research alternative word

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100+ Research Vocabulary Words & Phrases

The academic community can be conservative when it comes to enforcing academic writing style , but your writing shouldn’t be so boring that people lose interest midway through the first paragraph! Given that competition is at an all-time high for academics looking to publish their papers, we know you must be anxious about what you can do to improve your publishing odds.

To be sure, your research must be sound, your paper must be structured logically, and the different manuscript sections must contain the appropriate information. But your research must also be clearly explained. Clarity obviously depends on the correct use of English, and there are many common mistakes that you should watch out for, for example when it comes to articles , prepositions , word choice , and even punctuation . But even if you are on top of your grammar and sentence structure, you can still make your writing more compelling (or more boring) by using powerful verbs and phrases (vs the same weaker ones over and over). So, how do you go about achieving the latter?

Below are a few ways to breathe life into your writing.

1. Analyze Vocabulary Using Word Clouds

Have you heard of “Wordles”? A Wordle is a visual representation of words, with the size of each word being proportional to the number of times it appears in the text it is based on. The original company website seems to have gone out of business, but there are a number of free word cloud generation sites that allow you to copy and paste your draft manuscript into a text box to quickly discover how repetitive your writing is and which verbs you might want to replace to improve your manuscript.

Seeing a visual word cloud of your work might also help you assess the key themes and points readers will glean from your paper. If the Wordle result displays words you hadn’t intended to emphasize, then that’s a sign you should revise your paper to make sure readers will focus on the right information.

As an example, below is a Wordle of our article entitled, “ How to Choose the Best title for Your Journal Manuscript .” You can see how frequently certain terms appear in that post, based on the font size of the text. The keywords, “titles,” “journal,” “research,” and “papers,” were all the intended focus of our blog post.

2. Study Language Patterns of Similarly Published Works

Study the language pattern found in the most downloaded and cited articles published by your target journal. Understanding the journal’s editorial preferences will help you write in a style that appeals to the publication’s readership.

Another way to analyze the language of a target journal’s papers is to use Wordle (see above). If you copy and paste the text of an article related to your research topic into the applet, you can discover the common phrases and terms the paper’s authors used.

For example, if you were writing a paper on  links between smoking and cancer , you might look for a recent review on the topic, preferably published by your target journal. Copy and paste the text into Wordle and examine the key phrases to see if you’ve included similar wording in your own draft. The Wordle result might look like the following, based on the example linked above.

If you are not sure yet where to publish and just want some generally good examples of descriptive verbs, analytical verbs, and reporting verbs that are commonly used in academic writing, then have a look at this list of useful phrases for research papers .

3. Use More Active and Precise Verbs

Have you heard of synonyms? Of course you have. But have you looked beyond single-word replacements and rephrased entire clauses with stronger, more vivid ones? You’ll find this task is easier to do if you use the active voice more often than the passive voice . Even if you keep your original sentence structure, you can eliminate weak verbs like “be” from your draft and choose more vivid and precise action verbs. As always, however, be careful about using only a thesaurus to identify synonyms. Make sure the substitutes fit the context in which you need a more interesting or “perfect” word. Online dictionaries such as the Merriam-Webster and the Cambridge Dictionary are good sources to check entire phrases in context in case you are unsure whether a synonym is a good match for a word you want to replace. 

To help you build a strong arsenal of commonly used phrases in academic papers, we’ve compiled a list of synonyms you might want to consider when drafting or editing your research paper . While we do not suggest that the phrases in the “Original Word/Phrase” column should be completely avoided, we do recommend interspersing these with the more dynamic terms found under “Recommended Substitutes.”

A. Describing the scope of a current project or prior research

B. Outlining a topic’s background

C. Describing the analytical elements of a paper

D. Discussing results

E. Discussing methods

F. Explaining the impact of new research

Wordvice Writing Resources

For additional information on how to tighten your sentences (e.g., eliminate wordiness and use active voice to greater effect), you can try Wordvice’s FREE APA Citation Generator and learn more about how to proofread and edit your paper to ensure your work is free of errors.

Before submitting your manuscript to academic journals, be sure to use our free AI Proofreader to catch errors in grammar, spelling, and mechanics. And use our English editing services from Wordvice, including academic editing services , cover letter editing , manuscript editing , and research paper editing services to make sure your work is up to a high academic level.

We also have a collection of other useful articles for you, for example on how to strengthen your writing style , how to avoid fillers to write more powerful sentences , and how to eliminate prepositions and avoid nominalizations . Additionally, get advice on all the other important aspects of writing a research paper on our academic resources pages .

50 Useful Academic Words & Phrases for Research

Like all good writing, writing an academic paper takes a certain level of skill to express your ideas and arguments in a way that is natural and that meets a level of academic sophistication. The terms, expressions, and phrases you use in your research paper must be of an appropriate level to be submitted to academic journals.

Therefore, authors need to know which verbs , nouns , and phrases to apply to create a paper that is not only easy to understand, but which conveys an understanding of academic conventions. Using the correct terminology and usage shows journal editors and fellow researchers that you are a competent writer and thinker, while using non-academic language might make them question your writing ability, as well as your critical reasoning skills.

What are academic words and phrases?

One way to understand what constitutes good academic writing is to read a lot of published research to find patterns of usage in different contexts. However, it may take an author countless hours of reading and might not be the most helpful advice when faced with an upcoming deadline on a manuscript draft.

Briefly, “academic” language includes terms, phrases, expressions, transitions, and sometimes symbols and abbreviations that help the pieces of an academic text fit together. When writing an academic text–whether it is a book report, annotated bibliography, research paper, research poster, lab report, research proposal, thesis, or manuscript for publication–authors must follow academic writing conventions. You can often find handy academic writing tips and guidelines by consulting the style manual of the text you are writing (i.e., APA Style , MLA Style , or Chicago Style ).

However, sometimes it can be helpful to have a list of academic words and expressions like the ones in this article to use as a “cheat sheet” for substituting the better term in a given context.

How to Choose the Best Academic Terms

You can think of writing “academically” as writing in a way that conveys one’s meaning effectively but concisely. For instance, while the term “take a look at” is a perfectly fine way to express an action in everyday English, a term like “analyze” would certainly be more suitable in most academic contexts. It takes up fewer words on the page and is used much more often in published academic papers.

You can use one handy guideline when choosing the most academic term: When faced with a choice between two different terms, use the Latinate version of the term. Here is a brief list of common verbs versus their academic counterparts:

Although this can be a useful tip to help academic authors, it can be difficult to memorize dozens of Latinate verbs. Using an AI paraphrasing tool or proofreading tool can help you instantly find more appropriate academic terms, so consider using such revision tools while you draft to improve your writing.

Top 50 Words and Phrases for Different Sections in a Research Paper

The “Latinate verb rule” is just one tool in your arsenal of academic writing, and there are many more out there. But to make the process of finding academic language a bit easier for you, we have compiled a list of 50 vital academic words and phrases, divided into specific categories and use cases, each with an explanation and contextual example.

Best Words and Phrases to use in an Introduction section

1. historically.

An adverb used to indicate a time perspective, especially when describing the background of a given topic.

2. In recent years

A temporal marker emphasizing recent developments, often used at the very beginning of your Introduction section.

3. It is widely acknowledged that

A “form phrase” indicating a broad consensus among researchers and/or the general public. Often used in the literature review section to build upon a foundation of established scientific knowledge.

4. There has been growing interest in

Highlights increasing attention to a topic and tells the reader why your study might be important to this field of research.

5. Preliminary observations indicate

Shares early insights or findings while hedging on making any definitive conclusions. Modal verbs like may , might , and could are often used with this expression.

6. This study aims to

Describes the goal of the research and is a form phrase very often used in the research objective or even the hypothesis of a research paper .

7. Despite its significance

Highlights the importance of a matter that might be overlooked. It is also frequently used in the rationale of the study section to show how your study’s aim and scope build on previous studies.

8. While numerous studies have focused on

Indicates the existing body of work on a topic while pointing to the shortcomings of certain aspects of that research. Helps focus the reader on the question, “What is missing from our knowledge of this topic?” This is often used alongside the statement of the problem in research papers.

9. The purpose of this research is

A form phrase that directly states the aim of the study.

10. The question arises (about/whether)

Poses a query or research problem statement for the reader to acknowledge.

Best Words and Phrases for Clarifying Information

11. in other words.

Introduces a synopsis or the rephrasing of a statement for clarity. This is often used in the Discussion section statement to explain the implications of the study .

12. That is to say

Provides clarification, similar to “in other words.”

13. To put it simply

Simplifies a complex idea, often for a more general readership.

14. To clarify

Specifically indicates to the reader a direct elaboration of a previous point.

15. More specifically

Narrows down a general statement from a broader one. Often used in the Discussion section to clarify the meaning of a specific result.

16. To elaborate

Expands on a point made previously.

17. In detail

Indicates a deeper dive into information.

Points out specifics. Similar meaning to “specifically” or “especially.”

19. This means that

Explains implications and/or interprets the meaning of the Results section .

20. Moreover

Expands a prior point to a broader one that shows the greater context or wider argument.

Best Words and Phrases for Giving Examples

21. for instance.

Provides a specific case that fits into the point being made.

22. As an illustration

Demonstrates a point in full or in part.

23. To illustrate

Shows a clear picture of the point being made.

24. For example

Presents a particular instance. Same meaning as “for instance.”

25. Such as

Lists specifics that comprise a broader category or assertion being made.

26. Including

Offers examples as part of a larger list.

27. Notably

Adverb highlighting an important example. Similar meaning to “especially.”

28. Especially

Adverb that emphasizes a significant instance.

29. In particular

Draws attention to a specific point.

30. To name a few

Indicates examples than previously mentioned are about to be named.

Best Words and Phrases for Comparing and Contrasting

31. however.

Introduces a contrasting idea.

32. On the other hand

Highlights an alternative view or fact.

33. Conversely

Indicates an opposing or reversed idea to the one just mentioned.

34. Similarly

Shows likeness or parallels between two ideas, objects, or situations.

35. Likewise

Indicates agreement with a previous point.

36. In contrast

Draws a distinction between two points.

37. Nevertheless

Introduces a contrasting point, despite what has been said.

38. Whereas

Compares two distinct entities or ideas.

Indicates a contrast between two points.

Signals an unexpected contrast.

Best Words and Phrases to use in a Conclusion section

41. in conclusion.

Signifies the beginning of the closing argument.

42. To sum up

Offers a brief summary.

43. In summary

Signals a concise recap.

44. Ultimately

Reflects the final or main point.

45. Overall

Gives a general concluding statement.

Indicates a resulting conclusion.

Demonstrates a logical conclusion.

48. Therefore

Connects a cause and its effect.

49. It can be concluded that

Clearly states a conclusion derived from the data.

50. Taking everything into consideration

Reflects on all the discussed points before concluding.

Edit Your Research Terms and Phrases Before Submission

Using these phrases in the proper places in your research papers can enhance the clarity, flow, and persuasiveness of your writing, especially in the Introduction section and Discussion section, which together make up the majority of your paper’s text in most academic domains.

However, it's vital to ensure each phrase is contextually appropriate to avoid redundancy or misinterpretation. As mentioned at the top of this article, the best way to do this is to 1) use an AI text editor , free AI paraphrasing tool or AI proofreading tool while you draft to enhance your writing, and 2) consult a professional proofreading service like Wordvice, which has human editors well versed in the terminology and conventions of the specific subject area of your academic documents.

For more detailed information on using AI tools to write a research paper and the best AI tools for research , check out the Wordvice AI Blog .

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Uncovering Alternative Words for Research Papers

The purpose of research papers is to present and discuss an academic or scientific topic in a comprehensive manner. In many cases, authors utilize specific words or phrases that can be difficult for some readers to comprehend. Thus, it is important for authors to uncover alternative words and phrases that may aid in providing greater clarity when presenting their topics. This article will explore the importance of finding appropriate alternatives to help improve the overall comprehensibility of research papers as well as provide tips on how best to select these alternate terms.

I. Introduction to Alternative Words in Research Papers

Ii. examples of commonly used terms and their alternatives, iii. exploring the benefits of using alternative words in research writing, iv. establishing guidelines for selecting appropriate synonyms, v. examining the relevance of context when utilizing different vocabulary options, vi. investigating challenges associated with altering word choices for academic purposes vii conclusion: understanding how to effectively replace overused terminology in research writing.

When writing a research paper, words that are used must be carefully chosen in order to convey the exact meaning and intent of the author. While certain synonyms may exist for many terms, they often do not capture nuances or implications as accurately as one might hope. As such, it is important to understand how best to use alternative phrases when crafting an effective research paper.

• More precise language can be employed
• An opportunity to demonstrate understanding of subject matter
• Clarity for readers about specific interpretations

For example, instead of using “in-depth” one could opt for more descriptive phrasing like “comprehensive” or “detailed”. Likewise by replacing simple words with technical terminology associated with their field – e.g., substituting “overview” for “synopsis” when discussing literature – authors are able display expertise while also differentiating themselves from others working on similar topics. In conclusion, employing alternative terms rather than relying solely on generic phrasing leads to stronger papers and greater impact within academic circles; additionally it shows a respect and understanding between researcher(s) and reader(s). Therefore studying various techniques related to synonym replacement becomes essential if one wishes make an indelible mark upon their profession through superior research pieces.

The English language is a vast collection of words with subtle and nuanced meanings. As such, it can be difficult to ensure that the terms used in research papers are appropriate for their context. In this section we will discuss some commonly used words and phrases along with suggested alternatives which could better capture the meaning intended.

A synonym is simply an alternative word or phrase that carries much of the same meaning as another term. It’s often useful when writing a research paper to use synonyms throughout rather than repeating yourself, giving your work greater variety and depth.

Instead of saying “I utilized my resources” you might consider phrasing it differently by changing “utilized” to something like “leveraged,” or even more creatively, “manipulated.” Another example would be replacing less precise verbs like “said” or “discussed”; instead try out some more evocative verbs such as “asserted,” “elaborated on,” or perhaps even go so far as using an active verb like “propounded.” Such replacements add texture and precision to otherwise ordinary sentences.

Benefits of Varied Vocabulary

Research writing often requires a deep dive into a certain topic, so using alternative words to discuss the same concept can help ensure that readers maintain interest. Through careful selection of synonyms and antonyms, authors are able to engage readers with language variety while also providing clarity on the main idea. For instance, instead of saying “study” one could say “research paper” or alternatively use “enquiry” – all which mean essentially the same thing but invoke different connotations for varying audiences.

• Using vocabulary variation allows authors to control their tone when discussing topics in research papers.

Using varied vocabulary also helps researchers stay away from jargon-heavy terms which may confuse non-expert readers who may not be as familiar with technical concepts. By opting for more descriptive words such as “fruitful” or “invaluable”, writers are better able to communicate complex ideas without relying solely on scientific terminology and specialized lingo. This approach is especially useful when working towards peer acceptance; having phrases like “illuminating exploration” within your work will draw both attention and appreciation amongst academics.

• Utilizing descriptive language can bring clarity to nuanced points in research writing.

Careful consideration is essential when selecting appropriate synonyms to use in a research paper. A researcher must be mindful of which words are suitable and how they can accurately convey the desired meaning without introducing any bias or ambiguity. To ensure that each term chosen is both precise and accurate, it is important to consider the following guidelines.

• Be specific: When possible, opt for terms with more defined meanings over those that can have multiple interpretations.

This helps prevent confusion while also adding clarity to your research paper’s overall message. For example, rather than using “large” as a substitute word for something big, choose one such as “vast” or “enormous.”

• Research connotations : Before replacing a term with its synonym, take time to investigate what implications this new choice may carry. Every word has different nuances depending on context so understanding them thoroughly before deciding if it fits your purpose well enough will go a long way towards producing quality content.

When a writer seeks to convey an idea through the use of language, it is important to consider context. This is especially true when selecting words and phrases from different vocabularies. Without regard for the environment in which one’s message will be received, there can be potential misunderstanding or misinterpretation of that message.

What Does Context Mean?

• Context : refers to the circumstances surrounding an event; implies taking into account both physical as well as cultural elements.

In a research paper by Gordon and Brinkman (2008), they suggest that understanding how various factors influence communication should take precedence over simply picking out synonyms for specific words when constructing sentences. The authors offer three steps towards effective word choice: firstly, review any existing conventions related to such contexts; secondly analyze how certain terms might be perceived based on these surroundings; lastly, select meaningful replacements accordingly. They argue that recognizing what terms are commonly used within certain environments helps create clarity since readers will have familiarity with them already – making deciphering written content easier. Moreover, this thought process leads writers away from using too much “flowery” language – enabling appropriate selection of less flowery yet more apt substitutes instead

Investigating Challenges Associated with Altering Word Choices for Academic Purposes The process of replacing overused words and phrases in research writing can present an array of unique challenges. Firstly, there is the issue of understanding which terms need to be replaced; this requires a deep knowledge base from both the writer and their subject area. Furthermore, even after successfully identifying overused terminology, it may not be easy to come up with suitable synonyms or alternatives that accurately convey what was originally intended. The importance of doing so cannot be overemphasized as introducing new language without altering its meaning could lead to misinterpretation by readers. To add to these issues are those associated with utilizing relevant sources for locating potential replacements when struggling for ideas – namely having access to reliable search tools and libraries containing vast resources related to linguistic subjects. Fortunately, modern technology has greatly simplified this task: electronic dictionaries provide instant suggestions while advanced software like AI-enabled programs offer tailored recommendations based on one’s current topic or field of study. Utilizing such innovative solutions offers researchers a quick way out should they find themselves stuck at any point during their paper-writing journey.

• Synonym : Substitute.

English: This article has highlighted the importance of uncovering alternative words when writing research papers. The process of finding and using appropriate synonyms is a valuable tool in any writer’s arsenal, as it can help them to develop their vocabulary and improve the overall quality of their work. With this knowledge, scholars can become better equipped to tackle their next research project with confidence that they have found all possible ways to express their ideas effectively.

Finding Information: Generating Keywords and Alternative Terms

• Finding Information
• The Search Process
• Preparing to Search
• Understanding Your Information Need
• Understanding the Question
• Conducting Scoping Searches

Generating Keywords and Alternative Terms

• Search Tools and Resources
• Specialist Resources
• The Open Web
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) Tools
• Enhancing Your Search
• Search Techniques
• Saving Your Search
• Citation Searching
• Selecting Your Sources
• Accessing the Full Text
• Assessing and Improving Result Relevance
• Assessing and Improving Result Quality
• Identifying Information Gaps
• Literature Reviews and Systematic Searches
• Systematic Searches for Health

Introduction to Generating Keywords and Alternative Terms

When it comes to searching, it's important to remember that input determines output .

Regardless of the search platform being used, be it Google or the library catalogue, the search engine will employ the keywords you enter to sift through millions of possible matches. If your search terms are too generic, imprecise, or off-topic, then the results retrieved will be equally broad. In other words, the more specific and targeted your search terms, the more precise and relevant your search results will be.

Initially, your research topic or question is likely to provide you with a set of keywords or concepts that can be used for your search. These keywords or concepts can then be utilized to identify additional alternative terms, which can assist in expanding and diversifying your search results.

Selecting Keywords

Identifying alternative terms.

Choosing appropriate keywords from the assignment brief can significantly enhance the accuracy and relevance of your search results.

It's important to carefully read the assignment brief and identify the key concepts or themes. These key concepts can then be used to generate a list of keywords that can be employed during the search process.

Here are our top tips for selecting appropriate keywords:

• Avoid using unnecessary words and phrases
• Condense your concepts; avoid repeating yourself
• Use neutral language to return more balanced search results
• Beware of typos and misspellings
• Think about key concepts and themes not articulated in the questio n

Still not sure where to start? Click here to watch Winona State University's short guide to selecting and using keywords appropriately [4:13 minutes]. 

Why not try putting these suggestions into practice? Select the most appropriate keywords from the example question below.

Identifying alternative search terms is important as it allows for more comprehensive and diverse search results . Using only the keywords from a research question can result in a limited set of results that may not fully capture the breadth of available literature.

By identifying alternative search terms, you can expand your search to encompass related concepts, synonyms, and related phrases that may not have been included in the original research question. This can help to ensure a more thorough examination of the relevant literature, leading to a more comprehensive and accurate understanding of the research topic.

You should try to think of several alternative terms for each of the core concepts in your question. Different types of alternative terms support different functions , for example:

• Using synonyms, acronyms, and alternative spellings can diversify and expand your search results.
• Using broader terms can increase your search results.
• Using narrower terms can limit your search results.
• Using antonyms can balance your search results.

Consolidate Your Learning

Further reading.

• << Previous: Conducting Scoping Searches
• Next: Search Tools and Resources >>
• Last Updated: Jun 25, 2024 2:43 PM
• URL: https://libguides.uos.ac.uk/finding-information

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Synonyms of researches

• as in investigations
• as in explores
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Thesaurus Definition of researches

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Synonyms & Similar Words

• investigations
• examinations
• explorations
• disquisitions
• inspections
• inquisitions
• questionnaires
• interrogations
• reinvestigations
• questionaries
• cross - examinations
• goings - over
• self - reflections
• self - examinations
• soul - searchings
• self - explorations
• self - questionings
• self - scrutinies

Thesaurus Definition of researches  (Entry 2 of 2)

• investigates
• looks (into)
• delves (into)
• digs (into)
• inquires (into)
• checks up on
• checks into
• skims (through)
• thumbs (through)
• reinvestigates

Thesaurus Entries Near researches

researchers

researching

Cite this Entry

“Researches.” Merriam-Webster.com Thesaurus , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/researches. Accessed 26 Jun. 2024.

More from Merriam-Webster on researches

Nglish: Translation of researches for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of researches for Arabic Speakers

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What Happened to the Size Premium?

It’s still here, but investors may need to venture into private equity to exploit it.

The size effect, or the negative relation between average stock returns and market capitalization that is not explained by market risk exposure, was first documented by Rolf Banz in his 1981 paper “ The Relationship Between Return and Market Value of Common Stocks .” After the 1992 publication of Eugene Fama and Kenneth French’s paper, “ The Cross-Section of Expected Stock Returns ,” the size effect was incorporated into what became finance’s new workhorse asset pricing model, the Fama-French three-factor model (adding value and size to the capital asset pricing model’s market beta). However, the size premium has been questioned due to its performance in recent decades.

Over the 97-year period of 1927-2023, the Fama-French U.S. Small Research Index returned 11.7% per year, outperforming the return of 10.1% per year of the Fama-French U.S. Large Research Index by 1.6 percentage points per year. However, over the past 20 calendar years (2004-23), the size effect was negative, with the Small Research Index return of 8.9% underperforming the 10.1% return of the Large Research Index by 1.2 percentage points per year.

Disappearing Size Premium

Cliff Asness, Andrea Frazzini, Ronen Israel, Tobias Moskowitz, and Lasse Pedersen, authors of the January 2015 paper “ Size Matters, If You Control Your Junk ,” examined the problem of the disappearing size premium by controlling for the quality factor (quality minus junk, or QMJ).

They noted: “Stocks with very poor quality (i.e., “junk”) are typically very small, have low average returns, and are typically distressed and illiquid securities. These characteristics drive the strong negative relation between size and quality and the returns of these junk stocks chiefly explain the sporadic performance of the size premium and the challenges that have been hurled at it.”

They added: “Small quality stocks outperform large quality stocks and small junk stocks outperform large junk stocks, but the standard size effect suffers from a size-quality composition effect.”

In other words, controlling for quality restores the size premium. This is important because, while in the 1990s, 15% of companies in the Russell 2000 had negative 12-month trailing earnings, today that share is about 40% !

Ron Alquist, Ronen Israel, and Tobias Moskowitz also examined the impact of quality on the size effect in their 2018 paper, “ Fact, Fiction, and the Size Effect .” They found: “Controlling for quality resurrects the size effect after the 1980s and explains its time variation, restores a linear relationship between size and average returns that is no longer concentrated among the tiniest firms, revives the returns to size outside of January and simultaneously diminishes the returns to size in January—making it more uniform across months of the year, and uncovers a larger size effect in almost two dozen international equity markets, 30 where size has been notably weak. These results are robust to using non-market-based size measures, making the size premium a much stronger and more reliable effect after controlling for quality.”

New Research on the Size Effect

Sara Easterwood, Jeffry Netter, Bradley Paye, and Mike Stegemoller contribute to the asset pricing literature with their study “ Taking Over the Size Effect: Asset Pricing Implications of Merger Activity ,” published in the March 2024 issue of the Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis , in which they established a strong connection between merger and acquisition activity and the size effect.

To establish this connection, they constructed an ex-ante takeover likelihood characteristic and associated “takeover factor”—the estimated likelihood that a firm will be acquired within the next year. Variables included the return on assets of the firm, firm leverage (book debt/asset ratio), cash (the cash and short-term investments/assets ratio), firm size (the natural logarithm of market capitalization), Q (the market/book ratio for the firm), and asset structure (PPE, measured by the property, plant, and equipment/assets ratio).

The model also included two indicator variables. The first, denoted BLOCK, equaled 1 when an external blockholder existed, and zero otherwise. The second dummy variable, denoted INDUSTRY, took the value 1 if at least one acquisition occurred within the industry during the prior year. Consistent with the findings of prior studies, the most important variables, based on odds ratios, were the blockholder indicator (positively related to takeover likelihood), prior industry acquisition activity (positively related to takeover likelihood), and size (negatively related to takeover likelihood).

To test whether M&A news exerts a significant influence on the measured average returns associated with prominent anomaly-based hedge portfolio returns, they decomposed ex-post average returns for the size factor and other anomaly portfolios into a component associated with realized M&A news and a residual. They then measured the M&A component of returns using standard event study methods, with the M&A component of a stock’s daily return equal to the abnormal return on each day the firm was within the defined event window around an acquisition announcement, either as target or acquirer. Outside of this window, the M&A component equaled zero.

Their dataset covered US stocks and all acquisitions from 1990 through 2020, with the acquirer having purchased 50% or more of the target’s shares in the transaction and having owned less than 50% of the target prior to the transaction—a total of 225,243 transactions.

Following is a summary of their key findings:

• The cumulative average return of the average target was over 30% for the full sample of public firms—34% for the smallest quintile and 17% for the largest.
• Target CARs increased over the past 30 years—the average CAR during the most recent decade exceeded that during the 1990s by about 4 percentage points.
• Nearly 50% of takeovers of public firms occurred for firms in the smallest decile portfolio, and nearly two thirds of takeovers involved targets in the smallest quintile portfolio.
• The average annual takeover rate for the small-cap quintile was over 4.3% versus 1.9% for the large-cap quintile—small-cap quintile firms were around 2.3 times more likely to be acquired than large quintile firms.
• The odds ratio of acquiring a firm for the small-cap quintile relative to the large-cap quintile was around one third, and the odds ratio of acquiring a public firm was approximately one tenth.
• The difference in average acquirer CARs between firms in the smallest versus largest capitalization portfolio was around 2.3% (2.9%) for portfolios based on size quintiles (deciles).
• The smallest decile and quintile portfolios both had average M&A return components of approximately 1.8% per year, while the average M&A return components for the largest decile and quintile portfolios were close to zero.
• Positive average returns were associated with size-based hedge portfolios that were driven primarily by M&A news, with acquisition news explaining virtually all of the size premium in US data—the size premium has been largely attributable to narrow-window event returns associated with deal announcements involving public firms.
• The returns on their takeover factor were relatively highly correlated, with returns on the size factor proposed by Fama and French (SMB, or small minus big), and the two factor premia exhibited similar cyclical behavior—returns for both factors were procyclical, tending to be higher during economic expansions and lower just before or during recession periods, including the global financial crisis.
• While the size premium disappeared in recent decades, the premium associated with the takeover factor remained robust.
• The takeover factor dominated the size factor—models including the size factor were unable to price the takeover factor, but models including the takeover factor priced the size factor.
• The annualized average return for a long-short portfolio based on size quintiles was 0.9%, while the realized M&A component of the average return was 1.7%—more than 100% of the total size premium. Thus, the residual size premium was negative, as small firms earned lower average returns relative to large firms after removing the M&A return component.
• Over the most recent 30-year period, 1990-2020, the annualized takeover factor premium was around 6% versus 1.5% for the annualized size factor—the takeover factor was more resilient than the size factor over the past few decades.
• After controlling for takeover exposure, larger firms earned higher average returns relative to smaller firms, in contrast to the conventional negative size relationship.
• Results were substantially similar for the period 1980-89, though data was not as complete.
• The takeover factor was rebalanced annually, resulting in low turnover, and thus turnover costs were unlikely to explain the results.

Given these findings, it seems likely that takeover activity also accounted for a significant proportion of the measured size premium during the 1960s and 1970s. From 1960 to 1979, the Fama-French U.S. Small Research Index returned 11.6% per year, outperforming the return of 6.8% per year of the Large Research Index by 4.8 percentage points per year.

Easterwood, Netter, Paye, and Stegemoller also examined the impact of the M&A component on other factors:

• The M&A component of average returns was small for the value factor.
• In contrast to size, the average M&A component for long-short portfolios based on gross profitability was negative because less profitable firms in the short leg of the gross profitability hedge portfolios tended to be smaller and more likely to become targets.
• Other anomalies that exhibited a significant M&A expected return component included idiosyncratic volatility, net issuance, price, and several multicharacteristic strategies that involved profitability (for example, value-profitability).
• Dividend payers were less likely to be takeover targets. In addition, a measure of momentum in the form of the cumulative return over the preceding year and a measure of the idiosyncratic volatility of returns, defined as the realized volatility of daily returns over the previous year, were both highly significant and negatively related to takeover.

Their findings led the authors to conclude “that the traditional size factor can be interpreted as a proxy for a takeover factor, in the sense that the size factor implicitly embeds exposure to underlying state variables that drive time-varying takeover activity. The takeover factor earns a much higher premium than the size factor, especially over recent decades. Asset pricing tests consistently favor the takeover factor relative to the size factor.” They added: “Researchers and practitioners should replace the conventional size factor with a takeover factor in benchmark asset pricing models.”

Investor Takeaways

The first takeaway is that the empirical evidence demonstrates that if investors are going to tilt their portfolios to small stocks, they should focus on small, quality stocks. While there are not yet any mutual funds or exchange-traded funds that target the M&A factor, there are investment firms that use systematic, transparent, and replicable factor-based strategies that access the factors that Easterwood, Netter, Paye, and Stegemoller found to exhibit a significant M&A expected return component (such as small, value companies that are profitability and show positive momentum). These include AQR, Avantis, Bridgeway, and DFA.

Another is that Easterwood, Netter, Paye, and Stegemoller showed that most takeovers are of smaller companies and that their takeover factor has subsumed the explanatory power of the size factor in the cross-section of expected returns. Because the passage in 2002 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act greatly increased the cost of being a public company, today companies are waiting to become much larger before going public. The result is that by 2020 the number of US publicly listed stocks had fallen 50% over the prior 20 years, to about 3,500.

In Europe today, 96% of firms with revenue greater than $100 million are private .

Another outcome from the passage of Sarbanes-Oxley has been that the smallest quintile is made up of much larger stocks today than has been the case historically. For example, Vanguard Small-Cap ETF VB , with $54 billion in assets under management, had an average market cap of $6.8 billion (not so small cap) at the end of March 2024. The takeaway is that to capture the takeover premium in small companies, private markets (in the form of private equity) provide a greater opportunity than in public markets. For investors in public markets, they can still focus on quality/profitability, but it is now harder to access smaller companies as they are remaining private for much longer periods. This is important since all factor premiums have been found to be greater in the smallest stocks. Investors seeking greater exposure to the M&A factor (as well as to the size, value, profitability, and momentum factors) might consider funds such as Dimensional US Small Cap Value ETF DFSV , which had an average market cap of about $2.8 billion, Avantis Small Cap Value ETF AVUV , which had an average market cap of $2.5 billion, and EA Bridgeway Omni Small-Cap Value ETF BSVO , which had an average market cap of around $1 billion.

Another related takeaway is that because the factor premiums in current asset pricing models have been larger in small caps than in large caps, the opportunity to capture them should also be greater now in private equity than in public markets while also earning the illiquidity premium.

The good news is that not only has private equity become more accessible, but competition is driving down fees. They are significantly lower than the historically traditional 2% annual fee/20% carry fee. In addition, private equity firms such as Blackstone BX , Pantheon, and JPMorgan have introduced “evergreen” funds that avoid the problems of capital calls with unknown call dates and long lockups.

Other good news related to changes in private equity is that a deep market in secondaries has developed where funds can purchase existing holdings at a discount (typically around 10%, but it can be much larger in times of distress) from investors or funds that need to trade either for liquidity or asset-allocation (rebalancing) requirements. Additionally, larger private equity funds, such as the ones mentioned, are able to negotiate co-investments for a large majority of their holdings, avoiding the second layer of fees. That, along with secondaries bought at discount, can offset some or all of any acquired fund fees.

Evergreen funds allow for investment at any time and typically allow for limited liquidity (such as 5% a quarter or 10% a year). And Cliffwater has recently introduced its Cascade Private Capital CPEFX in a publicly available interval fund structure. That has the benefit of eliminating the nuisance and expense of receiving K-1s from limited partnerships, as investors receive a 1099 at the end of the year instead. And these vehicles are available on custodial platforms such as Schwab and Fidelity. While the 2/20 structure led to the fund sponsors taking all the alpha available from private equity, today’s lower fees (such as Pantheon’s 1.45% with no carry, and JPMorgan’s fee of 1% with a 10% carry) allow investors to capture the size (and takeover) premiums as well as illiquidity premiums typically found in nonpublic investments.

Words of Caution

We need to cover two last points regarding private equity. First, because private equity investments are much more volatile than public equity, it is important to make sure your allocation to private equity is highly diversified across industries and perhaps even investment firms. Second, private equity funds tend to show much lower volatility than public markets. However, do not be fooled by this “volatility laundering,” as the lower volatility arises purely because these funds do not mark to market in a timely manner. So, don’t fall for that narrative. Private equity is as least as volatile as public equity, if not more so, and it’s a lot less liquid. With that in mind, any allocation to private equity should not be considered as an allocation to alternatives. Instead, it should come from your equity allocation, specifically your small-cap allocation, and should only be made if you can allocate that amount to less liquid assets.

Larry Swedroe is the author or co-author of 18 books on investing, including his latest, Enrich Your Future: The Keys to Successful Investing .

The author or authors own shares in one or more securities mentioned in this article. Find out about Morningstar’s editorial policies .

Larry Swedroe is a freelance writer. The opinions expressed here are the author’s. Morningstar values diversity of thought and publishes a broad range of viewpoints.

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New MDMA variants could be promising alternatives for safe psychotherapeutic applications

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The use of the active ingredient 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA), commonly known as "ecstasy", to support psychotherapy for mental illnesses such as post-traumatic stress disorder is being discussed worldwide. While the therapeutic potential of the substance has already been investigated in clinical trials, only Australia and New Zealand have so far decided to approve and restrict its controlled use by experts due to possible risks and side effects. An international research team led by MedUni Vienna has now identified three new variants of MDMA as promising alternatives for safer use in a controlled psychotherapeutic setting as part of a study. The results were recently published in the "Journal of Neurochemistry".

The currently developed MDMA variants (ODMA, TDMA and SeDMA) have been modified by the researchers in such a way that the positive effects are retained and the negative effects are reduced. As the studies carried out on human cell cultures by Harald Sitte's team from MedUni Vienna's Center for Physiology and Pharmacology show, the new chemical compounds have a similar effect to MDMA on the relevant clinical target structures in the brain (such as serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline transporters), which are crucial for regulating mood and emotion. In contrast to MDMA, however, the new substances have lower activity at certain serotonin receptors and are also broken down more favorably, resulting in fewer toxic breakdown products: "This allows the conclusion that both the acute and long-term side effects of ODMA, TDMA and SeDMA may be lower than those of the conventional substance," explains study leader Harald Sitte.

Since the MDMA analogs also have a weaker interaction with certain transport proteins in the body that are responsible for the absorption and excretion of drugs, the risk of interactions with other drugs could also be reduced." Ana Sofia Alberto-Silva, first author of the study, from MedUni Vienna's Center for Physiology and Pharmacology

Further studies needed

The psychoactive substance MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine) has been known as the party drug "ecstasy" since the 1980s - although the first patent for the substance was granted back in 1912. Due to its effect of promoting positive emotions and increasing interpersonal empathy, research in recent years has focused on the potential of MDMA to support psychotherapy for various mental illnesses. However, possible risks and side effects (tachycardia, high blood pressure, liver and nerve damage) have so far been an obstacle to its widespread therapeutic use. The MDMA analogs currently identified may provide promising alternatives: "Our experimental results showed that the new variants can retain the therapeutic potential of the conventional substance, but are likely to cause fewer side effects." Harald Sitte summarizes the significance of the results: "This could advance the controlled use of psychoactive substances in neuropsychiatric illness". At the same time, the psychopharmacologist and addiction researcher emphasizes the need for further studies to comprehensively test the efficacy and safety of MDMA variants for use in a psychotherapeutic setting, for example in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. 

Medical University of Vienna

Alberto‐Silva, A. S., et al . (2024). Bioisosteric analogs of MDMA: Improving the pharmacological profile?  Journal of Neurochemistry . doi.org/10.1111/jnc.16149 .

Posted in: Medical Science News | Medical Condition News | Pharmaceutical News

Tags: Addiction , Blood , Blood Pressure , Brain , Cell , Dopamine , Drugs , Efficacy , High Blood Pressure , Liver , Nerve , Pharmacology , Physiology , Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder , Psychotherapy , Research , Serotonin , Stress

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