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How to Write an Essay

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Essay Writing Fundamentals

How to prepare to write an essay, how to edit an essay, how to share and publish your essays, how to get essay writing help, how to find essay writing inspiration, resources for teaching essay writing.

Essays, short prose compositions on a particular theme or topic, are the bread and butter of academic life. You write them in class, for homework, and on standardized tests to show what you know. Unlike other kinds of academic writing (like the research paper) and creative writing (like short stories and poems), essays allow you to develop your original thoughts on a prompt or question. Essays come in many varieties: they can be expository (fleshing out an idea or claim), descriptive, (explaining a person, place, or thing), narrative (relating a personal experience), or persuasive (attempting to win over a reader). This guide is a collection of dozens of links about academic essay writing that we have researched, categorized, and annotated in order to help you improve your essay writing. 

Essays are different from other forms of writing; in turn, there are different kinds of essays. This section contains general resources for getting to know the essay and its variants. These resources introduce and define the essay as a genre, and will teach you what to expect from essay-based assessments.

Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab

One of the most trusted academic writing sites, Purdue OWL provides a concise introduction to the four most common types of academic essays.

"The Essay: History and Definition" (ThoughtCo)

This snappy article from ThoughtCo talks about the origins of the essay and different kinds of essays you might be asked to write. 

"What Is An Essay?" Video Lecture (Coursera)

The University of California at Irvine's free video lecture, available on Coursera, tells  you everything you need to know about the essay.

Wikipedia Article on the "Essay"

Wikipedia's article on the essay is comprehensive, providing both English-language and global perspectives on the essay form. Learn about the essay's history, forms, and styles.

"Understanding College and Academic Writing" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This list of common academic writing assignments (including types of essay prompts) will help you know what to expect from essay-based assessments.

Before you start writing your essay, you need to figure out who you're writing for (audience), what you're writing about (topic/theme), and what you're going to say (argument and thesis). This section contains links to handouts, chapters, videos and more to help you prepare to write an essay.

How to Identify Your Audience

"Audience" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This handout provides questions you can ask yourself to determine the audience for an academic writing assignment. It also suggests strategies for fitting your paper to your intended audience.

"Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content" (Univ. of Minnesota Libraries)

This extensive book chapter from Writing for Success , available online through Minnesota Libraries Publishing, is followed by exercises to try out your new pre-writing skills.

"Determining Audience" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This guide from a community college's writing center shows you how to know your audience, and how to incorporate that knowledge in your thesis statement.

"Know Your Audience" ( Paper Rater Blog)

This short blog post uses examples to show how implied audiences for essays differ. It reminds you to think of your instructor as an observer, who will know only the information you pass along.

How to Choose a Theme or Topic

"Research Tutorial: Developing Your Topic" (YouTube)

Take a look at this short video tutorial from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to understand the basics of developing a writing topic.

"How to Choose a Paper Topic" (WikiHow)

This simple, step-by-step guide (with pictures!) walks you through choosing a paper topic. It starts with a detailed description of brainstorming and ends with strategies to refine your broad topic.

"How to Read an Assignment: Moving From Assignment to Topic" (Harvard College Writing Center)

Did your teacher give you a prompt or other instructions? This guide helps you understand the relationship between an essay assignment and your essay's topic.

"Guidelines for Choosing a Topic" (CliffsNotes)

This study guide from CliffsNotes both discusses how to choose a topic and makes a useful distinction between "topic" and "thesis."

How to Come Up with an Argument

"Argument" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

Not sure what "argument" means in the context of academic writing? This page from the University of North Carolina is a good place to start.

"The Essay Guide: Finding an Argument" (Study Hub)

This handout explains why it's important to have an argument when beginning your essay, and provides tools to help you choose a viable argument.

"Writing a Thesis and Making an Argument" (University of Iowa)

This page from the University of Iowa's Writing Center contains exercises through which you can develop and refine your argument and thesis statement.

"Developing a Thesis" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This page from Harvard's Writing Center collates some helpful dos and don'ts of argumentative writing, from steps in constructing a thesis to avoiding vague and confrontational thesis statements.

"Suggestions for Developing Argumentative Essays" (Berkeley Student Learning Center)

This page offers concrete suggestions for each stage of the essay writing process, from topic selection to drafting and editing. 

How to Outline your Essay

"Outlines" (Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill via YouTube)

This short video tutorial from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill shows how to group your ideas into paragraphs or sections to begin the outlining process.

"Essay Outline" (Univ. of Washington Tacoma)

This two-page handout by a university professor simply defines the parts of an essay and then organizes them into an example outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab)

Purdue OWL gives examples of diverse outline strategies on this page, including the alphanumeric, full sentence, and decimal styles. 

"Outlining" (Harvard College Writing Center)

Once you have an argument, according to this handout, there are only three steps in the outline process: generalizing, ordering, and putting it all together. Then you're ready to write!

"Writing Essays" (Plymouth Univ.)

This packet, part of Plymouth University's Learning Development series, contains descriptions and diagrams relating to the outlining process.

"How to Write A Good Argumentative Essay: Logical Structure" (Criticalthinkingtutorials.com via YouTube)

This longer video tutorial gives an overview of how to structure your essay in order to support your argument or thesis. It is part of a longer course on academic writing hosted on Udemy.

Now that you've chosen and refined your topic and created an outline, use these resources to complete the writing process. Most essays contain introductions (which articulate your thesis statement), body paragraphs, and conclusions. Transitions facilitate the flow from one paragraph to the next so that support for your thesis builds throughout the essay. Sources and citations show where you got the evidence to support your thesis, which ensures that you avoid plagiarism. 

How to Write an Introduction

"Introductions" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page identifies the role of the introduction in any successful paper, suggests strategies for writing introductions, and warns against less effective introductions.

"How to Write A Good Introduction" (Michigan State Writing Center)

Beginning with the most common missteps in writing introductions, this guide condenses the essentials of introduction composition into seven points.

"The Introductory Paragraph" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post from academic advisor and college enrollment counselor Grace Fleming focuses on ways to grab your reader's attention at the beginning of your essay.

"Introductions and Conclusions" (Univ. of Toronto)

This guide from the University of Toronto gives advice that applies to writing both introductions and conclusions, including dos and don'ts.

"How to Write Better Essays: No One Does Introductions Properly" ( The Guardian )

This news article interviews UK professors on student essay writing; they point to introductions as the area that needs the most improvement.

How to Write a Thesis Statement

"Writing an Effective Thesis Statement" (YouTube)

This short, simple video tutorial from a college composition instructor at Tulsa Community College explains what a thesis statement is and what it does. 

"Thesis Statement: Four Steps to a Great Essay" (YouTube)

This fantastic tutorial walks you through drafting a thesis, using an essay prompt on Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter as an example.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement" (WikiHow)

This step-by-step guide (with pictures!) walks you through coming up with, writing, and editing a thesis statement. It invites you think of your statement as a "working thesis" that can change.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement" (Univ. of Indiana Bloomington)

Ask yourself the questions on this page, part of Indiana Bloomington's Writing Tutorial Services, when you're writing and refining your thesis statement.

"Writing Tips: Thesis Statements" (Univ. of Illinois Center for Writing Studies)

This page gives plentiful examples of good to great thesis statements, and offers questions to ask yourself when formulating a thesis statement.

How to Write Body Paragraphs

"Body Paragraph" (Brightstorm)

This module of a free online course introduces you to the components of a body paragraph. These include the topic sentence, information, evidence, and analysis.

"Strong Body Paragraphs" (Washington Univ.)

This handout from Washington's Writing and Research Center offers in-depth descriptions of the parts of a successful body paragraph.

"Guide to Paragraph Structure" (Deakin Univ.)

This handout is notable for color-coding example body paragraphs to help you identify the functions various sentences perform.

"Writing Body Paragraphs" (Univ. of Minnesota Libraries)

The exercises in this section of Writing for Success  will help you practice writing good body paragraphs. It includes guidance on selecting primary support for your thesis.

"The Writing Process—Body Paragraphs" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

The information and exercises on this page will familiarize you with outlining and writing body paragraphs, and includes links to more information on topic sentences and transitions.

"The Five-Paragraph Essay" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post discusses body paragraphs in the context of one of the most common academic essay types in secondary schools.

How to Use Transitions

"Transitions" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill explains what a transition is, and how to know if you need to improve your transitions.

"Using Transitions Effectively" (Washington Univ.)

This handout defines transitions, offers tips for using them, and contains a useful list of common transitional words and phrases grouped by function.

"Transitions" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This page compares paragraphs without transitions to paragraphs with transitions, and in doing so shows how important these connective words and phrases are.

"Transitions in Academic Essays" (Scribbr)

This page lists four techniques that will help you make sure your reader follows your train of thought, including grouping similar information and using transition words.

"Transitions" (El Paso Community College)

This handout shows example transitions within paragraphs for context, and explains how transitions improve your essay's flow and voice.

"Make Your Paragraphs Flow to Improve Writing" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post, another from academic advisor and college enrollment counselor Grace Fleming, talks about transitions and other strategies to improve your essay's overall flow.

"Transition Words" (smartwords.org)

This handy word bank will help you find transition words when you're feeling stuck. It's grouped by the transition's function, whether that is to show agreement, opposition, condition, or consequence.

How to Write a Conclusion

"Parts of An Essay: Conclusions" (Brightstorm)

This module of a free online course explains how to conclude an academic essay. It suggests thinking about the "3Rs": return to hook, restate your thesis, and relate to the reader.

"Essay Conclusions" (Univ. of Maryland University College)

This overview of the academic essay conclusion contains helpful examples and links to further resources for writing good conclusions.

"How to End An Essay" (WikiHow)

This step-by-step guide (with pictures!) by an English Ph.D. walks you through writing a conclusion, from brainstorming to ending with a flourish.

"Ending the Essay: Conclusions" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This page collates useful strategies for writing an effective conclusion, and reminds you to "close the discussion without closing it off" to further conversation.

How to Include Sources and Citations

"Research and Citation Resources" (Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab)

Purdue OWL streamlines information about the three most common referencing styles (MLA, Chicago, and APA) and provides examples of how to cite different resources in each system.

EasyBib: Free Bibliography Generator

This online tool allows you to input information about your source and automatically generate citations in any style. Be sure to select your resource type before clicking the "cite it" button.

CitationMachine

Like EasyBib, this online tool allows you to input information about your source and automatically generate citations in any style. 

Modern Language Association Handbook (MLA)

Here, you'll find the definitive and up-to-date record of MLA referencing rules. Order through the link above, or check to see if your library has a copy.

Chicago Manual of Style

Here, you'll find the definitive and up-to-date record of Chicago referencing rules. You can take a look at the table of contents, then choose to subscribe or start a free trial.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

"What is Plagiarism?" (plagiarism.org)

This nonprofit website contains numerous resources for identifying and avoiding plagiarism, and reminds you that even common activities like copying images from another website to your own site may constitute plagiarism.

"Plagiarism" (University of Oxford)

This interactive page from the University of Oxford helps you check for plagiarism in your work, making it clear how to avoid citing another person's work without full acknowledgement.

"Avoiding Plagiarism" (MIT Comparative Media Studies)

This quick guide explains what plagiarism is, what its consequences are, and how to avoid it. It starts by defining three words—quotation, paraphrase, and summary—that all constitute citation.

"Harvard Guide to Using Sources" (Harvard Extension School)

This comprehensive website from Harvard brings together articles, videos, and handouts about referencing, citation, and plagiarism. 

Grammarly contains tons of helpful grammar and writing resources, including a free tool to automatically scan your essay to check for close affinities to published work. 

Noplag is another popular online tool that automatically scans your essay to check for signs of plagiarism. Simply copy and paste your essay into the box and click "start checking."

Once you've written your essay, you'll want to edit (improve content), proofread (check for spelling and grammar mistakes), and finalize your work until you're ready to hand it in. This section brings together tips and resources for navigating the editing process. 

"Writing a First Draft" (Academic Help)

This is an introduction to the drafting process from the site Academic Help, with tips for getting your ideas on paper before editing begins.

"Editing and Proofreading" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page provides general strategies for revising your writing. They've intentionally left seven errors in the handout, to give you practice in spotting them.

"How to Proofread Effectively" (ThoughtCo)

This article from ThoughtCo, along with those linked at the bottom, help describe common mistakes to check for when proofreading.

"7 Simple Edits That Make Your Writing 100% More Powerful" (SmartBlogger)

This blog post emphasizes the importance of powerful, concise language, and reminds you that even your personal writing heroes create clunky first drafts.

"Editing Tips for Effective Writing" (Univ. of Pennsylvania)

On this page from Penn's International Relations department, you'll find tips for effective prose, errors to watch out for, and reminders about formatting.

"Editing the Essay" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This article, the first of two parts, gives you applicable strategies for the editing process. It suggests reading your essay aloud, removing any jargon, and being unafraid to remove even "dazzling" sentences that don't belong.

"Guide to Editing and Proofreading" (Oxford Learning Institute)

This handout from Oxford covers the basics of editing and proofreading, and reminds you that neither task should be rushed. 

In addition to plagiarism-checkers, Grammarly has a plug-in for your web browser that checks your writing for common mistakes.

After you've prepared, written, and edited your essay, you might want to share it outside the classroom. This section alerts you to print and web opportunities to share your essays with the wider world, from online writing communities and blogs to published journals geared toward young writers.

Sharing Your Essays Online

Go Teen Writers

Go Teen Writers is an online community for writers aged 13 - 19. It was founded by Stephanie Morrill, an author of contemporary young adult novels. 

Tumblr is a blogging website where you can share your writing and interact with other writers online. It's easy to add photos, links, audio, and video components.

Writersky provides an online platform for publishing and reading other youth writers' work. Its current content is mostly devoted to fiction.

Publishing Your Essays Online

This teen literary journal publishes in print, on the web, and (more frequently), on a blog. It is committed to ensuring that "teens see their authentic experience reflected on its pages."

The Matador Review

This youth writing platform celebrates "alternative," unconventional writing. The link above will take you directly to the site's "submissions" page.

Teen Ink has a website, monthly newsprint magazine, and quarterly poetry magazine promoting the work of young writers.

The largest online reading platform, Wattpad enables you to publish your work and read others' work. Its inline commenting feature allows you to share thoughts as you read along.

Publishing Your Essays in Print

Canvas Teen Literary Journal

This quarterly literary magazine is published for young writers by young writers. They accept many kinds of writing, including essays.

The Claremont Review

This biannual international magazine, first published in 1992, publishes poetry, essays, and short stories from writers aged 13 - 19.

Skipping Stones

This young writers magazine, founded in 1988, celebrates themes relating to ecological and cultural diversity. It publishes poems, photos, articles, and stories.

The Telling Room

This nonprofit writing center based in Maine publishes children's work on their website and in book form. The link above directs you to the site's submissions page.

Essay Contests

Scholastic Arts and Writing Awards

This prestigious international writing contest for students in grades 7 - 12 has been committed to "supporting the future of creativity since 1923."

Society of Professional Journalists High School Essay Contest

An annual essay contest on the theme of journalism and media, the Society of Professional Journalists High School Essay Contest awards scholarships up to $1,000.

National YoungArts Foundation

Here, you'll find information on a government-sponsored writing competition for writers aged 15 - 18. The foundation welcomes submissions of creative nonfiction, novels, scripts, poetry, short story and spoken word.

Signet Classics Student Scholarship Essay Contest

With prompts on a different literary work each year, this competition from Signet Classics awards college scholarships up to $1,000.

"The Ultimate Guide to High School Essay Contests" (CollegeVine)

See this handy guide from CollegeVine for a list of more competitions you can enter with your academic essay, from the National Council of Teachers of English Achievement Awards to the National High School Essay Contest by the U.S. Institute of Peace.

Whether you're struggling to write academic essays or you think you're a pro, there are workshops and online tools that can help you become an even better writer. Even the most seasoned writers encounter writer's block, so be proactive and look through our curated list of resources to combat this common frustration.

Online Essay-writing Classes and Workshops

"Getting Started with Essay Writing" (Coursera)

Coursera offers lots of free, high-quality online classes taught by college professors. Here's one example, taught by instructors from the University of California Irvine.

"Writing and English" (Brightstorm)

Brightstorm's free video lectures are easy to navigate by topic. This unit on the parts of an essay features content on the essay hook, thesis, supporting evidence, and more.

"How to Write an Essay" (EdX)

EdX is another open online university course website with several two- to five-week courses on the essay. This one is geared toward English language learners.

Writer's Digest University

This renowned writers' website offers online workshops and interactive tutorials. The courses offered cover everything from how to get started through how to get published.

Writing.com

Signing up for this online writer's community gives you access to helpful resources as well as an international community of writers.

How to Overcome Writer's Block

"Symptoms and Cures for Writer's Block" (Purdue OWL)

Purdue OWL offers a list of signs you might have writer's block, along with ways to overcome it. Consider trying out some "invention strategies" or ways to curb writing anxiety.

"Overcoming Writer's Block: Three Tips" ( The Guardian )

These tips, geared toward academic writing specifically, are practical and effective. The authors advocate setting realistic goals, creating dedicated writing time, and participating in social writing.

"Writing Tips: Strategies for Overcoming Writer's Block" (Univ. of Illinois)

This page from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign's Center for Writing Studies acquaints you with strategies that do and do not work to overcome writer's block.

"Writer's Block" (Univ. of Toronto)

Ask yourself the questions on this page; if the answer is "yes," try out some of the article's strategies. Each question is accompanied by at least two possible solutions.

If you have essays to write but are short on ideas, this section's links to prompts, example student essays, and celebrated essays by professional writers might help. You'll find writing prompts from a variety of sources, student essays to inspire you, and a number of essay writing collections.

Essay Writing Prompts

"50 Argumentative Essay Topics" (ThoughtCo)

Take a look at this list and the others ThoughtCo has curated for different kinds of essays. As the author notes, "a number of these topics are controversial and that's the point."

"401 Prompts for Argumentative Writing" ( New York Times )

This list (and the linked lists to persuasive and narrative writing prompts), besides being impressive in length, is put together by actual high school English teachers.

"SAT Sample Essay Prompts" (College Board)

If you're a student in the U.S., your classroom essay prompts are likely modeled on the prompts in U.S. college entrance exams. Take a look at these official examples from the SAT.

"Popular College Application Essay Topics" (Princeton Review)

This page from the Princeton Review dissects recent Common Application essay topics and discusses strategies for answering them.

Example Student Essays

"501 Writing Prompts" (DePaul Univ.)

This nearly 200-page packet, compiled by the LearningExpress Skill Builder in Focus Writing Team, is stuffed with writing prompts, example essays, and commentary.

"Topics in English" (Kibin)

Kibin is a for-pay essay help website, but its example essays (organized by topic) are available for free. You'll find essays on everything from  A Christmas Carol  to perseverance.

"Student Writing Models" (Thoughtful Learning)

Thoughtful Learning, a website that offers a variety of teaching materials, provides sample student essays on various topics and organizes them by grade level.

"Five-Paragraph Essay" (ThoughtCo)

In this blog post by a former professor of English and rhetoric, ThoughtCo brings together examples of five-paragraph essays and commentary on the form.

The Best Essay Writing Collections

The Best American Essays of the Century by Joyce Carol Oates (Amazon)

This collection of American essays spanning the twentieth century was compiled by award winning author and Princeton professor Joyce Carol Oates.

The Best American Essays 2017 by Leslie Jamison (Amazon)

Leslie Jamison, the celebrated author of essay collection  The Empathy Exams , collects recent, high-profile essays into a single volume.

The Art of the Personal Essay by Phillip Lopate (Amazon)

Documentary writer Phillip Lopate curates this historical overview of the personal essay's development, from the classical era to the present.

The White Album by Joan Didion (Amazon)

This seminal essay collection was authored by one of the most acclaimed personal essayists of all time, American journalist Joan Didion.

Consider the Lobster by David Foster Wallace (Amazon)

Read this famous essay collection by David Foster Wallace, who is known for his experimentation with the essay form. He pushed the boundaries of personal essay, reportage, and political polemic.

"50 Successful Harvard Application Essays" (Staff of the The Harvard Crimson )

If you're looking for examples of exceptional college application essays, this volume from Harvard's daily student newspaper is one of the best collections on the market.

Are you an instructor looking for the best resources for teaching essay writing? This section contains resources for developing in-class activities and student homework assignments. You'll find content from both well-known university writing centers and online writing labs.

Essay Writing Classroom Activities for Students

"In-class Writing Exercises" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page lists exercises related to brainstorming, organizing, drafting, and revising. It also contains suggestions for how to implement the suggested exercises.

"Teaching with Writing" (Univ. of Minnesota Center for Writing)

Instructions and encouragement for using "freewriting," one-minute papers, logbooks, and other write-to-learn activities in the classroom can be found here.

"Writing Worksheets" (Berkeley Student Learning Center)

Berkeley offers this bank of writing worksheets to use in class. They are nested under headings for "Prewriting," "Revision," "Research Papers" and more.

"Using Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism" (DePaul University)

Use these activities and worksheets from DePaul's Teaching Commons when instructing students on proper academic citation practices.

Essay Writing Homework Activities for Students

"Grammar and Punctuation Exercises" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

These five interactive online activities allow students to practice editing and proofreading. They'll hone their skills in correcting comma splices and run-ons, identifying fragments, using correct pronoun agreement, and comma usage.

"Student Interactives" (Read Write Think)

Read Write Think hosts interactive tools, games, and videos for developing writing skills. They can practice organizing and summarizing, writing poetry, and developing lines of inquiry and analysis.

This free website offers writing and grammar activities for all grade levels. The lessons are designed to be used both for large classes and smaller groups.

"Writing Activities and Lessons for Every Grade" (Education World)

Education World's page on writing activities and lessons links you to more free, online resources for learning how to "W.R.I.T.E.": write, revise, inform, think, and edit.

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Academic Essay Writing Made Simple: 4 types and tips

The pen is mightier than the sword, they say, and nowhere is this more evident than in academia. From the quick scribbles of eager students to the inquisitive thoughts of renowned scholars, academic essays depict the power of the written word. These well-crafted writings propel ideas forward and expand the existing boundaries of human intellect.

What is an Academic Essay

An academic essay is a nonfictional piece of writing that analyzes and evaluates an argument around a specific topic or research question. It serves as a medium to share the author’s views and is also used by institutions to assess the critical thinking, research skills, and writing abilities of a students and researchers.  

Importance of Academic Essays

4 main types of academic essays.

While academic essays may vary in length, style, and purpose, they generally fall into four main categories. Despite their differences, these essay types share a common goal: to convey information, insights, and perspectives effectively.

1. Expository Essay

2. Descriptive Essay

3. Narrative Essay

4. Argumentative Essay

Expository and persuasive essays mainly deal with facts to explain ideas clearly. Narrative and descriptive essays are informal and have a creative edge. Despite their differences, these essay types share a common goal ― to convey information, insights, and perspectives effectively.

Expository Essays: Illuminating ideas

An expository essay is a type of academic writing that explains, illustrates, or clarifies a particular subject or idea. Its primary purpose is to inform the reader by presenting a comprehensive and objective analysis of a topic.

By breaking down complex topics into digestible pieces and providing relevant examples and explanations, expository essays allow writers to share their knowledge.

What are the Key Features of an Expository Essay

Provides factual information without bias

Presents multiple viewpoints while maintaining objectivity

Uses direct and concise language to ensure clarity for the reader

Composed of a logical structure with an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion

When is an expository essay written.

1. For academic assignments to evaluate the understanding of research skills.

2. As instructional content to provide step-by-step guidance for tasks or problem-solving.

3. In journalism for objective reporting in news or investigative pieces.

4. As a form of communication in the professional field to convey factual information in business or healthcare.

How to Write an Expository Essay

Expository essays are typically structured in a logical and organized manner.

1. Topic Selection and Research

• Choose a topic that can be explored objectively
• Gather relevant facts and information from credible sources
• Develop a clear thesis statement

2. Outline and Structure

• Create an outline with an introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion
• Introduce the topic and state the thesis in the introduction
• Dedicate each body paragraph to a specific point supporting the thesis
• Use transitions to maintain a logical flow

3. Objective and Informative Writing

• Maintain an impartial and informative tone
• Avoid personal opinions or biases
• Support points with factual evidence, examples, and explanations

4. Conclusion

• Summarize the key points
• Reinforce the significance of the thesis

Descriptive Essays: Painting with words

Descriptive essays transport readers into vivid scenes, allowing them to experience the world through the writer ‘s lens. These essays use rich sensory details, metaphors, and figurative language to create a vivid and immersive experience . Its primary purpose is to engage readers’ senses and imagination.

It allows writers to demonstrate their ability to observe and describe subjects with precision and creativity.

What are the Key Features of Descriptive Essay

Employs figurative language and imagery to paint a vivid picture for the reader

Demonstrates creativity and expressiveness in narration

Includes close attention to detail, engaging the reader’s senses

Engages the reader’s imagination and emotions through immersive storytelling using analogies, metaphors, similes, etc.

When is a descriptive essay written.

1. Personal narratives or memoirs that describe significant events, people, or places.

2. Travel writing to capture the essence of a destination or experience.

3. Character sketches in fiction writing to introduce and describe characters.

4. Poetry or literary analyses to explore the use of descriptive language and imagery.

How to Write a Descriptive Essay

The descriptive essay lacks a defined structural requirement but typically includes: an introduction introducing the subject, a thorough description, and a concluding summary with insightful reflection.

1. Subject Selection and Observation

• Choose a subject (person, place, object, or experience) to describe
• Gather sensory details and observations

2. Engaging Introduction

• Set the scene and provide the context
• Use of descriptive language and figurative techniques

3. Descriptive Body Paragraphs

• Focus on specific aspects or details of the subject
• Engage the reader ’s senses with vivid imagery and descriptions
• Maintain a consistent tone and viewpoint

4. Impactful Conclusion

• Provide a final impression or insight
• Leave a lasting impact on the reader

Narrative Essays: Storytelling in Action

Narrative essays are personal accounts that tell a story, often drawing from the writer’s own experiences or observations. These essays rely on a well-structured plot, character development, and vivid descriptions to engage readers and convey a deeper meaning or lesson.

What are the Key features of Narrative Essays

Written from a first-person perspective and hence subjective

Based on real personal experiences

Uses an informal and expressive tone

Presents events and characters in sequential order

When is a narrative essay written.

It is commonly assigned in high school and college writing courses to assess a student’s ability to convey a meaningful message or lesson through a personal narrative. They are written in situations where a personal experience or story needs to be recounted, such as:

1. Reflective essays on significant life events or personal growth.

2. Autobiographical writing to share one’s life story or experiences.

3. Creative writing exercises to practice narrative techniques and character development.

4. College application essays to showcase personal qualities and experiences.

How to Write a Narrative Essay

Narrative essays typically follow a chronological structure, with an introduction that sets the scene, a body that develops the plot and characters, and a conclusion that provides a sense of resolution or lesson learned.

1. Experience Selection and Reflection

• Choose a significant personal experience or event
• Reflect on the impact and deeper meaning

2. Immersive Introduction

• Introduce characters and establish the tone and point of view

3. Plotline and Character Development

• Advance   the  plot and character development through body paragraphs
• Incorporate dialog , conflict, and resolution
• Maintain a logical and chronological flow

4. Insightful Conclusion

• Reflect on lessons learned or insights gained
• Leave the reader with a lasting impression

Argumentative Essays: Persuasion and Critical Thinking

Argumentative essays are the quintessential form of academic writing in which writers present a clear thesis and support it with well-researched evidence and logical reasoning. These essays require a deep understanding of the topic, critical analysis of multiple perspectives, and the ability to construct a compelling argument.

What are the Key Features of an Argumentative Essay?

Logical and well-structured arguments

Credible and relevant evidence from reputable sources

Consideration and refutation of counterarguments

Critical analysis and evaluation of the issue 

When is an argumentative essay written.

Argumentative essays are written to present a clear argument or stance on a particular issue or topic. In academic settings they are used to develop critical thinking, research, and persuasive writing skills. However, argumentative essays can also be written in various other contexts, such as:

1. Opinion pieces or editorials in newspapers, magazines, or online publications.

2. Policy proposals or position papers in government, nonprofit, or advocacy settings.

3. Persuasive speeches or debates in academic, professional, or competitive environments.

4. Marketing or advertising materials to promote a product, service, or idea.

How to write an Argumentative Essay

Argumentative essays begin with an introduction that states the thesis and provides context. The body paragraphs develop the argument with evidence, address counterarguments, and use logical reasoning. The conclusion restates the main argument and makes a final persuasive appeal.

• Choose a debatable and controversial issue
• Conduct thorough research and gather evidence and counterarguments

2. Thesis and Introduction

• Craft a clear and concise thesis statement
• Provide background information and establish importance

3. Structured Body Paragraphs

• Focus each paragraph on a specific aspect of the argument
• Support with logical reasoning, factual evidence, and refutation

4. Persuasive Techniques

• Adopt a formal and objective tone
• Use persuasive techniques (rhetorical questions, analogies, appeals)

5. Impactful Conclusion

• Summarize the main points
• Leave the reader with a strong final impression and call to action

To learn more about argumentative essay, check out this article .

5 Quick Tips for Researchers to Improve Academic Essay Writing Skills

Use clear and concise language to convey ideas effectively without unnecessary words

Use well-researched, credible sources to substantiate your arguments with data, expert opinions, and scholarly references

Ensure a coherent structure with effective transitions, clear topic sentences, and a logical flow to enhance readability 

To elevate your academic essay, consider submitting your draft to a community-based platform like Open Platform  for editorial review 

Review your work multiple times for clarity, coherence, and adherence to academic guidelines to ensure a polished final product

By mastering the art of academic essay writing, researchers and scholars can effectively communicate their ideas, contribute to the advancement of knowledge, and engage in meaningful scholarly discourse.

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Types of Essays: A Comprehensive Guide to Writing Different Essay Types

When it comes to academic writing, essays are one of the most common assignments you will encounter. Essays are a way for you to showcase your understanding of a particular topic, and they come in various forms. Each type of essay has its unique characteristics, and it is essential to understand the differences between them to produce a well-written piece. In this article, we will explore the different types of essays you may encounter in your academic journey.

Types of Essays: Your Ultimate Guide to Essay Writing

Understanding Essays

Definition of essay.

An essay is a piece of writing that presents an argument or a point of view on a particular topic. It is a formal piece of writing that is usually written in the third person and is structured into paragraphs. Essays can be written on a variety of topics, ranging from literature to science, and can be of different lengths. They are often used in academic settings to assess a student’s understanding of a particular subject.

Purpose of Essay

The purpose of an essay is to persuade the reader to accept the writer’s point of view. Essays can be used to argue for or against a particular position, to explain a concept, or to analyze a text. The writer must provide evidence to support their argument and must use persuasive language to convince the reader of their position.

There are four main types of essays: argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive. Each type of essay has its own unique characteristics and is written for a different purpose. Understanding the different types of essays is essential for writing a successful essay.

Types of Essays

Narrative essay.

A narrative essay is a type of essay that tells a story. It is often written in the first person point of view, and it can be either fictional or non-fictional. This type of essay allows you to express yourself in a creative and personal way.

When writing a narrative essay, it is important to have a clear and concise thesis statement that sets the tone for the rest of the essay. The thesis statement should be specific and should reflect the main point of the essay. It should also be interesting and engaging to the reader.

One of the key elements of a successful narrative essay is the use of vivid and descriptive language. This helps to create a clear picture in the reader’s mind and makes the story more engaging. Additionally, it is important to use dialogue to bring the characters to life and to show their emotions and personalities.

Another important aspect of a narrative essay is the structure. It should have a clear beginning, middle, and end, and the events should be presented in chronological order. This helps the reader to follow the story and understand the sequence of events.

Descriptive Essay

In a descriptive essay, you are required to describe something, such as an event, a person, a place, a situation, or an object. The primary objective of a descriptive essay is to provide a detailed and vivid description of the topic. By using sensory details, such as sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste, you can create a picture in the reader’s mind and make them feel as if they are experiencing the topic themselves.

When writing a descriptive essay, it is important to choose a topic that you are familiar with and have a personal connection to. This will help you to convey your emotions and feelings effectively and make your essay more engaging and interesting to the reader.

To write a successful descriptive essay, you should follow these steps:

• Choose a topic that you are passionate about and have a personal connection to.
• Brainstorm and create an outline of your essay, including the main points you want to cover and the sensory details you will use.
• Use sensory details to create a vivid and engaging picture in the reader’s mind.
• Use figurative language, such as metaphors and similes, to add depth and complexity to your descriptions.
• Use transitions to connect your ideas and create a smooth flow of information.
• Revise and edit your essay to ensure that it is well-structured, organized, and error-free.

Expository Essay

An expository essay is a type of academic writing that aims to explain, describe, or inform the reader about a particular subject. This type of essay is based on facts, evidence, and examples, and it does not require the writer’s personal opinion or feelings. Expository essays can be written in various styles, including compare and contrast, cause and effect, and problem and solution.

Compare and Contrast Essay

A compare and contrast essay is a type of expository writing that involves comparing and contrasting two or more subjects. This type of essay aims to provide the reader with a better understanding of the similarities and differences between the subjects being compared. To write a successful compare and contrast essay, you need to identify the similarities and differences between the subjects, organize your ideas, and provide supporting evidence.

Cause and Effect Essay

A cause and effect essay is a type of expository writing that explores the causes and consequences of a particular event, situation, or phenomenon. This type of essay aims to explain the reasons behind a particular occurrence and its effects on individuals, society, or the environment. To write a successful cause and effect essay, you need to identify the causes and effects of the subject, organize your ideas, and provide supporting evidence.

Problem and Solution Essay

A problem and solution essay is a type of expository writing that focuses on a particular problem and proposes a solution to it. This type of essay aims to inform the reader about a particular issue and provide a viable solution to it. To write a successful problem and solution essay, you need to identify the problem, explain its causes, propose a solution, and provide supporting evidence.

Persuasive Essay

A persuasive essay is a type of academic writing that aims to persuade the reader to accept the writer’s point of view. In this type of essay, the writer presents their argument and supports it with evidence and reasoning to convince the reader to take action or believe in a particular idea.

To write a persuasive essay, you must first choose a topic that you are passionate about and can argue convincingly. Then, you need to research the topic thoroughly and gather evidence to support your argument. You should also consider the opposing viewpoint and address it in your essay to strengthen your argument.

The structure of a persuasive essay is similar to that of other types of essays. It consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. In the introduction, you should grab the reader’s attention and clearly state your thesis statement. The body paragraphs should present your argument and evidence, and the conclusion should summarize your argument and restate your thesis statement.

To make your persuasive essay more effective, you can use various persuasive writing strategies, such as appealing to the reader’s emotions, using rhetorical questions, and using vivid language. You can also use statistics, facts, and examples to support your argument and make it more convincing.

Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay that requires you to present a well-researched and evidence-based argument on a particular topic. The aim of this essay is to convince the reader of your stance on the topic by using logical reasoning and factual evidence.

To write an effective argumentative essay, it is important to have a clear and concise thesis statement that presents your position on the topic. This statement should be supported by strong evidence, such as quotations, statistics, and expert opinions. It is also important to consider and address potential counterarguments to your position.

One key aspect of an argumentative essay is the use of logical fallacies. These are errors in reasoning that can weaken your argument and make it less convincing. Some common logical fallacies include ad hominem attacks, false dichotomies, and straw man arguments. It is important to avoid these fallacies and instead rely on sound reasoning and evidence to support your argument.

When writing an argumentative essay, it is also important to consider your audience. Your tone and language should be appropriate for your intended audience, and you should anticipate and address any potential objections or concerns they may have about your argument.

Analytical Essay

An analytical essay is a type of academic writing that involves breaking down a complex topic or idea into smaller parts to examine it thoroughly. The purpose of this essay is to provide a detailed analysis of a particular subject and to present an argument based on the evidence gathered during the research.

When writing an analytical essay, it is crucial to have a clear thesis statement that outlines the main argument of the essay. The thesis statement should be specific and concise, and it should be supported by evidence from primary and secondary sources.

To write an effective analytical essay, you should follow these steps:

• Choose a topic that interests you and that you can research thoroughly.
• Conduct research to gather relevant information and evidence to support your thesis statement.
• Create an outline to organize your ideas and arguments.
• Write an introduction that provides background information on the topic and presents your thesis statement.
• Develop body paragraphs that provide evidence to support your thesis statement.
• Write a conclusion that summarizes your main points and restates your thesis statement.

When writing an analytical essay, it is important to focus on the analysis rather than just summarizing the information. You should critically evaluate the evidence and present your own interpretation of the data.

Critical Essay

A critical essay is a type of academic writing that involves analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating a text. In a critical essay, you must make a claim about how particular ideas or themes are conveyed in a text, and then support that claim with evidence from primary and/or secondary sources.

To write a successful critical essay, you must first read the text carefully and take notes on its main ideas and themes. You should also consider the author’s purpose and audience, as well as any historical or cultural context that may be relevant to the text.

When writing your critical essay, you should follow a clear and logical structure. Begin with an introduction that provides background information on the text and your thesis statement. In the body of your essay, you should provide evidence to support your thesis, using quotes and examples from the text as well as other sources.

It is important to be critical in your analysis, examining the text in detail and considering its strengths and weaknesses. You should also consider alternative interpretations and counterarguments, and address them in your essay.

Reflective Essay

A reflective essay is a type of academic essay that requires you to analyze and interpret an academic text, such as an essay, a book, or an article. Unlike a personal experience essay, a reflective essay involves critical thinking and evaluation of the material.

In a reflective essay, you are expected to reflect on your own learning and experiences related to the material. This type of essay requires you to think deeply about the material and analyze how it relates to your own experiences and knowledge.

To write a successful reflective essay, you should follow these steps:

• Choose a topic that is relevant to the material you are reflecting on.
• Analyze the material and identify key themes and concepts.
• Reflect on your own experiences and knowledge related to the material.
• Evaluate and analyze the material and your own experiences to draw conclusions and insights.
• Write a clear and concise essay that effectively communicates your reflections and insights.

Remember that a reflective essay is not just a summary of the material, but rather an analysis and evaluation of it. Use examples and evidence to support your reflections and insights, and be sure to use proper citation and referencing to acknowledge the sources of your information.

Personal Essay

A personal essay is a type of essay that involves telling a story about yourself, your experiences, or your feelings. It is often written in the first person point of view and can be a powerful way to share your unique perspective with others.

Personal essays can be used for a variety of purposes, such as college admissions, scholarship applications, or simply to share your thoughts and experiences with a wider audience. They can cover a wide range of topics, from personal struggles and triumphs to reflections on important life events.

When writing a personal essay, it is important to keep in mind that you are telling a story. This means that you should focus on creating a narrative that is engaging and compelling for your readers. You should also be honest and authentic in your writing, sharing your true thoughts and feelings with your audience.

To make your personal essay even more effective, consider incorporating descriptive language, vivid imagery, and sensory details. This can help bring your story to life and make it more memorable for your readers.

Synthesis Essay

A synthesis essay is a type of essay that requires you to combine information from multiple sources to create a cohesive argument. This type of essay is often used in academic writing and requires you to analyze, interpret, and evaluate information from various sources to support your thesis statement.

There are two main types of synthesis essays: explanatory and argumentative. An explanatory synthesis essay aims to explain a particular topic or issue by using different sources to provide a comprehensive overview. On the other hand, an argumentative synthesis essay requires you to take a stance on a particular issue and use evidence from multiple sources to support your argument.

When writing a synthesis essay, it is important to carefully analyze and interpret each source to ensure that the information you are using is relevant and accurate. You should also consider the credibility of each source and evaluate the author’s bias or perspective.

To effectively write a synthesis essay, you should follow a clear structure that includes an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction should provide background information on the topic and include a clear thesis statement. The body paragraphs should each focus on a specific aspect of the topic and provide evidence from multiple sources to support your argument. The conclusion should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement.

Review Essay

A review essay is a type of academic writing that involves analyzing and evaluating a piece of work, such as a book, movie, or article. This type of essay requires you to provide a critical assessment of the work, highlighting its strengths and weaknesses. A successful review essay should provide the reader with a clear understanding of the work being reviewed and your opinion of it.

When writing a review essay, it is important to keep in mind the following guidelines:

• Length: A review essay should be between 1,000 and 1,500 words. This length allows for a thorough analysis of the text without becoming bogged down in details. Of course, the specific length will vary depending on the nature of the text being reviewed and the desired focus of the essay.
• Structure: A review essay should follow a clear and logical structure. Start with an introduction that provides some background information on the work being reviewed and your thesis statement. The body of the essay should provide a summary of the work and a critical analysis of its strengths and weaknesses. Finally, end with a conclusion that summarizes your main points and provides your final thoughts on the work.
• Evidence: A successful review essay should be supported by evidence from the work being reviewed. This can include direct quotes or paraphrases, as well as examples that illustrate your points.
• Critical Thinking: A review essay requires you to engage in critical thinking. This means that you must evaluate the work being reviewed in a thoughtful and analytical manner, considering both its strengths and weaknesses.

Research Essay

When it comes to writing a research essay, you must conduct in-depth independent research and provide analysis, interpretation, and argument based on your findings. This type of essay requires extensive research, critical thinking, source evaluation, organization, and composition.

To write a successful research essay, you must follow a specific structure. Here are some key components to include:

Introduction

The introduction should provide a brief overview of your research topic and state your thesis statement. Your thesis statement should clearly state your argument and the main points you will cover in your essay.

Literature Review

The literature review is a critical analysis of the existing research on your topic. It should provide a summary of the relevant literature, identify gaps in the research, and highlight the significance of your study.

Methodology

The methodology section should describe the methods you used to conduct your research. This may include data collection methods, sample size, and any limitations of your study.

The results section should present your findings in a clear and concise manner. You may use tables, graphs, or other visual aids to help convey your results.

The discussion section should interpret your results and provide a critical analysis of your findings. You should also discuss the implications of your research and how it contributes to the existing literature on your topic.

The conclusion should summarize your main findings and restate your thesis statement. You should also discuss the limitations of your study and suggest avenues for future research.

Report Essay

A report essay is a type of essay that presents and summarizes factual information about a particular topic, event, or issue. The purpose of a report essay is to provide readers with a clear and concise understanding of the subject matter. It is important to note that a report essay is not an opinion piece, but rather a neutral presentation of facts.

When writing a report essay, it is important to follow a structured format. The typical format includes an introduction, body, and conclusion. The introduction should provide background information on the topic and state the purpose of the report. The body should present the facts in a logical and organized manner, using headings and subheadings to help readers navigate the information. The conclusion should summarize the key findings and provide any recommendations or conclusions.

One of the key elements of a report essay is research. It is essential to conduct thorough research on the topic to ensure that the information presented is accurate and reliable. This may involve reviewing academic articles, government reports, and other sources of information. It is also important to cite all sources used in the report essay using a recognized citation style, such as APA or MLA.

Informal Essay

An informal essay, also known as a familiar or personal essay, is a type of essay that is written in a personal tone and style. This type of essay is often written as a reflection or commentary on a personal experience, opinion, or observation. Informal essays are usually shorter than formal essays and are often written in a conversational style.

In an informal essay, you are free to use first-person pronouns and to express your personal opinions and feelings. However, you should still strive to maintain a clear and concise writing style and to support your arguments with evidence and examples.

Informal essays can take many forms, including personal narratives, anecdotes, and reflections on current events or social issues. They can also be humorous or satirical in nature, and may include elements of fiction or creative writing.

When writing an informal essay, it is important to keep your audience in mind and to use language and examples that will be familiar and relatable to them. You should also be aware of your tone and style, and strive to create a voice that is engaging and authentic.

Short Essay

When it comes to writing a short essay, it is essential to convey your thoughts and ideas in a concise and clear manner. Short essays are usually assigned in the range of 250-750 words, and occasionally up to 1,000 words. Therefore, it is important to focus on the most important elements of your topic.

To write a successful short essay, you should start by selecting a topic that is interesting and relevant. Once you have chosen your topic, you should conduct thorough research to gather evidence and support for your argument. This will help you to develop a clear and concise thesis statement.

When writing your short essay, it is important to structure your ideas in a logical and coherent manner. You should start with an introduction that provides background information and a clear thesis statement. The body of your essay should be structured around your main points, with each paragraph focusing on a specific idea or argument. Finally, you should conclude your essay by summarizing your main points and restating your thesis statement.

To make your short essay more engaging and impactful, you may want to consider using bullet points, tables, and other formatting techniques to convey your ideas more clearly. Additionally, you should use strong and clear language, avoiding jargon and unnecessary words.

When it comes to academic writing, a long essay is a common type of assignment that you may encounter. This type of essay typically requires you to conduct extensive research and analysis on a specific topic.

The length of a long essay can vary depending on the assignment requirements, but it is usually longer than a standard essay. In general, a long essay can range from 2,500 to 5,000 words or more.

To write a successful long essay, it is important to have a clear understanding of the topic and to conduct thorough research. This may involve reading academic articles, books, and other sources to gather information and support your arguments.

In addition to research, a long essay should also have a clear and well-structured argument. This may involve outlining your main points and supporting evidence, as well as addressing any counterarguments or potential weaknesses in your argument.

Overall, a long essay requires a significant amount of time and effort to complete. However, by following a clear structure and conducting thorough research, you can produce a well-written and persuasive essay that meets the requirements of your assignment.

Some tips for writing a successful long essay include:

• Start early to give yourself enough time to research and write
• Break down the assignment into manageable sections
• Use clear and concise language
• Provide sufficient evidence to support your arguments
• Use proper citation and referencing to avoid plagiarism

Five Paragraph Essay

If you are a student, you have likely been assigned a five-paragraph essay at some point. This type of essay is commonly used in high school and college writing classes. The five-paragraph essay is a structured format that consists of an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

The introduction paragraph is where you present your thesis statement, which is the main idea or argument that you will discuss in your essay. This paragraph should grab the reader’s attention and provide some background information about the topic. It should also include a clear thesis statement that outlines what you will be discussing in the essay.

The three body paragraphs are where you provide evidence to support your thesis statement. Each paragraph should focus on a single point that supports your thesis. You should use specific examples and evidence to back up your claims. Each paragraph should also include a transition sentence that connects it to the next paragraph.

The conclusion paragraph is where you wrap up your essay and restate your thesis statement. This paragraph should summarize the main points of your essay and leave the reader with a clear understanding of your argument. You should avoid introducing any new information in the conclusion paragraph.

Scholarship Essay

A scholarship essay is a crucial document that can help you secure financial aid for your academic pursuits. It is a written statement that highlights your qualifications, accomplishments, and goals. Scholarship essays are typically required by organizations that offer scholarships to students. The essay is meant to help the organization understand why you are deserving of the scholarship and how it will help you achieve your academic and career goals.

To write an effective scholarship essay, it is important to understand the prompt and the organization offering the scholarship. Many scholarship essay prompts are open-ended, which means that you can write about any topic that is relevant to you. However, it is important to ensure that your essay is aligned with the values and goals of the scholarship organization.

When writing a scholarship essay, it is important to be concise and clear. Use simple language and avoid jargon or technical terms that the reader may not understand. Make sure that your essay is well-structured and organized, with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. Use headings and subheadings to make your essay easy to read and navigate.

To make your scholarship essay stand out, use specific examples and anecdotes that demonstrate your qualifications and accomplishments. Use concrete details and avoid generalizations. Be honest and authentic, and avoid exaggerating or making false claims. Finally, proofread your essay carefully to ensure that it is free of errors and typos.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the different types of academic essays?

There are four main types of academic essays: argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive. Each type has its own unique purpose and structure, and it’s important to understand the differences between them in order to write effectively.

What are the parts of a standard essay?

A standard essay typically consists of three main parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction should provide background information on the topic and include a thesis statement that outlines the main argument of the essay. The body should present evidence and support for the thesis statement, and the conclusion should summarize the main points and restate the thesis in a new way.

Can you provide examples of different types of essays?

Sure, here are some examples of each type of essay:

• Argumentative: An essay that presents a clear argument on a controversial topic, such as gun control or abortion.
• Expository: An essay that explains or describes a topic, such as how to bake a cake or the history of the Civil War.
• Narrative: An essay that tells a story, such as a personal experience or a fictional tale.
• Descriptive: An essay that uses sensory details to paint a picture of a person, place, or thing, such as a description of a sunset or a character in a novel.

How do you write a narrative essay?

To write a narrative essay, you should first choose a topic that is meaningful to you and has a clear beginning, middle, and end. Then, you should use descriptive language and sensory details to bring the story to life for the reader. Finally, you should reflect on the experience and what you learned from it.

What are the four main types of essays?

The four main types of essays are argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive. Each type has its own unique purpose and structure, and it’s important to understand the differences between them in order to write effectively.

What are the three parts of the essay format?

The three parts of the essay format are the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. The introduction should provide background information on the topic and include a thesis statement that outlines the main argument of the essay. The body should present evidence and support for the thesis statement, and the conclusion should summarize the main points and restate the thesis in a new way.

Last Updated on August 31, 2023

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Essay Writing Guide

Types Of Essay

Explore Different Types of Essays, their Purpose, and Sub-types

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Are you a college or high school student ready to start on a journey through the fascinating world of essay writing ? Brace yourself because you'll encounter a variety of essay types that will challenge your writing skills and creativity.

Picture this: You're handed an assignment, a blank canvas on which to express your thoughts and ideas. But here's the catch – your teacher won't always specify the type of essay you should craft. It's up to you to solve the riddle hidden within the assignment question.

But fear not! 

In this blog, we'll discuss the four most common types of essays you're likely to encounter during your academic years. While these essays may share a common foundation and structure, each possesses its own unique characteristics. Let’s get started!

• 1. Major Types of Essays In Academic Writing
• 2. Argumentative Essay
• 3. Descriptive Essay
• 4. Expository Essay
• 5. Narrative Essay
• 6. Other Essay Types

Major Types of Essays In Academic Writing

When it comes to academic writing, understanding the different types of essays is essential. Each type serves a distinct purpose and requires a specific approach. Let's explore these essay types along with their descriptions and example prompts in the table below:

Understanding these major types of essays and the skills they assess will empower you to approach your academic writing with confidence. Depending on your assignment's requirements, you'll be better equipped to choose the appropriate essay type and showcase your writing abilities effectively. 

Each type offers a unique opportunity for you to express your ideas, and arguments and perfect your specific writing skills.

Here are the key types of essay formats explained in detail, along with examples to enhance your understanding.

Paper Due? Why Suffer? That's our Job!

Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is an essay type that presents a well-structured argument supported by evidence and reasoning. The primary goal is to engage the reader in a discussion, provide evidence, and logically demonstrate why a particular viewpoint is more valid.

In simple words, the writer must provide evidence and remain consistent in their stance. While argumentative essays present both sides of an issue, they strongly support one perspective. 

Characteristics of Argumentative Essay

• Clear Thesis: It should have a clear thesis statement to state the writer's position.
• Balanced Presentation: An argumentative essay addresses opposing views.
• Evidence: It relies on credible and relevant evidence.
• Logical Reasoning: The essay presents arguments coherently and logically.
• Persuasive Techniques: It uses persuasive techniques like ethos, pathos, and logos effectively.
• Introduction: The introduction introduces the topic and thesis, engaging the reader's interest.
• Body: The body paragraphs present arguments with supporting evidence.
• Counterargument: It addresses opposing viewpoints and refutes them.
• Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes key points and reinforces the thesis, leaving a strong impression.

Argumentative Essay Example

Before beginning the writing process, it is better to go through some expertly crafted argumentative essay examples . This approach enables you to grasp the argumentative essay outline and writing style more effectively.

Descriptive Essay

A descriptive essay is a form of writing that aims to immerse readers in a sensory-rich experience. Unlike informational or persuasive essays, its primary goal is to vividly depict a person, place, object, event, or experience.   The descriptive essay must evoke the senses and emotions of the reader. In simple terms, the reader should see what you saw and feel what you felt. To make it better, you can use several literary devices such as;

• Alliteration

All of them help in making the experience and your essay better.

Key Characteristics 

• Sensory Detail: Descriptive essays appeal to the five senses to create a multisensory experience.
• Vivid Imagery: They use figurative language and descriptive adjectives to bring the narrative to life.
• Emotional Connection: These essays often aim to establish an emotional bond between the reader and the subject.
• Structured Approach: They typically follow an introduction-body-conclusion structure.
• Introduction: Introduces the subject and purpose, sometimes with a thesis statement.
• Body Paragraphs: Focus on specific aspects or details using sensory language and vivid descriptions.
• Conclusion: Summarizes the central theme and leaves a lasting impression.

Descriptive Essay Example

Creating a perfect descriptive essay for an assignment is not difficult if you go through some expert descriptive essay examples first. 

Need more examples? Read our Descriptive Essay Examples and Writing Tips blog to get inspired!

Expository Essay

An expository essay is a type of writing that provides clear and objective explanations of a topic without expressing personal opinions. It aims to inform and educate by presenting factual information and analysis.

Therefore, it is important that you make a focused outline and stick to it throughout the process. 

An expository essay incorporates a wide array of essays such as:

• Cause and effect essays
• Process essays
• Analytical essays
• Compare and contrast essays

Key Characteristics

• Objective Presentation: Expository writing maintains an impartial tone, avoiding personal biases.
• Informativeness: They focus on explaining complex ideas or processes in a straightforward manner.
• Structured: These essays follow a clear structure with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Use of Evidence: They rely on credible evidence, facts, and examples to support the topic.
• Introduction: Introduces the topic and often includes a thesis statement.
• Body Paragraphs: Each paragraph focuses on a specific aspect and provides explanations and evidence.
• Conclusion: Restates the main idea and summarizes key points.

Expository Essay Example

Looking for more sample essays? Check out our Expository Essay Examples blog and take inspiration from a range of expository essays!

Narrative Essay

A narrative essay is a type of academic writing that tells a story or recounts a personal experience. Unlike other essays, its primary purpose is to engage and entertain the reader through storytelling.

• Narrative Structure: Follows a chronological sequence with an introduction, body, climax, and conclusion.
• First-Person Perspective: Typically written from the first-person point of view (e.g., "I" and "we") , sharing personal experiences and emotions.
• Vivid Description: Relies on descriptive language and imagery to create a clear picture of events, characters, and settings.
• Emotional Connection: Aims to establish an emotional bond with the reader by conveying the writer's thoughts and feelings.
• Introduction: Sets the stage and introduces the central theme or problem.
• Body: Presents events or experiences in chronological order with sensory details.
• Climax: Often includes a central event or turning point.
• Conclusion: Reflects on the narrative, offering insights, lessons, or resolution.

Narrative Essay Example

Wondering how to get your story into an interesting narrative? Learn the best way to write a perfect narrative essay with the help of expert narrative essay examples. 

For more examples visit our blog on narrative essay examples .

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Other Essay Types

In addition to the major types of essays discussed earlier, there are several other specialized types that cater to specific audiences. These essays provide diverse avenues for writers to communicate their ideas effectively. 

We will go through these essay types here.

Persuasive Essay

A persuasive essay is another type of academic essay. In this essay type, the writer utilizes logic and reasoning to show one’s idea is more convincing than another idea. 

In writing a persuasive essay, the main aim is to persuade the reader to accept a certain point of view. The presented argument or claim must use solid evidence and sound reasoning by stating facts, examples, and quotes. 

Persuasive Essay Example

Since persuasive essays are the most common type of essay, it is essential to get familiar with their writing style. For that, here is an interesting persuasive essay example that you can explore for your better understanding. 

Read our persuasive essay examples blog for more samples!

Analytical Essay

An analytical essay is a type of academic essay in which the writer analyzes a topic bit by bit. Writing an analytical essay is not about convincing readers of your point of view. But wanting readers to agree with what you have written. 

So, there is no need to use strong persuasive language in an analytical essay. Rather you should aim to provide enough analysis to make sure your argument is clear to the readers. 

Analytical Essay Example

Let’s take a look at a sample analytical essay: 

Read our analytical essay examples blog if you are looking for more sample essays!

Reflective Essay

A reflective essay type of essay requires you to examine your personal experiences through self-reflection. In the process of writing a reflective essay, you provide insight into what you have gained from those experiences. 

What makes reflective essays different from other essay types is the fact that it examine the past experience from the present. Reflective essays take the reader through a journey of self-growth. 

Reflective Essay Example

The following reflective essay example will help you get a clear idea of how to structure your analytical essay. 

Rhetorical Analysis Essay

It is a form of a textual analysis essay in which the student examines and analyzes a persuasive text. It is like an essay, speech, or visual art and analyzes the rhetorical devices used in it. Writing a rhetorical analysis essay is different from writing other essays because it will be more than adding facts only.

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example

Here is a rhetorical analysis essay example that will help you learn better. 

Check out our rhetorical analysis essay examples blog for more samples!

Literary Analysis Essay

A literary analysis essay is based on close reading and analysis of a work of literature like poetry and novel. It identifies different literary factors like themes, setting,  characters, setting, and the kind of language used in it. A literary analysis essay has the same 5 paragraphs as any other essay but the main subject and topic are different.

Literary Analysis Essay Example

Need help with your literary analysis essay? Below is a sample essay to help you understand better.

Summing it Up! Now you know what are the different types of essays in academic writing that you are most likely to get assigned. However, if you still find it difficult to compose your essay, leave your piece of writing to our experts. 

Whether you need an argumentative essay, narrative essay,  descriptive essay, or expository essay we are here to help. Our expertise extends to all types of essays, ensuring that your academic writing needs are met with precision and excellence.

Request essay help today and let our experts assist you in writing A+ grade essays within your specified timeline! 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the most important element in any essay.

A thesis statement is the most important part of any essay. Other than the research itself, the thesis statement is the most important part of an essay or research paper. A thesis statement summarizes the main point and essence of the argument.

What type of essay is most common at university?

Usually, university students get argumentative kinds of essays. No matter what kind of essay you write, you will need to develop an argument.

Here are some kinds of essays and the kind of arguments added to them. 

• Analysis and interpretation of literary texts are discussed in literary analysis essays. 
• The importance of a particular event or theory is analyzed in a history argumentative essay. 
• A political theory is examined in a political argumentative essay. 

Besides, there are a number of different kinds of argumentative and analysis essays.

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Your Best College Essay

Maybe you love to write, or maybe you don’t. Either way, there’s a chance that the thought of writing your college essay is making you sweat. No need for nerves! We’re here to give you the important details on how to make the process as anxiety-free as possible.

What's the College Essay?

When we say “The College Essay” (capitalization for emphasis – say it out loud with the capitals and you’ll know what we mean) we’re talking about the 550-650 word essay required by most colleges and universities. Prompts for this essay can be found on the college’s website, the Common Application, or the Coalition Application. We’re not talking about the many smaller supplemental essays you might need to write in order to apply to college. Not all institutions require the essay, but most colleges and universities that are at least semi-selective do.

How do I get started?

Look for the prompts on whatever application you’re using to apply to schools (almost all of the time – with a few notable exceptions – this is the Common Application). If one of them calls out to you, awesome! You can jump right in and start to brainstorm. If none of them are giving you the right vibes, don’t worry. They’re so broad that almost anything you write can fit into one of the prompts after you’re done. Working backwards like this is totally fine and can be really useful!

What if I have writer's block?

You aren’t alone. Staring at a blank Google Doc and thinking about how this is the one chance to tell an admissions officer your story can make you freeze. Thinking about some of these questions might help you find the right topic:

• What is something about you that people have pointed out as distinctive?
• If you had to pick three words to describe yourself, what would they be? What are things you’ve done that demonstrate these qualities?
• What’s something about you that has changed over your years in high school? How or why did it change?
• What’s something you like most about yourself?
• What’s something you love so much that you lose track of the rest of the world while you do it?

If you’re still stuck on a topic, ask your family members, friends, or other trusted adults: what’s something they always think about when they think about you? What’s something they think you should be proud of? They might help you find something about yourself that you wouldn’t have surfaced on your own.  

How do I grab my reader's attention?

It’s no secret that admissions officers are reading dozens – and sometimes hundreds – of essays every day. That can feel like a lot of pressure to stand out. But if you try to write the most unique essay in the world, it might end up seeming forced if it’s not genuinely you. So, what’s there to do? Our advice: start your essay with a story. Tell the reader about something you’ve done, complete with sensory details, and maybe even dialogue. Then, in the second paragraph, back up and tell us why this story is important and what it tells them about you and the theme of the essay.

THE WORD LIMIT IS SO LIMITING. HOW DO I TELL A COLLEGE MY WHOLE LIFE STORY IN 650 WORDS?

Don’t! Don’t try to tell an admissions officer about everything you’ve loved and done since you were a child. Instead, pick one or two things about yourself that you’re hoping to get across and stick to those. They’ll see the rest on the activities section of your application.

I'M STUCK ON THE CONCLUSION. HELP?

If you can’t think of another way to end the essay, talk about how the qualities you’ve discussed in your essays have prepared you for college. Try to wrap up with a sentence that refers back to the story you told in your first paragraph, if you took that route.

SHOULD I PROOFREAD MY ESSAY?

YES, proofread the essay, and have a trusted adult proofread it as well. Know that any suggestions they give you are coming from a good place, but make sure they aren’t writing your essay for you or putting it into their own voice. Admissions officers want to hear the voice of you, the applicant. Before you submit your essay anywhere, our number one advice is to read it out loud to yourself. When you read out loud you’ll catch small errors you may not have noticed before, and hear sentences that aren’t quite right.

ANY OTHER ADVICE?

Be yourself. If you’re not a naturally serious person, don’t force formality. If you’re the comedian in your friend group, go ahead and be funny. But ultimately, write as your authentic (and grammatically correct) self and trust the process.

And remember, thousands of other students your age are faced with this same essay writing task, right now. You can do it!

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Types of Essay in TOEFL: Important Things to Know

The TOEFL exam contains various essay types that students should familiarize themselves with. Within the essay section, there are primarily two types of tasks: independent writing and integrated writing. The integrated writing task involves reading a passage and listening to an audio, which may aid in elucidating or supplementing the text.

Conversely, the independent writing task entails expressing one’s opinions, highlighting specific facts, or taking a particular stance. Continue reading to delve deeper into the types of essays in TOEFL and access sample essays. Let us learn more!

Types of Essay in TOEFL

Types of Essays on the TOEFL

Various online resources offer samples of essays along with their solutions, catering to the four primary essay types found in the TOEFL exam.

These categories include essays for building arguments, disagreeing/agreeing on something, providing an explanation, or stating a preference. The selection of essay type depends on the specific question given to the test-taker. Typically, the independent writing section mandates a minimum word count of 300-350 words. Here, we outline some essay styles along with questions.

Type 1: Agree/Disagree Essays

Question : Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? The widespread usage of the internet has a positive impact on modern life.

Question : Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? When conducting research, it is always preferable to utilize articles, books, and other printed materials over internet resources. Provide examples and reasons to support your answer.

Type 2: Multiple Choice Essays

Question 1: What is the most ideal type of neighbor for an individual? Options provided:

• A neighbor who is amicable and provides assistance.
• A neighbor who is easygoing.
• A neighbor who shares similar preferences, habits, and lifestyle.

Question 2: What is the optimal strategy for addressing a problem? Options offered:

• Conducting thorough research and gathering information about the problem.
• Seeking guidance from someone experienced.
• Taking a break to rejuvenate, reflect, and contemplate on the issue.

Type 3: Paired Choice Essays

Question: Some students prefer traditional offline classes with face-to-face interactions between instructors and peers, while others advocate for online classes with limited discussions. Which option do you prefer? Support your answer with specific examples and reasoning.

Question : Some individuals favor solo travel for the freedom it provides, while others opt to travel with companions. Which do you prefer? Provide examples and instances to justify your choice.

Type 4: Good Idea Essays

Question : The administration of an institution is reallocating its financial resources, opting to prioritize the enhancement of sports facilities while reducing investments in campus libraries. Do you consider this decision to be advantageous? State your stance with examples and reasoning.

Question : Many residents welcome the establishment of shopping malls near their homes for convenient access to amenities. However, some oppose such developments, citing concerns about noise, traffic congestion, and environmental impact. Would you support or oppose the opening of a shopping mall in your locality? Justify your position with specific reasons and examples.

Sample Essay

Question: “some people believe that it is better to live in a small town, while others think that life in a big city is more advantageous. discuss the advantages and disadvantages of living in a small town versus living in a big city. use specific examples and reasons to support your answer.”.

Living in a Small Town vs. Living in a Big City: Exploring the Pros and Cons

Choosing between living in a small town and residing in a big city is a decision that greatly influences one’s lifestyle and overall experience. While some may argue that the charm of a small town offers a more peaceful and close-knit community, others may advocate for the opportunities and excitement that come with urban living. In this essay, we will delve into the advantages and disadvantages of both settings to understand their implications on daily life.

Living in a small town presents several notable advantages. Firstly, small towns often offer a strong sense of community. With fewer residents, people tend to know each other well, fostering close relationships and a supportive network. This tight-knit community can lead to a greater sense of belonging and security. Additionally, small towns are typically characterized by a slower pace of life, providing residents with a peaceful environment away from the hustle and bustle of city living. The tranquil surroundings of nature and open spaces in small towns can also promote a healthier lifestyle, encouraging outdoor activities and relaxation.

However, small towns also have their drawbacks. One of the main disadvantages is limited access to amenities and services. Small towns may lack diverse shopping options, entertainment venues, and healthcare facilities, requiring residents to travel to nearby cities for certain necessities. Moreover, job opportunities in small towns may be scarce and limited in scope, leading to economic challenges for residents seeking career advancement or specialized employment.

On the other hand, living in a big city offers a myriad of opportunities and conveniences. Cities are hubs of economic activity, providing abundant job opportunities across various industries. The diversity of businesses and organizations in cities also fosters innovation and creativity, attracting ambitious individuals seeking career growth and professional development. Furthermore, big cities boast a rich cultural scene with numerous museums, theaters, restaurants, and nightlife options, catering to a wide range of interests and tastes.

Despite these advantages, big city living comes with its own set of challenges. The fast-paced lifestyle and crowded environment can lead to increased stress levels and feelings of isolation among residents. Additionally, the high cost of living in cities, including housing expenses, transportation costs, and daily expenditures, can place a significant financial burden on individuals and families. Moreover, the anonymity of city life may hinder the development of close interpersonal relationships, leading to a sense of social detachment and loneliness for some residents.

In conclusion, the choice between living in a small town and residing in a big city ultimately depends on individual preferences, priorities, and lifestyle preferences. While small towns offer a sense of community and tranquility, big cities provide abundant opportunities and cultural diversity. By weighing the pros and cons of each setting, individuals can make informed decisions that align with their personal values and goals.

Types of Essay in TOEFL- FAQs

What are the key differences between the integrated writing task and the independent writing task in the toefl exam.

The integrated writing task involves reading a passage and listening to an audio recording, which can assist in understanding or expanding upon the text. Participants have 20 minutes to compose an essay based on this material, with a word limit of 150-225 words. Conversely, the independent writing task requires candidates to express their opinions, highlight specific facts, or take a particular stance without any accompanying material. This section typically necessitates a minimum word count of 300-350 words.

What are the primary categories of essays in the TOEFL exam, and how are they selected for test-takers?

The four main categories of essays in the TOEFL exam include building arguments, disagreeing/agreeing on a statement, providing explanations, and stating preferences. The selection of essay type depends on the specific question presented to the test-taker.

How should one approach multiple choice essays in the TOEFL exam?

Multiple choice essays in the TOEFL exam present questions where one must choose from several options to express their opinions or preferences. For instance, one might be asked to identify the ideal type of neighbor or the most effective approach to resolving an issue. Students should carefully consider each option and select the one that best aligns with their views.

What are some of the most common topics in TOEFL writing?

The most common topics in TOEFL writing include education, social media, mobile devices, and technology, among various others.

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What Is a Capstone Project vs. Thesis

As students near the end of their academic journey, they encounter a crucial project called the capstone – a culmination of all they've learned. But what exactly is a capstone project? 

This article aims to demystify capstone projects, explaining what they are, why they matter, and what you can expect when you embark on this final academic endeavor.

Capstone Project Meaning

A capstone project is a comprehensive, culminating academic endeavor undertaken by students typically in their final year of study. 

It synthesizes their learning experiences, requiring students to apply the knowledge, skills, and competencies gained throughout their academic journey. A capstone project aims to address a real-world problem or explore a topic of interest in depth. 

As interdisciplinary papers, capstone projects encourage critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity. They allow students to showcase their mastery of their field of study and demonstrate their readiness for future academic or professional pursuits.

Now that we’ve defined what is a capstone project, let’s discuss its importance in the academic landscape. In case you have short-form compositions to handle, simply say, ‘ do my essay for me ,’ and our writers will take care of your workload.

Why Is a Capstone Project Important

A capstone project is crucial because it allows students to combine everything they've learned in school and apply it to real-life situations or big problems. 

It's like the ultimate test of what they know and can do. By working on these projects, students get hands-on experience, learn to think critically and figure out how to solve tough problems. 

Plus, it's a chance to show off their skills and prove they're ready for whatever comes next, whether that's starting a career or going on to more schooling.

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What Is the Purpose of a Capstone Project

Here are three key purposes of a capstone project:

Integration of Knowledge and Skills

Capstones often require students to draw upon the knowledge and skills they have acquired throughout their academic program. The importance of capstone project lies in helping students synthesize what they have learned and apply it to a real-world problem or project. 

This integration helps students demonstrate their proficiency and readiness for graduation or entry into their chosen profession.

Culmination of Learning

Capstone projects culminate a student's academic journey, allowing them to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios. 

tackling a significant project or problem, students demonstrate their understanding of concepts and their ability to translate them into practical solutions, reinforcing their learning journey.

Professional Development

Capstone projects allow students to develop skills relevant to their future careers. These projects can also be tangible examples of their capabilities to potential employers or graduate programs.

Whether it's conducting research, presenting findings, or collaborating with peers, students gain valuable experience that enhances their professional readiness. 

Types of Capstone Projects

Capstones vary widely depending on the academic discipline, institution, and specific program requirements. Here are some common types:

What Is the Difference Between a Thesis and a Capstone Project

Here's a breakdown of the key differences between a thesis and a capstone project:

How to Write a Capstone Project

Let's dive into the specifics with actionable and meaningful steps for writing a capstone project:

1. Select a Pertinent Topic

Identify a topic that aligns with your academic interests, program requirements, and real-world relevance. Consider issues or challenges within your field that merit further exploration or solution. 

Conduct thorough research to ensure the topic is both feasible and significant. Here are some brilliant capstone ideas for your inspiration.

2. Define Clear Objectives

Clearly articulate the objectives of your capstone project. What specific outcomes do you aim to achieve? 

Whether it's solving a problem, answering a research question, or developing a product, ensure your objectives are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

3. Conduct Comprehensive Research

Dive deep into existing literature, theories, and empirical evidence related to your chosen topic. Identify gaps, controversies, or areas for further investigation. 

Synthesize relevant findings and insights to inform the development of your project and provide a solid foundation for your analysis or implementation.

4. Develop a Structured Plan

What is a capstone project in college without a rigid structure? Outline a comprehensive plan for your capstone project, including key milestones, tasks, and deadlines. 

Break down the project into manageable phases, such as literature review, data collection, analysis, and presentation. Establish clear criteria for success and regularly monitor progress to stay on track.

5. Implement Methodological Rigor

If your project involves research, ensure methodological rigor by selecting appropriate research methods, tools, and techniques. 

Develop a detailed research design or project plan that addresses key methodological considerations, such as sampling, data collection, analysis, and validity. Adhere to ethical guidelines and best practices throughout the research process.

6. Analyze and Interpret Findings

Analyze your data or findings using appropriate analytical techniques and tools. Interpret the results in relation to your research questions or objectives, highlighting key patterns, trends, or insights. 

Critically evaluate the significance and implications of your findings within the broader context of your field or industry.

7. Communicate Effectively

Present your capstone project clearly, concisely, and compellingly. Whether it's a written report, presentation, or multimedia deliverable, tailor your communication style to your target audience. Clearly articulate your research questions, methodology, findings, and conclusions. 

Use visuals, examples, and real-world applications to enhance understanding and engagement. Be prepared to defend your project and answer questions from peers, faculty, or stakeholders.

In wrapping up, what is a capstone project? It’s like the grand finale of your academic journey, where all the knowledge and skills you've acquired come together in one big project. 

It's not just about passing a test or getting a grade – it's about proving you've got what it takes to make a real difference in the world. So, if you ever need capstone project help , our writers will gladly lend you a hand in no time.

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What Is a Capstone Project in College?

How to do a capstone project, how long does a capstone project take to complete.

Annie Lambert

specializes in creating authoritative content on marketing, business, and finance, with a versatile ability to handle any essay type and dissertations. With a Master’s degree in Business Administration and a passion for social issues, her writing not only educates but also inspires action. On EssayPro blog, Annie delivers detailed guides and thought-provoking discussions on pressing economic and social topics. When not writing, she’s a guest speaker at various business seminars.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

• T. (2023, June 16). What Is a Capstone Project? National University. https://www.nu.edu/blog/what-is-a-capstone-project/
• Lukins, S. (2024, May 12). What is a capstone project? And why is it important? Top Universities. https://www.topuniversities.com/student-info/careers-advice-articles/what-capstone-project-why-it-important
• Capstone Project vs. Thesis: What’s the Difference? (2021, December 9). UAGC. https://www.uagc.edu/blog/capstone-project-vs-thesis-whats-difference

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Avoid Using These Toilet Papers If You Want To Keep Your Septic Tank Healthy

O riginally penned as "Medicated Paper for the Water-Closet," the first patented toilet paper became commonplace in the late 1800s, and modern society has relied on this invention ever since (via Cottonelle ). Even hundreds of years later, you'd be hard-pressed to find a household without spare rolls of toilet paper, as even the most frugal individuals consider it a necessity. Seeing as it's a centuries-old product with no signs of going out of style, it's unsurprising that companies have found many ways to capitalize on toilet paper over the years. Throughout the 1900s, new toilet paper trends like multi-ply, colored, perfumed, and softer sheets were advertised to the public. However, with the introduction of many of these toilet paper innovations also came unprecedented septic system issues.

Homes that aren't on a city sewer are outfitted with septic pipelines, tanks, and drain fields, which break down solids in wastewater, removing them from your home. This system relies on a bacterial ecosystem, which thrives in the main tank by breaking down organic waste and "flushable" toilet products. This system is ingenious when households are careful about their flushing habits. Unfortunately, many of the re-formulated toilet papers aren't as safe for your septic system as you've been led to believe.

Read more: 10 Best Monthly Tasks To Maintain Your Home

Soft Toilet Paper Is Plush To The Touch But More Likely To Cause Clogs

When perusing the aisles at your local superstore or grocery store, the softest toilet papers always have the most luxurious appeal. Sold under names like "Comfort Plus," "Extra Soft," "Extra Plush," "Ultra Soft," and "Ultra Plush," these toilet paper options often advertise that they are designed for comfort and are more absorbent than their standard counterparts. Many popular toilet paper companies like Charmin, Angel Soft, and even generic brands sell these two-ply rolls with multiple layers of plush paper.

As appealing as these extravagant options may seem, they aren't doing your septic system any favors. Soft toilet paper varieties are made from fresh wood pulp from hardwood and softwood trees, like most traditional toilet paper types. However, the wood pulp is also treated with mineral oils and paraffin, and double or triple-layered to make a thick and chemically-infused roll that prioritizes temporary comfort. The thickness and additional chemical properties of the paper mean you're flushing more products down your pipelines. 

As you already know, bacteria is responsible for breaking down the remaining cellulose fibers that don't disintegrate in the water. Therefore, when you flush extra soft toilet paper, you're creating waste faster than it can be broken down. Many of the people that rely on soft or plush toilet paper do so because they have sensitive skin. You can always invest in a bidet to do the majority of the cleaning, so you only have to use a minimal amount of this luxurious toilet paper.

Strong Toilet Paper Is Reliable But Complex To Dissolve

Soft toilet paper's closest relative is "Ultra-Strong," which has a similar downfall to the aforementioned plush varieties. A top toilet paper company literally advertises this type as being "4 times stronger when wet." Although this may have an industrial appeal, it doesn't have promising connotations for your home septic system. 

The idea behind extra strong toilet paper is that it takes fewer sheets to clean yourself since they are two-ply thick and woven in a complex quilted texture. This makes them harder to unravel and more resilient to moisture, making them more absorbent. In reality, these toilet papers are only septic-safe when used as intended, which is minimal. If your household members are unrolling multiple sheets during each bathroom break throughout the day, this extra thick toilet paper will slowly back up your septic system. This paper is also best utilized concertedly with a bidet, so minimal tissues are used and flushed.

3-Ply Toilet Paper Triples The Amount Of Paper You Flush

Since regularly using 2-ply toilet paper can lead to septic issues, it's no surprise that 3-ply toilet paper comes with many of the same risks. A step above plush and strong toilet papers, 3-ply toilet paper rolls are three times the size of a standard roll. They often boast of having both strength and comfort and are designed with quilted weaving that makes them especially durable and soft. This type of paper isn't as popular as 1- or 2-ply types, and depending on where you live and whether there's any demand, it may be difficult to come across.

Although many people love to splurge on superior toilet paper brands, there is a limit to what people are willing to spend. Since 3-ply packs are uncommon and contain more materials, smaller packages sell for higher prices. In addition to a high price point, these products are known to cause septic clogs if they aren't used with some consideration and moderation. In other words, if you have younger children or household members who use liberal amounts of toilet paper, you're setting yourself up for a backed-up system. 

If you're one of those people who prefers the finer things in life, you can still use triple-strength paper. Just keep in mind that you won't need as many sheets and should limit how many you pull when doing your business. As mentioned previously, the less risky route is investing in a lower-ply paper that is more easily disintegrated by water.

Scented Toilet Papers Smell Nice Until They Disrupt Your Septic Ecosystem

Since toilet paper is used for unpleasant tasks, it's unsurprising that brands have tried to find ways to make this product more appealing to the masses. One of these approaches is to coat the papers in floral-scented essential oils, such as lilac and lavender. The fresh odor leaves your toilet and lower regions smelling far unlike your recent activities, but it comes at a cost. By using this type of paper, many people suffer from skin afflictions since the fragrant chemicals irritate sensitive skin around private body parts. None of these scented oils are overly dangerous on their own, as they include ingredients and compounds like alcohols, esters, and aldehydes, but they can cause dermatitis, rashes, and skin abrasions on sensitive skin.

If these chemicals are harmful to our skin, you don't want to imagine what they're doing to your septic tank. Remember, that any additional chemicals can harm the bacterial ecosystem that breaks down waste and toilet paper in your home sewage. Flushing alcohol, bleach, and aldehyde-coated paper products kills bacteria and increases your risk of a backed-up septic tank later down the road. 

Instead of using scented toilet paper to freshen up after using the bathroom, you can rely on other methods. Once again, you may want to consider a bidet, which will freshen up your extremities using fresh, clean water. If you're worried about any smells you leave behind, you can use essential oils , potpourri, wax melts, candles, and other room fresheners (that don't spray directly into your toilet) to help mask any residual odors.

Dyed Toilet Paper Is Fun And Colorful But Adds Unnecessary Chemicals

Colorfully-dyed toilet paper is the equally harmful sibling to scented toilet paper. Instead of chemical-infused fragrants, it has chemical infused-dyes. Whether completely colored in a solid shade or emblazed with a printed novelty image, these paper sheets are decorated with additional chemicals that aren't good for your body or septic system. This is likely why colored toilet paper has gone out of style for the most part, and it's difficult to track down among the many bleach-white options.

You might wonder why toilet paper is white in the first place. Usually, such vibrant shades of white indicate that companies are bleaching their products for aesthetic purposes, but this sterile color is actually toilet paper's natural shade. Toilet paper is created from wood pulp, which is then treated with hydrogen peroxide and chlorine. This bleaching process removes lignin, a natural material in wood pulp, to soften paper for human use. Cellulose fibers also turn white throughout this process, giving toilet paper its soft bleached composition for complication-free wiping and flushing. 

As mentioned previously, the fewer chemicals used to treat toilet paper, the less harmful it is to the bacteria in your septic system. Changing the toilet paper to any other color requires dyes and inks. Instead of using colorful toilet paper to elevate your bathroom's interior design, consider adding exciting hues through decorations that don't touch your nether regions.

Flushable Wipes Help You Feel Clean But Have Hidden Additives

When shopping for toilet paper, you'll often find flushable wipes in the same aisle or in close proximity. Despite what their name might imply, these moisturizing paper wipes aren't as easygoing as they might seem. These moist toilet tissues are toilet paper products with aloe, vitamin E, Polysorbate 20, Disodium phosphate, and other additives that make them refreshing and appealing to consumers. They may advertise being flushable, but it's important that you take a look at their base qualities that contradict this claim if you're on a septic system.

For starters, sodium benzoate is added to these wipes to prevent the growth and reproduction of bacteria on your own body. While this may succeed in keeping you physically healthy and clean, common sense dictates that you shouldn't flush this down your septic system where healthy bacterial ecosystems are vital. Flushable wipes also contain Polysorbate 20 and Disodium phosphate, which are chemicals that help retain the wipes' composition inside their packaging. These additive agents keep the wipes moisturized and in one piece, so they don't break apart while you're using them. Although this may be useful from a functional standpoint, you should think about what this means after they've been flushed. 

They're built to eventually break down in your septic system, but they do so much slower than traditional toilet paper due to these additives. On a final note, these wipes are used alongside normal toilet paper, meaning you're putting twice as many paper products in your toilet. This creates more work for your septic tank, both quantity- and complexity-wise.

If you stand by your use of moisturizing toilet paper and don't want to omit this product from your daily life, luckily, there are septic-safe alternatives out there. Consider a toilet paper spray, such as the product featured on the TV show "Shark Tank." Pristine toilet paper spray is sprayed directly onto standard toilet paper, giving you a moisturized experience that is far less foreboding than flushable wipes.

Baby Wipes Are Gentle On Skin Not Septic Systems

Baby wipes are closely related to flushable wipes, with a few material differences that make them even less flushable. These pre-moistened products aren't made with dissolvable paper; they usually contain fabrics and plastics, with added detergents and chemicals that make them a septic system nightmare. Many people mistakenly believe that baby wipes can be flushed alongside toilet paper because they're used for a similar purpose. However, with their cotton, rayon, polyester, and plastic composition, these wipes wouldn't be flushable even in their base form. None of these products break apart in water, causing them to quickly clog plumbing lines. If they do somehow make it through the pipes and into your septic system, the moisturizing and antibacterial chemicals will prove fatal to the septic tank bacteria.

Whether you use baby wipes for your own needs or to take care of a young child, you should always throw them in the garbage and not down your toilet. If you're looking for an eco-friendly alternative to disposable wipes, there are plenty of reusable cloth options sold online and in local stores. Combining reusable cloths with antibacterial creams and warm water provides the same advantages as using baby wipes without the waste.

Facial Tissues Are Soft And Lightweight Until Wet

Tissues are even more lightweight than toilet paper, and their feathery feel creates the natural assumption that they're safe to flush down your toilet. This belief is incorrect. Tissues are made for standard trash disposal, not septic tanks. They are often manufactured with biodegradable cellulose fibers, similar to toilet paper. Although they are made from similar wood fibers and wood pulp, tissues have additives that make them resilient for other purposes, like blowing your nose and cleaning up small spills.

These additives do not break down when they come in contact with water, making them unsuitable for toilet disposal. Instead, they are highly absorbent, causing them to retain large amounts of moisture and clog bathroom facilities. In fact, top tissue brands, such as Kleenex, warn the public that their facial tissues are not designed or tested for flushing. They should always be tossed into the garbage rather than your toilet.

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Morgan Spurlock, Documentarian Known for ‘Super Size Me,’ Dies at 53

His 2004 film followed Mr. Spurlock as he ate nothing but McDonald’s for a month. It was nominated for an Oscar, but it later came in for criticism.

By Clay Risen and Remy Tumin

Morgan Spurlock, a documentary filmmaker who gained fame with his Oscar-nominated 2004 film “ Super Size Me ,” which followed him as he ate nothing but McDonald’s for 30 days — but later stepped back from the public eye after admitting to sexual misconduct — died on Thursday in New York City. He was 53.

His brother Craig Spurlock said the cause was complications of cancer.

A self-described attention hound with a keen eye for the absurd, Mr. Spurlock was a playwright and television producer when he rocketed to global attention with “Super Size Me,” an early entry into the genre of gonzo participatory filmmaking that borrowed heavily from the confrontational style of Michael Moore and the up-close-and-personal influences of reality TV, which was then just emerging as a genre.

The film’s approach was straightforward: Mr. Spurlock would eat nothing but McDonald’s food for a month, and if a server at the restaurant offered to “supersize” the meal — that is, to give him the largest portion available for each item — he would accept.

The movie then follows Mr. Spurlock and his ever-patient girlfriend through his 30-day odyssey, splicing in interviews with health experts and visits to his increasingly disturbed physician. At the end of the month, he was 25 pounds heavier, depressed, puffy-faced and experiencing liver dysfunction.

The film, which debuted at the Sundance Film Festival, grossed over $22 million, made Mr. Spurlock a household name, earned him an Academy Award nomination for best documentary and helped spur a sweeping backlash against the fast-food industry — though only temporarily ; today, McDonald’s has 42,000 locations worldwide, its stock is near an all-time high, and 36 percent of Americans eat fast food on any given day.

“His movie,” the critic A.O. Scott wrote in The New York Times , “goes down easy and takes a while to digest, but its message is certainly worth the loss of your appetite.”

The film became a touchstone in American culture. By making himself a part of the story, Mr. Spurlock could be considered a forerunner of TikTok influencers and citizen-journalist YouTubers.

And even after the backlash against fast food subsided, “Super Size Me” remained a staple in high school health classes and a reference point for taking personal responsibility for one’s own diet.

But the film also came in for subsequent criticism. Some people pointed out that Mr. Spurlock refused to release the daily logs tracking his food intake. Health researchers were unable to replicate his results in controlled studies.

And in 2017, he admitted that he had not been sober for more than a week at a time in 30 years — meaning that, in addition to his “McDonald’s only” diet, he was drinking, a fact that he concealed from his doctors and the audience, and that most likely skewed his results.

The admission came in a statement in which he also revealed multiple incidents of sexual misconduct, including an encounter in college that he described as rape, as well as repeated infidelity and the sexual harassment of an assistant at his production company, Warrior Poets.

The statement, which Mr. Spurlock posted on Twitter in 2017, came as he was gearing up for the release of a sequel to the film, “ Super Size Me 2: Holy Chicken! ” on YouTube Red.

He stepped down from his production company, and YouTube dropped the film; it was instead released in 2019 by Samuel Goldwyn Films.

Morgan Valentine Spurlock was born on Nov. 7, 1970, in Parkersburg, W.Va., and grew up in Beckley, W.Va. His father, Ben, owned and operated an auto-repair shop, and his mother, Phyllis (Valentine) Spurlock, was a junior high school and high school guidance counselor.

He later said he grew up as a fan of 1970s and ’80s British comedies like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus” and “Blackadder.”

“I was doing funny walks round the house at 6 or 7,” he told The Independent in 2012 .

He studied film at New York University and received a bachelor’s degree in fine arts in 1993, then began his career as a production assistant on film projects around New York City, beginning with Luc Besson’s “Léon: The Professional” (1994).

He also began writing plays, including “The Phoenix,” which won an award at the 1999 New York International Fringe Festival.

Mr. Spurlock’s first foray onto the screen was a proto-reality show called “I Bet You Will,” which was also one of the first web-only programs. In five-minute segments, he would dare people to do something gross, or humiliating, or both — eating a “worm burrito,” for example — in exchange for a wad of cash.

The show drew millions of viewers, as well as the interest of MTV, which bought the program a few months after it debuted.

During a Thanksgiving visit to his parents in 2002, Mr. Spurlock saw a TV news story about two women who had sued McDonald’s, claiming that the chain had misled them about the nutritional value of its hamburgers, fries and sodas and caused them to gain significant weight.

“A spokesman for McDonald’s came on and said, you can’t link their obesity to our food — our food is healthy, it’s nutritious,” he told The New York Times in 2004 . “I thought, ‘If it’s so good for me, I should be able to eat it every day, right?’”

And thus, “Super Size Me” was born.

Mr. Spurlock took to fame eagerly, and, with his wide smile and handlebar mustache, was hard to miss. He became an unofficial spokesman for the wellness movement, hobnobbed with celebrity chefs — and scrambled to find a new project.

He did not want to lose the momentum generated by “Super Size Me,” nor did he want to go down in history only as the guy who ate a lot of Big Macs.

“I’ll be that guy till I die,” he told The Independent.

A follow-up film, “Where in the World Is Osama Bin Laden?” (2008), was not nearly as well received. Critics assailed him for making light of an international terrorist and for oversimplifying complicated global politics. More bricks were thrown when it emerged that he had put himself at significant personal risk while in Pakistan while his wife was at home with their newborn son.

Eventually, he did get somewhat past the shadow of “Super Size Me”: He teamed up with the actors Jason Bateman and Will Arnett to explore the male grooming industry in “Mansome” (2012) and followed the band One Direction around, resulting in the film “One Direction: This Is Us” (2013).

He produced films by other documentarians, including “The Other F Word” (2011), directed by Andrea Blaugrund Nevins, about punk rockers who became fathers, and “A Brony Tale” (2014), directed by Brent Hodge, about the subculture known as Bronies — adults, mostly men, who love the animated series “My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic.”

And he continued to make projects that leaned on the participatory style of “Super Size Me.” He created and starred in a series called “30 Days” for FX, in which a person, often Mr. Spurlock himself, would spend about a month embedded in a community much different from his own. One episode saw him spend 25 days in a Virginia jail.

Mr. Spurlock was married three times, to Priscilla Sommer, Alexandra Jamieson and Sara Bernstein; all three marriages ended in divorce. Along with his brother Craig, he is survived by another brother, Barry; his parents; and his sons, Laken and Kallen.

His decision to discuss his sexual past, which came at the height of the #Metoo movement, was met with a mix of praise and criticism. Though many people lauded him for coming forward, critics suggested that he was trying to get ahead of a story that was going to emerge anyway.

All agreed, though, that the decision came with consequences: “Career death,” The Washington Post declared it in 2022 , noting that the once-ubiquitous Mr. Spurlock had largely disappeared.

Clay Risen is a Times reporter on the Obituaries desk. More about Clay Risen

Remy Tumin is a reporter for The Times covering breaking news and other topics. More about Remy Tumin

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• Published: 15 May 2024

Evolution of a novel adrenal cell type that promotes parental care

• Natalie Niepoth   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8057-8977 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Jennifer R. Merritt 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Michelle Uminski   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0004-7952-8090 1 , 2 ,
• Emily Lei 1 , 2 ,
• Victoria S. Esquibies 1 , 2 ,
• Ina B. Bando 1 , 2 ,
• Kimberly Hernandez 1 , 2 ,
• Christoph Gebhardt 1 , 2 ,
• Sarah A. Wacker 3 ,
• Stefano Lutzu 4 , 5 ,
• Asmita Poudel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7926-4487 6 , 7 ,
• Kiran K. Soma 6 , 7 ,
• Stephanie Rudolph 4 , 5 &
• Andres Bendesky   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4220-3653 1 , 2  

Nature ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Evolutionary developmental biology
• Evolutionary genetics
• Social behaviour
• Social evolution

Cell types with specialized functions fundamentally regulate animal behaviour, and yet the genetic mechanisms that underlie the emergence of novel cell types and their consequences for behaviour are not well understood 1 . Here we show that the monogamous oldfield mouse ( Peromyscus polionotus ) has recently evolved a novel cell type in the adrenal gland that expresses the enzyme AKR1C18, which converts progesterone into 20α-hydroxyprogesterone. We then demonstrate that 20α-hydroxyprogesterone is more abundant in oldfield mice, where it induces monogamous-typical parental behaviours, than in the closely related promiscuous deer mice ( Peromyscus maniculatus ). Using quantitative trait locus mapping in a cross between these species, we ultimately find interspecific genetic variation that drives expression of the nuclear protein GADD45A and the glycoprotein tenascin N, which contribute to the emergence and function of this cell type in oldfield mice. Our results provide an example by which the recent evolution of a new cell type in a gland outside the brain contributes to the evolution of social behaviour.

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Sequence data are available at NCBI Sequence Read Archive under BioProject ID PRJNA1094591 .  Source data are provided with this paper.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the following grants: Searle Scholarship, Klingenstein-Simons Fellowship in Neuroscience, Sloan Foundation Fellowship, and National Institutes of Health (NIH) R00HD084732, R21HD106241 and R35GM143051 to A.B.; the Simons Society of Fellows Junior Fellowship 855220 to J.R.M.; Canadian Institutes of Health Research Project Grant 426405 to K.K.S.; Tishman Fellowship to S.L.; and SFARI Bridge to Independence award and Rose F. Kennedy Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center pilot grant to S.R. Imaging was performed with support from the Zuckerman Institute’s Cellular Imaging platform, which received grant S10OD023587-01 from the NIH. Columbia University’s Shared Research Computing Facility, where computations were performed, was supported by NIH grant G20RR030893-01 and NYSTAR contract C090171. L. Hammond and H. Ibarra provided training and advice on microscope imaging, C. Zhang shared reagents, L. Remedio shared reagents and advice on tissue clearing, H. Pan and M. Hiller helped run TOGA to find orthologues, and H. Hoesktra provided beach mice and cloudland mice adrenals. M. Tosches, R. Axel, S. Siegelbaum and D. Bambah-Mukku and his students provided comments on the manuscript. C. Everett created the diagram in Fig. 4f . Schematics in Fig. 2a,i and Extended Data Fig. 3 were created using BioRender.com.

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Natalie Niepoth, Jennifer R. Merritt

Authors and Affiliations

Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

Natalie Niepoth, Jennifer R. Merritt, Michelle Uminski, Emily Lei, Victoria S. Esquibies, Ina B. Bando, Kimberly Hernandez, Christoph Gebhardt & Andres Bendesky

Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Manhattan College, New York, NY, USA

Sarah A. Wacker

Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, USA

Stefano Lutzu & Stephanie Rudolph

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, USA

Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

Asmita Poudel & Kiran K. Soma

Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Contributions

N.N. and A.B. conceived and designed the study. N.N. conducted all transcriptomic and genetic experiments and analyses, with contribution from M.U. and J.R.M. J.R.M. performed behaviour assays with contributions from V.S.E., I.B.B., K.H., M.U. and N.N. N.N. and M.U. performed adrenal histology. N.N. and E.L. characterized adrenal mass and volume. K.H. developed the pair-bonding assay. C.G. and J.R.M. built behaviour testing apparatus. S.A.W. performed AKR1C18 biochemistry experiments. K.K.S. and A.P. developed LC–MS/MS steroid quantification methods and quantified steroid levels. S.R. and S.L. conducted electrophysiology experiments and analysis. N.N., J.R.M. and A.B. wrote the paper with input from all authors.

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Correspondence to Andres Bendesky .

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended data fig. 1 anatomical, molecular, and biochemical characterization of deer- and oldfield adrenal glands..

a , Adrenal weight at postnatal day 0.5. Lines at median. b , Adult adrenal weight by age. P -values by generalized linear model. Band is 95% confidence interval. c , Adrenal medulla volume. Lines at median. P -values by generalized linear model. d , Representative adrenal section from the zona fasciculata (zF) of the deer- and oldfield mouse adrenal cortex. Cyp11b1 (green) labeled by in situ hybridization and counterstained with DAPI (red). Five independent biological replicates per species yielded similar results. Scale bar, 20 µm. e , Scatterplot of gene expression by species and sex. f , Boxplots of the expression of steroidogenic enzymes in the corticosterone- and 20α-OHP synthesis pathways in the adrenal. Boxplot hinges are 25 th and 75 th quartiles, whiskers are 1.5× interquartile range, line at median. g , Total steroid levels in the adrenal gland of deer and oldfield mice. Lines at median. P -values by generalized linear model. DOC, deoxycorticosterone. h , Expression of Akr1c18 in the ovaries and testes of oldfield and deer mice. Lines at median. P -values by two-sided t -test. i , Akr1c18 (red) labeled by in situ hybridization in the ovary of a deer mouse and counterstained with DAPI (blue). Three independent biological replicates per species yielded similar results. Scale bar, 0.5 mm. j , Circulating 20α-OHP levels in the blood of oldfield mice after adrenalectomy. Lines at median. P -values by generalized linear model.

Source Data

Extended Data Fig. 2 Effects of 20α-OHP on alloparental and parental care.

Male and female care for pups as measured by proportion of time spent huddling pups, proportion of time spent grooming pups, fraction of pups retrieved to the nest, and nest quality score (from 0 to 4) in a , unmated deer mice, b , unmated oldfield mice, and c , deer mouse fathers. Boxplot hinges are 25 th and 75 th quartiles, whiskers are 1.5× interquartile range, line at median. P -values by generalized linear model for proportion of time huddling, proportion of time grooming the pup, proportion of pups retrieved, and nest quality. P -values for proportion of animals that retrieved at least one pup by Fisher’s exact test. d , Proportion of pup attacks by species, treatment, and reproductive experience.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Partner preference is not affected by 20α-OHP.

Top: Schematic of the experimental design of the partner preference test. Bottom: Observations from the same breeding pairs are connected by lines (10 min partner preference test). P -values by generalized linear model (effect of trial type).

Extended Data Fig. 4 20α-OHP is converted to allo-diol in the brain of deer- and oldfield mice.

a , Concentration of allo-diol, allopregnanolone and progesterone in deer- and oldfield mouse cerebellum and hypothalamus after incubation with 20α-OHP, as measured by LC-MS/MS. P -values by two-sided t -test.

Extended Data Fig. 5 Effects of allo-diol on alloparental and parental care, and on δGABA A R.

Male and female care for pups as measured by proportion of time spent huddling pups, proportion of time spent grooming pups, fraction of pups retrieved to the nest, and nest quality score in a , unmated deer mice, b , unmated oldfield mice, and c , oldfield parents. Boxplot hinges are 25 th and 75 th quartiles, whiskers are 1.5× interquartile range, line at median. P -values by generalized linear model for proportion of time huddling, proportion of time grooming the pup, proportion of pups retrieved, and nest quality. P -values for proportion of animals that retrieved at least one pup by Fisher’s exact test. d , Proportion of pup attacks by species, treatment, and reproductive experience. e , Baseline tonic GABA receptor currents with leak current subtracted, after gabazine application. f , Input resistance (R i ) under different pharmacological conditions. No change in R i in the presence of allo-diol and 20α-OHP suggests no effect on GABA receptor currents. A decrease in R i in the presence of THIP is consistent with an increase in GABA receptor currents. This effect is diminished when THIP is co-applied with allo-diol but not with 20α-OHP. R i increases in gabazine when all GABA receptors are blocked. P -values by two-sided one-sample t -test (μ = 0) and two-sample two-sided t -tests. Bars denote the mean ± SEM.

Extended Data Fig. 6 UMAP visualization of the house-, deer-, and oldfield mouse adrenal.

a , UMAP of integrated analysis of house mouse, deer mouse, and oldfield mouse adrenal nuclei. b , UMAP showing Akr1c18 expression in adrenal cells, marking the X zone in house mice and the zona inaudita in oldfield mice. c , UMAP of integrated analysis of deer mouse and oldfield mouse nuclei, then split by sex. d , Volcano plot of differential adrenal gene expression between deer- and oldfield mouse (purple: higher in deer mouse, green: higher in oldfield mouse, grey: n.s.). Akr1c18 and extracellular matrix gene markers of the zona inaudita (from Fig. 3g ) are highlighted. False Discovery Rate=0.05. A medulla, adrenergic medulla; NA medulla, noradrenergic medulla.

Extended Data Fig. 7 Expression of top marker genes of the adrenal zones of deer mice and oldfield mice.

Violin plots denoting the top two markers of each adrenal cell type.

Extended Data Fig. 8 Dot plots of marker genes of the zona inaudita of oldfield mice and the X zone of house mice.

Expression of transcription factors (TFs), extracellular matrix (ECM) genes, and other genes upregulated in the zona inaudita or X zone. Note that in adults, the X zone is only present in unmated females.

Extended Data Fig. 9 Cis -regulation of Gadd45a contributes to transcription factor module expression.

a , Expression of Akr1c18 in the adrenal of female and male deer × oldfield F 2 hybrids. b , Dot plot of Gadd45a , Tnn , and Akr1c18 expression in adrenal cortex cell types. c , Gadd45a expression by genotype at the Gadd45a locus in F 2 -hybrid males. Boxplot hinges are 25 th and 75 th quartiles, whiskers are 1.5× interquartile range, line at median. P -value by ANOVA. Logarithm of the odds (LOD) across the genome of d , Hif1a and e , Runx2 expression. f , LOD across the genome for the TF module and the TF module excluding Gadd45a . g , LOD of the TF module and the TF module controlling for Gadd45a expression. Dashed lines denote genome-wide threshold of significance (α = 0.05).

Extended Data Fig. 10 Cis -regulation of Tnn contributes to extracellular matrix module expression.

a , Expression of Tnn in deer and oldfield mice. P -value by two-sided t -test. b , Allele-specific expression of Tnn in deer × oldfield F 1 hybrids. P -value by paired two-sided t -test. c , Correlation between Akr1c18 expression and Tnn expression across development of oldfield mice. P -value by bivariate correlation, R denotes Pearson’s correlation coefficient. d , Logarithm of the odds (LOD) across the genome of Cdkn2a , Podnl1 , Serpine1 , and Timp1 expression. e , LOD of the ECM module and the ECM module without Tnn . f , LOD of the ECM module and the ECM module controlling for Tnn expression. g , LOD of Akr1c18 expression and Akr1c18 expression controlling for Tnn expression. Dashed lines denote genome-wide threshold of significance (α = 0.05). h , Tnn expression as a function of genotype at the Tnn locus in F 2 -hybrid males. Akr1c18 expression as a function of genotype at the Tnn locus ( i ) or the Akr1c18 locus ( j ) in F 2 -hybrid males. h , i , j Boxplot hinges are 25 th and 75 th quartiles, whiskers are 1.5× interquartile range, line at median. P -values by ANOVA.

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Supplementary Methods, Supplementary Table 3, Supplementary Notes 1 and 2, Supplementary References and Supplementary Figs. 1–3.

Reporting Summary

Supplementary table 1.

Adrenal cell cluster markers

Supplementary Table 2

One-to-one orthologues

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Niepoth, N., Merritt, J.R., Uminski, M. et al. Evolution of a novel adrenal cell type that promotes parental care. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07423-y

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• Online First
• Pilot study on large language models for risk-of-bias assessments in systematic reviews: A(I) new type of bias?
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7989-6994 Joseph Barsby 1 , 2 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4417-0370 Samuel Hume 1 , 3 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7679-9125 Hamish AL Lemmey 1 , 4 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2867-7393 Joseph Cutteridge 5 , 6 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8621-5165 Regent Lee 7 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3795-6762 Katarzyna D Bera 3 , 7
• 1 Oxford Medical School , Oxford , UK
• 2 Newcastle Upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust , Newcastle Upon Tyne , UK
• 3 University of Oxford St Anne's College , Oxford , UK
• 4 University of Oxford Magdalen College , Oxford , UK
• 5 York and Scarborough Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust , York , UK
• 6 Hull University Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust , Hull , UK
• 7 Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences , University of Oxford , Oxford , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Katarzyna D Bera, University of Oxford Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, Oxford, UK; katarzyna.bera{at}st-annes.ox.ac.uk

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjebm-2024-112990

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• Systematic Reviews as Topic

Risk-of-bias (RoB) assessment is used to assess randomised control trials for systematic errors. Developed by Cochrane, it is considered the gold standard of assessing RoB for studies included within systematic reviews, representing a key part of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. 1 The RoB tool comprises six domains that may signify bias: random sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding of participants and personnel, attrition bias, reporting bias and other potential biases. 2 This assessment is an integral component of evaluating the quality of evidence; however, it is a time-consuming and labour-intensive process.

Large language models (LLMs) are a form of generative artificial intelligence (AI) trained on large volumes of data. ChatGPT is an LLM developed by OpenAI, capable of generating a wide variety of responses in response to user prompts. Concerns exist around the application of such AI tools in research, including ethical, copyright, plagiarism and cybersecurity risks. 3 However, LLMs are increasingly popular with investigators seeking to streamline analyses. Studies have begun investigating the potential role of LLMs in the RoB assessment process. 4 5 Given the flexibility and rapidly evolving nature of LLMs, our goal was to explore whether ChatGPT could be used to automate the RoB assessment process without sacrificing accuracy. This study offers an assessment of the applicability of LLMs in SRs as of December 2023.

This study sits within an SR (PROSPERO CRD420212479050). Two reviewers (SH and HALL) implemented RoB across n=15 full-length papers in portable document format (PDF) format ( table 1 ). Six domains were assessed independently alongside an added ‘overall assessment’ domain ranking each as high, low or unclear RoB. Alongside RoB assessment, reviewers recorded author name, DOI and publication year using a Microsoft Office form. Any conflicts were resolved by discussion, with a third reviewer (KDB) available for arbitration, although this was not required.

• View inline

List of included papers (n=15), numbered 1–15

In parallel, a fourth reviewer (JB) uploaded the same PDF files to ChatPDF.com, a plug-in powered by ChatGPT3.5 that facilitates the upload of PDF files for analysis by ChatGPT3.5. ChatGPT3.5 was prompted to assess the RoB within each paper through prompts pertaining to each of the six domains. Responses were recorded in a separate, but identical, Microsoft Office form. Reviewer 4 (JB) was blinded to the assessment of reviewers 1 and 2 throughout. JB then repeated this process using ChatGPT4.

Responses from decisions across all domains were compared considering percentage of concurrent decisions, opposite decisions and indeterminable decisions. All data were analysed and stored in Microsoft Excel. Gemini was trialled but was unable to perform a RoB assessment in its current form.

In total, n=105 decisions were undertaken by GPT3.5, GPT4 and human reviewers. ChatGPT3.5 was concurrent with human (gold standard) assessment in 41/105 (39.0%) decisions and disagreed on 10/105 (9.5%). ChatGPT4 agreed with human assessment on 34/105 (34.3%) decisions and disagreed on 15/105 (14.3%). Both ChatGPT3.5 and ChatGPT4 delivered an indeterminate response on 54/105 (51.4%) decisions. ChatGPT3.5 outperformed or matched the performance of ChatGPT4 in 6/7 (85.6%) domains (aside from selective reporting), with ChatGPT3.5 performing best in assessing sequence generation and completeness of data, with 8/15 (53.3%) concurrent with human assessment. ChatGPT4 performed best in assessing selective reporting, with 14/15 (93.3%) correct decisions. Results by domain are summarised in table 2 . Notably, GPT4 performed superiorly in one domain (selective reporting), returning a correct decision in 14/15 (93.3%) cases, while GPT3.5 was correct in 10/15 (66.7%) decisions.

Summary of risk-of-bias assessment outcome per domain assessed by ChatGPT3.5 and ChatGPT4 compared with human assessment

When assessing Karanikolas (2011) and Mann (1983), ChatGPT3.5 returned an assessment as ‘moderate’, and ‘low to moderate’, in the overall domain. Both were recorded as unclear as substitute. On one occasion, ChatGPT identified an author as ‘P. C. Weaver’, who is not an author on any included papers. When discussing Lastoria (2006), ChatGPT responded initially in Portuguese.

We explored the potential for ChatGPT as a tool for assessing RoB. Overall, ChatGPT demonstrated moderate agreement, and minor disagreement with gold standard (human) assessment. While encouraging, this suboptimal performance precludes us from recommending ChatGPT be used in real-world RoB assessment.

To emulate end-users, prompts were not standardised, and some questions were repeated to ensure accuracy. When responses were ‘moderate’, ChatGPT was prompted to reassess. Similarly, ChatGPT often declined to perform assessments, which required further prompting with alternate question structure or wording. When prompted to assess allocation concealment for Choksy (2006), ChatGPT summarised the process as follows: ‘randomisation was performed using a random number table and randomisation details were placed in sealed envelopes which were opened in the operating theatre’. Human assessment ranked this as low RoB, whereas ChatGPT ranked this as unclear stating ‘it [was] unclear whether these envelopes were opaque’, demonstrating a literal interpretation of the literature not seen in human assessment.

In this analysis, ChatGPT4 did not offer improvement on ChatGPT3.5 in any domain, aside from selective reporting. For selective reporting, ChatGPT4 returned a correct decision in 14/15 (93.3%) cases, and ChatGPT3.5 in 10/15 (66.7%). However, human assessment returned a decision of unclear on n=14/15 of these assessments. ChatGPT4’s inability to give a definitive assessment is perhaps best outlined by ChatGPT4’s response: ‘To make a definitive assessment, one would ideally compare the outcomes reported in the paper with those specified in the study’s protocol registration’. This could represent an improvement through appreciation of the wider context of a given paper.

Our findings have limitations: the sample size of included papers in this study was small and fairly homogenous. Additionally, we chose not to use standardised prompts. Prompt variability has been demonstrated to introduce output variability. 5 Future research could benefit from a larger and more diverse dataset, with standardised prompts to assess and improve consistency of responses.

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Contributors Conception of study: JB and KDB. Data collection: JB, JC, KDB, SH, HALL. Data analysis: JB, JC and KDB. Data interpretation: JB, KDB and LR. Drafting of paper: JB, JC and KDB. Approval of final version: all authors. ChatGPT is the subject of this study and was only used as described in methods and results. ChatGPT was not used in analysing, drafting or rewriting of the paper.

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