relationship between research and academic writing

Capstone Form and Style

Evidence-based arguments: writing with integrity, writing with integrity: paraphrasing and giving credit.

As we describe in other pages on paraphrasing, successful paraphrasing is the writer’s own explanation or interpretation of another person's ideas or synthesis of other ideas. The goal is to provide a scholarly discussion of other writer’s ideas, provide the original author with credit, and to summarize, synthesize, or expand on the point in an original work.

Ensuring integrity in writing can be a challenge. The standard in American Academic English is to paraphrase and provide a citation to credit the source. This is not the writing expectation in all styles and cultures, so we understand that students sometimes have questions about this. Writing with integrity means the author is writing using his or her own words and being sure to not inadvertently mislead the reader about whether an idea was the writer’s own. Writing with integrity is about rephrasing ideas in the author’s own words and understanding, while also providing credit to the original source.

The example below can be used to understand how to incorporate evidence from previous researchers and authors, providing proper credit to the source. Again, the goal is to write and cite, creating original material and ensuring integrity (avoiding any potential plagiarism concerns).

Example of Uncredited Source

Consider this partial paragraph:

In this example, Organization A is going through a variety of changes in leadership, but this is the norm for organizations in general. Organizations go through change all the time. However, the nature, scope, and intensity of organizational change vary considerably.

Here is the paragraph again, with the second and third sentences bolded and marked in red type:

The red marking is a match from TurnItIn (TII) because those sentences are word-for-word from the original source. TII has matched this text. TII provides an overall percent match in the report.  The percentage itself matters less than the user's review of the report. For example, although text may match the 8-word-standard-match-setting, it may not truly be a copy of others' work.  Also, TII will match full references; this of course adds to the total matching percentage.

Here is a screenshot of a Google Books search where this text can be found online:

In the screenshot, the words highlighted in yellow are the search phrases, and the red box indicates the sentences that appear in the example paragraph. This text was taken directly out of a book on organizational change. This is problematic because it appears in the example paragraph above to be the writer’s own idea when it is not—it came from this book. This misrepresentation, intentional or not, is an academic integrity issue.

Revising a Paragraph With an Uncredited Source

What if the writer adds a citation.

Note the added parenthetical citation, (Nadler & Tushman, 1994), at the end of the third sentence.

In this example, Organization A is going through a variety of changes in leadership, but these types of changes are the norm for organizations in general. Organizations go through change all the time. However, the nature, scope, and intensity of organizational change vary considerably (Nadler & Tushman, 1994).

This change is incorrect because it is still using the original authors’ words. Though a source is provided, the text should be paraphrased, not word-for-word. This citation does not make the reader aware that the words in the preceding two sentences are the original author’s.

What if the writer adds a citation and quotation marks?

In this revision, the writer has added quotation marks around the words borrowed directly from the original author.

In this example, Organization A is going through a variety of changes in leadership, but these types of changes are the norm for organizations in general. “Organizations go through change all the time. However, the nature, scope, and intensity of organizational change vary considerably” (Nadler & Tushman, 1994, p. 279).

Yes, this would be correct APA formatting to use quotations, if a passage is word-for-word, and provide a citation including the page number. However, at the graduate level of writing and academics, writers should generally avoid quoting and opt for paraphrasing. Writers should avoid quoting other authors because this does not demonstrate scholarship. Walden editors suggest that Walden writers reserve quotations for a few specific instances like definitions, if the author’s original phrasing is the subject of the analysis, or if the idea simply cannot be conveyed accurately by paraphrasing.

So, what is the best course of action?

Paraphrasing the idea from the original source and including a citation is the best course of action.

In this example, Organization A is going through a variety of changes in leadership, but these types of changes are the norm for organizations in general. Although the size of the change and the impact on the organization may fluctuate, organizations are constantly changing (Nadler & Tushman, 1994).

This example includes a paraphrase of the passage that was marked as unoriginal. Here is a reminder of the passage:

Organizations go through change all the time. However, the nature, scope, and intensity of organizational change vary considerably

In the paraphrase above, the same idea is provided and the authors are given credit, but this is done using original writing, not what ends up being plagiarism, and not a quotation (as that does not demonstrate understanding and application).

Writing With Integrity in Doctoral Capstone Studies

For doctoral capstone students, it is also important to adequately cite your sources in your final capstone study. Learn more about writing with integrity in the doctoral capstone specifically on the Form and Style website.

• Previous Page: Citing Sources Properly
• Next Page: Types of Sources to Cite in the Doctoral Capstone
• Office of Student Disability Services

Walden Resources

Departments.

• Academic Residencies
• Academic Skills
• Career Planning and Development
• Customer Care Team
• Field Experience
• Military Services
• Student Success Advising
• Writing Skills

Centers and Offices

• Center for Social Change
• Office of Academic Support and Instructional Services
• Office of Degree Acceleration
• Office of Research and Doctoral Services
• Office of Student Affairs

Student Resources

• Doctoral Writing Assessment
• Form & Style Review
• Quick Answers
• ScholarWorks
• SKIL Courses and Workshops
• Walden Bookstore
• Walden Catalog & Student Handbook
• Student Safety/Title IX
• Legal & Consumer Information
• Website Terms and Conditions
• Cookie Policy
• Accessibility
• Accreditation
• State Authorization
• Net Price Calculator
• Contact Walden

Walden University is a member of Adtalem Global Education, Inc. www.adtalem.com Walden University is certified to operate by SCHEV © 2024 Walden University LLC. All rights reserved.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Academic writing

What Is Academic Writing? | Dos and Don’ts for Students

Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. You’ll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you’ll be expected to write your essays , research papers , and dissertation in academic style.

Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts, but it has specific conventions in terms of content, structure and style.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

Types of academic writing, academic writing is…, academic writing is not…, useful tools for academic writing, academic writing checklist.

Academics mostly write texts intended for publication, such as journal articles, reports, books, and chapters in edited collections. For students, the most common types of academic writing assignments are listed below.

Different fields of study have different priorities in terms of the writing they produce. For example, in scientific writing it’s crucial to clearly and accurately report methods and results; in the humanities, the focus is on constructing convincing arguments through the use of textual evidence. However, most academic writing shares certain key principles intended to help convey information as effectively as possible.

Whether your goal is to pass your degree, apply to graduate school , or build an academic career, effective writing is an essential skill.

Don't submit your assignments before you do this

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students. Free citation check included.

Try for free

Formal and unbiased

Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way. The goal is to base arguments on the evidence under consideration, not the author’s preconceptions. All claims should be supported with relevant evidence, not just asserted.

To avoid bias, it’s important to represent the work of other researchers and the results of your own research fairly and accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology  and being honest about the limitations of your research.

The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is presented consistently across different texts, so that studies can be objectively assessed and compared with other research.

Because of this, it’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices. Avoid informal language , including slang, contractions , clichés, and conversational phrases:

• Also , a lot of the findings are a little unreliable.
• Moreover , many of the findings are somewhat unreliable.

Clear and precise

It’s important to use clear and precise language to ensure that your reader knows exactly what you mean. This means being as specific as possible and avoiding vague language :

• People have been interested in this thing for a long time .
• Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10 years .

Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” as this can give the impression that you lack confidence in your arguments. Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your meaning:

• This could perhaps suggest that…
• This suggests that…

Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which generally targets an audience of other academics in related fields.

However, jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate, not to make it more complicated. A specialist term should be used when:

• It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist term.
• Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.
• The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.

The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used in your field is to read papers by other researchers and pay attention to their language.

Focused and well structured

An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it needs to have a clear purpose. Start with a relevant research question or thesis statement , and use it to develop a focused argument. Only include information that is relevant to your overall purpose.

A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Pay attention to structure at three levels: the structure of the whole text, paragraph structure, and sentence structure.

Well sourced

Academic writing uses sources to support its claims. Sources are other texts (or media objects like photographs or films) that the author analyzes or uses as evidence. Many of your sources will be written by other academics; academic writing is collaborative and builds on previous research.

It’s important to consider which sources are credible and appropriate to use in academic writing. For example, citing Wikipedia is typically discouraged. Don’t rely on websites for information; instead, use academic databases and your university library to find credible sources.

You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This means acknowledging whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work by including a citation in the text and a reference list at the end.

There are many different citation styles with different rules. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago . Make sure to consistently follow whatever style your institution requires. If you don’t cite correctly, you may get in trouble for plagiarism . A good plagiarism checker can help you catch any issues before it’s too late.

You can easily create accurate citations in APA or MLA style using our Citation Generators.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

Correct and consistent

As well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation, and citation, it’s important to consistently apply stylistic conventions regarding:

• How to write numbers
• Introducing abbreviations
• Using verb tenses in different sections
• Capitalization of terms and headings
• Spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English

In some cases there are several acceptable approaches that you can choose between—the most important thing is to apply the same rules consistently and to carefully proofread your text before you submit. If you don’t feel confident in your own proofreading abilities, you can get help from Scribbr’s professional proofreading services or Grammar Checker .

Academic writing generally tries to avoid being too personal. Information about the author may come in at some points—for example in the acknowledgements or in a personal reflection—but for the most part the text should focus on the research itself.

Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person pronoun “you.” Use the impersonal pronoun “one” or an alternate phrasing instead for generalizations:

• As a teacher, you must treat your students fairly.
• As a teacher, one must treat one’s students fairly.
• Teachers must treat their students fairly.

The use of the first-person pronoun “I” used to be similarly discouraged in academic writing, but it is increasingly accepted in many fields. If you’re unsure whether to use the first person, pay attention to conventions in your field or ask your instructor.

When you refer to yourself, it should be for good reason. You can position yourself and describe what you did during the research, but avoid arbitrarily inserting your personal thoughts and feelings:

• In my opinion…
• I think that…
• I like/dislike…
• I conducted interviews with…
• I argue that…
• I hope to achieve…

Long-winded

Many students think their writing isn’t academic unless it’s over-complicated and long-winded. This isn’t a good approach—instead, aim to be as concise and direct as possible.

If a term can be cut or replaced with a more straightforward one without affecting your meaning, it should be. Avoid redundant phrasings in your text, and try replacing phrasal verbs with their one-word equivalents where possible:

• Interest in this phenomenon carried on in the year 2018 .
• Interest in this phenomenon continued in 2018 .

Repetition is a part of academic writing—for example, summarizing earlier information in the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid unnecessary repetition. Make sure that none of your sentences are repeating a point you’ve already made in different words.

Emotive and grandiose

An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or marketing text. Though you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of techniques from these styles are not appropriate in an academic context. Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.

Though you may be writing about a topic that’s sensitive or important to you, the point of academic writing is to clearly communicate ideas, information, and arguments, not to inspire an emotional response. Avoid using emotive or subjective language :

• This horrible tragedy was obviously one of the worst catastrophes in construction history.
• The injury and mortality rates of this accident were among the highest in construction history.

Students are sometimes tempted to make the case for their topic with exaggerated , unsupported claims and flowery language. Stick to specific, grounded arguments that you can support with evidence, and don’t overstate your point:

• Charles Dickens is the greatest writer of the Victorian period, and his influence on all subsequent literature is enormous.
• Charles Dickens is one of the best-known writers of the Victorian period and has had a significant influence on the development of the English novel.

There are a a lot of writing tools that will make your writing process faster and easier. We’ll highlight three of them below.

Paraphrasing tool

AI writing tools like ChatGPT and a paraphrasing tool can help you rewrite text so that your ideas are clearer, you don’t repeat yourself, and your writing has a consistent tone.

They can also help you write more clearly about sources without having to quote them directly. Be warned, though: it’s still crucial to give credit to all sources in the right way to prevent plagiarism .

Grammar checker

Writing tools that scan your text for punctuation, spelling, and grammar mistakes. When it detects a mistake the grammar checke r will give instant feedback and suggest corrections. Helping you write clearly and avoid common mistakes .

You can use a summarizer if you want to condense text into its most important and useful ideas. With a summarizer tool, you can make it easier to understand complicated sources. You can also use the tool to make your research question clearer and summarize your main argument.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

Use the checklist below to assess whether you have followed the rules of effective academic writing.

• Checklist: Academic writing

I avoid informal terms and contractions .

I avoid second-person pronouns (“you”).

I avoid emotive or exaggerated language.

I avoid redundant words and phrases.

I avoid unnecessary jargon and define terms where needed.

I present information as precisely and accurately as possible.

I use appropriate transitions to show the connections between my ideas.

My text is logically organized using paragraphs .

Each paragraph is focused on a single idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Every part of the text relates to my central thesis or research question .

I support my claims with evidence.

I use the appropriate verb tenses in each section.

I consistently use either UK or US English .

I format numbers consistently.

I cite my sources using a consistent citation style .

Your text follows the most important rules of academic style. Make sure it's perfect with the help of a Scribbr editor!

Is this article helpful?

Other students also liked.

• Taboo words in academic writing
• How to write more concisely
• Transition Words & Phrases | List & Examples

More interesting articles

• A step-by-step guide to the writing process
• Active vs. Passive Constructions | When to Use the Passive Voice
• Avoid informal writing
• Avoid rhetorical questions
• Be conscious of your adverb placement
• Capitalization in titles and headings
• Exclamation points (!)
• First-Person Pronouns | List, Examples & Explanation
• Forging good titles in academic writing
• Free, Downloadable Educational Templates for Students
• Free, Downloadable Lecture Slides for Educators and Students
• How to avoid repetition and redundancy
• How to write a lab report
• How to write effective headings
• Language mistakes in quotes
• List of 47 Phrasal Verbs and Their One-Word Substitutions
• Myth: It’s incorrect to start a sentence with “because”
• Myth: It’s an error to split infinitives
• Myth: It’s incorrect to start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so)
• Myth: Paragraph transitions should be placed at the ends of paragraphs
• Tense tendencies in academic texts
• Using abbreviations and acronyms
• What Is Anthropomorphism? | Definition & Examples
• What Is Sentence Case? | Explanation & Examples
• What Is Title Case? | Explanation & Worksheet
• Writing myths: The reasons we get bad advice
• Writing numbers: words and numerals

Get unlimited documents corrected

✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

ENGL002: English Composition II

What is academic research writing.

Not all useful and valuable writing automatically involves research or can be called "academic research writing".

While poets, playwrights, and novelists frequently do research and base their writings on that research, what they produce doesn't constitute academic research writing. The film Shakespeare in Love incorporated facts about Shakespeare's life and work to tell a touching, entertaining, and interesting story, but it was nonetheless a work of fiction since the writers, director, and actors clearly took liberties with the facts in order to tell their story. If you were writing a research project for a literature class that focuses on Shakespeare, you would not want to use Shakespeare in Love as evidence about how Shakespeare wrote his plays.

Essay exams are usually not a form of research writing. When an instructor gives an essay exam, she usually is asking students to write about what they learned from the class readings, discussions, and lecturers. While writing essay exams demands an understanding of the material, this isn't research writing because instructors aren't expecting students to do additional research on the topic.

All sorts of other kinds of writing we read and write all the time – letters, emails, journal entries, instructions, etc. – are not research writing.  Some writers include research in these and other forms of personal writing, and practicing some of these types of writing – particularly when you are trying to come up with an idea to write and research about in the first place – can be helpful in thinking through a research project. But when we set about to write a research project, most of us don't have these sorts of personal writing genres in mind.

So, what  is  "research writing"?

Research writing is writing that uses evidence (from journals, books, magazines, the Internet, experts, etc.) to persuade or inform an audience about a particular point.

Research writing exists in a variety of different forms. For example, academics, journalists, or other researchers write articles for journals or magazines; academics, professional writers, and almost anyone create web pages that both use research to make some sort of point and that show readers how to find more research on a particular topic. All of these types of writing projects can be done by a single writer who seeks advice from others, or by a number of writers who collaborate on the project.

Academic  research writing – the specific focus of  The Process of Research Writing and the sort of writing project you will probably need to write in this class – is a form of research writing. How is academic research writing different from other kinds of writing that involve research? The goal of this textbook is to answer that question, and academic research projects come in a variety of shapes and forms. (In fact, you may have noticed that The Process of Research Writingpurposefully avoids the term "research paper" since this is only one of the many ways in which it is possible to present academic research). But in brief, academic research writing projects are a bit different from other kinds of research writing projects in three significant ways:

Thesis : Academic research projects are organized around a point or a "thesis" that members of the intended audience would not accept as "common sense". What an audience accepts as "common sense" depends a great deal on the audience, which is one of the many reasons why what "counts" as academic research varies from field to field. But audiences want to learn something new either by being informed about something they knew nothing about before or by reading a unique interpretation on the issue or the evidence.

Evidence : Academic research projects rely almost exclusively on evidence in order to support this point. Academic research writers use evidence in order to convince their audiences that the point they are making is right. Of course, all writing uses other means of persuasion – appeals to emotion, to logic, to the credibility of the author, and so forth. But the readers of academic research writing projects are likely to be more persuaded by good evidence than by anything else.

 "Evidence", the information you use to support your point, includes readings you find in the library (journal and magazine articles, books, newspapers, and many other kinds of documents); materials from the Internet (web pages, information from databases, other Internet-based forums); and information you might be able to gather in other ways (interviews, field research, experiments, and so forth).

Citation : Academic research projects use a detailed citation process in order to demonstrate to their readers where the evidence that supports the writer's point came from. Unlike most types of "non-academic" research writing, academic research writers provide their readers with a great deal of detail about where they found the evidence they are using to support their point. This process is called citation, or "citing" of evidence. It can sometimes seem intimidating and confusing to writers new to the process of academic research writing, but it is really nothing more than explaining to your reader where your evidence came from.

Research Writing with Computers and the Internet

There are good reasons for writing with computers. To name just a few, computers help writers:

• Revise more easily, since you don't need to retype an entire draft;
• Share their writing with others, either electronically (on disk or via email) or in "hard copy" since the writer only needs to print additional copies;
• Store and organize files, since papers that might get lost or take up a lot of room can all fit onto a computer hard drive or a floppy diskette; and
• Make correct and "nice-looking" drafts with the use of features like spelling and grammar checkers, and with design features that allow you to select different fonts and layouts.

Chances are, you already know these things.

If you are not using computers or the Internet in your academic research writing process, you need to try and learn more about the possibilities. It can be intimidating and time-consuming to begin effectively using a computer, but there are few things that will be as rewarding for your academic writing career.

The Process of Research Writing: A Guide to Understanding this Book

Writing as a process: a brief explanation and map.

No essay, story, or book (including this one) simply "appeared" one day from the writer's brain; rather, all writings are made after the writer, with the help of others, works through the process of writing.

Generally speaking, the process of writing involves:

• Coming up with an idea  (sometimes called brainstorming, invention, or "pre-writing");
• Writing a rough draft of that idea ;
• Showing that rough draft to others to get feedback  (peers, instructors, colleagues, etc.);
• Revising the draft  (sometimes many times); and
• Proof-reading and editing  to correct minor mistakes and errors.

An added component in the writing process of research projects is, obviously, research. Rarely does research begin before at least some initial writing (even if it is nothing more than brainstorming or pre-writing exercises), and research is usually not completed until after the entire writing project is completed. Rather, research comes in to play at all parts of the process and can have a dramatic effect on the other parts of the process. Chances are you will need to do at least some simple research to develop an idea to write about in the first place. You might do the bulk of your research as you write your rough draft, though you will almost certainly have to do more research based on the revisions that you decide to make to your project.

There are two other things to think about within this simplified version of the process of writing. First, the process of writing always takes place for some reason or purpose  and within some context that potentially changes the way you do these steps.  The process that you will go through in writing for this class will be different from the process you go through in responding to an essay question on a Sociology midterm or from sending an email to a friend. This is true in part because your purposes for writing these different kinds of texts are simply different.

Second, the process of writing isn't quite as linear and straightforward as my list might suggest. Writers generally have to start by coming up with an idea, but writers often go back to their original idea and make changes in it after they write several drafts, do research, talk with others, and so on. The writing process might be more accurately represented like this:

Seem complicated? It is, or at least it can be.

So, instead of thinking of the writing process as an ordered list, you should think of it more as a "web" where different points can and do connect with each other in many different ways, and a process that changes according to the demands of each writing project. While you might write an essay where you follow the steps in the writing process in order (from coming up with an idea all the way to proofreading), writers also find themselves following the writing process out of order all the time. That's okay. The key thing to remember about the writing process is that it is a process made up of many different steps, and writers are rarely successful if they "just write".

• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
• Harvard Graduate School of Design - Frances Loeb Library

Write and Cite

• Academic Integrity

Responsible research and writing habits

Generative ai (artificial intelligence).

• Using Sources and AI
• Academic Writing
• From Research to Writing
• GSD Writing Services
• Grants and Fellowships
• Reading, Notetaking, and Time Management
• Theses and Dissertations

Need Help? Be in Touch.

•   Ask a Design Librarian
•  Call 617-495-9163
•  Text 617-237-6641
•   Consult a Librarian
•   Workshop Calendar
•   Library Hours

Central to any academic writing project is crediting (or citing) someone else' words or ideas. The following sites will help you understand academic writing expectations.

Academic integrity is truthful and responsible representation of yourself and your work by taking credit only for your own ideas and creations and giving credit to the work and ideas of other people. It involves providing attribution (citations and acknowledgments) whenever you include the intellectual property of others—and even your own if it is from a previous project or assignment. Academic integrity also means generating and using accurate data.

Responsible and ethical use of information is foundational to a successful teaching, learning, and research community. Not only does it promote an environment of trust and respect, it also facilitates intellectual conversations and inquiry. Citing your sources shows your expertise and assists others in their research by enabling them to find the original material. It is unfair and wrong to claim or imply that someone else’s work is your own.

Failure to uphold the values of academic integrity at the GSD can result in serious consequences, ranging from re-doing an assignment to expulsion from the program with a sanction on the student’s permanent record and transcript. Outside of academia, such infractions can result in lawsuits and damage to the perpetrator’s reputation and the reputation of their firm/organization. For more details see the Academic Integrity Policy at the GSD. 

The GSD’s Academic Integrity Tutorial can help build proficiency in recognizing and practicing ways to avoid plagiarism.

• Avoiding Plagiarism (Purdue OWL) This site has a useful summary with tips on how to avoid accidental plagiarism and a list of what does (and does not) need to be cited. It also includes suggestions of best practices for research and writing.
• How Not to Plagiarize (University of Toronto) Concise explanation and useful Q&A with examples of citing and integrating sources.

This fast-evolving technology is changing academia in ways we are still trying to understand, and both the GSD and Harvard more broadly are working to develop policies and procedures based on careful thought and exploration. At the moment, whether and how AI may be used in student work is left mostly to the discretion of individual instructors. There are some emerging guidelines, however, based on overarching values.

• Always ask first if AI is allowed and specifically when and how.
• Always check facts and sources generated by AI as these are not reliable.
• Cite your use of AI to generate text or images. Citation practices for AI are described in Using Sources and AI.

Since policies are changing rapidly, we recommend checking the links below often for new developments, and this page will continue to update as we learn more.

• Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) from HUIT Harvard's Information Technology team has put together this webpage explaining AI and curating resources about initial guidelines, recommendations for prompts, and recommendations of tools with a section specifically on image-based tools.
• Generative AI in Teaching and Learning at the GSD The GSD's evolving policies, information, and guidance for the use of generative AI in teaching and learning at the GSD are detailed here. The policies section includes questions to keep in mind about privacy and copyright, and the section on tools lists AI tools supported at the GSD.
• AI Code of Conduct by MetaLAB A Harvard-affiliated collaborative comprised of faculty and students sets out recommendations for guidelines for the use of AI in courses. The policies set out here are not necessarily adopted by the GSD, but they serve as a good framework for your own thinking about academic integrity and the ethical use of AI.
• Prompt Writing Examples for ChatGPT+ Harvard Libraries created this resource for improving results through crafting better prompts.
• << Previous: Home
• Next: Using Sources and AI >>
• Last Updated: Jun 24, 2024 11:19 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/gsd/write

Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Article links

“Research Writing in the Academic Disciplines” provided by Lumen Learning

Chapter Preview

• Identify the key principles of source-based writing which span different academic disciplines and professions.
• Describe the collaborative and social process of knowledge-making in modern society.
• Describe the concept of discourse communities related to research writing.

English Composition 2

provided by Lumen Learning

Research Writing in the Academic Disciplines

Introduction

Regardless of the academic discipline in which you conduct research and write, and the heart of the research and writing processes lie the same principles. These principles are critical reading and writing, active and creative interpretation of research sources and data, and writing rhetorically. At the same time, as a college writer, you probably know that research and writing assignment differ from one academic discipline to another. For example, different academic disciplines require researchers to use different research methods and techniques. Writers in different disciplines are also often required to discuss the results of their research differently. Finally, as you probably know, the finished texts look different in different disciplines. They often use different format and organizational structure and use different citation and documentation systems to acknowledge research sources. All these differences are rhetorical in nature.

Researchers and writers in different academic disciplines do what they do because they have a certain rhetorical purpose to fulfill and a certain audience to reach. In order to make their research understood and to enable others in their intellectual community to follow their ideas and theories, academic writers conform to the expectations of their readers. They follow the research methods and procedures as well as the conventions of presenting that research established by their academic community. As a college student, you have probably noticed that your professors in different classes will give you different assignments and expect different things from you as a researcher and a writer.

Researching this chapter, I looked for the types of writing and research assignments that professors of different academic disciplines assign to students at the university where I work, by browsing websites of its different departments. As I expected, there was a considerable variety of purposes, audience, and research methods. I saw assignments ranging from annual accounting reports assigned in a business class, to studies of various countries’ political systems in a political science course, to a web search for information on cystic fibrosis in a cell biology class. All these assignments had different parameters and expected writers to do different things because they reflected the peculiarities of research and writing in the disciplines in which they were assigned. This variety of assignments, methods, and approaches is universal.

A study by Daniel Melzer examined the kinds of research and writing assignments students in various colleges and universities across the nation receive in different disciplines. Melzer’s shows that students in various academic disciplines are asked to conduct research for a variety of purposes, which ranged from informing and persuading to exploration and self- expression (91). Also, according to Melzer’s study, students in different disciplines researched and wrote for a variety of audience which included not only the instructor of their class, but also their classmates and for wider audiences outside of their classes (95). Despite this variety of goals, methods, and approaches, there are several key principles of source-based writing which span different academic disciplines and professions. These principles are:

• The purpose of academic writing is to generate and communicate new knowledge and new ideas.
• Academic writers write “from sources.” This means that new ideas, conclusions, and theories are created on the basis of existing ideas and existing research
• Academic writers examine their sources carefully for their credibility and appropriateness for the writer’s goals and objectives.
• Academic writers carefully acknowledge all their research sources using source citation and documentation systems accepted in their disciplines.

So, while one chapter or even a whole book cannot cover all the nuances and conventions of research and writing in every academic discipline. My purpose in this chapter is different. I would like to explore, together with you, the fundamental rhetorical and other principles and approaches that govern research writing across all academic disciplines. This chapter also offers activities and projects which, I hope, will make you more aware of the peculiar aspects of researching and writing in different academic disciplines. My ultimate goal in this chapter is to enable my readers to become active and critical investigators of the disciplinary differences in research and writing. Such an active approach will enable you to find out what I cannot cover here by reading outside of this book, by talking to your professors, and by practicing research and writing across disciplines.

Intellectual and Discourse Communities

To become better researchers and writers, we need to know not only the “how’s” of these two activities but also the “why’s.” In other words, it is not sufficient to acquire practical skills of research and writing. It is also necessary to understand why you do what you do as you research and what results you can expect to achieve as a results of your research. And this is where rhetorical theory comes in. Writing and reading are interactive, social processes. Ideas presented in written texts are born as a result of long and intense dialog between authors and others interested in the same topic or issue. Gone is the image of the medieval scholar and thinker sitting alone in his turret, surrounded by his books and scientific instruments as the primary maker and advancer of knowledge.

Instead, the knowledge-making process in modern society is a collaborative, effort to which many parties contribute. Knowledge is not a product of individual thinking, but of collective work, and many people contribute to its creation. Academic and professional readers and writers function within groups known as discourse communities. The word “discourse” means the language that a group uses to talk what interests its members. For example, as a student, you belong to the community of your academic discipline.

Together with other members of your academic discipline’s intellectual community, you read the same literature, discuss and write about the same subjects, and are interested in solving the same problems. The language or discourse used by you and your fellow-intellectuals in professional conversations (both oral and written) is discipline-specific. This explains, among other things, why the texts you read and write in different academic disciplines are often radically different from one another and even why they are often evaluated differently.

The term community does not necessarily mean that all members of these intellectual and discourse groups agree on everything. Nor does it mean that they have to be geographically close to one another to form such a community. Quite the opposite is often true. Debates and discussions among scientists and other academics who see things differently allows knowledge to advance. These debates in discussions are taking place in professional books, journals, and other publications, as well as at professional meetings.

The Making of Knowledge in Academic Disciplines

In the preceding section of this chapter, I made a claim that the making of new knowledge is a social process, undertaken by intellectual communities. In this section, we will look at one influential theory that has tried to explain how exactly this knowledge- making process happens. The theory of knowledge-making which I am talking about was proposed by Thomas Kuhn in his much-cited 1962 book  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . Although, as the book’s title suggests, Kuhn was writing about sciences, Kuhn’s theory has now been accepted as relevant and useful not only by academic disciplines outside of natural sciences. According to Kuhn, the change in human knowledge about any subject takes place in the following steps. At first, an academic discipline or any other intellectual community works within the confines of an accepted theory or theories. The members of the community use it systematically and methodically.

Kuhn calls this theory or theories the accepted paradigm, or standard of the discipline . Once the majority of an intellectual community accepts a new paradigm, the community’s members work on expanding this paradigm, but not on changing it. While working within an established paradigm, all members of an intellectual community have the same assumptions about what they study and discuss, use the same research methods and approaches, and use the same methods to present and compare the results of their investigation. Such uniformity allows them to share their work with one another easily.

More importantly, though, staying within an accepted paradigm allows researchers to create a certain version of reality that is based on the paradigm that is being used and which is accepted by all members of the community. For example, if a group of scientists studies something using a common theory and common research methods, the results that such investigation yields are accepted by this group as a kind of truth or fact that had been experimentally verified. Changes in scientific paradigms happen, according to Kuhn, when scientists begin to observe unusual phenomena or unexpected results in their research. Kuhn calls such phenomena anomalies . When anomalies happen, the current paradigm or system of research and thinking that a community employs fails to explain them. Eventually, these anomalies become so great that they are impossible to ignore. Then, a shift in paradigm becomes necessary.

Gradually, then, existing paradigms are re-examined and revised, and new ones are established. When this happens, old knowledge gets discarded and substituted by new knowledge. In other words, an older version of reality is replaced by a newer version. To illustrate his theory, Kuhn uses the paradigm shift started by the astronomer Copernicus and his theory that the Earth revolves around the Sun. I have also used this example in the chapter of this book dedicated to rhetoric to show that even scientific truths that seem constant and unshakable are subject to revision and change. To an untrained eye it may seem that all scientists and other researchers do is explain and describe reality which is unchangeable and stable. However, when an intellectual community is working within the confines of the current paradigm, such as a scientific theory or a set of research methods, their interpretations of this reality are limited by the capabilities and limitations of that paradigm. In other words, the results of their research are only as good as the system they use to obtain those results.

Once the paradigm use for researching and discussing the subjects of investigation changes, the results of that investigation may change, too. This, in turn, will result in a different interpretation of reality.

Application of the Concept of Discourse Communities to Research Writing

Kuhn’s theory of knowledge making is useful for us as researchers and writers because it highlights the instability and changeability of the terms “fact” and “opinion.” As I have mentioned throughout this book, the popular perception of these two terms is that they are complete opposites. According to this view, facts can be verified by empirical, or experimental methods, while opinions are usually purely personal and cannot be verified or proven since they vary from one person to another. Facts are also objective while opinions are subjective. This ways of thinking about facts and opinions is especially popular among beginning writers and researchers.

When I discuss with my students their assumptions about research writing, I often hear that research papers are supposed to be completely objective because they are based on facts, and that creative writing is subjective because it is based on opinion. Moreover, such writers say, it is impossible to argue with facts, but it is almost equally impossible to argue with opinions since every person is entitled to one and since we can’t really tell anyone that their opinions are wrong.

In college writing, such a theory of fact and opinion has very tangible consequences. It often results in writing in which the author is either too afraid to commit to a theory or points of view because he or she is afraid of being labeled subjective or biased. Consequently, such writers create little more than summaries of available sources. Other inexperienced writers may take the opposite route, writing exclusively or almost exclusively from their current understanding of their topics, or from their current opinions. Since “everyone is entitled to their own opinion,” they reason, no one can question what they have written even if that writing is completely unpersuasive. In either case, such writing fails to fulfill the main purpose of research, which is to learn.

What later becomes an accepted theory in an academic discipline begins as someone’s opinion. Enough people have to be persuaded by a theory in order for it to approach the status of accepted knowledge. All theories are subject to revision and change, and who is to say some time down the road, a better research paradigm will not be invented that would overturn what we now consider a solid fact. Thus, research and the making of knowledge are not only social processes but also rhetorical ones. Change in human understanding of difficult problems and issues takes place over time. By researching those problems and issues and by discussing what they find with others, writers advance their community’s understanding and knowledge.

Chances are that during your research, you saw some significant developments and shifts in the ways in which your academic discipline has understood and talked about the issues and topic that interest its members.

To illustrate the process of historical investigation of an academic subject, let us look at the hot issue of cloning. What began as a scientific debate years ago has transcended the boundaries of the academic world and is not interesting to various people from various walks of life, and for various reasons. The issue of cloning is debated not only from the scientific, but also from the ethical and legal points of view, to name just a few.

Cloning: Current Perspectives and Discussions

Since I am not a scientist, my interest in the subject of cloning is triggered by an article on stem cell research that I read recently in the popular magazine Scientific American. I know that stem cell research is a controversial subject, related to the subject of human cloning. My interest in stem cell research was further provoked by the impassioned speech made by Ron Regan, the son of the late President Ronald Regan, at the Democratic Party’s National Convention in the summer of 2004. Regan was trying to make a case for more stem cell research by arguing that it could have helped his father who had died of Alzheimer’s disease. I conducted a quick search of my university library using the keywords “human cloning.” The search turned up eighty-seven book titles that told me that the topic is fairly important for the academic community as well as for the general public.

I noticed that the most recent book on cloning in my library’s collection was published this year while the oldest one appeared in 1978. There seemed to be an explosion of interest in the topic beginning in the 1990s with the majority of the titles appearing between then and 2004. Next, I decided to search two online databases, which are also accessible from my university library’s website. I was interested in both scientific and legal aspects of cloning, so I searched the health science database PubMed (my search turns up 2549 results). Next, I search the database LexisNexis Congressional that gave me access to legislative documents related to human cloning. This search left me with over a hundred documents. I was able to find many more articles on human cloning in popular magazines and newspapers. By reading across these publications, I would probably be able to get a decent idea about the current state of the debate on cloning.

Cloning: A Historical Investigation

Dolly the sheep was cloned in 1996 by British scientists and died in 2003. According to the website Science Museum (www.sciencemuseum.org.uk), “Dolly the sheep became a scientific sensation when her birth was announced in 1997. Her relatively early death in February 2003 fuels the debate about the ethics of cloning research and the long-term health of clones.” I am tempted to start my search with Dolly because it was her birth that brought the issue of cloning to broad public’s attention. But then I recall the homunculus—a “test tube” human being that medieval alchemists often claimed to have created. It appears that my search into the history of cloning debate will have to go back much further than 1996 when Dolly was cloned.

Cloning: Signs of Paradigm Shifts

Living in the 21st century, I am skeptical towards alchemists’ claims about creating a homunculus out of a bag of bones, skin, and hair. Their stories may have been believable in the middle-ages, though, and may have represented the current paradigm of thinking about the possibility of creating living organisms is a lab. So, I turned to Dolly in an attempt to investigate what the paradigm of thinking about cloning was in the second half of the 1990s and how the scientific community and the general public received the news of Dolly’s birth. Therefore, I went back to my university library’s web page and searched the databases for articles on Dolly and cloning published within two years of Dolly’s birth in 1996. After looking through several publications, both from scientific and popular periodicals, I sense the excitement, surprise, skepticism, and a little concern about the future implications of our ability to close living creatures. Writing for The Sunday Times, in 1998, Steve Connor says that Dolly would undergo texts to prove that she is, indeed, the clone of her mother. In his article, Connor uses such words as “reportedly” which indicates skepticism (The Sunday Times, Feb 8, 1998, p. 9). In a New Scientist article published in January 1998, Philip Cohen writes that in the future scientists are likely to establish human cloning techniques. Cohen is worried that human cloning would create numerous scientific, ethical, and legal problems. (New Scientist, Jan 17, 1998 v157 n2117 p. 4(2))

Let’s now fast-forward to 2003 and 2004. Surprisingly, at the top of the page of search results are the news that the British biotech company whose employees cloned Dolly. Does this mean that cloning is dead, though? Far from it! My research shows debates about legal and ethical aspects of cloning. The ability of scientists to clone living organisms is not in doubt anymore. By now, political and ideological groups have added their agendas and their voices to the cloning and stem cell research debate, and the US Congress has enacted legislation regulating stem cell research in the US. The current paradigm of discussions of human cloning and the related subject of stem cell research is not only scientific but also political, ethical, legal, and ideological in nature.

The historical study project, as well as my illustration of how such an investigation could be completed, should illustrate two things. Firstly, if you believe that something about human cloning or any other topic worth investigating is an indisputable fact, chances are that some years ago it was “only” someone’s opinion, or, in Kuhn’s words, an “ anomaly ” which the current system of beliefs and the available research methods could not explain. Secondly, academic and social attitudes towards any subject of discussion and debate are formed and changed gradually over time. Both internal, discipline-specific factors, and external, social ones, contribute to this change. Such internal factors include the availability of new, more accurate research techniques or equipment. The external factors include, but are not limited to, the general cultural and political climate in the country and in the world. Academic research and academic discussions are, therefore, rhetorical phenomena which are tightly connected not only to the state of an academic discipline at any given time, but also to the state of society as a whole and to the interests, beliefs, and convictions of its members.

Establishing Authority in Academic Writing by Taking Control of Your Research Sources

Good writing is authoritative. It shows that the author is in control and that he or she is leading the readers along the argument by skillfully using research sources, interpreting them actively and creatively, and placing the necessary signposts to help the readers anticipate where the discussion will go next. Authoritative writing has its writing and its writer’s voice present at all times. Readers of such writing do not have to guess which parts of the paper they are reading come from an external source and which come from the author him or herself.

The task of conveying authority through writing faces any writer since it is one of the major components of the rhetorical approach to composing. However, it is especially relevant to academic writing because of the context in which we learn it and in which it is read and evaluated. We come to academic writing as apprentices not only in the art of composing but also in the academic discipline which are studying. We face two challenges at the same time. On the one hand, we try to learn to become better writers. On the other, we study the content of our chosen academic disciplines that will become the content of our academic writing itself. Anyone entering college, either as an undergraduate or a graduate student, has to navigate the numerous discourse conventions of their academic discipline. We often have too little time for such navigation as reading, writing, and research assignments are handed to us soon after our college careers begin. In these circumstances, we may feel insecure and unsure of our previous knowledge, research, and writing expertise.

In the words of writing teacher and writer David Bartholomae, every beginning academic writer has to “ invent the university .” What Bartholomae means by this is, when becoming a member of an academic community, such as a college or a university, each student has to understand what functioning in that community will mean personally for him or her and what conventions of academic reading, writing, and learning he or she will be expected to fulfill and follow. Thus, for every beginning academic writing, the process of learning its conventions is akin to inventing his or her own idea of what university intellectual life is like and how to join the university community.

Beginning research and academic writers let their sources control their writing too often. I think that the cause of this is the old idea, inherent in the traditional research paper assignment, that researched writing is supposed to be a compilation of external sources first and a means for the writer to create and advance new knowledge second, if at all. As a result, passages, and sometimes whole papers written in this way lack the writer’s presence and, as a consequence, they lack authority because all they do is re-tell the information presented in sources. Consider, for example, the following passage from a researched argument in favor of curbing video game violence. In the paper, the author is trying to make a case that a connection exists between violence on the video game screen and in real life. The passage below summarizes some of the literature.

The link between violence in video games and violence in real life has been shown many times (Abrams 54). Studies show that children who play violent video games for more than two hours each day are more likely to engage in violent behavior than their counterparts who do not (Smith 3). Axelson states that some video games manufacturers have recognized the problems by reducing the violence in some of their titles and by rating their games for different age groups (157). The government has instituted a rating system for videogames similar to the one used by the movie industry in an effort to protect your children from violence on the screen (Johnson 73). Alberts and Cohen say that we will have to wait and see whether this rating system will prove to be effective in curbing violence (258).

This passage lacks authority because every sentence in it is taken from an external source. Where is the writer in this paragraph? Where are the writer’s voice and interpretations of the research data? What new insights about the possible connection between video game and real life violence do we get from this author? Is there anything in this passage that we could not have learned by reading the sources mentioned in this paper? This writer has let external sources control the writing by composing an entire paragraph (and the rest of the paper is written in the same way) out of external source segments and nowhere in this passage do we see the author’s own voice, persona, or authority. So, how can the problem of writing without authority and without voice be solved? There are several ways, and the checklist below provides you with some suggestions.

• Always remember to use research for a rhetorical purpose—to create new knowledge and convey it to your readers. Except in rare cases, writers are not compilers of existing information. Resist the urge to limit your research to simply summarizing and quoting external sources. Therefore, your ultimate purpose is to create and express your own theories and opinions about your topic.
• Talk to academics or professionals to find out what constitutes authoritative writing in their field. It could be the presence of a strong voice, or the use f particular research methods and techniques, or a certain way to present the results of your research. Later on in the chapter, you are offered an interview project designed to help you do that.
• Create annotated bibliographies to make sense of your research and make the ideas and theories you read about, your own. Try the annotated bibliography activity later on in the chapter.
• Use only reliable sources.

Integrating Sources into Your Own Writing

One of the most difficult tasks facing students of research writing is learning how to seamlessly integrate the information they find in the research sources into their own writing. In order to create a rhetorically effective researched text, a writer needs to work out a way of combining the research data, the voices and theories of research sources’ authors on the one hand and his or her ideas, voice, and tone on the other. The following techniques of integrating source material into your own writing are, of course, relevant not only for academic research. However, it is when faced with academic research papers that many beginning researchers face problems with the integration of sources. Therefore, I am placing the discussion of these methods into the chapter of the book dedicated to academic research. Typically, researching writers use the following methods of integrating information from research sources into their writing:

Direct quoting

Quoting from a source directly allows you to convey not only the information contained in the research source, but also the voice, tone, and “feel” of the original text. By reading direct quotes, your readers gain first-hand access to the language and the spirit of the original source.

How Much to Quote

Students often ask me how much of their sources they should quote directly in their papers. While there is no hard and fast rule about it, I usually reply that they should quote only when they feel it necessary to put their readers in direct contact with the text of the source. Quote if you encounter a striking word, sentence, or passage, one that you would be hard pressed to convey the same information and the same emotions and voice better than the original source. Consider, for example the following passage from a paper written by a student. In the paper, the writer analyzes a 19th-century slave narrative written by a man named J. D. Green:

The most important event of Green’s early life was the sale of his mother to another owner at the young age of twelve years old. In response to this Green dropped to his knees and [shouted] at the heavens, “Oh! How dreadful it is to be black! Why was I born black? It would have been better had I not been born at all” (Green 5). It is this statement that communicates the message of Green’s story. [None of] the atrocities told in the later portions of the narrative…elicit the same level of emotion and feeling from Green. For the remainder of the story, [he] is very reserved and treats each increasingly horrendous crime as if it was of no particular importance.

The direct quote works well here because it conveys the emotion and the voice of the original better than a paraphrase or summary would. Notice also the author of the paper quotes sparingly and that the borrowed material does not take over his own ideas, voice, and tone. Out of roughly ten lines in this passage, only about two are quoted, and the rest is the author’s own interpretation of the quote or explanation for why the quote is necessary here.

If, after writing a preliminary draft of a paper, you feel that you have too many quotes and not enough of your own material, try the following simple troubleshooting method. This activity was suggested to me by my colleague Michael Moghtader. Both my students and I have found it effective. Take a pen or a highlighter and mark all direct quotes in your paper. Make sure that the amount of quoted material does not exceed, or even equal the amount of your own writing. A good ratio of your own writing to quoted material would be 70% to 30% or even 80% to 20%. By keeping to these numbers, you will ensure that your work is not merely a regurgitation of writing done by others, but that it makes a new and original contribution to the treatment of your topic.

Summarizing

A summary is a shortened version of the original passage, expressed in the writer’s own words. The key to creating a good and useful summary of a source is preserving all the information and arguments contained in the original while condensing original to a small size. According to Bruce Ballenger, the author of the book The Curious Researcher (2001), summarizing “…requires careful thought , since you are the one doing the distilling [of the original], especially if you are trying to capture the essence of the whole movie, article, or chapter, that’s fairly complex” (128). Purely and simply, then, a good summary manages to capture the essence of the original passage without losing any important information. Consider the following example. The original passage comes from an article exploring manifestation of the attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) not only in children but also in adults.

Original passage:

Perhaps the clearest picture of adult ADHD comes from studies of people originally diagnosed with ADHD in grade school and followed by researchers through adolescence and young adulthood. These studies vary widely in their estimates of ADHD prevalence, remission rates, and relationship to other psychiatric disorders. But over all, they show a high percentage — 80% in several studies –of ADHD children growing into ADHD adolescents. Such individuals have continual trouble in school, at home, on the job, with the law in general, and with substance abuse in particular. Compared with control groups, ADHD adolescents are more likely to smoke, to drop out of school, to get fired, to have bad driving records, and to have difficulties with sexual relationships. “There’s a great deal of continuity from the child to the adult form,” says Russell Barkley, a researcher at the Medical University of South Carolina. “We’re not seeing anything that suggests a qualitative change in the disorder. What’s changing for adults is the broadening scope of impact. Adults have more things they’ve got to do. We’re especially seeing problems with time, with self-control, and with planning for the future and being able to persist toward goals. In adults, these are major problems.” Poor time management is a particularly treacherous area. As Barkley observes, “With a five-year-old, time management isn’t relevant. With a 30-year-old, it’s highly relevant. You can lose your job over that. You can lose a relationship over it.”

According to the authors of the article “A Lifetime of Distraction,” studies show that about 80% of children with ADHD grown into ADHD adolescents. Such people may have trouble in school, at work, and even with the law. Poor time management by adults with ADHD is of particular concern (1).

When summarizing the lengthy original passage, I looked for information struck me as new, interesting, and unusual and that might help me with my own research project. After reading the original text, I discovered that ADHD can transfer into adulthood— something I had not known before. That claim is the main focus of the passage and I tried to reflect it in my summary.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing means rewriting original passages in your own words and in roughly the same length. Skillful paraphrasing of your sources can go a long way in helping you achieve two goals. Firstly, when you paraphrase you are making sense of your sources, increasing your “ownership” of the ideas expressed in them. This allows you to move a little closer to creating your own viewpoint, your own theory about the subject of your research. Paraphrasing is a great alternative to direct quoting (especially excessive quoting) because it allows you to recast the ideas of the original into your own language and voice. Secondly, by carefully paraphrasing source material, you are helping yourself to avoid unintentionally plagiarizing your sources. There is more discussion on how to avoid plagiarism in Chapter 12. For now, consider this passage, taken from the article “Fighting the Images Wars”, by Steven Heller.

Such is the political power of negative imagery that, during World War II, American newspapers and magazines were prohibited from publishing scenes of excessively bloody battles, and drawings done by official “war artists” (at least those that were made public) eschewed overly graphic depictions. It wasn’t easy, but U.S. military propaganda experts sanitized the war images, with little complaint from the media. While it was acceptable to show barbaric adversaries, dead enemy soldiers, and even bedraggled allies, rare were any alarming representations of our own troops in physical peril, such as the orgy of brutal violence during the D-Day landings.

Paraphrase:

In his article “Fighting the Image Wars,” writer Steven Heller argues that the US government tries to limit the power of the media to publish disturbing images of war and conflict. According to Heller, during World War II and during the Korean War, American media were not allowed to publish images of disturbing war scenes (176). Heller further states that while it was often OK to show the enemies of the US as “barbaric” by displaying images of the atrocities committed by them, media rarely showed our own killed or wounded troops (176).

While the paraphrase is slightly shorter than the original, it captures the main information presented in the original. Notice the use in the paraphrase of the so-called “signal phrases.” The paraphrase opens with the indication that what is about to come is taken from a source. The first sentence of the paraphrased passage also indicates the title of that source and the name of its author. Later on in the paragraph, the signal phrase “According to Heller” is used in order to continue to tell the reader that what he or she is reading is the author’s rendering of external source material.

How to Quote, Paraphrase, and Summarize Effectively

One of the reasons why so many of us do not like the traditional research paper assignment is because we often feel that it requires us to collect and compile information without much thought about why we do it. In such assignments, there is often not enough space for the writer to express and explore his or her own purpose, ideas, and theories. Direct quoting is supposed to help you make your case, explain or illustrate something. The quote in the passage above also works well because it is framed by the author’s own commentary and because it is clear from why the author needs it. He needs it in order to show the utter horror of J.D. Green at the sale of his mother and his anguish at being black in a slave-holding society. The quote is preceded by statement claiming that the loss of his mother was a terrible event for Green (something that the quote eloquently illustrates). After quoting from the source, the writer of the paper prepares his readers for what is to come later in the paper. Therefore, the quote in the passage above fulfills a rhetorical purpose. It illustrates a key concept that will be seen throughout the rest of the work and sets up the remaining portion of the argument.

Every direct quotation from a source should be accompanied by your own commentary. Incorporating source material into your writing effectively is similar to weaving a thread of one color into a carpet or blanket of another. In combination, the two colors can create a beautiful pattern. Try to follow this sequence:

Introduce the source and explain why you are using it

Comment on the source material and set up the next use of a source

Continue using the steps in the same or similar order for each source.

Such variation of your own ideas, commentary, and interpretation on the one hand and source material on the other creates a smooth flow of the text and can be used not only for work with direct quotes but also with source summaries and paraphrases.

Quick Reference: Using Signal Phrases

When using external source material, whether by direct quoting, summarizing or paraphrasing, it is important to guide your readers through it in such a way that they always understand clearly where it is you, the author of the paper speaking and where you are working with external sources. To indicate this, signal phrases are used. Signal phrases introduce quoted, paraphrased, or summarized material to the reader.

Here are some popular signal phrases:

“According to [author’s name or work’s title]…”

“[Author’s name] argues that…”

“[Author’s name] states that…”

“[Author’s name] writes that…”

“[Author’s name] contends that…”

There are many other variations of these. When writing your own papers, play with these phrases, modify them to suit your needs, and see how that does to your writing. Remember that your readers need to be prepared for every quote, summary, or paraphrase. They need to know what is coming and why. Using signal phrases will help you prepare them.

Begin a research project by collecting and annotating possible sources. Remember that not all the sources which your annotated bibliography will include may end up in your final paper. This is normal since researchers cast their nets much wider in the beginning of a project than the range of sources which they eventually include in their writing. The purpose of creating an annotated bibliography is to learn about the available resources on your subject and to get an idea how these resources might be useful for your particular writing project. As you collect your sources, write short summaries of each of them. Also try to apply the content of these sources to the project you are working on Don’t worry about fitting each source exactly into what you think your project will be like. Remember that, in the process of research, you are learning about your subject, and that you never really know where this learning process takes you.

Conclusions

As a college student, you are probably taking four, five, or even six classes simultaneously. In many, if not all of those classes you are probably required to conduct research and produce research-based writing. So far in this chapter, we have discussed some general principles of academic research and writing which, I hope, will help you improve as an academic researcher and writer regardless of your major or academic discipline in which you work. In this segment of the chapter, I would like to offer a practical checklist of approaches, strategies, and methods that you can use for academic research and writing.

• Approach each research writing assignment rhetorically. Learn to recognize its purpose, intended audience, the context in which you are writing and the limitations that this context will impose on you as a writer. Also treat the format and structural requirements, such as the requirement to cite external sources, as rhetorical devices which will help you to make a bigger impact on your readers.
• Try to understand each research and writing assignment as best as you can. If you receive a written description of the assignment, read it several times and discuss it with your classmates and your instructor. If in doubt about some aspect of the assignment, ask your instructor.
• Develop and use a strong and authoritative voice. Make your sources work for you, not control you. When you write, it is your theories and your voice that counts. Research helps you form and express those opinions.
• Becoming a good academic researcher and writer takes time, practice, and rhetorical sensitivity. It takes talking to professionals in academic fields, such as your college professors, reading a lot of professional literature, and learning to understand the research and writing conventions of each academic discipline. To learn to function as a researcher and writer in your chosen academic discipline or profession, it is necessary to understand that research and writing are governed by discourse and community conventions and not by rigid and artificial rules.

Important Concepts

source-based writing: 

knowledge-making process in modern society

accepted paradigm, or standard of the discipline

phenomena anomalies

authoritative writing

invent the university

summarizing

paraphrasing

direct quoting

signal phrases

Licenses and Attributions

CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL

Composing Ourselves and Our World,   Provided by: the authors. License:  Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

CC LICENSED CONTENT INCLUDED

This chapter contains an adaptation from  Research Writing in the Academic Disciplines .  Provided by : Lumen Learning .    License :  CC BY: Attribution

Video 1: License: Standard YouTube License Attribution: What is academic writing?   by Akademiskt skrivande/Academic Writing

Works Cited:

Kuhn, Thomas. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. Melzer, Dan. 2003. “Assignments Across the Curriculum: A Survey of College Writing.” Language and Learning Across the Disciplines. (6.1): 86- 110.

Composing Ourselves and Our World Copyright © 2019 by Auburn University at Montgomery is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Use of cookies

Lund University uses cookies to ensure that the website functions properly and to improve your experience.

Read more in our cookie policy

• AWELU contents
• Writing at university
• Different kinds of student texts
• Understanding instructions and stylesheets
• Understanding essay/exam questions
• Peer review instructions
• Dealing with feedback
• Checklist for writers
• Research writing resources
• Administrative writing resources
• LU language policy
• Introduction
• What characterises academic writing?
• The heterogeneity of academic writing
• Three-part essays
• IMRaD essays
• How to get started on your response paper
• Student literature review
• Annotated bibliography
• Three versions of the RA
• Examples of specificity within disciplines
• Reviews (review articles and book reviews)
• Popular science writing
• Research posters
• Grant proposals
• Writing for Publication
• Salutations
• Structuring your email
• Direct and indirect approaches
• Useful email phrases
• Language tips for email writers
• Writing memos
• Meeting terminology
• The writing process
• Identifying your audience
• Using invention techniques
• Research question
• Thesis statement
• Developing reading strategies
• Taking notes
• Identifying language resources
• Choosing a writing tool
• Framing the text: Title and reference list
• Structure of the whole text
• Structuring the argument
• Structure of introductions
• Structure within sections of the text
• Structure within paragraphs
• Signposting the structure
• Using sources
• What needs to be revised?
• How to revise
• Many vs. much
• Other quantifiers
• Quantifiers in a table
• Miscellaneous quantifiers
• Adjectives and adverbs
• Capitalisation
• Sentence fragment
• Run-on sentences
• What or which?
• Singular noun phrases connected by "or"
• Singular noun phrases connected by "either/or"
• Connected singular and plural noun phrases
• Noun phrases conjoined by "and"
• Subjects containing "along with", "as well as", and "besides"
• Indefinite pronouns and agreement
• Sums of money and periods of time
• Words that indicate portions
• Uncountable nouns
• Dependent clauses and agreement
• Agreement with the right noun phrase
• Some important exceptions and words of advice
• Atypical nouns
• The major word classes
• The morphology of the major word classes
• Words and phrases
• Elements in the noun phrase
• Classes of nouns
• Determiners
• Elements in the verb phrase
• Classes of main verbs
• Auxiliary verbs
• Primary auxiliary verbs
• Modal auxiliary verbs
• Meanings of modal auxiliaries
• Marginal auxiliary verbs
• Time and tense
• Simple and progressive forms
• The perfect
• Active and passive voice
• Adjective phrases
• Adverb phrases
• Personal pronouns
• Dummy pronouns
• Possessive pronouns
• Interrogative pronouns
• Indefinite pronouns
• Quantifiers
• Prepositions and prepositional phrases
• More on adverbials
• The order of subjects and verbs
• Subject-Verb agreement
• Hyphen and dash
• English spelling rules
• Commonly confused words
• Differences between British and American spelling
• Vocabulary awareness
• Useful words and phrases
• Using abbreviations
• Register types
• Formal vs. informal
• DOs & DON'Ts
• General information on dictionary use
• Online dictionary resources
• What is a corpus?
• Examples of the usefulness of a corpus
• Using the World Wide Web as a corpus
• Online corpus resources
• Different kinds of sources
• The functions of references
• Paraphrasing
• Summarising
• Reference accuracy
• Reference management tools
• Different kinds of reference styles
• Style format
• Elements of the reference list
• Documentary note style
• Writing acknowledgements
• What is academic integrity?

Academic integrity and writing

• Academic integrity at LU
• Different kinds of plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• About Awelu

• Start here AWELU contents Student writing resources Research writing resources Administrative writing resources LU language policy
• Genres Introduction The Nature of Academic Writing Student writing genres Writing in Academic Genres Writing for Publication Writing for Administrative Purposes
• Writing The writing process Pre-writing stage Writing stage Rewriting stage
• Language Introduction Common problems and how to avoid them Selective mini grammar Coherence Punctuation Spelling Focus on vocabulary Register and style Dictionaries Corpora - resources for writer autonomy References
• Referencing Introduction Different kinds of sources The functions of references How to give references Reference accuracy Reference management tools Using a reference style Quick guides to reference styles Writing acknowledgements
• Academic integrity What is academic integrity? Academic integrity and writing Academic integrity at LU Plagiarism

The issues of academic integrity and academic writing are closely connected, since writers of academic texts need to acknowledge any source that has been used. There are some key issues that pose difficulties for writers:

New to academic writing or to a specific genre?

If you are new to academic writing as such, or to the particular genre in which you are writing, struggling with the demands placed on your writing increases the risk of plagiarism if you do not know how to provide references, for instance.

To master writing in a specific register is one of the learning aims of university education. A command of academic writing can also be seen as a generic skill acquired within a number of courses and educational programmes at LU. Essays and research papers, as well as many other kinds of  documents produced within the academic community, need to follow certain genre-specific formats.

Finding out how to write the kind of text you have been assigned and how to use sources and to provide references are thus essential skills for any writer at university. Read more about those matters in these sections:

• Referencing

Do you find reading in English difficult? Are you new to the subject?

Being new to the language register and to the style expected in an academic essay, non-native writers may need to pay extra attention to aspects of academic integrity. For instance, writers who are not fully proficient in English may find it difficult to produce texts in English that fulfil the requirements concerning correct handling of sources and originality.

A similar risk arises if the subject matter as such is difficult for you to grasp. If you do not fully understand the texts you read, you may find it difficult to draw on them in your writing.

Understanding how texts you read are structured will make it easier for you to understand them. Additionally, understanding and being able to use subject-specific terminology correctly is central. If you are a student, you might find definitions and explanations of terms in your textbook, and in research articles, writers often define concepts and terms the first time they use them. Being aware if that as a reader will help you create a glossary of your own of subject or discipline-specific terms. Read more on reading difficult texts here:

• Reading strategies

A potential problem for writers who struggle with the language or with the subject matter is a lack of independence. Often this lack of independence is seen in what is intended as paraphrases (that is, rewriting in your own words, with a reference to the source). If you do not fully understand the text that you intend to paraphrase, you risk either adhering too closely to the original text in your paraphrase or to misrepresent the source text. Lack of originality in intended paraphrases is called patchwriting . Patchwriting is usually not deliberate, but rather a result of the writers' inability to formulate their own texts. Read more about patchwriting:

• Patchwriting

Student writing resources

Shortcut to hands-on tips for student writers

The Balance Between Research And Writing

Jean flitcroft.

• 20 December 2011

‘Planning to write is not writing. Outlining, researching, talking to people about what you are doing, none of that is writing. Writing is writing.’

This great quote by the author E.L Doctorow makes me smile, because it highlights the difficulty that writers often have in finding the right balance between the need to research their subject and the time to start writing. Those of us who love the research will often find it’s a wonderful way of putting off the inevitable, the day you sit down and start out on your journey with your characters. Of course this is being simplistic because it doesn’t really happen one day. Ideas take time to mature and blossom and the research and writing usually go hand in hand, each nudging the other on a little. Let’s be honest the whole process of writing a book usually takes years as well as considerable amount of sweat and tears. But anyone who writes will also find it a process that gives enormous pleasure and a deep sense of satisfaction.

Clearly the research-writing balance does depend on the type of book that you are writing. If it is pure fantasy then little may be required but if it’s historical fiction or based on some real life events it is absolutely essential to get under the skin of your subject first.  Every writer will approach their books differently and it’s a matter of working out the best approach for you.

How does it work for me? Well in my children’s book series  The Cryptid Files , my character Vanessa Day hunts Cryptids (monsters like the Loch Ness Monster, the Chupacabra etc.). These mysteries are set all over the world, so when I decide on a cryptid for my next book, I tend to identify five or six that strike me as interesting. Then I do a first round of research – is it interesting, is it well documented, are their newspaper articles, books written, where is it, can I visit the country soon if I haven’t already? This last one is really important for me as authenticity is vital whether it’s adult’s or children’s books.

We are fortunate to be able to sit at home and research a subject on the internet, or find a database in a library, but this can only serve as the very first line of research for any subject. Visiting a place, talking to people and getting under the skin of your subject are what provide the richness and depth in a book. It’s the detail; the unexpected that help shape your story. I would never set a book in a country or place without visiting it first.

My research will always go much deeper than I need and I’ll only use a fraction of the information I’ve gathered. It’s important to work out what should go in and stay out and this is often a process of evolution, it changes as you write it, as the story changes. You must not be tempted to squeeze in as many facts as you can about a subject, no matter how fascinating or how hard you’ve had to work to unearth them. In children’s books you must remember that the information also has to be appropriate to the reader’s age and their interests.

So what next? Well, once I identify my cryptid, the place, and begin to get a loose idea of the story, I visit the country and start the process of writing. By putting my character Vanessa in the right place with the correct detail, it’s easier to let her take over from there and let my story develop. For example when I was in Mexico researching my second book Mexican Devil I came across an amazing Mummy museum in a town of Guanajuato. It was such a funny little place that I knew I had to include it.

However when I wrote the chapter Vanessa reacted in a different way than I had originally intended. On the back of that chapter, I ended up developing up a new plot line. That’s the lovely freedom in writing. If you know your characters well enough and let them react in a situation, something new can come out of it. A character taking you by surprise is such a delight. No matter how well researched, plotted and planned, your book must be character led. Without believable, interesting characters that people can identify with, be they good or bad, a bit of both, you lose the reader.  Developing those characters through your writing is a key to the success of your book.

And so after all that I arrive full circle back to E.L Doctorow’s wise words. And while I agree that research isn’t writing, I do still think it is essential. It’s all in the balance.

About the author

(c) Jean Flitcroft, December 2011.

You can read our interview with Jean  here  and you can learn more about Jean and  The Cryptids  at her  website

Subscribe to our newsletter

Get all of the latest from writing.ie delivered directly to your inbox., featured books.

Your complete online writing magazine.

Guest blogs, courses & events.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Chapter 2: Academic Writing and Integrity

Learning Objectives

• Understand the importance of maintaining high integrity standards in academia.
• Differentiate between paraphrasing and summarizing in academic writing.
• Develop skills for avoiding plagiarism such as citing sources, note-taking, quoting, and paraphrasing.

Introduction

Chapter Resources

Key Takeaways

Test Yourself

Writing is one of the key skills all successful students must acquire. You might think the most important thing in a class is to learn facts or memorize key terms. You read your textbook and take notes on important dates, names, causes, and so on. However, no matter how important these details are to your instructor, they don’t mean much if you can’t explain them in writing. While the grade in some courses may be based mostly on class participation, oral reports, or multiple-choice exams, writing is by far the single most important form of instruction and assessment. In college courses, writing is how ideas are exchanged, from scholars to students and from students back to scholars. This chapter will also explore what it means to write with academic integrity; that is, clearly acknowledging both your contributions and the scholars from whom you obtained the evidence used in your writing.

Components of Academic Writing

Academic writing has certain characteristics, regardless of the course you are writing for:

• It follows expected rules for spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and grammar.
• It should be factual and objective, free from personal opinions, bias, and value judgments. On rare occasions, you may be asked to state your point of view on a particular concept or issue. You should only do so if explicitly instructed to do so.
• It is formal, yet not overly complicated. It is unlike standard conversational language.
• It should be clear, not vague. Writing should be concise and arranged in a way that makes logical sense.
• It is often informed by other scholars’ work; thus, you must indicate where and from whom you obtained your facts, concepts, or quotes through in-text citations and references.

One essential aspect of good writing is accurate spelling. With computer spell checkers, spelling may seem simple, but these programs fail to catch every error. Spell checkers identify some errors, but writers still have to consider the flagged words and suggested replacements. Writers are still responsible for the errors that remain. For example, if the spell checker highlights a word that is misspelled and gives you a list of alternative words, you may choose a word that you never intended even though it is spelled correctly. This can change the meaning of your sentence. It can also confuse readers, making them lose interest. Computer spell checkers are useful editing tools, but they can never replace human knowledge of spelling rules, homonyms, and commonly misspelled words.

The best way to master new words is to understand the key spelling rules. Keep in mind, however, that some spelling rules carry exceptions. A spell checker may catch these exceptions, but knowing them yourself will prepare you to spell accurately on the first try. Take note of the following exceptions:

• Write i before e except after c, or when pronounced ay like “neighbor” or “weigh.”
• When words end in a consonant plus y, drop the y and add an i before adding another ending.
• Homonyms are words that sound like one another but have different meanings.

capitalization

Text messages, casual e-mails, and instant messages often ignore the rules of capitalization. In fact, it can seem unnecessary to capitalize in these contexts. In other, more formal forms of communication, however, knowing the basic rules of capitalization and using capitalization correctly gives the reader the impression that you choose your words carefully and care about the ideas you are conveying.

When writing, you should always capitalize:

• the first word of a sentence
• proper nouns—these include the names of specific people, places, objects, streets, buildings, events, or titles of individuals
• days of the week, months of the year, and holidays

Be aware that other rules of capitalization may apply to your academic work. For example, the APA style guide stipulates when words should, or should not, be capitalized.

Punctuation

As the little marks between words, punctuation is like a system of traffic signs: it guides the reader toward the intended meaning of the words just as road signs guide drivers to their destination. They tell the reader when to go, when to pause, when to stop, when to go again, when to pay close attention, and when to turn (Truss, 2003, p. 7). They’re also crucial for avoiding accidents. A paragraph without punctuation—no periods, commas, apostrophes, et cetera—quickly spins out into utter nonsense and kills the reader’s understanding of the writer’s meaning.

Grammar organizes the relationships between words in a sentence, especially between the doer and action, so that the reader can understand in detail who’s doing what. When you botch those connections with grammar errors, however, you risk confusing the reader. Severe errors force the reader to interpret what you meant. If the reader then acts on an interpretation different from the meaning you intended, major consequences can ensue, including expensive damage control. You can avoid causing confusion by following some simple rules for how to structure your sentences grammatically. By following these rules habitually, especially when you apply them at the proofreading stage, not only will your writing be clearer to the reader and better organized, but your thought process may become more organized as well.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Perhaps the most common grammatical error is subject-verb disagreement, which is when you pair a singular subject noun with a plural verb (usually ending without an s) instead of a singular one (usually ending with an s), or vice versa. Look for subject nouns (the main doers of the action) and the main verbs that the subject noun takes and make sure that they are in agreement according to expected grammar rules.

Incorrect: The patient are coming to the clinic for her appointment at 2:30.

Correct: The patient is coming to the clinic for her appointment at 2:30.

Comma-Splices

A comma splice is simply two independent clauses separated by only a comma. Fixing a comma splice is as easy as swapping out the comma for the correct punctuation or adding a conjunction (e.g., for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), depending on the relationship you want to express between the two clauses.

Incorrect: The new medication is expected to be effective, more testing is required.

Correct: The new medication is expected to be effective. More testing is required.

Correct: The new medication is expected to be effective, but more testing is required.

Run-On Sentences

Whereas a comma splice places the wrong punctuation between independent clauses, a run-on (a.k.a. fused) sentence simply omits punctuation between them. Once you’ve found that missing link, fixing a run-on is just a simple matter of adding the correct punctuation and perhaps a conjunction, depending on the relationship between the clauses.

Incorrect: Making lifestyle changes can reduce your risk of cardiovascular disease and regular exercise can lower your blood pressure it is best to exercise at least five days a week for 30 minutes each day.

Correct: Making lifestyle changes can reduce your risk of cardiovascular disease. Regular exercise can lower your blood pressure; it is best to exercise at least five days a week for 30 minutes each day.

Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is one that’s incomplete usually because either the main-clause subject or predicate (or both) is missing. The fix is to join the fragment subordinate clause with its main clause nearby so they’re in the same sentence. You can do this in one of two ways, either of which is perfectly correct: 1) delete the period between the sentences and make the subordinating conjunction lowercase if the subordinate clause follows the main clause, or; 2) move the subordinate clause so that it precedes the main clause, separate the two with a comma, and make the first letter of the main clause lowercase.

Incorrect: Health insurance in the United States can be a complicated subject. Because there are many types of plans and different reasons for out-of-pocket costs.

Correct: Health insurance in the United States can be a complicated subject because there are many types of plans and different reasons for out-of-pocket costs.

Correct: Because there are many types of plans and different reasons for out-of-pocket costs, health insurance in the United States can be a complicated subject.

Point of View and Tone

Point of view refers to the vantage point from which a story, event, report, or other written work is told. The point of view in which you write depends on your purpose for writing. For most academic writing, you will use the third person (e.g., he, she, it, they.). The third-person point of view emphasizes the information instead of the writer.

Tone is the general character or attitude of a piece of writing, and it is highly dependent on word choice and structure. It should match the intended purpose and audience of the text. Table 2.1 describes how you can achieve an academic tone in your writing.

Table 2.1: How to Achieve an Academic Tone

Word Choice and Organization

Effective writing involves making conscious choices with words. When you prepare to sit down to write your first draft, you likely have already completed some freewriting exercises, chosen your topic, developed your thesis statement, written an outline, and even selected your sources. When it is time to write your first draft, start to consider which words to use to best convey your ideas to the reader.

Specific words and images make your writing more interesting to read. Whenever possible, avoid overly general words in your writing; instead, try to replace general language with particular nouns, verbs, and modifiers that convey details and that bring your words to life. Add words that provide color, texture, sound, and even smell to your writing.

However, as you edit your work to incorporate specific words, avoid using language that your readers are unlikely to understand. Jargon is a type of shorthand communication often used in the workplace. Experts in many professional fields use specialized and technical expressions that allow them to communicate efficiently and clearly with each other. Such language is often incomprehensible for nonexperts and should be avoided in writing for general readers.

Slang describes informal words that are considered nonstandard English. Slang often changes with passing fads. Groups of people with similar skills and interests often develop slang that allows them to express ideas quickly and vividly. Slang is generally considered too casual for most academic writing, but it may be appropriate for personal essays.

The order in which you place your ideas will also enhance, or detract from, the clarity of your writing. Paragraphs are guides for readers. Each new paragraph signals either a new idea, further development of an existing idea, or a new direction. An effective paragraph has a main point supported by evidence, is organized in a sensible way, and is neither too short nor too long. When a paragraph is too short, it often lacks enough evidence and examples to back up your claims. When a paragraph is too long, readers can lose the point you are making. Paragraphs help readers make their way through prose writing by presenting it in manageable chunks. Transitions ( Table 2.2 ) link sentences and paragraphs so that readers can clearly understand how the points you are making relate to one another.

Table 2.2: Types of Transitional Words and Phrases

Evidence (References)

Citing is the practice of giving credit to the sources that inform your work. As a student, citing is important because it shows your reader (or professor) that you have invested time in learning what has already been learned and thought about the topic before offering your own perspective (see Academic Integrity ). As a scholarly writer, providing accurate citations puts your work and ideas into an academic context. They tell your reader that you’ve done your research and know what others have said about your topic. Not only do citations provide context for your work but they also lend credibility and authority to your claims.

Academic Integrity

Academic research leads us to the insight that comes from gaining perspectives and understandings from other people through what we read, watch, and hear. In academic work, we must tell our readers who and what led us to our conclusions. Documenting our research is important because people rely on academic research to be authoritative, so it is essential for academic conversations to be as clear as possible. Documentation for clarity is a shared and respected practice, and it represents a core value of the academy called academic integrity .

In other words, you must take full responsibility for your work, acknowledge your own efforts, and acknowledge the contributions of others’ efforts. Writing with integrity requires accurately representing what you contributed, as well as acknowledging how others have influenced your work. When you are a student, an accurate representation of your knowledge is important because it will allow both you and your professors to know the extent to which you have developed as a scholar. Part of that development is evidenced by how you apply the rules for acknowledging the work of others.

Academic integrity is important because it ensures fairness in the education that students pursue, in the academic work that students complete, and in the grades that students earn. If students expect their work to be marked and to receive grades for the work that they do, then they need to prepare, complete, and submit work that is their own – work that reflects their own understanding of the course content and work that demonstrates that they’re developing a mastery of the skill set that they’ll need to progress through the course and program and to succeed in their workplace after graduation. Cheating may get you the right answer on a particular exam question, but it won’t teach you how to apply knowledge in the world after school, nor will it give you a foundation of knowledge for learning more advanced material. When you cheat, you cheat yourself out of opportunities.

You also risk failing the course or even expulsion from the college or university. Each institution has its own definitions of and penalties for academic dishonesty, but most include cheating, plagiarism, and fabrication or falsification. The exact details of what is or is not allowed vary somewhat among different universities and colleges and even among instructors, so you should be sure to check your school’s website and your instructor’s guidelines to see what rules apply. Ignorance of the rules is seldom considered a valid defense.

What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the unauthorized or uncredited use of the writings or ideas of another in your writing. While it might not be as tangible as auto theft or burglary, plagiarism is still a form of theft. In the academic world, plagiarism is a serious matter because ideas in the forms of research, creative work, and original thought are highly valued.

If information is very well known to most people, it may be considered “common knowledge,” and it does not need to be cited. For example, the months of the year, the capitals of countries, and the freezing temperature of water constitute common knowledge. However, what is commonly known in one field may not be known by the general public. If you aren’t sure if something can be considered common knowledge, it is always safer to cite it.

If you are not from the United States, the American attitudes in reference to plagiarism may be different.  For example, in some cultures, using the words or ideas of others can be a sign of honor and respect.  In these countries, the ownership of words may not be as valued as it is with authors performing research from the United States.  Due to the strict standards required for high-level research, high value is placed on the words written within the article.  As such, some actions that may not constitute “plagiarism” in some cultures will be judged by the standards of the United States.  If these standards are not adhered to, you may be subjected to grade reduction or academic counseling and/or punishment, as this is considered a form of theft.

Most students understand that it’s wrong to plagiarize but are confused about what plagiarism really is. Understand that plagiarism can take many forms.

Unintentional Plagiarism

Unintentional plagiarism is the result of improperly paraphrasing, summarizing, quoting, or citing your evidence in your academic writing. Generally, writers accidentally plagiarize because they simply don’t know or they fail to follow the rules for giving credit to the ideas of others in their writing.

Unintentional plagiarism includes:

• failing to cite sources.
• not using quotation marks around quoted material.
• using another person’s overall sentence structure and ideas while replacing certain words from the original work with synonyms (this includes using a website or program to make such changes).
• copying phrases from various sources and using them in your work (also known as patchwriting).
• copying a picture or other type of media file without crediting the source.

Both purposeful and unintentional plagiarism is wrong, against the rules, and can result in harsh punishments. Ignoring or not knowing the rules of how to not plagiarize and properly cite evidence might be an explanation, but it is not an excuse.

Collusion means working together with others although explicitly being told to work individually. It is different from collaboration, which is working together on an assignment as a group as explicitly permitted or required by your instructor.

Collusion includes:

• working on individual assignments with a classmate.
• discussing online quizzes and exams with others.
• sharing computer code that is intended to be individually written.
• receiving unauthorized help from a tutor or other person to complete assignments.
• in group projects, misrepresenting the individual contributions of the group members.

Contract Cheating

The most severe form of misrepresentation of something as your own is called contract cheating , which happens when a person completes an assignment for a student and the student then submits it as their own.

Contract cheating includes:

• submitting a paper from a so-called “tutoring” service or “essay mill” as your own, for which you paid.
• submitting a paper that someone else wrote for you (for example, a friend or a family member) as your own, no matter if you paid for it or not.
• swapping papers with another student and submitting each other’s papers as your own, even if you made some changes.
• producing work for a fellow student (with or without being paid), and they submit it as their own. In this case, you are deliberately aiding another student to behave fraudulently, and both of you will be subject to disciplinary actions.

Self-Plagiarism

Self-plagiarism is often described as the reuse of one’s own previous work without acknowledging that you are doing so or by not citing the original work. It is “recycling” one’s own work without referencing the earlier work.

Consult your college or university’s code of academic conduct to determine whether reusing past work without citing it is considered to be a violation of academic integrity. Understand that your instructors may also have policies pertaining to if and in which circumstances reusing work is acceptable.

What Happens If You Plagiarize?

The consequence of plagiarism can range in severity, including:

• you may receive a zero for the writing assignment.
• the instructor may give you an opportunity to write the assignment again. However, not all instructors will allow for second chances.
• you may receive a failing grade in the course.
• you may be expelled (forced to leave) from your college or university.
• the information may be noted on your transcript.

For more information, consult your course syllabus and your college or university’s code of academic conduct.

Tips for Success

Knowing what not to do is only the first step. Understanding how to quote, paraphrase, and summarize ideas from other scholars will help you maintain your own academic integrity.

Quoting means taking a part of a source word for word as it is. Quotes can be at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence. However, it is a good practice to introduce quotes with some sort of statement that signals to the reader that information is coming that is not your own. Short quotes always require that you enclose them in quotation marks so the reader knows that these are the exact words you took from your source. Not putting quotation marks around a short quote is considered a form of plagiarism. Long quotes are put in a block indented from the remaining text and have no quotation marks.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing means rewriting someone else’s idea in your own words (i.e., using different vocabulary and sentence structure than the original source) without changing the original meaning. A good paraphrase demonstrates mastery of a topic, which is an important part of most assignments. Paraphrasing also allows you to maintain a consistent voice throughout your assignment and make better use of the material by emphasizing key concepts that are more relevant to your work or more resonant with your reader.

Try using this four-step method for effective paraphrase writing:

• What is the focus?
• How does this information relate to my research topic?
• What was the authors’ main finding/conclusion?
• Once you have answered these questions, you will be prepared to identify the specific pieces of information that are relevant to your paper, and that you may want to paraphrase. Identify any words from the original that are essential terminology and cannot or should not be changed. Check your understanding of any unfamiliar words and concepts in a dictionary.
• Step 2: Without looking at the original text, write a first draft of the paraphrase.
• Am I presenting the meaning of the passage accurately?
• Have I used exact wording from the original unnecessarily?
• Are there words or turns of phrases that are unique to the original that I want to retain and therefore must put in quotation marks?
• Step 4: Revise the paraphrase if necessary. Integrate it into your assignment, making sure it is properly cited.

Summarizing

Similar to paraphrasing, summarizing also involves restating a text or passage in your own words. However, a summary only restates the main points of a text and therefore is usually much shorter than the original. You would paraphrase when you want to explain a concept in detail, while you would summarize to convey the highlights of a longer source in a short space. The process for writing a summary is similar to that for writing a paraphrase, except summary writing involves leaving out most of the details of the original and highlighting only the key points.

Try using this four-step method for effective summary writing:

• What do you want the reader to take from the text?
• What were the authors’ main findings/conclusions?
• Identify any words from the original that are essential terminology and cannot or should not be changed. Check your understanding of any unfamiliar words and concepts in a dictionary.
• Step 2: Without looking at the original text, write a first draft of the summary.
• Am I presenting the meaning of the original accurately?
• Step 4: Revise the summary if necessary. Integrate it into your assignment, making sure it is properly cited.

When to Use Which

One common question that most new scholars ask is “How do I know when to quote, paraphrase, or summarize?” There is no easy answer, it just takes practice. You will work with a number of instructors who will have different ideas on what you should do. To start, here are a few general guidelines.

Use quotes when you want to:

• add the power of the author’s words to support your argument or claims.
• disagree with something specific an author said.
• highlight a specific passage.
• compare or contrast points of view.

Paraphrase when you want to:

• clarify a short passage from a text.
• avoid overusing quotations.
• explain a point when exact wording isn’t critical.
• articulate the main ideas of a passage or part.
• report numerical data or statistics.

Summarize when you want to:

• give an overview of a topic.
• describe information (from several sources) about a topic.

Note-Taking

When you want to use your researched information to support your point of view, you then decide whether you want to use a direct quote, a paraphrase, or a summary of the original. Having the originals in front of you will allow you to double-check that you are quoting accurately and that you are paraphrasing properly. However, careless note-taking is one of the major factors in unintentional plagiarism. It is very easy to cut and paste information and lose track of the sources you used or mix what you borrowed with your own notes. As you read your sources of information, it is important to find a system for writing down the key points that you will use in your paper. Consider the following note-taking techniques:

Collect information word for word.

• Write down the citation information.
• Copy the exact text and put it in quotation marks.
• Add your own thoughts in a different color.

Collect information and paraphrase it right away.

• Write out your paraphrase.

If you like to read digital files, you may want to take notes with a program like OneNote.

• Paste the file you are reading into the notebook.
• Make notes of key information, paraphrases, and analysis alongside the digital file.
• Regardless of which course it is written for, academic writing shares similar characteristics. It follows the expected rules of spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and grammar. It has an objective point of view and a formal tone . The choice of words is deliberate. Ideas are organized in a logical order. It relies on evidence .
• Academic integrity is a core value of higher education. When you work with integrity, you take full responsibility for your efforts and give credit to those whose work you’ve used.
• Plagiarism , whether intentional or unintentional, violates academic integrity standards. Understand that it can take many forms and may result in harsh punishment.
• Knowing how to accurately quote , summarize , or paraphrase will help you maintain your academic integrity.
• Academic integrity – accurately representing your efforts, as well as how others influenced your work
• Collusion – working together with others despite being instructed to work individually
• Contract cheating – when Person A completes an assignment for Person B, and Person B submits the work as their own
• Jargon – shorthand communication used by experts
• Paraphrasing – rewriting another person’s idea in your own words without changing the original meaning
• Plagiarism – a form of theft; the unauthorized or uncredited use of another’s work or ideas
• Point of view – the vantage point of written work; academic writing is usually in the third-person point of view
• Quoting – using part of a source word for word as it is
• Self-plagiarism – recycling one’s prior work without acknowledging that the work has been reused; may constitute a violation of academic integrity standards (see your institution’s academic integrity code)
• Slang – informal communication that often changes with passing fads
• Summarizing – restating another person’s idea in your own words; unlike a paraphrase, a summary only highlights key points
• Tone – the general character or attitude of a piece of work, as determined by word choice and structure

CHapter 2 Test Yourself

Instructions: Select one of the gray boxes below to see if your answer is correct.

Chapter 2 Crossword Puzzle

Instructions: Type in your answers below to fill in the crossword puzzle.

References and Attributions

“ Writing for Classes ” in College Success . Published by the University of Minnesota under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity and consistency with its new context.

Components of Academic Integrity

“ Academic Tone and Language ” in Academic Writing Skills by Patricia Williamson. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity and consistency with its new context. Added bullets on writing mechanics and academic integrity.

“ Spelling ” in Writing for Success by University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing. Published under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license. Lightly edited for tone.

Capitalization

“ Capitalization ” in Writing for Success by University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing. Published under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license. Transformed headings to bullet points for brevity and added content on APA guidelines.

“ Proofreading for Punctuation ” in Professional Communications by Jordan Smith, Melissa Ashman, eCampusOntario, Brian Dunphy, and Andrew Stracuzzi. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Truss, L. (2003). Eats, shoots & leaves: The zero tolerance approach to punctuation. New York: Gotham. Retrieved from https://penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/294386/eats-shoots-and-leaves-by-lynne-truss/excerpt

“ Proofreading for Grammar ” in Professional Communications by Jordan Smith, Melissa Ashman, eCampusOntario, Brian Dunphy, and Andrew Stracuzzi. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for tone. Replaced examples of incorrect/correct sentences with health-related examples.

“ Point of View ” in Writing Guide with Handbook by Robinson, M. B., Jerskey, M., & Fulwiler, T. Published by OpenStax under a CC BY 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity and clarity. Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/writing-guide/pages/1-unit-introduction

“ Academic Tone and Language ” in Academic Writing Skills by Patricia Williamson. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Transformed bullet points into table and edited content for brevity, tone, and consistency with its new context.

“ Word Choice ” and “ Using Context Clues ” in Writing for Success by University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing. Published under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity.

“ Paragraphs and Transitions ” in Writing Guide with Handbook by Robinson, M. B., Jerskey, M., & Fulwiler, T. Published by OpenStax under a CC BY 4.0 license. Lightly edited for flow. Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/writing-guide/pages/1-unit-introduction

“ Why Cite Sources? ” in Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries. Published under a CC BY 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity and clarity.

“ Ethical Use and Citing Sources ” in Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries. Published under a CC BY 4.0  license. Lightly edited for brevity.

“ Why is Academic Integrity Important? ” in Academic Integrity at Fanshawe College by Meaghan Shannon and Andrea Purvis. Published under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity and clarity.

“ The Honest Truth ” in College Success . Published by the University of Minnesota under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity and tone.

What is Plagiarism?

“ Intellectual Property: That’s Stealing! ” in English 102: Journey Into Open by Christine Jones. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity and tone.

“ Common Knowledge & Plagiarism ” by Excelsior Online Writing Lab (OWL). Published under a CC BY 4.0 license. Lightly edited to reformat examples of common knowledge.

“ Intellectual Property: That’s Stealing! ” in English 102: Journey Into Open by Christine Jones. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity, clarity, and consistency with its new context. Content was condensed and summarized to create the list of unintentional plagiarism examples, with some original content added.

“ Misrepresentation: Collusion ” in Academic Integrity by Ulrike Kestler and Christina Page. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for tone and clarity.

“ Misrepresentation: Contract Cheating ” in Academic Integrity by Ulrike Kestler and Christina Page. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for tone and clarity.

“ What is Self-Plagiarism? ” by University of Arizona Libraries, © [2022] The Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of The University of Arizona, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Added original content on differences in institutional policies.

What Happens if You Plagiarize?

“ The Consequences of Plagiarism ” by Excelsior Online Writing Lab (OWL). Published under a CC BY 4.0 license. Added original content about consulting relevant codes of conduct.

Tips For Success

“ Quoting ” in Academic Integrity by Ulrike Kestler and Christina Page. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for brevity and formatting.

“Paraphrasing and Summarizing ” in Academic Integrity Handbook by Donnie Calabrese, Emma Russell, Jasmine Hoover, and Tammy Byrne. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Lightly edited for flow.

“Paraphrasing and Summarizing ” and “ How to Summarize ” in Academic Integrity Handbook by Donnie Calabrese, Emma Russell, Jasmine Hoover, and Tammy Byrne. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

“ Identifying Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing ” in Academic Integrity at the University of Minnesota by the University of Minnesota Libraries. Published under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license.

“ Note Taking Skills ” in Academic Integrity by Ulrike Kestler and Christina Page. Published under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Career Cornerstones: Establishing a Foundation for a Career in Healthcare Copyright © 2023 by Katherine Greene and Andrea Nelson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

APPLY NOW   --> REQUEST INFO

Apply Today

Ready to apply to Penn LPS Online? Apply Now

Learn more about Penn LPS Online

Request More Information

The difference between academic and professional writing: a helpful guide

Whether you’re a current or prospective student at Penn LPS Online, you’ve likely written your fair share of academic papers and business emails. But you’re not alone if you still have questions about the differences and similarities between academic and professional writing. This overview contains a summary of everything you need to know about the intricacies of these critical forms of writing.

What is the difference between academic and professional writing?

One of the key differences between academic writing and business writing is the goal of each endeavor. Because the readers are often students, professors, or scholars in academic writing, the goal is to present and analyze information on a specific subject and increase understanding. With professional writing, the goal is generally to communicate information or influence the opinions of managers, coworkers, clients, or job prospects. While academic writing is strictly formal, it’s common to use the first-person point of view in many standard business communications. Lastly, academic writing requires adherence to strict formatting and source requirements, but there is generally more flexibility in this area when it comes to professional documents.

Read on to dive deeper into the ins and outs of academic and professional writing.

Academic writing

The hallmarks of academic writing include the use of the third-person point of view, a logical flow, an emphasis on facts and ideas, and an authoritative, formal tone. This writing style is objective, avoids casual language and slang, offers insightful analysis, and includes citations for research backed by reliable sources such as scientific studies or journal articles. While students and professors routinely use academic writing, scientists also use it to describe their research findings, as do literary critics. There are four distinct types of this formal writing style: descriptive, analytical, persuasive, and critical.

Descriptive writing

Descriptive writing is one of the most simple and ubiquitous types of scholarly writing. You can see examples of this writing style in essays, research papers, or lab reports for several fields of study. The primary goal of descriptive writing is to use precise language to summarize and describe information, such as the result of an experiment or a section of prose.

Analytical writing

An example of analytical writing is an academic paper that compares two or more complex ideas or theories. Although a part of analytical writing is descriptive, it requires going a step further to reorganize and deconstruct facts into categories, groups, types, or relationships that provide context. As such, to author a successful analytical essay, you need to start with a strong outline.

Persuasive writing

Persuasive writing takes analytical writing to the next level. Not only must you structure a coherent, fact-based argument, but you must also include your own point of view. This could be a recommendation, interpretation of findings, or an evaluation of someone else’s work, but the claims you make need to be credible and backed by evidence.

Critical writing

This formal style is commonly used in research, advanced undergraduate, or postgraduate writing. It includes the tenets of persuasive writing with the supplement of at least one other point of view (in addition to your own) on a topic or issue. For example, if you’re writing a thesis, you may explain a researcher’s analysis from a journal article, critique the merits of their argument, and provide your own alternative explanation.

Professional writing

Professional writing refers to any written communication that takes place in an organizational context. A primary objective of professional or business writing is to effectively educate, instruct, or persuade an audience via emails, newsletters, memos, press releases, project proposals, business plans, executive summaries, letters, and resumés. As is the case with all writing styles, proper grammar usage—including syntax, spelling, and parts of speech—is essential in professional writing, as are the three points below.

Clarity and concision

One of the main requirements for successful professional writing is to use clear, precise language so that your message is easily understood. It’s also important to avoid clichés and hyperbole and stick to simple, concise statements that efficiently share concrete information. Not only will this save you time, but it will also benefit the reader’s comprehension and enjoyment.

Active and purposeful

Whether you’re creating a quick email or preparing an in-depth report, every piece of business writing should start with a well-defined objective or purpose. To keep your communication to the point, you should use an active voice, choose strong action verbs, and avoid qualifiers or passive phrases such as “I think.”

Personal tone

Although professional writing should have a courteous tone, the level of formality does not need to be equal to that used in an academic setting. Documents such as business plans should have a formal structure, but with emails or online chats with colleagues, a friendly, polite tone and positive phrasing can go a long way.

The overlap between academic and professional writing

Although there are distinct differences, there are also many similarities between academic and professional writing. Both writing styles require that you use proper grammar and punctuation, clear and precise language, and a serious tone, along with well-developed ideas with clear objectives. Whether you’re writing for business or academic purposes, it’s also important to avoid exaggeration, emotionally charged expressions, and jargon, as they dilute the effectiveness of your communication. In everything from research papers and essays to memos and fundraising letters, it’s essential to ensure that the information you convey is both accurate and relevant. And you should always have a clearly defined goal for academic or business writing, such as to describe, inform, analyze, or persuade.

If you’re somewhat of a writing novice and looking to improve your skills, then consider PROW 1030: Introduction to Academic Reading, Writing, and Research and PROW 1000: Fundamentals of Professional Writing at Penn LPS Online. The former is designed to expand your abilities and build your confidence as you learn how to plan and execute a well-structured argument, write with logical coherence, and polish your work to ensure readability. The latter provides an introduction to critically analyzing any writing situation and creating purposeful messaging to address it. With targeted exercises to improve grammar, mechanics, and precision, you’ll work to enhance the quality and effectiveness of your writing practice.

If you want to expand and refine your existing repertoire, look to PROW 3030: Advanced Academic Writing and PROW 3010: The Power of Storytelling . The former focuses on improving your ability to translate readings, research, and findings into meaningful academic content. This includes employing time management and reading strategies and enhancing your understanding of the nuances of academic genres and writing styles. The latter explores storytelling as a means of conveying complex and memorable information. Learn how to use narrative studies as a research tool for gathering data and a rhetorical strategy for generating emotional appeal, action, and brand identity.

Explore the professional writing certificate at Penn LPS Online

The 4-course Certificate in Professional Writing at Penn LPS Online offers practical applications that provide an accelerated understanding of the art of effective business communication—and tips to help you become a master of grammar, concision, and clarity. As mentioned above, whether you’re looking to learn the fundamentals or you’re already a seasoned writer, these Ivy League writing courses will help you take your skills to the next level. Discover innovative findings in the field, receive extensive coaching and feedback, and learn how to incorporate your personal or corporate brand story into every piece of communication.

The Certificate in Professional Writing prepares you to:

• Analyze different audiences, scenarios, and contexts to better shape your messaging
• Develop effective rhetorical strategies and skills to persuade personal, professional, and social audiences
• Learn how use complex multimedia texts that incorporate language, image, and sound to produce a coherent, engaging message
• Grow your empathic and analytical skills to integrate and build upon other viewpoints
• Explore how to engage the senses to successfully convey information through social media
• Understand how to use effective visualization to make complex material more accessible 

Ready to get started? If you have yet to do so, apply to Penn LPS Online today and enroll in the Certificate in Professional Writing . Or  view our course guide to see what’s available in any upcoming term.

Revolutionises academic writing: A new era for research papers

In a groundbreaking shift for the academic world, AI now contributes to at least 10% of research papers, soaring to 20% in computer science, according to The Economist. This transformation is driven by advancements in large language models (LLMs), as highlighted in a University of Tübingen study comparing recent papers with those from the pre-ChatGPT era. The research shows a notable change in word usage, with terms like “delivers,” “potential,” “intricate,” and “crucial” becoming more common, while “important” declines in use.

Researchers are leveraging LLMs for editing, translating, simplifying coding, streamlining administrative tasks, and accelerating manuscript drafting. However, this integration raises concerns. LLMs may reinforce existing viewpoints and frequently cite prominent articles, potentially leading to an inflation of publications and a dilution of research quality. This risks perpetuating bias and narrowing academic diversity.

As the academic community grapples with these changes, scientific journals seek solutions to address the challenges posed by increasingly sophisticated AI methods. However, finding effective strategies remains elusive.

In contrast, Diplo has adopted a different approach. Recognizing the inevitability of AI’s role in academic writing, Diplo introduced the Kaizen publishing method. This innovative approach combines just-in-time updates facilitated by AI with reflective writing crafted by humans, aiming to harmonize the strengths of both AI and human intellect in producing scholarly work.

As AI continues to revolutionize academic writing, the landscape of research and publication is poised for further evolution, prompting ongoing debates and the search for balanced solutions.

Diplo’s Kaizen publishing method offers an innovative approach by combining AI’s timely updates with human-crafted reflective writing, aiming to harmonise AI benefits with human intellect.

As AI continues to reshape academic writing, ongoing debates and efforts to balance its potential and risks are crucial to ensuring high-quality, diverse scholarly work.

Related topics

Diplo: effective and inclusive diplomacy.

Diplo is a non-profit foundation established by the governments of Malta and Switzerland. Diplo works to increase the role of small and developing states, and to improve global governance and international policy development.

Diplo on Social

Want to stay up to date.

Subscribe to more Diplo and Geneva Internet Platform newsletters!

Last updated 27/06/24: Online ordering is currently unavailable due to technical issues. We apologise for any delays responding to customers while we resolve this. For further updates please visit our website: https://www.cambridge.org/news-and-insights/technical-incident

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .

Login Alert

• > Journals
• > Language Teaching
• > Volume 49 Issue 3
• > Reading-writing relationships in first and second language...

Article contents

Reading-writing relationships in first and second language academic literacy development.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 May 2016

Reading and writing relations, as this concept applies to academic learning contexts, whether as a major way to learn language or academic content, is a pervasive issue in English for academic purposes (EAP) contexts. In many cases, this major link between reading/writing and academic learning is true even though explicit discussions of this relationship are commonly identified in other ways. For example, research on summarizing skills is an aspect of abilities that come under reading-writing relations. Similarly, topics including synthesis writing, note-taking, plagiarism, content-driven essay exams, term papers, theses, and dissertations, among other topics, are all aspects of reading-writing relations. These core academic skills become even more complex aspects of reading and writing together, when we add electronic texts, web page resources, and other media sources.

Access options

1 Swales , J. ( 1985 ). Episodes in ESP: A source and references book on the development of English for Science and Technology . Oxford : Pergamon Google Scholar .

This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by Crossref .

• Google Scholar

View all Google Scholar citations for this article.

Save article to Kindle

To save this article to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle .

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

• Volume 49, Issue 3
• William Grabe (a1) and Cui Zhang (a2)
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444816000082

Save article to Dropbox

To save this article to your Dropbox account, please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you used this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your Dropbox account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox .

Save article to Google Drive

To save this article to your Google Drive account, please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you used this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your Google Drive account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive .

Reply to: Submit a response

- No HTML tags allowed - Web page URLs will display as text only - Lines and paragraphs break automatically - Attachments, images or tables are not permitted

Your details

Your email address will be used in order to notify you when your comment has been reviewed by the moderator and in case the author(s) of the article or the moderator need to contact you directly.

You have entered the maximum number of contributors

Conflicting interests.

Please list any fees and grants from, employment by, consultancy for, shared ownership in or any close relationship with, at any time over the preceding 36 months, any organisation whose interests may be affected by the publication of the response. Please also list any non-financial associations or interests (personal, professional, political, institutional, religious or other) that a reasonable reader would want to know about in relation to the submitted work. This pertains to all the authors of the piece, their spouses or partners.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Solidarity in Academia and its Relationship to Academic Integrity

Jolanta bieliauskaitė.

European Humanities University, Vilnius, Lithuania

This paper provides the theoretical analysis of forms of solidarity in academia and its relationship to academic integrity. This analysis is inspired by the Guidelines for an Institutional Code of Ethics in Higher Education drawn up by the International Association of Universities and the Magna Charta Observatory. These Guidelines refer to the principle of solidarity in the context of international cooperation between higher education institutions. However, the author of this paper believes that this principle might also be used in a broader academic context, in particular, in the field of academic ethics and academic integrity. Therefore, this paper aims at revealing the relevance of solidarity in academia and argues that the principle of solidarity can be considered as one of fundamental principles of academic ethics and should be reflected in the structure and provisions of the codes of academic ethics (conduct). For this purpose the author explores the philosophical and sociological approaches towards solidarity and defines the concept of academic solidarity, discusses the conceptual connection between academic solidarity, ethics and integrity and illustrates the impact of solidarity on the development of academic integrity. This analysis allows the author of the paper to recommend embedding the principle of solidarity in the codes of academic ethics of higher education institutions as well as extending the scope of its application by linking the rights and responsibilities of different groups within the academic community in a way that best expresses their unity, shared responsibility, mutual support in meeting the standards of social ethos.

Introduction

The prevailing consumer lifestyle typical of the postmodern era promotes a perception of individuals as objects of consumption, and thus threatens solidarity as a key principle of human relationships and long-term commitment (Bauman, 2007 , 135–136). These tendencies could also be observed in academia. More than twenty years ago Kerr ( 1994 ) noted the transfer from a traditional paradigm of academic life when “most faculty members were part of a particular academic community as the centre of their lives, and they took their on-campus citizenship responsibilities very seriously”, towards a post-modern academic culture, which “places more emphasis on individual and group advantages and concerns, and less on the overall welfare of the college and university as a self-governing community” (9). Thus, academia becomes a unique type of enterprise, which relies on individual preferences toward conduct and “has generally effective legislative processes, less effective administrative processes, and virtually no effective judicial processes” (Kerr, 1994 , 11). The author believes that these issues could still be solved primarily by the internal solidarity of the academic community instead of external authorities (Kerr, 1994 , 11). Yet, consumerisation and marketisation continue expanding in contemporary neoliberal academia at the expense of such notions as public service, social purpose and academic solidarity (Gibbs, 2020 , 226). On the other hand, as revealed later, the achievement of consumer-oriented goals also requires some type of solidarity and therefore, it cannot be stated that this phenomenon is completely absent in neoliberal academia.

The principle of solidarity and its application is widely analysed in philosophical, sociological, political and other contexts. Meanwhile, even the call for solidarity in academia appears in the scientific discourses on the status quo of neoliberal higher education (e.g. McDougall, 2015 ) or on political regime, migration, refugee etc. issues that require international academic collaboration (e.g. Gaidano et al., 2020 ; Levich, 1973 ), the role of the principle of solidarity in academia is still not sufficiently elaborated. One of the most recent attempts to explore the concept of academic solidarity is made by Moroz and Swabovski ( 2017 ), who note the ambivalence of this concept and show how solidarity in the university can easily be modified and how it takes on a very dark character at higher education institutions (HEIs).

The topic of solidarity in the context of academic integrity has also received scarce scientific attention. For example, Balik et al. ( 2010 ) observe the negative impact of students’ solidarity in the passing around of papers, whether directly or indirectly (via the internet) on academic integrity. Rodriguez ( 2013 ) performed a comparative study on ethical issues among college students before and after their application to the programme and provided evaluation of the effectiveness of different active methodologies applied for promotion of the acquisition of solidarity skills, and their impact on performance. Burgess-Proctor et al. ( 2014 ) revealed the impact of five faculty members’ solidarity on implementing effective writing improvement strategies for students. Bieliauskaitė and Valavičienė ( 2019 ) analysed students’ solidarity and their impact on academic integrity as well as manifestations of solidarity within the academic community and its impact on shaping the culture of academic integrity from the perspective of university lecturers. Maley’s ( 2020 ) narrative inquiry revealed students’ solidarity in cases of academic misconduct.

In addition, the principle of solidarity appears in codes of ethics (conduct) and related documents. For example, the Guidelines for an Institutional Code of Ethics in Higher Education (hereinafter – Guidelines ) drawn up by the International Association of Universities and the Magna Charta Observatory, state that a code of ethics for a HEI should, inter alia, uphold the principle of solidarity which is mentioned in the context of international cooperation (IAU-MCO, 2012 , Para. 2.2.vii, 3.2.k). It is also the case that in some codes of ethics of HEIs this principle is applied to specific groups of members of the academic community. 1 Even worse, there are codes of ethics that are applied not for the whole academic community, but for separate parts or just one part of it, usually students (Géring et al., 2019 , 61). This approach disintegrates the academic community. These examples reveal the lack of the conceptual scientific discourse on the impact of the principle of solidarity on academic ethics in general and academic integrity in particular that could reveal the potential of this principle and provide the guidelines of its establishment in codes of ethics (conduct) as well as its application in the academic environment.

This conceptual paper aims at revealing the relevance of solidarity in academia and argues that the principle of solidarity can be considered as one of fundamental principles of academic ethics that could make a positive impact on the maintenance of academic integrity in HEIs and, therefore, this principle should be reflected in the structure and provisions of the codes of academic ethics (conduct).

In order to achieve this goal the author starts with the research of philosophical and sociological approaches towards solidarity. The analysis of philosophical literature helps to reveal the inner dynamic of solidarity, while a sociological approach is employed to determine the main solidarity motives as well as the fundamental characteristic of solidarity. Accordingly, the analogy method (Bermejo-Luque, 2014 ) is used to define the concept of academic solidarity and to model its structure. The second part of the paper employs the analysis of literature that tackles key variables associated with the target phenomenon and defines the conceptual connection between solidarity, ethics and integrity. Finally, based on conceptual analysis provided in previous parts as well as on the analysis of online resources of international networks and generalisation of data of empirical papers, various forms of solidarity in the context of academic integrity are illustrated, and the initial implications for the development of positive impact of solidarity towards academic integrity are provided.

The Concept and Structure of Academic Solidarity

According to Pensky ( 2008 ), solidarity is the status of intersubjectivity, in which a number of persons are bound together into definite relations (9). With reference to Feinberg, Dworkin, Durkheim and Halls, Cureton ( 2012 ) describes solidarity as.

a matter of a group of people being united or at one with regard to something (sympathies, interests, values, etc.), having genuine concern for each other’s welfare, respecting others as group members, trusting one another not to intentionally undermine or free ride on the group, taking pride in the group as a whole, being ashamed of its failures and suffering loss or betrayal if members of the group do not live up to the requirements that the group places on itself, and perhaps having certain other affections for one’s compatriot. (696)

Rorty ( 1989 ) believes that solidarity is not what every person has in advance, it is “not discovered, but created via reflection” (xvi). Creation of solidarity is the community’s task accomplishing which starts at the community itself, the place we are (Rorty, 1989 , xvi). Meanwhile Gadamer ( 2009 ) argues that solidarity could be discovered, not created. Nevertheless, he thinks that a “real solidarity must be conscious” (39), it includes the elements of unity, respect for differences and mutual understanding (Warnke, 2012 , 13). Despite these different approaches, the insights of philosophers reveal the dynamism of solidarity, the ability to consciously create or discover it, and at the same time to encourage and nurture it.

In their analysis of solidarity motives, some sociologists highlight instrumentalism and utilitarianism, while others emphasise values and socially-based obligations. For example, solidarity could be encouraged by the rational egoism, avoidance of punishment and the pursuit of personal gain or reward (Komter, 2005 , 113–115). These approaches express the instrumental solidarity of members of a liberal individualistic society, where cooperation in order to meet personal needs becomes a paramount in a market economy (Bieliauskaitė, 2009 , 83). Proponents of another view equate solidarity not with rational calculation but with a sense of unity and the values of the community in which the person lives. For example, communitarians believe that people have a sense of identity and moral values and feel committed to the community. In other words, people “(…) not only seek pleasure or benefit, but also act on the basis of internalised values and common norms” (Komter, 2005 , 116). This solidarity theory emphasises the person’s belonging to a particular group. In this case, we can speak about ethnic, cultural, intergenerational solidarity, or we solidarity, that does not anonymously unite any member of any society, but exists in particular communities with their own traditions and specificities.

The development of various aspects of togetherness requires social interaction and, accordingly, coordination as a “key feature of solidarity” (Koudenburg et al., 2013 , 1). This coordination is based on rules that are a constitutive part of solidarity relationships with one another (Cureton, 2012 , 692). Here, Cureton ( 2012 ) means social moral rules, while Durkheim saw legal regulation as a key to the maintenance of social solidarity (Johnson et al.,  2017 , 649).

Although different authors indicate different motives for solidarity, it is generally acknowledged that one of the most important features of solidarity is the pursuit of a common goal (Butler, 2010 ; Cureton, 2012 ; Dawson & Verweij, 2012 ; Gadamer, 2009 etc.). Goals can be different and therefore, as Moroz and Swabovski ( 2017 ) observe, solidarity is not an autonomous term. Rather, it depends on social functions: what community is produced by this term and for what purpose (149). In their considerations about academic solidarity, authors assume that it:

has, in fact, two functions. Firstly, it mystifies real conflicts in the university. Secondly, it is a way to keep privileges over other workers (inside and outside academia). In general, academic solidarity, both in the feudal academy and in the neo-liberal education factory, blocks emancipatory practice and the possibility of solidarity that is wider and based on values other than being obedient and deferring to power. This solidarity is very dark. (Moroz & Swabovski, 2017 , 153)

These insights illustrate instrumental solidarity and are definitely worthy attention. However, the author of this paper believes that solidarity has a bright side as well and follows the communitarian line of we solidarity by assuming that the goal of solidarity is oriented towards the welfare of society or community which, accordingly, could be a basis for the welfare of its individual members. What could be the motives of solidarity and common goals in academia?

Individuals become members of the academic community following a variety of reasons. In the ideal case, one or another study programme is chosen in order to become an expert and to provide professional services to society. On the other hand, these motives could also be egoistic: we study because we are convinced that the knowledge, skills, or at least the fact of studies proved by a higher education diploma, will help us getting a (better) job, earning a (higher) salary, etc. or just because we enjoy studying (on the variety of students’ motivation and goals see more: Lieberman & Remedios, 2007 ; Serdiuk, 2012 ). Similarly, professors may deliver their lectures not only because they need to sustain themselves and their families, but because they understand the impact of their professional activity on future society (on the variety of university instructors’ motivation and goals see more: Daumiller et al.,  2019 ). Thus, the definition of a common goal of the academic community becomes complicated, since it is affected not only by motives of a particular person but also by their status in academia.

Nonetheless, the author of this paper believes that it is possible to find a common goal that unites the members of the academic community as well as the whole of society. It is (could be) a sustainable development of society which is inconceivable without respect for each of its members and, accordingly, for human rights and freedoms. This goal is directly linked to the academic community, which not only prepares professionals of various fields to help achieve these goals, but also develops respect for individuals, their rights and freedoms. As it is enshrined in the preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (hereinafter – Declaration ), this Declaration is “a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education (emphasised by the author) to promote respect for these rights and freedoms (…)” (The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 ). These provisions are reflected in national legislation and thus shape national (higher) education policies, which accordingly affect both institutional and individual goals and motivation.

In their analysis of the issue of solidarity, sociologists distinguish two – micro and macro – hypothetical contracts (Komter, 2005 , 145–146). The author of this paper presumes that similar contracts could also be detected in an academic environment. For example, a microsocial contract brings together members or their groups of a particular academic community. The existence of this contract could not only be deduced from traditions and values of a particular group or community, but also could have tangible expression in study or job contracts that establish commitment of students, lecturers, and administrative staff to the provisions of regulations of higher education, which in turn can also be considered as agreement to act one or another way and thus to maintain values of a particular academic community. Meanwhile, the macrosocial contract is a hypothetical agreement between members of society on social goals and their establishment in certain legal documents, e.g. a constitution. Thus, solidarity based on macrosocial contract extends beyond a single academic community and brings together not only the academic communities of a given country, but also the relevant governmental and non-governmental institutions, organisations and society in general. In addition, according to the Guidelines, it is desirable that solidarity ties in the academic field should also include the academic communities of different countries as well as international governmental and non-governmental institutions, organisations and the international community in general. In this case, we can talk about a megasocial contract.

On this basis it is possible to define several meanings and forms of academic solidarity (Fig. ​ (Fig.1). 1 ). In the narrow sense , academic solidarity is a sense of community, unity, shared interests, shared responsibility, and mutual support in a particular academic community. Here, relatively small groups – students, lecturers and administration – could be distinguished. The united interaction within these groups in pursuit of their goals can be called fragmented academic solidarity . Such solidarity can be both positive when the individual group focuses on achieving the common goal of the academic community (by sharing material that is difficult to access (students), developing new study programmes (lecturers) etc.) and negative when solid activities of members of these groups contradict or deny goals and values of academia (e.g. tolerance of a fellow’s misconduct). In addition, these groups could also demonstrate their mutual solidarity in both positive and negative ways (see more examples in Bieliauskaitė & Valavičienė, 2019 ; Valavičienė & Bieliauskaitė, 2019 ). Fragmented solidarity could also appear as collegiality, which is explained using such concepts as “community, respect, value of colleagues and their work, concern for one another, and a feeling of inclusion” (Schmidt et al., 2017 , p. 29).

Structure of academic solidarity

However, solidarity of the entire academic community is also important here. In this case, solidarity ties become more complex, i.e. they not only bring together students, lecturers and academic staff individually, but all of these groups into one academic community, united by integral (solid) academic solidarity in pursuit of common goals and values established in academia’s mission, strategy and other documents and maintained by the code of ethics (conduct).

Meanwhile, in a broad sense, academic solidarity is the unity, shared responsibility and mutual support of society that unites individuals as well as various institutions, international or national, state or non-governmental organisations in the academic field. It appears in the context of macro- and megasocial contracts.

Academic Integrity and its Relationship to Academic Solidarity

Professional services provided by members of society are undoubtedly important for its sustainable development. As surveys show, people with higher integrity are more innovative and productive than those with lower integrity (Becker, 1998 , 160). This is presumably because, in performing their duties in good faith, individuals fulfil the expectations of other members of society and this is seen as professionalism. Consequently, the training of professionals in an academic institution is inseparable from the development of honest behaviour.

Academic integrity is a significant value of academia and could be perceived as “one of the most important imperatives of academic ethics and even as its synonym” (Gaižauskaitė et al., 2017 , 0936). It maintains the fluency and transparency of educational processes including provision of knowledge, development of skills and shaping “the moral behaviour of future generations” (Nijhof et al., 2012 , 93). Academic integrity can be understood as: (a) a commitment to such fundamental values as honesty, trust, fairness, respect, responsibility, and courage; (b) honest behaviour, e.g. compliance with rules of the code of ethics (conduct); and (c) opposite to dishonesty, misconduct, cheating and plagiarism (Gaižauskaitė et al., 2017 , 0932). Even if academic integrity is often understood as a personal, not institutional, quality (Vasiljevienė, 2014 ), it can also be characteristic to the institution or academia in particular. As Calabrese and Calabrese Barton ( 2000 ) note, “integrity always speaks to wholeness; it does not embrace fragmentation (…). Integrity is the relationship between the people and their chosen leaders. This integrity-driven relationship is built on mutual trust and commitment in solidarity” (281).

In order to reveal the relationship between academic solidarity, ethics and integrity it is necessary to refer to the initial meaning of these concepts. According to Maak ( 2008 ) “someone has integrity if he acts in accordance with important moral principles, does so in a coherent and consistent way, over time (…)” (358). Thus, integrity requires unity of words and actions which enables one to evaluate the person as trustworthy. It also “requires acting in accordance with one’s conscience” (Audi & Murphy, 2006 , 4). One of the philosophers who explored the notion of conscience most precisely is Thomas Aquinas. He understood human conscience as an inner quality which enables us to discern what is right and wrong and to apply this knowledge to particular decisions about some of our actions. According to the philosopher, human conscience consists of: (1) a specific habit of practical reason ( racio practica ) – the inherent knowledge of common moral-practical principles ( synderesis ); (2) an acquired world-view concerning practically important basic beliefs and basic values ( sapientia ); (3) an acquired empirical knowledge ( scientia ) which helps an individual to recognise and judge the actual practice (Anzenbacher, 1998 , 80–81). Synderesis of every person is equal as far as everyone bears a conscience, but sapientia and scientia vary as far as every person may acquire different knowledge. The conviction of personal conscience is always subjective therefore it can be wrong. According to Aquinas, conscience is wrong when individual world-view or empirical approaches do not conform to the widely recognised public standards (Anzenbacher, 1998 , 99). Understanding of right conscience as corresponding to public standards indicates the cohesion of individual conscience and social ethos .

Contemporary researchers on integrity and conscientiousness indicate the relevance of Aquinas’ ideas and provide the basis for the comparison of these notions which finally lead to the conclusion that integrity is a “morally laden element of conscientiousness” (Becker, 1998 , 158; also see: Audi & Murphy, 2006 , 4), i.e. integrity is adherence to the instructions of the right conscience. However, conscientiousness is the internal quality (virtue) of a person. It can be governed by right or wrong conscience which affects his way of thinking, talking and acting. Whereas, integrity is an external quality which can be considered as personal as well as an institutional quality (value) (Bieliauskaitė, 2014 , 4231). It imperatively requires us to address statements and actions to widely recognised moral principles and values, i.e. to meet the requirements of generally accepted standards and comply with consequent responsibilities. This institutionalised duty to meet public expectations (Komter, 2005 , 106) links integrity and solidarity when members of society in corpore engage in activities based on universally recognised (institutionalised) standards and aimed at upholding values of public interest. Accordingly, academic integrity means congruence with the standards of academic community ( academic ethos ) or, as the European Network for Academic Integrity defines it, “compliance with ethical and professional principles, standards, practices and consistent system of values, that serves as guidance for making decisions and taking actions in education, research and scholarship” (Tauginienė et al., 2018 , 7–8).

What can be considered as public standards ( social ethos ) in modern society? As Anzenbacher ( 1998 ) noted, in homogeneous societies conscience and ethos overlap, since here standards are accepted strongly and unanimously, and consciences tend to be oriented uncritically towards social ethos and its norms (110). Meanwhile, in today’s heterogeneous, pluralistic societies, the identification of a common ethos and its impact on human conscience becomes problematic. However, that does not mean that it is impossible to identify it at all. According to Anzenbacher ( 1998 ), an excellent example of universally recognised standards is the ethos of human rights (99). Not only do human rights help for reassurance of values that are important to each individual and society, they are themselves considered as such values. As mentioned above, the Declaration obliges every individual and every organ of society to make every effort to promote respect for these rights and freedoms by training and education (The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 , preamble). In addition, it is recognised that science and research are important values of modern society (e.g. International Covenant of Economic, Social & Cultural Rights, 1966 , Art. 13, Art. 15 Para. 3; Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 2012 , Art. 13, 14). Consequently, science and education are not only means of protecting human rights, but also values to be protected. In doing so, the international community and each signatory state is obliged to ensure the recognition and enforcement of these values.

Thus, it can be argued that academic solidarity and academic integrity are linked through a social ethos that maintains socially significant values. These values are both standards and goals that require members of society as well as of particular academic communities to behave in a spirit of solidarity and integrity. The later principle requires “acting according to a code (integrated system) of morally justifiable principles” (Becker, 1998 , 158). Then codes of ethics (conduct) as far as they reflect the most important values and moral principles of a particular institution or profession, can be considered as recognised standards. In the context of academia these codes together with other strategic documents of HEIs embed the academic ethos .

Impact of Academic Solidarity on Academic Integrity: Observations and Directions of Development

A growing number of higher education and other governmental and nongovernmental institutions are engaged in combating academic dishonesty, sharing their experiences in promoting academic and research integrity at both national and international levels through mutual collaboration, establishment of centres, associations, and networks. Examples of these are the International Center for Academic Integrity (ICAI), the European Network for Academic Integrity (ENAI), the European Network of Research Integrity Offices (ENRIO), and the European Network of Research Ethics and Research Integrity (ENERI), together demonstrating their solidarity at the megasocial level. National governments express their concern about academic integrity issues by means of institutionalisation and legislation, i.e. establishing institutions to promote academic and research ethics and deal with academic misconduct (offices of ombudspersons, ethics committees etc.), as well as by issuing or making amendments to legislation that foster academic and research integrity and apply penalties for academic misconduct. HEIs also establish local offices of academic integrity and commissions of academic ethics, sharing best practice and issues with other institutions, and publicly demonstrating the principled position of institutions towards academic dishonesty. Depending on the scope and the characteristics of these actions, they could be conceived as expressions of either broad or narrow sense academic solidarity.

Unlike compliance-based programmes which embody a coercive orientation with measures designed to prevent, detect and punish violations of present standards of behaviour, integrity-based or values-based ethics programmes incorporate an enabling orientation. These programmes encourage ethical aspirations of autonomous individuals based on their understanding of what is the right way to act in a specific situation, and requires participants “to balance and apply different values in concrete settings” (Nijhof et al. 2012 , 100). The best results can be achieved by the joint effort and commitment of everyone. ICAI, for example, provides ten ways to improve academic integrity, including forming a Campus Academic Integrity Committee consisting of students, faculty and staff representatives, involving students in educating their peers on integrity policy (ICAI, 2020 ). The importance of students’ commitment is also stressed in ENAI materials: “students must be main characters and active change agents” (Guerrero-Dib, 2019 ). This mutual collaboration of each and every member of the academic community in order to promote academic integrity could be considered as an integral positive solidarity . One of many examples of the expression of this type of academic solidarity is a code of academic ethics if it is created by the academic community, i.e. all internal stakeholder groups (see more: Géring et al., 2019 ; Popa & Ristea, 2020 ).

On the other hand, solidarity in the context of academic integrity could bear not only a positive character. For example, students can express their solidarity via mutual consultations during assessments, tolerance (not reporting) of other students’ misconduct, official permission for their fellows to use (plagiarise) one’s own paper (more examples see: Pupovac et al., 2019 ; Valavičienė & Bieliauskaitė, 2019 ). Lecturers also observe some unethical behaviour amongst their colleagues: deliberately ignoring students’ cheating and plagiarism, blaming those lecturers who care about academic integrity for their assumed incompetence and their negative attitude towards students. This experience can make lecturers to look for compromise and to address integrity issues more flexibly, because they want to keep good relationships with their colleagues (Bieliauskaitė & Valavičienė, 2019 , 6767). This manifestation of solidarity within particular groups of the academic community, directed towards pursuit of their personal goals that contradict academic values, could be defined as fragmented negative solidarity . Accordingly, it is also possible to observe integral negative solidarity , when, for example, lecturers allow their students to cheat during an exam, or do not assess a plagiarised paper objectively (Bieliauskaitė & Valavičienė, 2019 , 6768). At some point, questionable collaboration practices (Gladwin, 2018 ) could also be considered as examples of negative solidarity. These and similar attitudes and actions of faculty members, as well as peers’ misconduct, stimulate academic dishonesty (Maloshonok & Shmeleva, 2019 , 315). Meanwhile fragmented positive solidarity is when, for example, lecturers consult each other on issues of academic integrity and provide support for their colleagues while participating together in examinations and thus helping to ensure fair assessment (see more: Bieliauskaitė & Valavičienė, 2019 ). Thus, the manifestations of forms of solidarity depend on what is considered as the main goal: academic integrity as the value and common interest of academia, or individual egoistic preferences (better grade, good personal relationships, saving time and efforts).

These examples suggest that the effective maintenance of a culture of academic integrity requires the creation of such conditions that stimulate positive solidarity and prevent the appearance of any forms of negative solidarity. This could be done by taking, at first glance, simple and obvious measures that many HEIs have already taken: not only inclusion of all internal stakeholders in drafting a code of academic ethics and other internal policies and regulations, but also leading by example. This could also include: increasing awareness of ethical dilemmas and motivation of students, especially freshmen, supporting and encouraging intolerance of academic misconduct as well as other collaborative activities leading to the creation and strengthening of the culture of academic integrity (see more; IAU-MCO, 2012 ; Minarcik & Bridges, 2015 ; Chankova, 2020 ; MacLeod & Eaton, 2020 ; ICAI, 2021 ). The principle of academic solidarity could be enshrined in institutional codes of academic ethics (conduct): (i) literally; (ii) in combination with other principles, for example, the principle of collegiality (Tauginienė, 2016 , 335), fairness (IAU-MCO, 2012 ), or it could be revealed (iii) indirectly. For example, IAU-MCO Guidelines aim at the consolidation of HEIs’ efforts to ensure academic ethics ( mega - and macrosocial level) as well as emphasise the role of each and every member of the academic community ( microsocial level) in the establishment and maintenance of the culture of academic integrity (para. 3.1–3.3). In other words, even if not expressed directly, a call for solidarity is present in this document in a context wider than international partnership.

No less than the academic community, society in general has a significant impact on the promotion and maintenance of academic integrity. Results of numerous research studies indicate correlation between students’ cheating and society’s values (Maloshonok & Shmeleva, 2019 , 315). The interesting fact observed by researchers is that students in so-called collectivistic countries like Russia, Ukraine, and Lebanon, tend to consider peers’ behaviour in performing dishonestly more than in individualistic countries like the US and Switzerland (Maloshonok & Shmeleva, 2019 , 324). These findings might be one of reasons that lead to a moderate approach towards solidarity as a principle of academic ethics, not to mention ambiguity of the content of this principle. For example, after 15 years, solidarity was deleted from the list of principles provided in the Recommendations for Codes of Academic Ethics in Research and Higher Education Institutions in Lithuania (see footnote 1). On the other hand, these risks expose the demand of both deeper analysis of the dynamics of this principle, and the active role of the state in the promotion of academic integrity – not only in the establishment of scientific and educational institutions, but also in protection of intellectual property and copyright, fair competition of students, researchers and others. These activities should be directed towards the encouragement of positive solidarity and prevention of the negative solidarity of academic communities in general and their members in particular. For example, state institutions could stimulate unification of HEIs reaction towards academic misconduct by creating a database of students expelled from HEIs for violations of academic ethics. This could prevent such a situation when a HEI expels a student for severe academic misconduct and sets a time restriction for his/her enrolment, the same student is admitted to another HEI without any restrictions, thus allowing a student to escape responsibility. Moreover, not only the state institutions, but also societies should actively protect their values, demonstrating intolerance of academic dishonesty and providing information for institutions dealing with academic misconduct. If the society remains apathetic or tolerates violations of academic integrity, governmental and HEIs alone will be powerless to deal with the problem. Such a public position sooner or later can become harmful for society itself (Bieliauskaitė, 2014 , 4231, 4234). Therefore, it is highly important to encourage integral positive solidarity not only in a narrow sense (microsocial level), but also in a broad sense (macro and mega social levels).

Solidarity is especially demanded in times of crisis, like the COVID-19 pandemic that has required rapid, and in some cases, radical changes of the process of education and research. Even if not formalised in the documents, academic solidarity is already present. This crisis calls for as much collaborative work of students, lecturers, administrators as never before. In addition, academic institutions are looking for ways to support their members, while governments seek the same for academic institutions. The international academic community (networks, associations etc.) is sharing its best practices, material and recommendations on how to deal with issues that have occurred (Chatfield & Schroeder, 2020 ). This situation demonstrates that solidarity in general and academic solidarity in particular is important not only for the maintenance of academic integrity but also for sustainability or even survival of academia itself.

Conclusions

Solidarity may be encouraged by the pursuit of purely egoistic motives ( instrumental solidarity) as well as by a sense of unity and belief in community values ( we solidarity). In any case, solidarity is about acting together in order to achieve a certain goal. One of the main goals of academia is educating future professionals, thus contributing to the sustainable development of society. However, members of academia could have different goals. These different goals and their scope allow different forms of academic solidarity to be revealed – fragmented and integral , negative and positive solidarity – which appear in different combinations within the academic community.

Solidarity and integrity are linked via social ethos – widely recognised public standards – insofar as they guarantee the maintenance of social values. These values are both standards and goals that require members of society, as well as of particular academic communities, to behave in a spirit of solidarity and integrity. In academia this behaviour is usually regulated by codes of academic ethics (conduct) that embed academic ethos – standards and values of the academic institution.

Academic integrity is the part of academic ethos, the maintenance of which requires involvement of all members of academia and their efforts, i.e. positive integral solidarity . In other words, the culture of academic integrity could be created and promoted via inclusion of all members of academia (at micro level) and society (macro or mega levels) in the process of determination of the main academic values and their communication, thus fostering awareness of academic standards. Here, the motivation, efforts and principled position of each member of the (academic) community is important in order to follow these standards and to eliminate social pressure to commit academic misconduct.

These conclusions support recommendations to embed the principle of solidarity in the codes of academic ethics of higher education institutions, and to extend the scope of its application by linking the rights and responsibilities of different groups within the academic community in a way that best expresses their unity, shared responsibility, mutual support in meeting the standards of academic and, at the same time, social ethos.

1 For example, in the Recommendations for Codes of Academic Ethics , that were approved by the order No. ISAK-2485 of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania on December 5, 2005 (not valid since June 10, 2009) stated that namely the relations between lecturers are based on the principles of collegiality and academic solidarity (Dėl rekomendacijų akademinės etikos kodeksams patvirtinimo, 2005 , para. 7). In the following Recommendations on the Approval, Embedding and Monitoring Academic Ethics Codes by Research and Higher Education Institutions approved by the order No. V-16 of the Ombudsperson for Academic Ethics and Procedures of the Republic of Lithuania on March 31, 2015 (not valid since August 25, 2020), it was stated that the relations between the members of the academic community (students, lecturers, scientists, other researchers and professors emeritus) are based on the principles of collegiality and academic solidarity (Recommendations on the Approval, Embedding and Monitoring Academic Ethics Codes by Research and Higher Education Institutions, 2015 , para. 3.1, 12). While in the revised Recommendations for Codes of Academic Ethics in Research and Higher Education Institutions approved by the order No. V-38 of the Ombudsperson for Academic Ethics and Procedures of the Republic of Lithuania on August 25, 2020 the principle of solidarity is not listed at all.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Anzenbacher, A. (1998). Etikos įvadas . Aidai.
• Audi R, Murphy PE. The Many Faces of Integrity. Business Ethics Quarterly. 2006; 16 (1):3–21. doi: 10.5840/beq20061615. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Balik C, Sharon D, Kelishek S, Tabak N. Attitudes towards Academic Cheating during Nursing Studies. Medicine and Law. 2010; 29 (4):547–564. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bauman Z. Likvidi meilė. Apie žmonių ryšių trapumą. Apostrofa; 2007. [ Google Scholar ]
• Becker TE. Integrity in Organizations: Beyond Honesty and Conscientiousness. The Academy of Management Review. 1998 doi: 10.5465/amr.1998.192969. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bieliauskaitė J. Solidarumo vaidmuo socialinėje teisinėje valstybėje. Socialinių Mokslų Studijos. 2009; 1 (1):79–94. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bieliauskaitė J. On the way to professionalism – the promotion of law students’ academic integrity. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2014; 116 :4229–4234. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.922. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bieliauskaitė, J., & Valavičienė, N. (2019). Shaping culture of academic integrity in corpore: Lecturers’ perspective. INTED 2019. 13th international technology, education and development conference: conference proceedings , 6764–6768.
• Bermejo-Luque, L. (2014). Deduction without dogmas: the case of moral analogical argumentation. Informal Logic , 34 (3), 311–336. 10.22329/il.v34i3.4112
• Burgess-Proctor A, Cassano G, Condron DJ, Lyons HA, Sanders G. A collective effort to improve sociology students’ writing skills. Teaching Sociology. 2014; 42 (2):130–139. doi: 10.1177/0092055X13512458. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Butler, S. (2010). A. Arendt and Aristotle on Equality, Leisure, and Solidarity. Journal of Social Philosophy . 10.1111/j.1467-9833.2010.01511.x
• Calabrese RL, Calabrese Barton A. The Practice of Integrity within the University. The Journal of Educational Thought. 2000; 34 (3):265–284. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chankova M. Teaching Academic Integrity: the Missing Link. Journal of Academic Ethics. 2020; 18 :155–173. doi: 10.1007/s10805-019-09356-y. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. (2012). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT . Accessed 25 April 2020.
• Chatfield K, Schroeder D. Ethical research in the COVID-19 era demands care, solidarity and trustworthiness. Research Ethics. 2020; 16 (3–4):1–4. doi: 10.1177/1747016120945046. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cureton A. Solidarity and Social Moral Rules. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice. 2012 doi: 10.1007/s10677-011-9313-8. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Daumiller M, Dickhäuser O, Dresel M. University instructors’ achievement goals for teaching. Journal of Educational Psychology. 2019 doi: 10.1037/edu0000271. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dawson A, Verweij M. Solidarity: a Moral Concept in Need of Clarification. Public Health Ethics. 2012; 5 (1):1–5. doi: 10.1093/phe/phs007. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dėl rekomendacijų akademinės etikos kodeksams patvirtinimo. (2005). https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAD/TAIS.267686 . Accessed 15 September 2019.
• Gadamer HG. Friendship and Solidarity. Research in Phenomenology. 2009 doi: 10.1163/156916408X389604. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gaidano G, Balocco R, Al Essa W, Turolla A, Barbato R, Dianzani U, Rizzi M, Ravinetto R. European education corridors: opportunity for academic solidarity. The Lancet. 2020; 395 (10233):1343. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30484-0. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gaižauskaitė, I., Bieliauskaitė, J., & Valavičienė, N. (2017). Understanding academic integrity: perceptions of university students and lecturers. EDULEARN17: 9th international conference on education and new learning technologies: conference proceedings , 931–938.
• Géring, Z., Csillag, S., Szegedi, K., & Gyóri, S. (2019). Codes of Ethics in Higher Education. Methodological Insights from a Complex Culture Development Process. Ethical Perspectives . 10.2143/EP.26.1.3286289
• Gibbs, P. (2020). The Marketingisation of Higher Education. In: Rider S., Peters M.A., Hyvönen M., Besley T. (eds) World Class Universities. Evaluating Education: Normative Systems and Institutional Practices. Springer, Singapore.  https://proxy.lnb.lt:2085/10.1007/978-981-15-7598-3_13
• Gladwin TE. Educating students and future researchers about academic misconduct and questionable collaboration practices. International Journal for Educational Integrity. 2018 doi: 10.1007/s40979-018-0034-9. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Guerrero-Dib, J. (2019). How to Build a Culture of Academic Integrity at Your Institution? Resource document. European Network for Academic Integrity. http://www.academicintegrity.eu/wp/materials/how-to-build-a-culture-of-academic-integrity-at-your-institution/ . Accessed 28 April 2020.
• IAU-MCO Guidelines for an Institutional Code of Ethics in Higher Education. (2012). https://iau-aiu.net/IMG/pdf/ethics_guidelines_finaldef_08.02.13.pdf . Accessed 15 September 2019.
• International Center for Academic Integrity. (2020). Top Ten Ways to Improve Academic Integrity Without (Much) Money . https://www.academicintegrity.org/top-ten-ways/ . Accessed 28 April 2020.
• International Center for Academic Integrity [ICAI]. (2021). The Fundamental Values of Academic Integrity . (3rd ed.). www.academicintegrity.org/the-fundamental-valuesof-academic-integrity . Accessed 13 March 2021.
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. (1966). https://www.ohchr.org/EN/professionalinterest/pages/cescr.aspx . Accessed 25 April 2020.
• Johnson P, Brookes M, Wood G, Brewster C. Legal Origin and Social Solidarity: The Continued Relevance of Durkheim to Comparative Institutional Analysis. Sociology. 2017 doi: 10.1177/0038038515611049. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kerr, C. (1994). Knowledge Ethics and the New Academic Culture. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning , 26 (1), 8–15.
• Komter AE. Social Solidarity and the Gift. Cambridge University Press; 2005. [ Google Scholar ]
• Koudenburg N, Postmes T, Gordijn EH. Conversational Flow Promotes Solidarity. PLoS One. 2013 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078363. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Levich BG. Soviet professor on academic solidarity. Index on Censorship. 1973; 2 (1):109–110. doi: 10.1080/03064227308532207. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lieberman DA, Remedios R. Do undergraduates’ motives for studying change as they progress through their degrees? The British Journal of Educational Psychology. 2007 doi: 10.1348/000709906X157772. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maak Th. Undivided Corporate Responsibility: Towards a Theory of Corporate Integrity. Journal of Business Ethics. 2008; 82 (2):353–368. doi: 10.1007/s10551-008-9891-0. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• MacLeod PD, Eaton SE. The Paradox of Faculty Attitudes toward Student Violations of Academic Integrity. Journal of Academic Ethics. 2020; 18 :347–362. doi: 10.1007/s10805-020-09363-4. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maley B. A Narrative Inquiry of Associate Degree Nursing Students’ Stories About Their Experience of Academic Misconduct. Teaching and Learning in Nursing. 2020; 15 :205–209. doi: 10.1016/j.teln.2020.04.004. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maloshonok N, Shmeleva E. Factors Influencing Academic Dishonesty among Undergraduate Students at Russian Universities. Journal of Academic Ethics. 2019; 17 :313–329. doi: 10.1007/s10805-019-9324-y. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McDougall H. Challenges of Legal Education in the Neoliberal University. National Lawyers Guild Review. 2015; 72 (2):65–80. [ Google Scholar ]
• Minarcik, J., & Bridges, A. J. (2015). Psychology Graduate Students Weigh In: Qualitative Analysis of Academic Dishonesty and Suggestion Prevention Strategies.  Journal of Academic Ethics,   13 , 197–216. 10.1007/s10805-015-9230-x
• Moroz J, Swabovski O. Solidarity, dark solidarity, the commons and the university. Power and Education. 2017 doi: 10.1177/1757743817715662. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Nijhof A, Wilderom C, Oost M. Professional and institutional morality: building ethics programmes on the dual loyalty of academic professionals. Ethics and Education. 2012; 7 (1):91–109. doi: 10.1080/17449642.2012.681236. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pensky M. The Ends of Solidarity: Discourse Theory in Ethics and Politics. The State University of New York Press; 2008. [ Google Scholar ]
• Popa D, Ristea GA. Theoretical and Practical Aspects Regarding the Universities’ Codes of Professional Ethics and Deontology. International Journal of Communication Research. 2020; 10 (3):257–265. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pupovac, V., Popović, S., & Blažina, V. (2019). What Prevents Students from Reporting Academic Misconduct? A Survey of Croatian Students. Journal of Academic Ethics . 10.1007/s10805-019-09341-5
• Recommendations on the Approval, Embedding and Monitoring Academic Ethics Codes by Research and Higher Education Institutions. (2015). https://etikostarnyba.lt/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Recommendations-1.pdf . Accessed 15 September 2019.
• Rodriguez, F. M. M. (2013). Evaluation by Rubric of Solidarity in Acquisition Skills College. Problems of Education in the 21st Century , 52 , 92–104.
• Rorty R. Contingency, Irony and Solidarity. Cambridge University Press; 1989. [ Google Scholar ]
• Schmidt CE, McNulty B, Howard-Baptiste S, Harvey J. Perspectives about How to Define and Use Collegiality in Higher Education. International Journal of Kinesiology in Higher Education. 2017; 1 (1):28–34. doi: 10.1080/24711616.2016.1277674. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Serdiuk L. Personal-Semantic Characteristics of Higher School Students’ Motivation. Social Welfare Interdisciplinary Approach. 2012; 2 (1):56–62. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tauginienė L. Embedding Academic Integrity in Public Universities. Journal of Academic Ethics. 2016; 14 (4):327–344. doi: 10.1007/s10805-016-9268-4. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tauginienė, L., Gaižauskaitė, I., Glendinning, I., Kravjar, J., Ojsteršek, M., Ribeiro, L., Odiņeca, T., Marino, F., Cosentino, M., Sivasubramaniam, S., & Foltýnek, T. (2018). Glossary for Academic Integrity. Resource document. European Network for Academic Integrity. http://www.academicintegrity.eu/wp/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Glossary_revised_final.pdf . Accessed 2 April 2020.
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (1948). https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ . Accessed 25 April 2020.
• Valavičienė, N., & Bieliauskaitė, J. (2019). Impact of students’ solidarity on the maintenance of academic integrity. INTED 2019. 13th international technology, education and development conference: conference proceedings , 6843–6847.
• Vasiljevienė N. Akademinis integralumas: nuo abstraktaus kalbėjimo apie akademinį sąžiningumą - prie jo valdybos. Socialinių Mokslų Studijos. 2014; 6 (3):535–556. [ Google Scholar ]
• Warnke G. Solidarity and tradition in Gadamer’s Hermeneutics. History and Theory. 2012 doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2303.2012.00644.x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• My Bibliography
• Collections
• Citation manager

Save citation to file

Email citation, add to collections.

• Create a new collection
• Add to an existing collection

Add to My Bibliography

Your saved search, create a file for external citation management software, your rss feed.

• Search in PubMed
• Search in NLM Catalog
• Add to Search

An exploration of the relationship between grit, reflection-in-learning, and academic performance in entry-level doctor of physical therapy students

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Physical Therapy, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA.
• 2 Doctor of Physical Therapy Program, University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences-Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
• 3 Physical Therapy Program, Mary Baldwin University, Fishersville, VA, USA.
• PMID: 38881207
• DOI: 10.1080/09593985.2024.2368605

Introduction: Recent literature in physical therapy education suggests learners' non-cognitive skills, such as grit and reflection, may be predictors of success. Little is known about the relationship of these constructs to each other or success during the first year of entry level physical therapist education.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between Reflection-In- Learning Scale (RLS), grit, and grade point average (GPA) of entry-level physical therapy students during the first year of didactic instruction.

Methods: One hundred and fourteen entry-level doctor of physical therapy students enrolled in a private university completed the original 12-item Grit Scale (Grit 1) and the RLS (RLS 1) during the first term and again at the end of the third trimester (Grit 2 and RLS 2).

Results: The relationship between Grit 1 and RLS 1 demonstrated a fair, positive, significant correlation ( r = .380, p < .001). No relationship was found between Grit 1 and GPA ( r = .066, p = .485), or Grit 2 and GPA ( r = .064, p = .500), or between RLS 1 and GPA ( r = .017, p = .857), or RLS 2 and GPA ( r = .171, p = .069). Fifty-three percent of students demonstrated a decrease in grit and 56% decreased RLS scores at the end of the first year of the program.

Conclusion: The fair correlation between these variables indicates they may measure different constructs. Findings suggest that doctor of physical therapy programs should be cautious when using these non-cognitive factors in making admission decisions. Future research should explore changes in grit and RLS throughout the curricula and impact on student success.

Keywords: Grit; academic success; physical therapy students; reflection.

PubMed Disclaimer

Similar articles

• Noncognitive Factors of Grit and Mindset Do Not Predict Performance on the National Physical Therapy Exam. Huebner B, Mattocks A, Pitt J. Huebner B, et al. J Phys Ther Educ. 2023 Jun 1;37(2):138-144. doi: 10.1097/JTE.0000000000000268. Epub 2023 Feb 7. J Phys Ther Educ. 2023. PMID: 38478828
• The Role of Classroom Contexts on Learners' Grit and Foreign Language Anxiety: Online vs. Traditional Learning Environment. Zhao B. Zhao B. Front Psychol. 2022 Mar 7;13:869186. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.869186. eCollection 2022. Front Psychol. 2022. PMID: 35345637 Free PMC article. Review.
• Relationship Between Grit Scale Score and Academic Performance in a Doctor of Physical Therapy Program: A Case Study. Carp S, Fry K, Gumerman B, Pressley K, Whitman A. Carp S, et al. J Allied Health. 2020 Spring;49(1):29-35. J Allied Health. 2020. PMID: 32128536
• Relationship Between Grit with Academic Performance and Attainment of Postgraduate Training in Pharmacy Students. Palisoc AJL, Matsumoto RR, Ho J, Perry PJ, Tang TT, Ip EJ. Palisoc AJL, et al. Am J Pharm Educ. 2017 May;81(4):67. doi: 10.5688/ajpe81467. Am J Pharm Educ. 2017. PMID: 28630508 Free PMC article.
• The effectiveness of tools used to evaluate successful critical decision making skills for applicants to healthcare graduate educational programs: a systematic review. Benham B, Hawley D. Benham B, et al. JBI Database System Rev Implement Rep. 2015 May 15;13(4):231-75. doi: 10.11124/jbisrir-2015-2322. JBI Database System Rev Implement Rep. 2015. PMID: 26447081 Review.

Related information

Linkout - more resources, full text sources.

• Taylor & Francis

Miscellaneous

• NCI CPTAC Assay Portal

• Citation Manager

NCBI Literature Resources

MeSH PMC Bookshelf Disclaimer

The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited.