planning research quizlet

Planning Research

Once working from a research paradigm it becomes possible to start making concrete choices about method(s). Depending on the project, this will involve choices about things like:

• Who will be involved? How will they be selected/contacted?
• How data will be collected
• How data will be managed and stored securely
• Designing, producing and piloting research instruments
• Determining the basis of rigour in the study and the “trustworthiness”(credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability) of the data(Guba, 1981; Shento, 2004)
• Ensuring ethical good practice is built into the project (see below)
• Setting a plan for data analysis

The data collection phase can begin once these decisions are made. It can be very tempting to start collecting data as soon as possible in the research process as this gives a sense of progress. However, it is usually worth getting things exactly right before collecting data as an error found in your approach further down the line can be harder to correct or recalibrate around. From here, things become a bit less generic as the specifics of data collection and analysis are going to be determined by the research methods being used. There are additional aspects which it is worth considering in detail at the research design stage.

Research Methods Handbook Copyright © 2020 by Rob Farrow; Francisco Iniesto; Martin Weller; and Rebecca Pitt is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Online Guide to Writing and Research

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• Online Guide to Writing

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Mastering the complex academic skill of writing a research paper will prepare you to enter the discourse community of your chosen area of study with excitement and confidence. Writing a research paper can seem like a daunting task, but if you take the time in the pages ahead to learn how to break the writing process down, you will be amazed at the level of comfort and control you feel when preparing your assignment. 

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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Quiz 4: Planning Your Research Project

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Multiple Choice

Charlotte wrote a book about her experience as an anthropologist living in an Incan village for three years and becoming an expert weaver.Her book was widely read by other anthropologists, including Mira, who is an expert in Navaho weaving.For Mira, Charlotte's book constitutes:

Sean, a high school wrestler, has agreed to participate in a study of cardiovascular conditioning.He is left somewhat confused when, at the first research session, he is asked to complete a questionnaire about commonly purchased grocery items.Sean's confusion indicates a lack of ______ regarding the task.

Three of the following are associated with qualitative research methods.Which one is NOT?

When considering general criteria for high-quality research projects, replicability refers to the fact that:

Three of the following are associated with quantitative research methods.Which one is NOT?

A good research plan, according to your textbook, includes:

The altering of data is allowable:

Dick and Jane are studying aggression among preschool children.Separately, they each watch a videotape of four children interacting in a playroom and then rate each child on the level of aggression displayed during the play session.They compare their completed ratings and are pleased to note they are highly similar.This is an example of ______ reliability.

Three of the following are techniques for strengthening the external validity of a study.Which one is NOT?

A researcher designed a new questionnaire to measure political conservatism.To test out his new instrument, he asks people leaving their polling place on election day to report their degree of political conservatism on a scale of 1 (low) to 10 (high) and then complete his questionnaire.Results show that people who identified themselves as political conservatives also had the highest scores on his questionnaire.This is an indication of the ______ of the new instrument.

Three of the following are techniques for strengthening the internal validity of a study.Which one is NOT?

The requirement to keep information provided by research participants confidential applies:

When considering general criteria for high-quality research projects, universality refers to the fact that:

Three of the following are techniques for strengthening the credibility or dependability of a qualitative study.Which one is NOT?

The basic format of the quantitative research process includes (in part) , in chronological order:

Three of the following accurately characterize data.Which one does NOT necessarily characterize data?

Dr.Drive is testing a 10-question measure of achievement motivation.He notes that if his respondents agree with the first question, they tend to also agree with the other nine.Likewise, if his respondents disagree with the first question, they tend of disagree with the other nine.This is an indication of good ______ reliability.

A researcher decides to use a high school sample to test the relationship between her new measure of empathy and a well-established measure of interpersonal sensitivity.She finds that the two instruments are highly related, which supports the ______ of the new instrument.

Charlotte, an anthropologist, has been living in an Incan village for three years.During that time Charlotte has become expert in Incan weaving by observing and imitating the master weavers in the community.For Charlotte, observing weaving constitutes:

Professor Pickle is studying civic-mindedness among senior citizens.She administers a survey of civic mindedness to a senior citizens group in early April, then again in early May.By comparing the two sets of scores, the professor can assess the ______ reliability of her measure of civic-mindedness.

showing 1 - 20 of 35

Related Quizzes

The Nature and Tools of Research

26 Questions

The Problem: the Heart of the Research Process

24 Questions

Review of the Related Literature

19 Questions

Writing the Research Proposal

Qualitative Research

20 Questions

Historical Research

16 Questions

Descriptive Research

Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Ex Post Facto Designs

21 Questions

Mixed-Methods Research

14 Questions

Strategies for Analyzing Quantitative Data

Writing the Final Research Report

15 Questions

How to write a research plan: Step-by-step guide

Last updated

30 January 2024

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Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Today’s businesses and institutions rely on data and analytics to inform their product and service decisions. These metrics influence how organizations stay competitive and inspire innovation. However, gathering data and insights requires carefully constructed research, and every research project needs a roadmap. This is where a research plan comes into play.

Read this step-by-step guide for writing a detailed research plan that can apply to any project, whether it’s scientific, educational, or business-related.

• What is a research plan?

A research plan is a documented overview of a project in its entirety, from end to end. It details the research efforts, participants, and methods needed, along with any anticipated results. It also outlines the project’s goals and mission, creating layers of steps to achieve those goals within a specified timeline.

Without a research plan, you and your team are flying blind, potentially wasting time and resources to pursue research without structured guidance.

The principal investigator, or PI, is responsible for facilitating the research oversight. They will create the research plan and inform team members and stakeholders of every detail relating to the project. The PI will also use the research plan to inform decision-making throughout the project.

• Why do you need a research plan?

Create a research plan before starting any official research to maximize every effort in pursuing and collecting the research data. Crucially, the plan will model the activities needed at each phase of the research project .

Like any roadmap, a research plan serves as a valuable tool providing direction for those involved in the project—both internally and externally. It will keep you and your immediate team organized and task-focused while also providing necessary definitions and timelines so you can execute your project initiatives with full understanding and transparency.

External stakeholders appreciate a working research plan because it’s a great communication tool, documenting progress and changing dynamics as they arise. Any participants of your planned research sessions will be informed about the purpose of your study, while the exercises will be based on the key messaging outlined in the official plan.

Here are some of the benefits of creating a research plan document for every project:

Project organization and structure

Well-informed participants

All stakeholders and teams align in support of the project

Clearly defined project definitions and purposes

Distractions are eliminated, prioritizing task focus

Timely management of individual task schedules and roles

Costly reworks are avoided

• What should a research plan include?

The different aspects of your research plan will depend on the nature of the project. However, most official research plan documents will include the core elements below. Each aims to define the problem statement , devising an official plan for seeking a solution.

Specific project goals and individual objectives

Ideal strategies or methods for reaching those goals

Required resources

Descriptions of the target audience, sample sizes , demographics, and scopes

Key performance indicators (KPIs)

Project background

Research and testing support

Preliminary studies and progress reporting mechanisms

Cost estimates and change order processes

Depending on the research project’s size and scope, your research plan could be brief—perhaps only a few pages of documented plans. Alternatively, it could be a fully comprehensive report. Either way, it’s an essential first step in dictating your project’s facilitation in the most efficient and effective way.

• How to write a research plan for your project

When you start writing your research plan, aim to be detailed about each step, requirement, and idea. The more time you spend curating your research plan, the more precise your research execution efforts will be.

Account for every potential scenario, and be sure to address each and every aspect of the research.

Consider following this flow to develop a great research plan for your project:

Define your project’s purpose

Start by defining your project’s purpose. Identify what your project aims to accomplish and what you are researching. Remember to use clear language.

Thinking about the project’s purpose will help you set realistic goals and inform how you divide tasks and assign responsibilities. These individual tasks will be your stepping stones to reach your overarching goal.

Additionally, you’ll want to identify the specific problem, the usability metrics needed, and the intended solutions.

Know the following three things about your project’s purpose before you outline anything else:

What you’re doing

Why you’re doing it

What you expect from it

Identify individual objectives

With your overarching project objectives in place, you can identify any individual goals or steps needed to reach those objectives. Break them down into phases or steps. You can work backward from the project goal and identify every process required to facilitate it.

Be mindful to identify each unique task so that you can assign responsibilities to various team members. At this point in your research plan development, you’ll also want to assign priority to those smaller, more manageable steps and phases that require more immediate or dedicated attention.

Select research methods

Once you have outlined your goals, objectives, steps, and tasks, it’s time to drill down on selecting research methods . You’ll want to leverage specific research strategies and processes. When you know what methods will help you reach your goals, you and your teams will have direction to perform and execute your assigned tasks.

Research methods might include any of the following:

User interviews : this is a qualitative research method where researchers engage with participants in one-on-one or group conversations. The aim is to gather insights into their experiences, preferences, and opinions to uncover patterns, trends, and data.

Field studies : this approach allows for a contextual understanding of behaviors, interactions, and processes in real-world settings. It involves the researcher immersing themselves in the field, conducting observations, interviews, or experiments to gather in-depth insights.

Card sorting : participants categorize information by sorting content cards into groups based on their perceived similarities. You might use this process to gain insights into participants’ mental models and preferences when navigating or organizing information on websites, apps, or other systems.

Focus groups : use organized discussions among select groups of participants to provide relevant views and experiences about a particular topic.

Diary studies : ask participants to record their experiences, thoughts, and activities in a diary over a specified period. This method provides a deeper understanding of user experiences, uncovers patterns, and identifies areas for improvement.

Five-second testing: participants are shown a design, such as a web page or interface, for just five seconds. They then answer questions about their initial impressions and recall, allowing you to evaluate the design’s effectiveness.

Surveys : get feedback from participant groups with structured surveys. You can use online forms, telephone interviews, or paper questionnaires to reveal trends, patterns, and correlations.

Tree testing : tree testing involves researching web assets through the lens of findability and navigability. Participants are given a textual representation of the site’s hierarchy (the “tree”) and asked to locate specific information or complete tasks by selecting paths.

Usability testing : ask participants to interact with a product, website, or application to evaluate its ease of use. This method enables you to uncover areas for improvement in digital key feature functionality by observing participants using the product.

Live website testing: research and collect analytics that outlines the design, usability, and performance efficiencies of a website in real time.

There are no limits to the number of research methods you could use within your project. Just make sure your research methods help you determine the following:

What do you plan to do with the research findings?

What decisions will this research inform? How can your stakeholders leverage the research data and results?

Recruit participants and allocate tasks

Next, identify the participants needed to complete the research and the resources required to complete the tasks. Different people will be proficient at different tasks, and having a task allocation plan will allow everything to run smoothly.

Prepare a thorough project summary

Every well-designed research plan will feature a project summary. This official summary will guide your research alongside its communications or messaging. You’ll use the summary while recruiting participants and during stakeholder meetings. It can also be useful when conducting field studies.

Ensure this summary includes all the elements of your research project . Separate the steps into an easily explainable piece of text that includes the following:

An introduction: the message you’ll deliver to participants about the interview, pre-planned questioning, and testing tasks.

Interview questions: prepare questions you intend to ask participants as part of your research study, guiding the sessions from start to finish.

An exit message: draft messaging your teams will use to conclude testing or survey sessions. These should include the next steps and express gratitude for the participant’s time.

Create a realistic timeline

While your project might already have a deadline or a results timeline in place, you’ll need to consider the time needed to execute it effectively.

Realistically outline the time needed to properly execute each supporting phase of research and implementation. And, as you evaluate the necessary schedules, be sure to include additional time for achieving each milestone in case any changes or unexpected delays arise.

For this part of your research plan, you might find it helpful to create visuals to ensure your research team and stakeholders fully understand the information.

Determine how to present your results

A research plan must also describe how you intend to present your results. Depending on the nature of your project and its goals, you might dedicate one team member (the PI) or assume responsibility for communicating the findings yourself.

In this part of the research plan, you’ll articulate how you’ll share the results. Detail any materials you’ll use, such as:

Presentations and slides

A project report booklet

A project findings pamphlet

Documents with key takeaways and statistics

Graphic visuals to support your findings

• Format your research plan

As you create your research plan, you can enjoy a little creative freedom. A plan can assume many forms, so format it how you see fit. Determine the best layout based on your specific project, intended communications, and the preferences of your teams and stakeholders.

Find format inspiration among the following layouts:

Written outlines

Narrative storytelling

Visual mapping

Graphic timelines

Remember, the research plan format you choose will be subject to change and adaptation as your research and findings unfold. However, your final format should ideally outline questions, problems, opportunities, and expectations.

• Research plan example

Imagine you’ve been tasked with finding out how to get more customers to order takeout from an online food delivery platform. The goal is to improve satisfaction and retain existing customers. You set out to discover why more people aren’t ordering and what it is they do want to order or experience. 

You identify the need for a research project that helps you understand what drives customer loyalty . But before you jump in and start calling past customers, you need to develop a research plan—the roadmap that provides focus, clarity, and realistic details to the project.

Here’s an example outline of a research plan you might put together:

Project title

Project members involved in the research plan

Purpose of the project (provide a summary of the research plan’s intent)

Objective 1 (provide a short description for each objective)

Objective 2

Objective 3

Proposed timeline

Audience (detail the group you want to research, such as customers or non-customers)

Budget (how much you think it might cost to do the research)

Risk factors/contingencies (any potential risk factors that may impact the project’s success)

Remember, your research plan doesn’t have to reinvent the wheel—it just needs to fit your project’s unique needs and aims.

Customizing a research plan template

Some companies offer research plan templates to help get you started. However, it may make more sense to develop your own customized plan template. Be sure to include the core elements of a great research plan with your template layout, including the following:

Introductions to participants and stakeholders

Background problems and needs statement

Significance, ethics, and purpose

Research methods, questions, and designs

Preliminary beliefs and expectations

Implications and intended outcomes

Realistic timelines for each phase

Conclusion and presentations

How many pages should a research plan be?

Generally, a research plan can vary in length between 500 to 1,500 words. This is roughly three pages of content. More substantial projects will be 2,000 to 3,500 words, taking up four to seven pages of planning documents.

What is the difference between a research plan and a research proposal?

A research plan is a roadmap to success for research teams. A research proposal, on the other hand, is a dissertation aimed at convincing or earning the support of others. Both are relevant in creating a guide to follow to complete a project goal.

What are the seven steps to developing a research plan?

While each research project is different, it’s best to follow these seven general steps to create your research plan:

Defining the problem

Identifying goals

Choosing research methods

Recruiting participants

Preparing the brief or summary

Establishing task timelines

Defining how you will present the findings

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

Do you analyze research data?

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Research: Overview & Approaches

• Getting Started with Undergraduate Research
• Planning & Getting Started

Planning Research

Writing techniques to get your research started, topic selection.

• Building Your Knowledge Base
• Locating Sources
• Reading Scholarly Articles
• Creating a Literature Review
• Productivity & Organizing Research
• Scholarly and Professional Relationships
• Empirical Research
• Interpretive Research
• Action-Based Research
• Creative & Experimental Approaches

Just taking that first step of getting started with a research topic can be the most challenging part of the whole endeavor. You may be unsure of where to go, what steps to take and in which order, and how to know that you are on the right track.

This uncertain feeling is completely normal, though! In fact, the very nature of carrying out research is that it starts out a bit vague and you get to make your own decisions about how to better define the task at hand. The process of making something abstract into something more specific and clearly defined is one of the most fun--albeit initially intimidating parts of research!

Explore the boxes below to learn about some foundational approaches and skills you can integrate into your own practice of conducting research. Try out different approaches to see what works best for you. 

Effectively communicating your ideas through writing is a foundational aspect of the research process. You can use writing practices and techniques at the onset of the research process as a way to help orient you to your topic, determine your audience, and identify relevant sub-topics and questions to address through your research, and begin outlining. 

Explore the resources below to deepen your knowledge and advance your writing skills in preparation of conducting research. 

• Purdue OWL: Invention and Prewriting In this 5 minute video, you will explore writing strategies set you up for success. Strategies highlighted include questions to ask yourself to truly understand the task at hand, brainstorming, creating a plan for how to achieve your task, outlining, and more.
• Purdue OWL: The Writing Process Explore the ways in which you can identify goals, devise plans for accomplishing those goals, and overcome common hurdles that come with the writing process.
• Making Notes (The Study Space) Making notes is essential. The act of writing or recording notes helps motor, visual and auditory recall. This makes the subject easier to remember. You can learn more about note-taking in the following section.
• Writing Skills (The Study Space) Consider these effective writing practices and specific suggestions to help you successful complete your writing assignments.

You may be beginning a research task where you get to select your own research topic. Are you not sure how exactly to get started or unsure of whether your topic is too broad or too narrowly defined? Explore the resources below to help you select an effective research topic.

• Selecting a Research Topic (Foundations of the Research Process) Explore this first video on how to select a research topic created for the Cornerstone Program at Purdue.
• << Previous: Research Basics
• Next: Building Your Knowledge Base >>
• Last Edited: Aug 13, 2024 12:18 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.purdue.edu/research_approaches

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6 Preparing Your Research Proposal

More often than not, there will be a few steps that you’ll have to take before you can start gathering and analyzing data in pursuit of an answer to your research question. Preparing a research proposal is a milestone in any research project and is often required by sponsoring institutions in order to transition from ‘the ‘planning’ phase to the ‘doing’ phase. So why, you might ask, are we talking about this step in phase III, ‘writing’? That’s a great question and it has to do, primarily, with the order of thought and the information that must be included in a research proposal. In this chapter, we’ll cover the basic requirements of most research proposals and address the requirements and responsibilities of a researcher.

Chapter 6: Learning Objectives

Before you prepare to implement your research methodology, it is likely that you’ll need to gain approval to continue. As we explore the development of the research proposal, you’ll be able to:

• Describe the individual elements of a research proposal
• Delineate between the rationale and implementation portions of a research proposal
• Discuss the ethical tenets which govern researchers
• Define the purpose of an institutional review board
• Compare categories of institutional review board applications

What is a research proposal?

A research proposal can be thought of as the general blueprint for a proposed research project. There are very few instances wherein research projects can be pursued without support of a sponsoring institution. That is, a healthcare system, hospital, or academic institution. To receive support from a sponsoring institution, a researcher must articulate a clear plan for their research process to include:

• An overview of the literature which supports the investigation
• A statement of the problem
• A statement of purpose
• A hypothesis or central question
• An overview of how participants will be identified, selected, contacted or data will be identified, analyzed, and protected
• An overview of the proposed methodology (i.e. approach to the study)
• An acknowledgment that participants, data, and results will be treated ethically throughout the study
• A timeline for the project

As Crawford, Burkholder, and Cox (2020) describe, these items can be split into separate portions of a research proposal, the rationale (i.e. Whye) and implementation (i.e. How).

As we discussed in previous chapters, developing a robust rationale for your research will help guide the entire research process. The introduction to your research proposal should include a general description of why the research should be conducted. Aside from your general interest, the introduction to the research should be firmly rooted in the available evidence which, first identifies a problem; second, identifies a purpose for the pursuit of inquiry into the problem; and finally, articulates a clear and focused research question which addresses the gap in current knowledge on the topic.

Implementation

Outlining your plan for implementation is essential to gain approval to conduct your research. Equally important to developing a well-articulated rationale, the identification of a clear methodology for how you will implement your approach is an important component of a research proposal.

A plan of implementation can be presented in several ways. However, an inclusive plan should include the following elements (Crawford, Burkholder, & Cox, 2020):

• How you will select participants or identify ‘what’ is included in your investigation
• How you will measure what you’re investigating
• What type of data you will collect and how
• How you will analyze the data
• Frame the terms that specify your investigation
• Qualities of the study that are inherent to the study, but may be overlooked as obvious unless addressed
• Delimitations narrow the scope of the study regarding what it does not include. Limitations are an acknowledgement of the weaknesses of the study design or methodology (Spoiler: there are limitations to EVERY study).
• Influence practice?
• Impact policy?
• Provide a foundation for future research?

We’ve spent a lot of time discussing how to identify a problem, a purpose, articulate a question, and identify a sample and the selection and implementation of an appropriate approach. Ethical considerations of the researcher is another essential topic for any researcher to cover. Here, we’ll provide a general overview of ethical considerations that are required of sponsoring institutions to ensure the ethical treatment of study participants and related data.

As a clinician, you’re likely familiar with the tenets of bedside bioethics that guide clinical practice:

• Autonomy : The right to self-direction and control
• Beneficence : The intention to do ‘good’, or what is in the best interest of the patient
• Non-Maleficence : The goal to ‘do no harm’ in practicing
• Justice : The pursuit of fairness and equity

These basic tenets of care do not change much when viewed through the lens of a researcher. However, it is important to note the foundation upon which research ethics were built. In 1974, the National Research Act was drafted in response to blatant abuse of research methods such as the Tuskegee study and resulted in the establishment of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research.The ethical principles which guide researchers are derived outlined by the Belmont Report (HHS.gov) and include:

• Autonomy : Respect for a person to make personal choices and provisions and protections to be provided for participants belonging to vulnerable populations
• Beneficence : The intention to do what is morally right; to minimize risk and maximize benefits
• Justice : To promote equity among the treatment of individuals and groups

Researchers must address the ways in which they intent to uphold these principles in their proposed research project. Methods by which they do this include:

• Voluntary Informed Consent : Informed consent is a process which ensures that a participant is educated in terms that they can understand about the risks inherent to their participation. This process underscores respect through the provision of consent for a voluntary act (HHS.gov, n.d.)
• Avoidance of Harm : Avoidance of harm is related to the ethical tenet of beneficence and is the primary responsibility of the researcher
• Assessment of Risk: The common rule mandates that researchers ensure that the risk to potential participants in a research study are minimized and that the research cannot impose risk that outweighs the potential benefit of the outcomes.
• Right to Withdrawal: Participants must be made aware of their rights to withdraw from the study at any time, for any reason, without consequences.
• Responsibility to Terminate: The principle investigator has the responsibility to terminate the research intervention should it be made clear that the intervention has either a detrimental effect on participants or an overwhelmingly positive effect such that it would be unethical to continue the study.

Universal research practices which promote these principles must be included in a research proposal in order to conduct research at most institutions and are outlined in the Common Rule which regulates the functions of institutional review boards (IRBs).

Institutional Review Board

An IRB is a formally designated group which has been established to protect the rights and welfare of human subjects recruited to participate in research; specifically research conducted at, or supported by, a specific institution. Here it is important to understand what is meant by the terms ‘research’ and ‘human subjects’. In regards to the requirement of IRB review, the term research means a systematic investigation, development, testing and evaluation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge (University of Southern California, n.d.). Human subjects in relation to research refers to a living individual who’s information or biospecimens are used or analyzed to generate either identifiable private information or biospecimens for the purpose of generalizable information (University of Southern California, n.d.).

Although there are some details which will differ between organizations, there are general categories of human subject research which must be reviewed by an IRB. These classifications are designated by the degree of risk assumed by the participants and the ability of the researcher to mitigate those risks. Minimal risk is described by the federal regulations as the probability and magnitude of physical or psychological harm that is normally encountered in the daily lives, or in the routine medical, dental, or psychological examination of healthy persons (Electronic Code of Federal Regulations, n.d). Generally, research proposals will fall into one of the following categories:

• Exempt : Exempt research poses no more than minimal risk to adult, non-vulnerable populations.
• Expedited : Research that poses no more than minimal risk to participants and fits into one of the expedited categories described in federal regulations 45 CFR 46.110 (HHS.gov)
• Full Board : Research that does not qualify for either exempt or expedited review and poses more than minimal risk to participants. This type of review requires the approval from a full membership of an IRB.

Projects that don’t need IRB approval

Projects which are not considered human subjects research are not required to be reviewed by an IRB. Quality improvement projects do not typically require formal IRB review. However, individual institutional requirements should be reviewed and followed; preferably, in the planning phase of your research project to ensure that the requirements of your specific review align with both your approach and your timeline.

Key Takeaways

• Research proposals can be split into two primary components: The rational and the plan of implementation
• The introduction of your research proposal should encompass a description of your problem, purpose, and research question
• The identification of your research approach should be firmly guided by the ethical tenets of autonomy, beneficence, and  justice
• The researcher has an ethical responsibility to protect participants from risk
• An institutional review board is a formal board charged with reviewing risks associated with research projects
• There are differing levels of institutional review; assumption of risk is the primary factor in classifying level of IRB review

Crawford, L.M., Burkholder, G.J., Cox, K.A. (2020). Writing the Research Proposal. In G.J. Burkholder, K.A Cox, L.M. Crawford, and J.H. Hitchcock (Eds.), Research design and methods: An applied guide for the scholar-practitioner (pp. 309-334). Sage Publications

Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. (2020, August, 17). Protection of human subjects . Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=83cd09e1c0f5c6937cd9d7513160fc3f&pitd=20180719&n=pt45.1.46&r=PART&ty=HTML#se45.1.46_1104

Health and Human Services. (2020, August, 14). The Belmont report . Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html

University of Southern California. (2020, August, 17). Office for the protection of research subjects . University of Southern California. https://oprs.usc.edu/irb-review/types-of-irb-review/

The right to self direction and control

The intention to do 'good'

The intention to do no harm

Pursuit of fairness and equity

A systematic investigation

Living persons participating in research

Probability of harm that does not exceed that encountered in every day life

IRB classification for research projects that do not pose more than minimal risk to adult, non-vulnerable populations

Classification of IRB approval for research that does not pose more than minimal risk, but fits into federally regulated categories.

IRB Classification for research that does pose more than minimal risk for participants

Practical Research: A Basic Guide to Planning, Doing, and Writing Copyright © by megankoster. All Rights Reserved.

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Succession Planning: What the Research Says

• Eben Harrell

While every organization inevitably must replace its CEO, most firms are ill-prepared for succession. In this article, HBR senior editor Eben Harrell reviews the most salient studies of succession planning and offers context from the experts. Some key takeaways:

• Though turnover among CEOs is rising, only 54% of boards are grooming a specific successor, and 39% have no viable internal candidate. The consequences of poor planning are serious: Companies that scramble to find replacements forgo an average of $1.8 billion in shareholder value.
• Grooming leaders takes years but pays off: Chief executives who have gone through executive development at “CEO factories” like GE deliver superior operating performance. But directors need to get more involved. The majority don’t understand the capabilities of the executives below the CEO, and only about a quarter participate in their evaluations.
• The trend toward external hires is growing, and outsiders command higher median pay. But studies suggest that on the whole, insider CEOs deliver better returns.
• More researchers are studying the traits of the ideal CEO. So far they’re finding that younger CEOs outperform, that execution matters more than interpersonal strengths, and that a military background makes leaders more honest, but this line of inquiry is in its early days, and the jury is still out.

Most organizations aren’t prepared.

All CEOs will inevitably leave office, yet research has long shown that most organizations are ill-prepared to replace them. In this article, we review the most salient studies of succession planning and offer context from experts on the process of picking new leaders for organizations.

• Eben Harrell is a senior editor at Harvard Business Review. EbenHarrell

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1.5 Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Controlling

Learning objectives.

• Know the dimensions of the planning-organizing-leading-controlling (P-O-L-C) framework.
• Know the general inputs into each P-O-L-C dimension.

A manager’s primary challenge is to solve problems creatively. While drawing from a variety of academic disciplines, and to help managers respond to the challenge of creative problem solving, principles of management have long been categorized into the four major functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling (the P-O-L-C framework). The four functions, summarized in the P-O-L-C figure, are actually highly integrated when carried out in the day-to-day realities of running an organization. Therefore, you should not get caught up in trying to analyze and understand a complete, clear rationale for categorizing skills and practices that compose the whole of the P-O-L-C framework.

It is important to note that this framework is not without criticism. Specifically, these criticisms stem from the observation that the P-O-L-C functions might be ideal but that they do not accurately depict the day-to-day actions of actual managers (Mintzberg, 1973; Lamond, 2004). The typical day in the life of a manager at any level can be fragmented and hectic, with the constant threat of having priorities dictated by the law of the trivial many and important few (i.e., the 80/20 rule). However, the general conclusion seems to be that the P-O-L-C functions of management still provide a very useful way of classifying the activities managers engage in as they attempt to achieve organizational goals (Lamond, 2004).

Figure 1.7 The P-O-L-C Framework

Planning is the function of management that involves setting objectives and determining a course of action for achieving those objectives. Planning requires that managers be aware of environmental conditions facing their organization and forecast future conditions. It also requires that managers be good decision makers.

Planning is a process consisting of several steps. The process begins with environmental scanning which simply means that planners must be aware of the critical contingencies facing their organization in terms of economic conditions, their competitors, and their customers. Planners must then attempt to forecast future conditions. These forecasts form the basis for planning.

Planners must establish objectives, which are statements of what needs to be achieved and when. Planners must then identify alternative courses of action for achieving objectives. After evaluating the various alternatives, planners must make decisions about the best courses of action for achieving objectives. They must then formulate necessary steps and ensure effective implementation of plans. Finally, planners must constantly evaluate the success of their plans and take corrective action when necessary.

There are many different types of plans and planning.

Strategic planning involves analyzing competitive opportunities and threats, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the organization, and then determining how to position the organization to compete effectively in their environment. Strategic planning has a long time frame, often three years or more. Strategic planning generally includes the entire organization and includes formulation of objectives. Strategic planning is often based on the organization’s mission, which is its fundamental reason for existence. An organization’s top management most often conducts strategic planning.

Tactical planning is intermediate-range (one to three years) planning that is designed to develop relatively concrete and specific means to implement the strategic plan. Middle-level managers often engage in tactical planning.

Operational planning generally assumes the existence of organization-wide or subunit goals and objectives and specifies ways to achieve them. Operational planning is short-range (less than a year) planning that is designed to develop specific action steps that support the strategic and tactical plans.

Organizing is the function of management that involves developing an organizational structure and allocating human resources to ensure the accomplishment of objectives. The structure of the organization is the framework within which effort is coordinated. The structure is usually represented by an organization chart, which provides a graphic representation of the chain of command within an organization. Decisions made about the structure of an organization are generally referred to as organizational design decisions.

Organizing also involves the design of individual jobs within the organization. Decisions must be made about the duties and responsibilities of individual jobs, as well as the manner in which the duties should be carried out. Decisions made about the nature of jobs within the organization are generally called “job design” decisions.

Organizing at the level of the organization involves deciding how best to departmentalize, or cluster, jobs into departments to coordinate effort effectively. There are many different ways to departmentalize, including organizing by function, product, geography, or customer. Many larger organizations use multiple methods of departmentalization.

Organizing at the level of a particular job involves how best to design individual jobs to most effectively use human resources. Traditionally, job design was based on principles of division of labor and specialization, which assumed that the more narrow the job content, the more proficient the individual performing the job could become. However, experience has shown that it is possible for jobs to become too narrow and specialized. For example, how would you like to screw lids on jars one day after another, as you might have done many decades ago if you worked in company that made and sold jellies and jams? When this happens, negative outcomes result, including decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment, increased absenteeism, and turnover.

Recently, many organizations have attempted to strike a balance between the need for worker specialization and the need for workers to have jobs that entail variety and autonomy. Many jobs are now designed based on such principles as empowerment, job enrichment and teamwork . For example, HUI Manufacturing, a custom sheet metal fabricator, has done away with traditional “departments” to focus on listening and responding to customer needs. From company-wide meetings to team huddles, HUI employees know and understand their customers and how HUI might service them best (Huimfg, 2008).

Leading involves the social and informal sources of influence that you use to inspire action taken by others. If managers are effective leaders, their subordinates will be enthusiastic about exerting effort to attain organizational objectives.

The behavioral sciences have made many contributions to understanding this function of management. Personality research and studies of job attitudes provide important information as to how managers can most effectively lead subordinates. For example, this research tells us that to become effective at leading, managers must first understand their subordinates’ personalities, values, attitudes, and emotions.

Studies of motivation and motivation theory provide important information about the ways in which workers can be energized to put forth productive effort. Studies of communication provide direction as to how managers can effectively and persuasively communicate. Studies of leadership and leadership style provide information regarding questions, such as, “What makes a manager a good leader?” and “In what situations are certain leadership styles most appropriate and effective?”

Quality control ensures that the organization delivers on its promises.

International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center – Maize seed quality control at small seed company Bidasem – CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Controlling

Controlling involves ensuring that performance does not deviate from standards. Controlling consists of three steps, which include (1) establishing performance standards, (2) comparing actual performance against standards, and (3) taking corrective action when necessary. Performance standards are often stated in monetary terms such as revenue, costs, or profits but may also be stated in other terms, such as units produced, number of defective products, or levels of quality or customer service.

The measurement of performance can be done in several ways, depending on the performance standards, including financial statements, sales reports, production results, customer satisfaction, and formal performance appraisals. Managers at all levels engage in the managerial function of controlling to some degree.

The managerial function of controlling should not be confused with control in the behavioral or manipulative sense. This function does not imply that managers should attempt to control or to manipulate the personalities, values, attitudes, or emotions of their subordinates. Instead, this function of management concerns the manager’s role in taking necessary actions to ensure that the work-related activities of subordinates are consistent with and contributing toward the accomplishment of organizational and departmental objectives.

Effective controlling requires the existence of plans, since planning provides the necessary performance standards or objectives. Controlling also requires a clear understanding of where responsibility for deviations from standards lies. Two traditional control techniques are budget and performance audits. An audit involves an examination and verification of records and supporting documents. A budget audit provides information about where the organization is with respect to what was planned or budgeted for, whereas a performance audit might try to determine whether the figures reported are a reflection of actual performance. Although controlling is often thought of in terms of financial criteria, managers must also control production and operations processes, procedures for delivery of services, compliance with company policies, and many other activities within the organization.

The management functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling are widely considered to be the best means of describing the manager’s job, as well as the best way to classify accumulated knowledge about the study of management. Although there have been tremendous changes in the environment faced by managers and the tools used by managers to perform their roles, managers still perform these essential functions.

Key Takeaway

The principles of management can be distilled down to four critical functions. These functions are planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. This P-O-L-C framework provides useful guidance into what the ideal job of a manager should look like.

• What are the management functions that comprise the P-O-L-C framework?
• Are there any criticisms of this framework?
• What function does planning serve?
• What function does organizing serve?
• What function does leading serve?
• What function does controlling serve?

Huimfg.com, http://www.huimfg.com/abouthui-yourteams.aspx (accessed October 15, 2008).

Lamond, D, “A Matter of Style: Reconciling Henri and Henry,” Management Decision 42, no. 2 (2004): 330–56.

Mintzberg, H. The Nature of Managerial Work (New York: Harper & Row, 1973); D. Lamond, “A Matter of Style: Reconciling Henri and Henry,” Management Decision 42 , no. 2 (2004): 330–56.

Principles of Management Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Advance Care Planning: Advance Directives for Health Care

On this page:

What is advance care planning?

What are advance directives, who needs an advance care plan, what happens if you do not have an advance directive, will an advance directive guarantee your wishes are followed.

• Other advance care planning decisions and forms

How can you get started with advance care planning?

How to find advance directive forms.

During an emergency or at the end of life , you may face questions about their medical treatment and not be able answer them. You may assume your loved ones know what you would want, but that’s not always true. In one study, people guessed nearly one out of three end-of-life decisions for their loved one incorrectly.

Research shows that you are more likely to get the care you want if you have conversations about your future medical treatment and put a plan in place. It may also help your loved ones grieve more easily and feel less burden, guilt, and depression.

Advance care planning involves discussing and preparing for future decisions about your medical care if you become seriously ill or unable to communicate your wishes. Having meaningful conversations with your loved ones is the most important part of advance care planning. Many people also choose to put their preferences in writing by completing legal documents called advance directives.

Advance Care Planning: A Conversation Guide

Want to learn more about advance care planning? NIA's guide offers conversation tips, worksheets, and more.

Advance directives are legal documents that provide instructions for medical care and only go into effect if you cannot communicate your own wishes.

The two most common advance directives for health care are the living will and the durable power of attorney for health care.

• Living will: A living will is a legal document that tells doctors how you want to be treated if you cannot make your own decisions about emergency treatment. In a living will, you can say which common medical treatments or care you would want, which ones you would want to avoid, and under which conditions each of your choices applies. Learn more about preparing a living will .
• Durable power of attorney for health care: A durable power of attorney for health care is a legal document that names your health care proxy, a person who can make health care decisions for you if you are unable to communicate these yourself. Your proxy, also known as a representative, surrogate, or agent, should be familiar with your values and wishes. A proxy can be chosen in addition to or instead of a living will. Having a health care proxy helps you plan for situations that cannot be foreseen, such as a serious car accident or stroke. Learn more about choosing a health care proxy .

Think of your advance directives as living documents that you review at least once each year and update if a major life event occurs such as retirement, moving out of state, or a significant change in your health.

Advance care planning is not just for people who are very old or ill. At any age, a medical crisis could leave you unable to communicate your own health care decisions. Planning now for your future health care can help ensure you get the medical care you want and that someone you trust will be there to make decisions for you.

Advance care planning for people with dementia

Many people do not realize that Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias are terminal conditions and ultimately result in death. People in the later stages of dementia often lose their ability to do the simplest tasks. If you have dementia, advance care planning can give you a sense of control over an uncertain future and enable you to participate directly in decision-making about your future care. If you are a loved one of someone with dementia, encourage these discussions as early as possible. In the later stages of dementia, you may wish to discuss decisions with other family members, your loved one’s health care provider, or a trusted friend to feel more supported when deciding the types of care and treatments the person would want.

If you do not have an advance directive and you are unable to make decisions on your own, the state laws where you live will determine who may make medical decisions on your behalf. This is typically your spouse, your parents if they are available, or your children if they are adults. If you are unmarried and have not named your partner as your proxy, it’s possible they could be excluded from decision-making. If you have no family members, some states allow a close friend who is familiar with your values to help. Or they may assign a physician to represent your best interests. To find out the laws in your state, contact your state legal aid office or state bar association.

An advance directive is legally recognized but not legally binding. This means that your health care provider and proxy will do their best to respect your advance directives, but there may be circumstances in which they cannot follow your wishes exactly. For example, you may be in a complex medical situation where it is unclear what you would want. This is another key reason why having conversations about your preferences is so important. Talking with your loved ones ahead of time may help them better navigate unanticipated issues.

There is the possibility that a health care provider refuses to follow your advance directives. This might happen if the decision goes against:

• The health care provider’s conscience
• The health care institution’s policy
• Accepted health care standards

In these situations, the health care provider must inform your health care proxy immediately and consider transferring your care to another provider.

Other advance care planning forms and orders

You might want to prepare documents to express your wishes about a single medical issue or something else not already covered in your advance directives, such as an emergency. For these types of situations, you can talk with a doctor about establishing the following orders:

• Do not resuscitate (DNR) order: A DNR becomes part of your medical chart to inform medical staff in a hospital or nursing facility that you do not want CPR or other life-support measures to be attempted if your heartbeat and breathing stop. Sometimes this document is referred to as a do not attempt resuscitation (DNR) order or an allow natural death (AND) order. Even though a living will might state that CPR is not wanted, it is helpful to have a DNR order as part of your medical file if you go to a hospital. Posting a DNR next to your hospital bed might avoid confusion in an emergency. Without a DNR order, medical staff will attempt every effort to restore your breathing and the normal rhythm of your heart.
• Do not intubate (DNI) order: A similar document, a DNI informs medical staff in a hospital or nursing facility that you do not want to be on a ventilator.
• Do not hospitalize (DNH) order: A DNH indicates to long-term care providers, such as nursing home staff, that you prefer not to be sent to a hospital for treatment at the end of life.
• Out-of-hospital DNR order: An out-of-hospital DNR alerts emergency medical personnel to your wishes regarding measures to restore your heartbeat or breathing if you are not in a hospital.
• Physician orders for life-sustaining treatment (POLST) and medical orders for life-sustaining treatment (MOLST) forms: These forms provide guidance about your medical care that health care professionals can act on immediately in an emergency. They serve as a medical order in addition to your advance directive. Typically, you create a POLST or MOLST when you are near the end of life or critically ill and understand the specific decisions that might need to be made on your behalf. These forms may also be called portable medical orders or physician orders for scope of treatment (POST). Check with your state department of health to find out if these forms are available where you live.

You may also want to document your wishes about organ and tissue donation and brain donation . As well, learning about care options such as palliative care and hospice care can help you plan ahead.

To get started with advance care planning, consider the following steps:

• Reflect on your values and wishes. This can help you think through what matters most at the end of life and guide your decisions about future care and medical treatment.
• Talk with your doctor about advance directives. Advance care planning is covered by Medicare as part of your annual wellness visit. If you have private health insurance, check with your insurance provider. Talking to a health care provider can help you learn about your current health and the kinds of decisions that are likely to come up. For example, you might ask about the decisions you may face if your high blood pressure leads to a stroke.
• Choose someone you trust to make medical decisions for you. Whether it’s a family member, a loved one, or your lawyer, it’s important to choose someone you trust as your health care proxy. Once you’ve decided, discuss your values and preferences with them. If you’re not ready to discuss specific treatments or care decisions yet, try talking about your general preferences. You can also try other ways to share your wishes, such as writing a letter or watching a video on the topic together.
• Complete your advance directive forms. To make your care and treatment decisions official, you can complete a living will. Similarly, once you decide on your health care proxy, you can make it official by completing a durable power of attorney for health care.
• Share your forms with your health care proxy, doctors, and loved ones. After you’ve completed your advance directives, make copies and store them in a safe place. Give copies to your health care proxy, health care providers, and lawyer. Some states have registries that can store your advance directive for quick access by health care providers and your proxy.
• Keep the conversation going. Continue to talk about your wishes and update your forms at least once each year or after major life changes. If you update your forms, file and keep your previous versions. Note the date the older copy was replaced by a new one. If you use a registry, make sure the latest version is on record.

Everyone approaches the process differently. Remember to be flexible and take it one step at a time. Start small. For example, try simply talking with your loved ones about what you appreciate and enjoy most about life. Your values, treatment preferences, and even the people you involve in your plan may change over time. The most important part is to start the conversation.

You can establish your advance directives for little or no cost. Many states have their own forms that you can access and complete for free. Here are some ways you might find free advance directive forms in your state:

• Contact your State Attorney General’s Office.
• Contact your local Area Agency on Aging . You can find your area agency phone number by visiting the Eldercare Locator or by calling 800-677-1116.
• Download your state’s form online from one of these national organizations: AARP , American Bar Association , or National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization .
• If you are a veteran, contact your local Veteran’s Affairs (VA) office . The VA offers an advance directive specifically for veterans .

Some people spend a lot of time in more than one state. If that's your situation, consider preparing advance directives using the form for each state, and keep a copy in each place, too.

Do you need a lawyer to create advance directives?

Not necessarily. A lawyer can help but is not required to create your advance directives. However, if you have a lawyer, you should give them a copy of your advance directive. If you need help with planning, contact your local Area Agency on Aging. Other possible sources of legal assistance and referral include state legal aid offices, state bar associations, and local nonprofit agencies, foundations, and social service agencies.

There are also organizations that enable you to create, download, and print your forms online, but they may charge fees. Before you pay, remember there are several ways to get your forms for free. Some free online resources include:

• PREPARE for Your Care : An interactive online program that was funded in part by NIA. It is available in English and Spanish.
• The Conversation Project : A series of online conversation guides and advance care documents available in English, Spanish, and Chinese. The Conversation Project is a public engagement initiative led by the Institute for Healthcare Improvement.

If you use forms from a website, check to make sure they are legally recognized in your state. You should also make sure the website is secure and will protect your personal information. Read the website’s privacy policy and check that the website link begins with “https” (make sure it has an “s”) and that it has a small lock icon next to its web address.

Some people also choose to carry a card in their wallet indicating they have an advance directive and where it is kept. Below is an example from the American Hospital Association (PDF, 40KB).

You may also be interested in

• Finding out more about choosing a health care proxy
• Learning about legal and financial planning for people with dementia
• Reading about preparing a living will

Sign up for e-alerts about healthy aging

For more information about advance directives.

Administration for Community Living (ACL) 202-401-4634 https://www.acl.gov

Department of Veterans Affairs 877-222-8387 www.va.gov/geriatrics

OrganDonor.gov Health Resources & Services Administration www.organdonor.gov

American Bar Association 800-285-2221  www.americanbar.org

CaringInfo National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization 800-658-8898 [email protected] www.caringinfo.org

The Conversation Project 866-787-0831 https://theconversationproject.org

National POLST 202-780-8352 [email protected] www.polst.org

PREPARE for Your Care [email protected] https://prepareforyourcare.org 

This content is provided by the NIH National Institute on Aging (NIA). NIA scientists and other experts review this content to ensure it is accurate and up to date.

Content reviewed: October 31, 2022

nia.nih.gov

An official website of the National Institutes of Health

Planning and Writing a Research Proposal

• First Online: 25 February 2021

Cite this chapter

• C. George Thomas 2  

4962 Accesses

Research is a costly venture. In a research organization inclusive of university and college departments, funds for research are released only after careful scrutiny of the merit of the proposed work. A formal research proposal and its approval are also necessary for thesis works of students. In addition to the in-house funds of the organization, scientists may get funds from external agencies—both national and international. Fortunately, there are several funding agencies to promote research and development in specified areas, usually on project mode, by providing grants to individuals and groups. Therefore, instead of waiting for the meagre resources of parent institutions, scientists can approach a suitable external agency for financing research projects. Your success in obtaining a research grant means that you and your institution are benefited in various ways.

Good fortune is what happens when opportunity meets with planning . Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931)

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Thomas, C.G. (2021). Planning and Writing a Research Proposal. In: Research Methodology and Scientific Writing . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64865-7_7

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Discharge planning.

Paula R. Patel ; Samuel Bechmann .

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Last Update: April 3, 2023 .

• Definition/Introduction

Discharge planning is the process of transitioning a patient from one level of care to the next. Ideally, discharge plans are individualized instructions provided to the patient as they move from the hospital to home or instructions provided to subsequent healthcare providers as they move to a longer-term care facility. [1]  In the United States, discharge planning is required for hospital accreditation. [2]  The goal of adequate and efficient discharge planning is to improve a patient's quality of life by ensuring continuity of care and reducing the rate of unplanned readmissions and/or complications, which may decrease the healthcare system's financial burden. [3] [4]  

• Issues of Concern

Increased life expectancy in the general population has led to an increased incidence of people living with chronic diseases and hospitalizations. The management of chronic conditions directly correlates with a patient's quality of life. [5]  Due to the increased frequency of hospitalization of more complex patients, the discharge phase often comes earlier in their care and is much more important to the quality of the care they receive. A discharged patient is expected to be able to take medications as directed, continue to perform daily activities, and have the means to follow the plan for outpatient care, which may include rehabilitation programs, further testing, follow-up appointments, and/or lifestyle modifications. The lack of adequate discharge planning and failure of any of these elements can result in readmission and decreased quality of life. [6]

Before releasing a patient from the hospital, it is a requirement that the discharge can be completed safely. [7]  Assessment for safe discharge by the physician involves several key factors that determine whether the patient will meet the requirements to heal and maintain health outside of a hospital setting. These key factors include the patient's physical ability to follow discharge instructions and perform activities of daily living, the patient's psychological ability to understand and follow discharge instructions, and a support system and financial means to obtain the appropriate follow-up care. [8]  

Institutions with high rates of readmission incur financial penalties, which include reduced or no reimbursement for readmission visits. [9]  Comprehensive discharge planning is one element of a strategy that can help prevent readmissions. Although there are currently no standardized rules or regulations, patient safety and clinical outcomes remain the primary goals of discharge planning. [2]  

• Clinical Significance

Patients with multiple chronic illnesses are more likely to be hospitalized, and coordinating their care after discharge can be challenging. [10]  Discharge planning uses an interprofessional approach to provide additional support when patients experience changes in their health status caused by a new medical condition or worsening of a chronic medical condition complicated by other co-morbid diseases. [11]

Specific patient populations may require robust and meticulous discharge planning. For example, elderly patients, patients admitted for psychiatric treatment, and those who experienced major life events like myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular accidents, or major surgical procedures will require a more robust discharge plan. Such patient populations will often require additional coordination of care with rehabilitation facilities, long-term care, or home health care, as these services may increase the patient’s quality of life and reduce the rate of re-admission. [10] [12]  

The implementation of electronic health records (EHR) has streamlined the process of discharge planning. An EHR is shown to facilitate communication between providers, and many have the ability to coordinate patient care between clinicians and facilities. [4] [10]  Most EHR systems consist of built-in educational materials for patients that are easily printed and provided with the discharge summary. [10]  These educational materials often contain an explanation of the diagnosis, information regarding prescribed medications, and the laboratory and imaging results from the hospitalization. The customization of an EHR allows the physician to address the various needs of the patient with greater ease.

To discharge patients to their homes where they can heal and recover, it is imperative to perform an assessment of their home situation, caregiver support, and access to necessary follow-up care. By assessing their home situation, you must factor in their mobility, ease of food preparation, toileting, and other activities of daily living. In the event that the patient requires ongoing medical care that may not be available at the current facility or at home, the patient may need to be discharged from the inpatient service to a facility where this care can be provided. [5]

• Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Interventions

Effective collaboration is the key to successful discharge planning. The discharge planning process involves an interprofessional team approach. Physicians are responsible for deciding the patient is safe for discharge, creating the discharge plan in conjunction with the rest of the team, and communicating instructions to the discharge nurse or designated discharge personnel. [13]  While having a well-thought-out discharge plan is important, it is just as critical to communicate this plan to the necessary providers as well as the patient. By communicating the discharge plan effectively to the patient, the provider can impact the quality of care the patient receives. [10]  This is particularly important for elderly patients who will likely have a more complex discharge plan and require more assistance in executing the necessary elements of their plan. Discharge planning may include nurses, therapists, social workers, patients, family members, physicians, occupational and physical therapists, case managers, caregivers, and at times, insurance companies. [7]  Each patient's discharge plan is customized to their own particular situation and may not necessarily involve all of these specialists.

The effectiveness of discharge planning is difficult to evaluate due to the complexity of the intervention and the numerous variables involved. [14]  The quality of discharge planning correlates with a lowered readmission rate within 30 days, which directly affects reimbursement from Medicare and Medicaid. [15]  [Level 2] In the United States, efforts by The Department of Defense to implement TRICARE will allow patients to consolidate their personal healthcare information to create their own healthcare homepage. [10]  This can potentially help the patients and future caregivers to understand the patient's follow-up plan. Furthermore, the information provided to the patient at the time of discharge fosters better communication between the physicians, patient, and their families. [16]  [Level 3] Patient loyalty to return to the same hospital for readmission is associated with the quality of discharge planning. [15]  [Level 2]

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Disclosure: Paula Patel declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Samuel Bechmann declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

• Cite this Page Patel PR, Bechmann S. Discharge Planning. [Updated 2023 Apr 3]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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• Preventing readmissions through comprehensive discharge planning. [Prof Case Manag. 2013] Preventing readmissions through comprehensive discharge planning. Hunter T, Nelson JR, Birmingham J. Prof Case Manag. 2013 Mar-Apr; 18(2):56-63; quiz 64-5.
• Critical Care Network in the State of Qatar. [Qatar Med J. 2019] Critical Care Network in the State of Qatar. Hijjeh M, Al Shaikh L, Alinier G, Selwood D, Malmstrom F, Hassan IF. Qatar Med J. 2019; 2019(2):2. Epub 2019 Nov 7.
• Applying the Integrated Practice Unit Concept to a Modified Virtual Ward Model of Care for Patients at Highest Risk of Readmission: A Randomized Controlled Trial. [PLoS One. 2017] Applying the Integrated Practice Unit Concept to a Modified Virtual Ward Model of Care for Patients at Highest Risk of Readmission: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Low LL, Tan SY, Ng MJ, Tay WY, Ng LB, Balasubramaniam K, Towle RM, Lee KH. PLoS One. 2017; 12(1):e0168757. Epub 2017 Jan 3.
• Review Practical Recommendations for Transitioning Patients with Type 2 Diabetes from Hospital to Home. [Curr Diab Rep. 2017] Review Practical Recommendations for Transitioning Patients with Type 2 Diabetes from Hospital to Home. Donihi AC. Curr Diab Rep. 2017 Jul; 17(7):52.
• Review Diabetes Discharge Planning and Transitions of Care: A Focused Review. [Curr Diabetes Rev. 2019] Review Diabetes Discharge Planning and Transitions of Care: A Focused Review. Black RL, Duval C. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2019; 15(2):111-117.

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Scenario planning and multispecies occupancy models reveal positive avian responses to restoration of afforested woodlands

Scenario planning is a powerful approach for assessing restoration outcomes under alternative futures. However, developing plausible scenarios remains daunting in complex systems like ecological communities. Here, we used Bayesian multispecies occupancy modeling to develop scenarios to assess woodland restoration outcomes in afforested communities in seven wildlife management areas in Arkansas, U.S.A. Our objectives were (1) to define plausible woodland restoration and afforestation scenarios by quantifying historic ranges of variation in mean tree cover and tree cover heterogeneity from 1986 to 2021 and (2) to predict changes in bird species richness and occupancy patterns for six species of greatest conservation need under two future scenarios: complete afforestation (100% tree cover) and woodland restoration (based on remotely sensed historic tree cover). Using 35 years of remotely sensed tree cover data and 6 years of bird monitoring data, we developed multispecies occupancy models to predict future bird species richness and occupancy under the complete afforestation and woodland restoration scenarios. Between 1986 and 2021, tree cover increased in all study areas—with one increasing 70%. Under the woodland restoration scenario, avian species richness increased up to 20%, and four of six species of greatest conservation need exhibited gains in occupancy probability. The complete afforestation scenario had negligible effects on richness and occupancy. Overall, we found decreasing tree cover to historic levels prior to widespread afforestation would provide community-level benefits and would do little harm even to forest-dependent species of conservation concern. Applying multispecies occupancy modeling within a scenario planning framework allows for comparing multiscale trade-offs between plausible futures.

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Caleb p. roberts, phd, research wildlife biologist.

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What to Know About the Democratic National Convention

Vice President Kamala Harris and her running mate, Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota, will be the stars in Chicago.

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By Maggie Astor

The Democratic National Convention is almost upon us, following the Republican convention last month. Once it’s over, it will be a 75-day sprint to Election Day.

Here is what to know about the convention.

When is the Democratic National Convention?

The convention will run from Monday, Aug. 19, through Thursday, Aug. 22.

Where is it?

It will be held at two venues in Chicago: The United Center, an arena on the city’s West Side, will host evening events — that is, the prime-time programming and speeches intended for public consumption. McCormick Place, which is downtown near Lake Michigan, will host daytime events, largely official party business and meetings.

Who will be there?

Vice President Kamala Harris and her running mate, Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota, will be the stars, and President Biden is expected to speak as well. But the full list and schedule of the speakers has not yet been released, and Ms. Harris’s campaign and the Democratic National Convention committee have declined so far to confirm any names besides Ms. Harris and Mr. Walz.

Republicans, during their convention, didn’t publicize their speaking schedule until close to the start of each night’s programming.

Typically, though, conventions feature a wide array of prominent people within the party, such as governors, members of Congress and former elected officials. Spouses of the nominees and other family members often speak or make appearances. And Americans who aren’t famous generally get some stage time as well, speaking about personal experiences that touch the themes and policies the nominee wants to emphasize.

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