Promoting Village.

Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases

A variety of studies are being conducted into the techniques used by pathogens in order to infect humans and other species and for designing strategies for countering the disease. The main areas that are available to study by biotech researchers include:

• inlA from Listeria monocytogenes when combined with E-cadherin from humans.
• InlC in Listeria monocytogenes that are multipart with human Tuba.
• Phospholipase PatA of Legionella pnemophila.
• The inactivation process of mammalian TLR2 by inhibiting antibody.
• There are many proteins that come originate from Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Plant Biotechnology

Another significant area for research in biotechnology for plants is to study the genetic causes of the plant's responses to scarcity and salinity, which have a significant impact on yields of the crop and food.

• Recognition and classification of genes that influence the responses of plants to drought and salinity.
• A component of small-signing molecules in plants' responses to salinity and drought.
• Genetic enhancement of plant sensitivity salinity and drought.

Pharmacogenetics

It's also a significant area for conducting research in biotechnology. One of the most important reasons for doing so could be the identification of various genetic factors that cause differences in drug effectiveness and susceptibility for adverse reactions. Some of the subjects which can be studied are,

• Pharmacogenomics of Drug Transporters
• Pharmacogenomics of Metformin's response to type II mellitus
• The pharmacogenomics behind anti-hypertensive medicines
• The Pharmacogenomics of anti-cancer drugs

Forensic DNA

A further area of research in biotechnology research is the study of the genetic diversity of humans for its applications in criminal justice. Some of the topics that could be studied include,

• Y-chromosome Forensic Kit, Development of commercial prototype.
• Genetic testing of Indels in African populations.
• The Y-chromosome genotyping process is used for African populations.
• Study of paternal and maternal ancestry of mixed communities in South Africa.
• The study of the local diversity in genetics using highly mutating Y-STRs and Indels.
• South African Innocence Project: The study of DNA extracted from historical crime scene.
• Nanotechnology is a new technology that can be applied to DNA genotyping.
• Nanotechnology methods to isolate DNA.

Food Biotechnology

It is possible to conduct research in order to create innovative methods and processes in the fields of food processing and water. The most fascinating topics include:

• A molecular-based technology that allows for the rapid identification and detection of foodborne pathogens in intricate food chains.
• The effects of conventional and modern processing techniques on the bacteria that are associated with Aspalathus lineriasis.
• DNA-based identification of species of animals that are present in meat products that are sold raw.
• The phage assay and PCR are used to detect and limit the spread of foodborne pathogens.
• Retention and elimination of pathogenic, heat-resistant and other microorganisms that are treated by UV-C.
• Analysis of an F1 generation of the cross Bon Rouge x Packham's Triumph by Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR/microsatellite).
• The identification of heavy metal tolerant and sensitive genotypes
• Identification of genes that are involved in tolerance to heavy metals
• The isolation of novel growth-promoting bacteria that can help crops cope with heavy metal stress . Identification of proteins that signal lipids to increase the tolerance of plants to stress from heavy metals

This topic includes high-resolution protein expression profiling for the investigation of proteome profiles. The following are a few of the most fascinating topics:

• The identification and profile of stress-responsive proteins that respond to abiotic stress in Arabidopsis Thalian and Sorghum bicolor.
• Analyzing sugar biosynthesis-related proteins in Sorghum bicolor, and study of their roles in drought stress tolerance
• Evaluation of the viability and long-term sustainability of Sweet Sorghum for bioethanol (and other by-products) production in South Africa
• In the direction of developing an environmentally sustainable, low-tech hypoallergenic latex Agroprocessing System designed specifically especially for South African small-holder farmers.

Bioinformatics

This is an additional aspect of biotechnology research. The current trend is to discover new methods to combat cancer. Bioinformatics may help identify proteins and genes as well as their role in the fight against cancer. Check out some of the areas that are suitable to study.

• Prediction of anticancer peptides with HIMMER and the the support vector machine.
• The identification and verification of innovative therapeutic antimicrobial peptides for Human Immunodeficiency Virus In the lab and molecular method.
• The identification of biomarkers that are associated with cancer of the ovary using an molecular and in-silico method.
• Biomarkers identified in breast cancer, as possible therapeutic and diagnostic agents with a combination of molecular and in-silico approaches.
• The identification of MiRNA's as biomarkers for screening of cancerous prostates in the early stages an in-silico and molecular method
• Identification of putatively identified the genes present in breast cancer tissues as biomarkers for early detection of lobular and ductal breast cancers.
• Examining the significance of Retinoblastoma Binding Protein 6 (RBBP6) in the regulation of the cancer-related protein Y-Box Binding Protein 1 (YB-1).
• Examining the role played by Retinoblastoma Binding Protein 6 (RBBP6) in the regulation of the cancer suppressor p53 through Mouse Double Minute 2 (MDM2).
• Structural analysis of the anti-oxidant properties of the 1-Cys peroxiredoxin Prx2 found in the plant that resurrects itself Xerophyta viscosa.

Nanotechnology

This is a fascinating aspect of biotechnology, which can be used to identify effective tools to address the most serious health issues.

• Evaluation of cancer-specific peptides to determine their applications for the detection of cancer.
• The development of a quantum dot-based detection systems for breast cancer.
• The creation of targeted Nano-constructs for in vivo imaging as well as the treatment of tumors.
• Novel quinone compounds are being tested as anti-cancer medicines.
• Embedelin is delivered to malignant cells in a specific manner.
• The anti-cancer activities of Tulbaghia Violacea extracts were studied biochemically .
• Novel organic compounds are screened for their anti-cancer potential.
• To treat HIV, nanotechnology-based therapeutic techniques are being developed.

Top 100 Biotechnology Research Proposal Topics to Consider in 2022

We've prepared a list of the top 100 most suggested dissertation topics, which were compiled by our experts in research. They've made sure to offer a an extensive list of topics that cover all aspects of the topic. We hope that this list will meet all of the requirements for assistance with your dissertation . Let us start with our list of subjects, one at a time each one

• Achieving effective control of renewable power technologies to help the village
• The production of ethanol through the aid of molasses and the treatment of its effluent
• Different approaches and aspects of Evapotranspiration
• Its scattering parameter is biotechnology circulator
• The inactivation of mammalian TLR2 via an inhibiting antibody
• The number of proteins produced by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Recognition and classification of genes that shape the responses of plants to drought and salinity.
• The small sign molecules that are involved in the response that plants have to the effects of salinity as well as drought
• Genetic improvement of the plant's sensitivity to drought and saltiness
• The pharmacogenomics of drug transporters
• The anti-cancer drugs' pharmacogenomics are based on pharmac
• The pharmacogenomics of antihypertensive medications
• Indels genotyping of African populations
• Genomics of the Y-chromosomes of African populations
• The profiling of DNA extracted from historical crime scenes Consider the implications of South African Innocence Project
• Nanotechnology-related methods for DNA isolation
• Nanotechnology applications in the context of DNA genotyping
• Recognizing the heavy metals that are tolerant with genotypes that are sensitive.
• Genetic characteristics that play a role within the procedure of gaining tolerance to metals
• The animal's DNA is authenticated by the species by the commercial production of raw meat products
• The use of molecular-based technology is in the sense of detection and identification of foodborne pathogens in complicated food systems
• Assessing the effectiveness of cancer-specific peptides that are suitable for efficient implementations in the area of diagnosis and treatment for cancer
• Quantum Dot-based detection system is being developed in relation to a positive breast cancer diagnosis
• It is targeted delivery of the embelin to cancerous cells
• Exploring the potential of novel quinone compounds as anti-cancer agents
• Treatment strategies for treating HIV in addition to the significance of nanotechnology the treatment of HIV.
• A review of the medicinal value the antioxidants found in nature.
• An in-depth examination of the structure of COVID spike proteins
• A review of the immune response to the stem therapy using cells
• CRISPR-Cas9 technology to aid in the process of editing the genome
• Tissue engineering and delivery of drugs through the application of Chitosan
• Evaluation of beneficial effects of cancer vaccines
• Use of PacBio sequencing in relation to genome assembly of model organisms
• Examining the connection between mRNA suppression and its effect on the growth of stem cells
• Biomimicry is a method of identifying of cancer cells
• The sub-classification and characterisation of the Yellow enzymes
• The process of producing food products that are hypoallergenic and fermented.
• The production of hypoallergenic milk
• The purification process for the thermostable phytase
• Bioconversion of the cellulose produce products that are significant for industry
• The investigation of the gut microbiota of the model organisms
• The use of fungal enzymes for the manufacture of chemical glue
• A look at those inhibitors to exocellulase as well as endocellulase
• Examine the value of microorganisms to aid in the recovery of gas from shale.
• Examine the thorough analysis of the method of natural decomposition
• Examine ways to recycle bio-wastes
• Improved bio-remediation in the case of oil spills
• The process of gold biosorption is accomplished with the aid of the cyanobacterium
• A healthy equilibrium between the biotic and the abiotic elements by using biotechnological devices
• The measurement of the mercury level in fish by means of markers
• Exploring the biotechnological capabilities from Jellyfish related microbiomes Jellyfish related microbiome
• What is the role of marine fungi to aid in attempts to break down plastics and polymers?
• Examine the biotechnological possibilities that can be extracted of dinoflagellates
• Removing endosulfan residues using the use of biotechnology the agriculture sector
• The creation of the ELISA method for the detection of crop virus
• Enhancing the quality of drinking water by the aid of the E.coli consortium
• The characterisation of E.coli is its isolation from the feces of Zoo animals
• Enhancing the resistance of crops to the attack of insects
• The reduction of the expenditure on agriculture by using efficient bio-tools
• Are there the most efficient ways to stop erosion of soils using the help of biotechnology-based tools?
• What can biotechnology do to assist in increasing the levels of vitamin content in GM food items?
• Enhancing the distribution of pesticides by using biotechnology
• Comparing the biofortification of folate in various types of corpses
• Examine the photovoltaic-based generation of ocean-based crop
• What is the best way to use nanotechnology will improve the efficiency of the agriculture sector?
• Analyzing the mechanisms that govern resistance to water stresses in models of plants
• Production and testing of human immune boosters within the test organisms
• Comparing genomic analysis to the usefulness of tools intended for bioinformatics
• The Arabinogalactan protein sequence and its value in the field of computational methods
• Analyzing and interpreting gut microbiota from model organisms
• Different methods of purification of proteins A comparative analysis
• The diagnosis of microbes and their function in micro-arrays of oligonucleotide oligonu
• The use of diverse techniques within the biomedical research field that includes micro-arrays technology
• The use of microbial community to produce the greenhouse effect
• Evaluation of the computational properties of various proteins that are derived from the marine microbiota
• E.coli gene mapping through the help of different tools for microbial research
• Intensifying the strains of Cyanobacterium the aid of gene sequencing
• Assessment and description by computation of crystallized proteins that are found in the natural world.
• MTERF protein and the use of it to end the process of transcription that occurs in mitochondrial DNA inside algae
• Reverse column chromatography in phase and its use in the separation of proteins
• The study of the various proteins that are found within Mycobacterium leprae.
• A review of the methods that are ideal to ensure the success of cloning RNA
• Examine the most common mistakes of biotechnology in conserving the ecology and natural environment.
• Is there a method to ensure that the medicinal plants are free of insects? Discuss
• What are the dangers caused by pest resistant animals on birds and human beings?
• What are the many areas of biotechnology that remain unexplored in terms research?
• What's the future of biotechnology in the medical field?
• Recombinant DNA technology to develop of new medical treatments
• What is the reason for the type of bacteria that is used to make vaccines with the aid of biotechnology?
• How can biotechnology aid in the development of new medicines that are resistant to the mutations of viruses and bacteria?
• Is there a long-term treatment for cancer that is available in the near term? Biotechnology could play an essential role in this?
• What is the reason it is so important that students remember the DNA codes in biotechnology?
• How can we create hybrid seeds with assistance of biotechnology?
• How can one create resistant plants to pests and what are the benefits of these seeds in final yields in agriculture?
• Examine bio-magnification and its effects on the ecology
• What are the causes to the reasons ecologists do not approve the use of pest-resistant seed, even though they are in application in agriculture?
• How has biotechnology influenced the lives of farmers in developing countries?
• Biotechnology can be used to boost the yield of plant species?
• Examine the role played by biotechnology to increase the production of the seasonal crops
• Are there any adverse side effects associated with pharmaceutical drugs when they are manufactured with biotechnological techniques? Let the issue with real-world examples

We attempted to cover the essential topics needed for research work. Other topics are available that could be picked based on our interests, the facilities available and resources available for the research, as well as resources and time limits.

We have reached the end of this list. We feel it was beneficial in satisfying the selection criteria. Furthermore, the inclusion of biotechnology-related assignment themes was done in such a manner that they may help us with the requirements of assignment writing kinds and forms. The themes listed above can meet our demands for topic selection linked to aid with case studies and essay assistance, research paper writing help , or thesis writing help .

Frequently asked questions

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• Biotechnology

Intravenous (IV) access is a critical component of patient care for many individuals. It allows the health care provider to give the patient medications or fluids in a manner that provides the fastest route of absorption in the body. There are multiple reasons why being able to obtain intravenous access...

The advances of bioengineering and medical technology allow us to glimpse into a future of man that stands unprecedented. Not only are scientists able to develop bionic limbs, muscles and mock skeletal systems, but the prospect of implementing these devices and extensions to prolog or promote human life is greatly...

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Biomass energy is a form of energy naturally occurring in plants and animals. It can be found in plants, animals, or waste from organic sources. These forms of energy sources are referred to as biofuels and often include manure, mulch, tree components or rotted trees, and wood chips (Catchpole &...

As the Director of Regulatory Affairs, our company has recently developed a monoclonal antibody for the treatment of cancer. The antibody is called Ziblofril and within the company, we have currently completed the preclinical testing. During the preclinical testing stages, the first different monoclonal antibodies were tested using cell-based high...

The science refers to the diverse ways of incorporating biotechnology into the treatment of various health issues. One of the most optimistic prognoses on the application of biotechnology in the treatment of the HIV/AIDS is that the disease can be healed by 2020. The future of the HIV treatment has...

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College Term Paper

🖋 best way to write a great college term paper, biotechnology term paper.

Biotechnology Term Paper:

Biotechnology is the discipline which studies the possibility to use the living organisms and the products of their activity for the solutions of various technological tasks and the possibility to create the living organisms with the desired qualities with the help of genetic engineering.

Biotechnology is often called the practise of genetic engineering in the 20th and 21st centuries, but the term has broader meaning and includes a wide complex of modifications of biological species for the satisfaction of the human requirements starting from the modification of plants and the method of artificial selection and hybridization. With the help of the modern methods the traditional biotechnological production gained the opportunity to improve the quality of the food products and increase the productiveness of the living organisms.

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Till the 1970 the term ‘biotechnology’ was mainly used is agriculture and food industry, but later the term got its broader meaning when the laboratorial methods started to be practised and the scientists began to speak about genetic engineering and cloning. Today it is obvious that biotechnology is based on such sciences and their branches like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, cellular biology, chemical and information technology and robotics. Biotechnology has been used by people for centuries and can be observed on the example of brewing. Of course, today the sphere of the biotechnology’s activity is wiser and touches upon many aspects. Evidently, the attitude towards biotechnology is different.

The opponents to the discipline claim that the human being does not have the right to ‘play’ with genes and create new species of animals and new sorts of plants; the supporters prove that the development of biotechnology can solve such problems as world hunger, etc.

Biotechnology is one of the most perspective disciplines, because it provides the scientists with wide field of activity and experiments. The students who are asked to complete the assignment based on biotechnology should learn about the topic much in order to be able to analyze the suggested problem well. A good term paper on biotechnology should contain up-to-date information taken from the reliable sources and explain the value, advantages and disadvantages, methodology and aims of the discipline. In conclusion one should share his ideas about the further development of biotechnology and its possible achievements.

Naturally, the process of term paper writing can not be called the easy one, because every paper requires its own strict structure and logical organization of the unique content. The Internet can be at hand for every student, who is looking for a good free example biotechnology term paper in order to learn something about the process of writing. Having read a free biotechnology term paper sample one can learn much about the complicated and essential processes of analysis and formatting.

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Term paper on biochemical technology | biotechnology.

In this term paper we will discuss about biochemical technology.

Micro-organisms have been used in the production of many useful products from time immemorial without even knowing the actual mechanism and principals involved in it. In the wake of modern knowledge, cells and their components are being used in the production of many commercial products for the benefit of human beings at cheaper cost on large scale.

Since all this depends upon living cells activities, a very controlled and specific environment is required which includes highly specific substrate at specific pH and temperature without any impurity for the culture of micro-organisms and the production of required product. The nutrient substrate should be reuseable for cheaper cost of production.

An acid is a substance which furnishes H + (hydrogen) ions by itself or when dissolved in water. This definition is based on classical ionic theory. The strength of an acid solution does not depend upon its concentration but upon the number of free H + ions present.

According to the new theory of Lowry and Bronsted an acid is a substance which is able to donate proton (H + ) or protons. This definition is the most accepted one.

Based on classical ionic theory a base is a substance which furnishes OH – (hydroxyl) ions when dissolved in water and the basic properties of a base are due to these hydroxyl ions.

Lowry-Bronsted definition of a base is a different one which says – a case is a substance which can accept the proton (H + ) or protons.

So, an acid donates proton while a base accepts proton.

Scale of Acidity – pH and pOH Value:

We can express the acidity of a solution on a scale of acidity in the same way as we express the temperature on a thermometer scale.

Concept of pH :

pH or Hydrogen ion concentration is the basis of acid base chemistry which decides the direction of biochemical reactions, because enzymes are active in a particular environment of pH. pH decides the particular structure of protein and thus their reactivity as enzymes.

Acid is a substance which gives H + (proton) and base accepts this proton. An amphoteric substance can accept and donate protons and thus is neutral.

The neutral pH is 7, below it the solution is acidic and above it, basic, i.e.

According to Bronsted Lowry Concept:

Handerson Hasselbatch Equation:

A buffer is an ionic compound which resists changes in its pH value by absorbing a certain quantity of acid or base without undergoing a great variation in pH.

A buffer solution is a mixture of a weak acid HA and its conjugate bases A – , or a mixture of a weak base B and its conjugate acid BH + .

Buffer is used for the calibration of pH meter and to control pH of a medium in which pH dependent chemical activity is taking place, e.g., enzymatic reactions.

Buffer Solutions :

It is known that pure water has a pH value equal to 7. But even the purest form of water cannot retain this value for long. It gradually changes. The same is the case with the solutions of single salts.

In a solution containing a weak acid and the salt of it with a strong base (e.g., CH 3 COOH + CH 3 COONa) or a weak base and the salt of it with a strong acid (e.g., NH 4 OH and nh4ci) possesses few specific properties:

(a) Having a definite pH value

(b) pH value does not alter either on keeping for long or on dilution.

(c) Its pH value is very slightly altered by additions of strong acid in CH 3 COOH + CH 3 COONa solution or strong base in NH 4 OH + NH 4 CI solution.

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances.

Molar Solution:

It is 1 g molecular weight of a substance dissolved in 1 litre of solution, e.g., 1 M NaCI contains 58.5 g of NaCI in 1 litre of solution.

Normal Solution:

It is 1 g equivalent weight of a substance dissolved in 1 litre of solution, e.g., 1N NaCI contains 58.5 g of NaCI in 1 litre of solution, while 1N H 2 SO 4 contains 49 g of H 2 SO 4 in 1 litre of solution.

(1 g equivalent weight is equal to molecular weight divided by its valence electrons).

Types of Buffers :

Buffers are of various types having a specific range of pH.

For example:

1. Acetate Buffer:

The buffer solution which is prepared by homogeneously mixing acetic acid (Ch 3 COOH) and sodium acetate (CH 3 COONa) in varied ratio so as to find a wide range of pH ranging between 3.7-5.6.

2. Borate Buffer:

When boric acid is mixed with borax in varied ratios it makes a buffer ranging in pH from 7.5-9.2.

3. Phosphate Buffer:

When hydrated disodium hydrogen phosphate in mixed with potassium dihydrogen phosphate in varied ratios it makes the solution having pH range between 5.7-8.0.

Buffering Capacity:

The amount of acid or alkali required to produce unit change of pH in the solution is called the buffering capacity of the solution.

For a buffer:

According to Handerson Hasselbalch equation, if the concentration of salt is equal to that of the acid then:

Then it is called the buffering capacity of the solution. Buffering capacity of a buffer solution can also be defined as the range of the pH between which the solution shows its buffer properties and its buffering effect.

Dimensions :

The physical quantity is indicated with relation to the fundamental quantity or basic quantity.

The dimensions of a physical quantity are the power to which the fundamental units are raised in order to obtain the units of that quantity. Thus dimensions are the fundamental quantities which are used for measurement such as mass, length, time, etc.

For example, velocity is represented by displacement and time:

Putting the fundamental quantities in the same equations:

Thus [LT -1 ] is the expression of a physical quantity called dimensional formula of velocity.

Dimensional Quantities :

The physical quantity is expressed in the form of fundamental quantities. Each fundamental quantity is expressed in the form of unit. Thus physical quantities also bear a specific unit.

For example, velocity is expressed as unit of displacement covered per unit time; therefore, its unit is metre per second.

The measurements of all the systems of weight, length, etc., are linked to an international system called the International System of units or SI units. It began in the month of October 1960.

Physical Variables:

Biochemical process requires calculations at times using measurable physical variables like length, area, etc., but there are some which cannot be measured but felt, like smell etc. Physical quantities may have units called substantial variable or without unit but expressed as ratios, e.g., specific gravity.

Physical variables can be divided into two types:

1. Substantial Variables:

These variables have a unit. These variables are measured against a particular physical standard. These standards are called units. For e.g., mass, length, time, etc.

2. Natural Variables:

The variables which are dimensionless are grouped as natural variables. Thus these variables do not have any unit as well. For e.g., refractive index, specific gravity, etc.

Concept of Probability:

Probability:

Probability is derived from the word “to probe” or “to find out”. It was applied to those, which are not easily accessible or understandable. The origin of probability was in 6 tri century when it was applied to games of chance and gambling.

Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Ferment added it as the branch of Mathematics in the 17 th century. These days various theories of probability and probabilistic modeling are used in almost all the fields like business, industry and sciences such as telephone exchange, computer process, genetics, etc. It tells about the chances of occurrence of a particular phenomenon.

It is classified as:

(i) Theoretical Probability:

It is based on mathematical calculations of the occurrence of an event or phenomenon under ideal conditions.

(ii) Experimental Probability:

The actual results obtained by repeated testing and observation.

It is collection of elements for the component of the sample. It may be done randomly or systematically, for example, constant skipping based on taking every n th reading from the random population or stratified for example, sample collection from different strata of population.

Sampling can be achieved by two major techniques:

1. Quadrat Sampling:

This is the technique in which sampling is done by using quadrant. Sometimes a few problems occur such as – one may not be able to count how many individual plants there are in a dense dump.

To solve this problem following methods are used:

(a) Estimating plant density by counting the number of individuals per unit area.

(b) Estimating plant frequency by looking at the distribution of individuals per unit area.

(c) Assessing plant cover by measuring the proportion of the ground covered by a plant species.

2. Transect Recording:

A transect is an imaginary line along which one makes careful and systematic observations.

Transect can be of two types:

(a) Belt Transect.

(b) Line Transect.

Transect recording can be used to study how communities and ecosystems change along an environmental gradient, e.g., through a woodland, along a rocky shore or up the side of a hill.

Fluid Flow and Fluid Mixing:

Fluid Flow :

Fluid dynamics is a part of fluid mechanics and deals with fluid flow i.e., motion of liquids and gases in natural conditions. It has several branches including aerodynamics (or the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (or the study of liquids in motion).

Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure derived from flow measurement and used to solve practical problems. The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves calculating various properties of the fluid such as velocity, pressure, density and temperature as functions of space and time.

When the fluid flows without any hindrance then flow is considered to be a steady flow. Steady- state flow refers to the condition where the fluid properties at a point in the system do not change over time. Otherwise, flow is called unsteady or transient flow. For example, laminar flow over a sphere is steady with respect to the sphere which is stationary. Turbulent flows are unsteady by definition.

Steady flows are easily observed and studied as compared to unsteady flows.

The fluids may be of any of the two categories depending upon Newton’s law of viscous flow.

During large scale fermentation the viscosity of fluid changes from Newtonian to non-Newtonian type which causes limitation in growth of cells due to limited nutrient and oxygen supply. In aerobic processes, to overcome the less solubility problem of oxygen, special devices like airlift fermentor, bubble column fermentor, etc., are used.

Fluid Mixing :

Fluid mixing involves two mechanisms – diffusion and advection (advection is a transport mechanism of a substance or conserved property by a fluid due to the fluid’s bulk motion). In liquids, molecular diffusion alone is hardly efficient for mixing. Advection is the transport of matter by a flow and is required for better mixing. When considered at micro level fluid mixing behaves radically different.

The range of sizes varies from 2 millimetres to the nanometre level. At this size range normal convection does not happen unless you force it. Diffusion is the dominate mechanism where two different fluids come together through their movement from their higher concentration level to their lower concentration level. Diffusion is a relatively slow process.

Mass Transfer :

Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location usually meaning a stream, phase, fraction or component to another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption, evaporation, adsorption, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration and distillation. Mass transfer is used by different scientific disciplines for different processes and mechanisms. The phrase is commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve diffusive and convective transport of chemical species within physical systems.

It refers to the transfer of oxygen from outside into the cell through fermentation medium during a bioprocess in a bioreactor. The main hurdle in this transfer is the gas liquid interface which decreases the uptake of oxygen by the cells.

The problem has been solved by:

(i) Agitating the medium which increases the surface area by forming small air bubbles and decreasing the thickness of the liquid film at the gas liquid interface.

(ii) Using mixing devices like impeller, sparger and baffles which by proper mixing provide homogenous environment so that oxygen and nutrients become available to the cells.

Heat Transfer :

Sufficient amount of heat is generated during various steps in fermentation which is required to be controlled for efficient performance of the biological process. Temperature is measured by using mercury glass thermometer, bimetallic thermometer, pressure bulb thermometer, thermocouple thermometer or metal resistance thermometer.

On the basis of heat evolution rate, desired temperature of heat transfer area required can be calculated. The bioreactors are thus equipped with heating/ cooling devices for keeping the optimum temperature. This is achieved by circulating steam or chilled water in jackets fitted around the fermentor. These devices are also used for the sterilization of the fermentor in the beginning of the process and also for cleaning the vessels of fermentor.

Homogenous Reactions :

They occur in an optimum environment during a biochemical process. For these reactions various factors should be carefully maintained because growth kinetics is greatly influenced by these factors.

(a) Growth Media:

A growth medium is selected or formulated considering the following points:

(i) Should provide required nutrients in balanced form.

(ii) Maximum yield.

(iii) Minimum wastage.

(iv) Low cost.

A medium is designed, considering growth dependent products which may be:

(i) Primary metabolites produced during exponential phase of growth.

(ii) Secondary metabolites are produced after log phase/exponential phase of growth.

A medium should be cheap and provide all the required nutrients to cells. For this purpose wastes like sugarcane bagasse, whey, etc., which can provide both energy carbon and other minerals required for growth and produce least pollution are suitable.

(b) Growth Kinetics and Fermentation process:

Growth and metabolism of microbes is also important for the production of product in a bioprocess. The genetic engineering is thus important for the development of improved strains of organisms (microbes). Growth kinetics and fermentation process determines the culture mode.

Four fundamental culture modes are used in industrial process like fermentation, these are:

(i) Batch culture,

(ii) Fed batch culture,

(iii) Semi continuous culture, and

(iv) Continuous culture.

Batch Culture:

It has limited amount of nutrient and there is no addition or removal of nutrient during the process.

The growth curve obtained is sigmoid which has five phases:

(i) Lag Phase:

Lag phase or time of adaptation or no growth, it is non-productive and thus should be of minimum duration.

(ii) Log Phase:

Log phase or trophophase/exponential growth is the stage when the microbes grow faster.

(iii) Deceleration Time:

Decrease in growth rate because of reduction in nutrient and production of excretory waste (antibiotics).

(iv) Stationary Phase:

Cell growth stops as no more nutrients is present in the medium.

(v) Death Phase:

Cells start to die.

Effect of temperature on Growth:

Temperature affects enzymatic activities of the organisms and thus their growth due to influence on conversion of carbon to cell-mass.

Accordingly organisms have been classified as:

(i) Psychrophile:

Optimums temperature 15 ± 2°C

(ii) Mesophiles:

Optimum temperature 35 + 5°C

(iii) Thermophile:

Optimum temperature 60 ± 5°C

(iv) Hyper thermophile:

Optimum temperature 93 ± 5°C

Effect of substrate concentration on growth:

Low concentration of a substrate limits growth and is given by the equation.

µ = Specific growth rate

S = Residual substrate concentration

Ks = Substrate Constant

µ max = maximum possible growth rate.

On increasing the substrate concentration µ increases initially but further increase becomes inhibitory. Thus growth is inversely proportional to concentration of the substrate.

(c) Growth associated and non-growth associated products:

In growth associated bio process, product concentration directly depends on cell concentration. Products are formed from primary energy metabolism of the organisms thus with the increase in cell growth, product formation also increases.

In non-growth associated process, the products are produced when cell growth retards and are called secondary metabolites. The accumulation of these products causes cell death.

Stoichiometry :

During biochemical reactions new groups of atoms and molecules are formed through the rearrangement of atoms and molecules. By stoichiometry, the relationship of mass and moles of reactant and products are measured, provided equation and atomic weights of reactant are correctly written. If we consider the cell growth in a culture medium, then some reactants are provided more than the requirement, e.g., carbon which is required for biosynthesis and energy generation both.

Carbon requirement under aerobic condition may be estimated from cellular coefficient (Y).

Y = Quantity of cell dry mass produced/Quantity of carbon substrate used

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