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• CIE A-level Biology Revision Notes

Roles of ATP (A-level Biology)

Roles of atp, atp in respiration.

• Glycolysis is the first step of respiration. During respiration, whether aerobic or anaerobic, the first step is glycolysis. This is when glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate.
• ATP is used during glycolysis . One of the major roles of ATP is the use it has in glycolysis. 2 ATP molecules are used during glycolysis to form 2 ADP and two phosphate group (P i ).
• ATP is formed during glycolysis. As well as being used in glycolysis, ATP is also formed during glycolysis. In fact, there is a net production of 2 ATP molecules, which we will cover later.

The Krebs Cycle

• The Krebs Cycle is the third stage of respiration. Respiration consists of 4 stages, of which the Krebs cycle is the third stage . ATP is involved with the Krebs cycle.
• ATP is formed during the Krebs Cycle. During the Krebs Cycle, ATP is formed through a process known as substrate level phosphorylation . ADP and an inorganic phosphate are converted into ATP.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

• Oxidative Phosphorylation is the fourth stage of respiration. Respiration consists of 4 stages, of which the oxidative phosphorylation is the fourth stage . ATP is involved in the process of oxidative phosphorylation.
• ATP is formed during oxidative phosphorylation. During the process of oxidative phosphorylation, ATP is formed through the phosphorylation of ADP. This involves the enzyme ATP synthase , which we will learn about later.

ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is the primary energy currency of cells. It is a molecule that stores and transfers energy within cells, allowing cells to perform the necessary functions to sustain life.

Table of Contents

The functions of ATP in Biology include the storage and transfer of energy within cells, the activation of enzymes, and the contraction of muscles. ATP is also involved in the biosynthesis of macromolecules, such as DNA and RNA, and in the transport of substances across cell membranes.

ATP is produced in cells through cellular respiration. During cellular respiration, glucose and oxygen are converted into carbon dioxide and water, and energy is released in the form of ATP.

The role of ATP in muscle contraction is to provide the energy necessary to cause muscle fibers to contract. When a muscle cell is stimulated, ATP is hydrolyzed to release energy, which is used to activate the contraction of the muscle fibers.

The relationship between ATP and enzymes is that ATP is involved in the activation of enzymes. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, and they require energy to become activated. ATP provides the necessary energy to activate enzymes, allowing the enzymes to perform their function.

ATP transfers energy within cells by undergoing hydrolysis, which releases energy that can be used by the cell. This process involves the breaking of one of the phosphate bonds in ATP, which releases energy that can be used by the cell.

The significance of ATP in Biology is that it provides the energy necessary for cells to perform the functions required to sustain life. Without ATP, cells would be unable to perform these functions, and life would not be possible.

The production of ATP in cells does not have a direct impact on the environment. However, the sources of energy used for cellular respiration, such as glucose and oxygen, can have an impact on the environment if they are not managed sustainably. For example, the use of fossil fuels to produce glucose can contribute to air pollution and climate change.

The hydrolysis of ATP releases energy that is used by cells to perform necessary functions. When ATP is hydrolyzed, the energy released is used to perform work within the cell, such as the contraction of muscles, the activation of enzymes, and the transport of substances across cell membranes.

The role of ATP in the biosynthesis of macromolecules, such as DNA and RNA, is to provide the energy necessary for these processes to occur. The energy released by the hydrolysis of ATP is used to activate enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of these macromolecules, allowing the enzymes to perform their function. The study of ATP and its role in biology is important for understanding the fundamental processes that sustain life, and it is a key component of the A-level Biology curriculum.

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CIE 1 Cell structure

Atp as an energy source (a-level biology), the synthesis and hydrolysis of atp (a-level biology), the structure of atp (a-level biology), magnification and resolution (a-level biology), calculating cell size (a-level biology), studying cells: confocal microscopes (a-level biology), studying cells: electron microscopes (a-level biology), studying cells: light microscopes (a-level biology), life cycle and replication of viruses (a-level biology), cie 10 infectious disease, bacteria, antibiotics, and other medicines (a-level biology), pathogens and infectious diseases (a-level biology), cie 11 immunity, types of immunity and vaccinations (a-level biology), structure and function of antibodies (a-level biology), the adaptive immune response (a-level biology), introduction to the immune system (a-level biology), primary defences against pathogens (a-level biology), cie 12 energy and respiration, anaerobic respiration in mammals, plants and fungi (a-level biology), anaerobic respiration (a-level biology), oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis (a-level biology), oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain (a-level biology), the krebs cycle (a-level biology), the link reaction (a-level biology), the stages and products of glycolysis (a-level biology), glycolysis (a-level biology), the structure of mitochondria (a-level biology), the need for cellular respiration (a-level biology), cie 13 photosynthesis, limiting factors of photosynthesis (a-level biology), cyclic and non-cyclic phosphorylation (a-level biology), the 2 stages of photosynthesis (a-level biology), photosystems and photosynthetic pigments (a-level biology), site of photosynthesis, overview of photosynthesis (a-level biology), cie 14 homeostasis, ectotherms and endotherms (a-level biology), thermoregulation (a-level biology), plant responses to changes in the environment (a-level biology), cie 15 control and co-ordination, the nervous system (a-level biology), sources of atp during contraction (a-level biology), the ultrastructure of the sarcomere during contraction (a-level biology), the role of troponin and tropomyosin (a-level biology), the structure of myofibrils (a-level biology), slow and fast twitch muscles (a-level biology), the structure of mammalian muscles (a-level biology), how muscles allow movement (a-level biology), the neuromuscular junction (a-level biology), features of synapses (a-level biology), cie 16 inherited change, calculating genetic diversity (a-level biology), how meiosis produces variation (a-level biology), cell division by meiosis (a-level biology), importance of meiosis (a-level biology), cie 17 selection and evolution, types of selection (a-level biology), mechanism of natural selection (a-level biology), types of variation (a-level biology), cie 18 biodiversity, classification and conservation, biodiversity and gene technology (a-level biology), factors affecting biodiversity (a-level biology), biodiversity calculations (a-level biology), introducing biodiversity (a-level biology), the three domain system (a-level biology), phylogeny and classification (a-level biology), classifying organisms (a-level biology), cie 19 genetic technology, cie 2 biological molecules, properties of water (a-level biology), structure of water (a-level biology), test for lipids and proteins (a-level biology), tests for carbohydrates (a-level biology), protein structures: globular and fibrous proteins (a-level biology), protein structures: tertiary and quaternary structures (a-level biology), protein structures: primary and secondary structures (a-level biology), protein formation (a-level biology), proteins and amino acids: an introduction (a-level biology), phospholipid bilayer (a-level biology), cie 3 enzymes, enzymes: inhibitors (a-level biology), enzymes: rates of reaction (a-level biology), enzymes: intracellular and extracellular forms (a-level biology), enzymes: mechanism of action (a-level biology), enzymes: key concepts (a-level biology), enzymes: introduction (a-level biology), cie 4 cell membranes and transport, transport across membranes: active transport (a-level biology), investigating transport across membranes (a-level biology), transport across membranes: osmosis (a-level biology), transport across membranes: diffusion (a-level biology), signalling across cell membranes (a-level biology), function of cell membrane (a-level biology), factors affecting cell membrane structure (a-level biology), structure of cell membranes (a-level biology), cie 5 the mitotic cell cycle, chromosome mutations (a-level biology), cell division: checkpoints and mutations (a-level biology), cell division: phases of mitosis (a-level biology), cell division: the cell cycle (a-level biology), cell division: chromosomes (a-level biology), cie 6 nucleic acids and protein synthesis, transfer rna (a-level biology), transcription (a-level biology), messenger rna (a-level biology), introducing the genetic code (a-level biology), genes and protein synthesis (a-level biology), synthesising proteins from dna (a-level biology), structure of rna (a-level biology), dna replication (a-level biology), dna structure and the double helix (a-level biology), polynucleotides (a-level biology), cie 7 transport in plants, translocation and evidence of the mass flow hypothesis (a-level biology), the phloem (a-level biology), importance of and evidence for transpiration (a-level biology), introduction to transpiration (a-level biology), the pathway and movement of water into the roots and xylem (a-level biology), the xylem (a-level biology), cie 8 transport in mammals, controlling heart rate (a-level biology), structure of the heart (a-level biology), transport of carbon dioxide (a-level biology), transport of oxygen (a-level biology), exchange in capillaries (a-level biology), structure and function of blood vessels (a-level biology), cie 9 gas exchange and smoking, lung disease (a-level biology), pulmonary ventilation rate (a-level biology), ventilation (a-level biology), structure of the lungs (a-level biology), general features of exchange surfaces (a-level biology), understanding surface area to volume ratio (a-level biology), the need for exchange surfaces (a-level biology), edexcel a 1: lifestyle, health and risk, phospholipids – introduction (a-level biology), edexcel a 2: genes and health, features of the genetic code (a-level biology), gas exchange in plants (a-level biology), gas exchange in insects (a-level biology), edexcel a 3: voice of the genome, edexcel a 4: biodiversity and natural resources, edexcel a 5: on the wild side, reducing biomass loss (a-level biology), sources of biomass loss (a-level biology), transfer of biomass (a-level biology), measuring biomass (a-level biology), net primary production (a-level biology), gross primary production (a-level biology), trophic levels (a-level biology), edexcel a 6: immunity, infection & forensics, microbial techniques (a-level biology), the innate immune response (a-level biology), edexcel a 7: run for your life, edexcel a 8: grey matter, inhibitory synapses (a-level biology), synaptic transmission (a-level biology), the structure of the synapse (a-level biology), factors affecting the speed of transmission (a-level biology), myelination (a-level biology), the refractory period (a-level biology), all or nothing principle (a-level biology), edexcel b 1: biological molecules, inorganic ions (a-level biology), edexcel b 10: ecosystems, nitrogen cycle: nitrification and denitrification (a-level biology), the phosphorus cycle (a-level biology), nitrogen cycle: fixation and ammonification (a-level biology), introduction to nutrient cycles (a-level biology), edexcel b 2: cells, viruses, reproduction, edexcel b 3: classification & biodiversity, edexcel b 4: exchange and transport, edexcel b 5: energy for biological processes, edexcel b 6: microbiology and pathogens, edexcel b 7: modern genetics, edexcel b 8: origins of genetic variation, edexcel b 9: control systems, ocr 2.1.1 cell structure, structure of prokaryotic cells (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: comparing plant and animal cells (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: plant cell organelles (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: the endoplasmic reticulum (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: the golgi apparatus and lysosomes (a-level biology), ocr 2.1.2 biological molecules, introduction to eukaryotic cells and organelles (a-level biology), ocr 2.1.3 nucleotides and nucleic acids, ocr 2.1.4 enzymes, ocr 2.1.5 biological membranes, ocr 2.1.6 cell division, diversity & organisation, ocr 3.1.1 exchange surfaces, ocr 3.1.2 transport in animals, ocr 3.1.3 transport in plants, examples of xerophytes (a-level biology), introduction to xerophytes (a-level biology), ocr 4.1.1 communicable diseases, structure of viruses (a-level biology), ocr 4.2.1 biodiversity, ocr 4.2.2 classification and evolution, ocr 5.1.1 communication and homeostasis, the resting potential (a-level biology), ocr 5.1.2 excretion, ocr 5.1.3 neuronal communication, hyperpolarisation and transmission of the action potential (a-level biology), depolarisation and repolarisation in the action potential (a-level biology), ocr 5.1.4 hormonal communication, ocr 5.1.5 plant and animal responses, ocr 5.2.1 photosynthesis, ocr 5.2.2 respiration, ocr 6.1.1 cellular control, ocr 6.1.2 patterns of inheritance, ocr 6.1.3 manipulating genomes, ocr 6.2.1 cloning and biotechnology, ocr 6.3.1 ecosystems, ocr 6.3.2 populations and sustainability, related links.

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Hydrolysis of ATP

Hydrolysis of ATP happens when a cell needs energy.

ATP hydrolysis reaction

• ATP + H 2 O → ADP + P i (+ energy)
• This reaction uses a water molecule so is called a hydrolysis reaction.

Energy release

• Energy is released during the hydrolysis of ATP as one of the phosphate bonds is broken.
• This energy is used to perform work inside the cell.

Energy coupling

• The hydrolysis of ATP can be coupled to other reactions within cells that need energy.
• Energy is released from the hydrolysis of ATP.
• Energy is needed to power the pump that drives Na + out of the cell and K + into the cell.

Phosphorylation

• The inorganic phosphate released in ATP hydrolysis can be used to phosphorylate other compounds.
• This often makes the compounds more reactive.

1 Biological Molecules

1.1 Monomers & Polymers

1.1.1 Monomers & Polymers

1.1.2 Condensation & Hydrolysis Reactions

1.2 Carbohydrates

1.2.1 Structure of Carbohydrates

1.2.2 Types of Polysaccharides

1.2.3 End of Topic Test - Monomers, Polymers and Carbs

1.2.4 Exam-Style Question - Carbohydrates

1.2.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Carbohydrates

1.3.1 Triglycerides & Phospholipids

1.3.2 Types of Fatty Acids

1.3.3 Testing for Lipids

1.3.4 Exam-Style Question - Fats

1.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Lipids

1.4 Proteins

1.4.1 The Peptide Chain

1.4.2 Investigating Proteins

1.4.3 Primary & Secondary Protein Structure

1.4.4 Tertiary & Quaternary Protein Structure

1.4.5 Enzymes

1.4.6 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

1.4.7 Enzyme-Controlled Reactions

1.4.8 End of Topic Test - Lipids & Proteins

1.4.9 A-A* (AO3/4) - Enzymes

1.4.10 A-A* (AO3/4) - Proteins

1.5 Nucleic Acids

1.5.1 DNA & RNA

1.5.2 Nucleotides

1.5.3 Polynucleotides

1.5.4 DNA Replication

1.5.5 Exam-Style Question - Nucleic Acids

1.5.6 A-A* (AO3/4) - Nucleic Acids

1.6.1 Structure of ATP

1.6.2 Hydrolysis of ATP

1.6.3 Resynthesis of ATP

1.6.4 End of Topic Test - Nucleic Acids & ATP

1.7.1 Importance of Water

1.7.2 Structure of Water

1.7.3 Properties of Water

1.7.4 A-A* (AO3/4) - Water

1.8 Inorganic Ions

1.8.1 Inorganic Ions

1.8.2 End of Topic Test - Water & Inorganic Ions

2.1 Cell Structure

2.1.1 Introduction to Cells

2.1.2 Eukaryotic Cells & Organelles

2.1.3 Eukaryotic Cells & Organelles 2

2.1.4 Prokaryotes

2.1.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Organelles

2.1.6 Methods of Studying Cells

2.1.7 Microscopes

2.1.8 End of Topic Test - Cell Structure

2.1.9 Exam-Style Question - Cells

2.1.10 A-A* (AO3/4) - Cells

2.2 Mitosis & Cancer

2.2.1 Mitosis

2.2.2 Stages of Mitosis

2.2.3 Investigating Mitosis

2.2.4 Cancer

2.2.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - The Cell Cycle

2.3 Transport Across Cell Membrane

2.3.1 Cell Membrane Structure

2.3.2 A-A* (AO3/4) - Membrane Structure

2.3.3 Diffusion

2.3.4 Osmosis

2.3.5 Active Transport

2.3.6 End of Topic Test - Mitosis, Cancer & Transport

2.3.7 Exam-Style Question - Membranes

2.3.8 A-A* (AO3/4) - Membranes & Transport

2.3.9 A-A*- Mitosis, Cancer & Transport

2.4 Cell Recognition & the Immune System

2.4.1 Immune System

2.4.2 Phagocytosis

2.4.3 T Lymphocytes

2.4.4 B Lymphocytes

2.4.5 Antibodies

2.4.6 Primary & Secondary Response

2.4.7 Vaccines

2.4.9 Ethical Issues

2.4.10 End of Topic Test - Immune System

2.4.11 Exam-Style Question - Immune System

2.4.12 A-A* (AO3/4) - Immune System

3 Substance Exchange

3.1 Surface Area to Volume Ratio

3.1.1 Size & Surface Area

3.1.2 A-A* (AO3/4) - Cell Size

3.2 Gas Exchange

3.2.1 Single-Celled Organisms

3.2.2 Multicellular Organisms

3.2.3 Control of Water Loss

3.2.4 Human Gas Exchange

3.2.5 Ventilation

3.2.6 Dissection

3.2.7 Measuring Gas Exchange

3.2.8 Lung Disease

3.2.9 Lung Disease Data

3.2.10 End of Topic Test - Gas Exchange

3.2.11 A-A* (AO3/4) - Gas Exchange

3.3 Digestion & Absorption

3.3.1 Overview of Digestion

3.3.2 Digestion in Mammals

3.3.3 Absorption

3.3.4 End of Topic Test - Substance Exchange & Digestion

3.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Substance Ex & Digestion

3.4 Mass Transport

3.4.1 Haemoglobin

3.4.2 Oxygen Transport

3.4.3 The Circulatory System

3.4.4 The Heart

3.4.5 Blood Vessels

3.4.6 Cardiovascular Disease

3.4.7 Heart Dissection

3.4.8 Xylem

3.4.9 Phloem

3.4.10 Investigating Plant Transport

3.4.11 End of Topic Test - Mass Transport

3.4.12 A-A* (AO3/4) - Mass Transport

4 Genetic Information & Variation

4.1 DNA, Genes & Chromosomes

4.1.2 Genes

4.1.3 Non-Coding Genes

4.1.4 The Genetic Code

4.1.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - DNA

4.2 DNA & Protein Synthesis

4.2.1 Protein Synthesis

4.2.2 Transcription & Translation

4.2.3 End of Topic Test - DNA, Genes & Protein Synthesis

4.2.4 Exam-Style Question - Protein Synthesis

4.2.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Coronavirus Translation

4.2.6 A-A* (AO3/4) - Transcription

4.2.7 A-A* (AO3/4) - Translation

4.3 Mutations & Meiosis

4.3.1 Mutations

4.3.2 Meiosis

4.3.3 A-A* (AO3/4) - Meiosis

4.3.4 Meiosis vs Mitosis

4.3.5 End of Topic Test - Mutations, Meiosis

4.3.6 A-A* (AO3/4) - DNA,Genes, CellDiv & ProtSynth

4.4 Genetic Diversity & Adaptation

4.4.1 Genetic Diversity

4.4.2 Natural Selection

4.4.3 A-A* (AO3/4) - Natural Selection

4.4.4 Adaptations

4.4.5 Investigating Natural Selection

4.4.6 End of Topic Test - Genetic Diversity & Adaptation

4.4.7 A-A* (AO3/4) - Genetic Diversity & Adaptation

4.5 Species & Taxonomy

4.5.1 Courtship Behaviour

4.5.2 Phylogeny

4.5.3 Classification

4.5.4 DNA Technology

4.5.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Species & Taxonomy

4.6 Biodiversity Within a Community

4.6.1 Biodiversity

4.6.2 Index of diversity

4.6.3 Agriculture

4.6.4 End of Topic Test - Species,Taxonomy& Biodiversity

4.6.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Species,Taxon&Biodiversity

4.7 Investigating Diversity

4.7.1 Genetic Diversity

4.7.2 Quantitative Investigation

5 Energy Transfers (A2 only)

5.1 Photosynthesis

5.1.1 Overview of Photosynthesis

5.1.2 Photoionisation of Chlorophyll

5.1.3 Production of ATP & Reduced NADP

5.1.4 Cyclic Photophosphorylation

5.1.5 Light-Independent Reaction

5.1.6 A-A* (AO3/4) - Photosynthesis Reactions

5.1.7 Limiting Factors

5.1.8 Photosynthesis Experiments

5.1.9 End of Topic Test - Photosynthesis

5.1.10 A-A* (AO3/4) - Photosynthesis

5.2 Respiration

5.2.1 Overview of Respiration

5.2.2 Anaerobic Respiration

5.2.3 A-A* (AO3/4) - Anaerobic Respiration

5.2.4 The Link Reaction

5.2.5 The Krebs Cycle

5.2.6 Oxidative Phosphorylation

5.2.7 Respiration Experiments

5.2.8 End of Topic Test - Respiration

5.2.9 A-A* (AO3/4) - Respiration

5.3 Energy & Ecosystems

5.3.1 Biomass

5.3.2 Production & Productivity

5.3.3 Agricultural Practices

5.4 Nutrient Cycles

5.4.1 Nitrogen Cycle

5.4.2 Phosphorous Cycle

5.4.3 Fertilisers & Eutrophication

5.4.4 End of Topic Test - Nutrient Cycles

5.4.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Energy,Ecosystems&NutrientCycles

6 Responding to Change (A2 only)

6.1 Nervous Communication

6.1.1 Survival

6.1.2 Plant Responses

6.1.3 Animal Responses

6.1.4 Reflexes

6.1.5 End of Topic Test - Reflexes, Responses & Survival

6.1.6 Receptors

6.1.7 The Human Retina

6.1.8 Control of Heart Rate

6.1.9 End of Topic Test - Receptors, Retina & Heart Rate

6.2 Nervous Coordination

6.2.1 Neurones

6.2.2 Action Potentials

6.2.3 Speed of Transmission

6.2.4 End of Topic Test - Neurones & Action Potentials

6.2.5 Synapses

6.2.6 Types of Synapse

6.2.7 Medical Application

6.2.8 End of Topic Test - Synapses

6.2.9 A-A* (AO3/4) - Nervous Comm&Coord

6.3 Muscle Contraction

6.3.1 Skeletal Muscle

6.3.2 Sliding Filament Theory

6.3.3 Contraction

6.3.4 Slow & Fast Twitch Fibres

6.3.5 End of Topic Test - Muscles

6.3.6 A-A* (AO3/4) - Muscle Contraction

6.4 Homeostasis

6.4.1 Overview of Homeostasis

6.4.2 Blood Glucose Concentration

6.4.3 Controlling Blood Glucose Concentration

6.4.4 End of Topic Test - Blood Glucose

6.4.5 Primary & Secondary Messengers

6.4.6 Diabetes Mellitus

6.4.7 Measuring Glucose Concentration

6.4.8 Osmoregulation

6.4.9 Controlling Blood Water Potential

6.4.11 End of Topic Test - Diabetes & Osmoregulation

6.4.12 A-A* (AO3/4) - Homeostasis

7 Genetics & Ecosystems (A2 only)

7.1 Genetics

7.1.1 Key Terms in Genetics

7.1.2 Inheritance

7.1.3 Linkage

7.1.4 Multiple Alleles & Epistasis

7.1.5 Chi-Squared Test

7.1.6 End of Topic Test - Genetics

7.1.7 A-A* (AO3/4) - Genetics

7.2 Populations

7.2.1 Populations

7.2.2 Hardy-Weinberg Principle

7.3 Evolution

7.3.1 Variation

7.3.2 Natural Selection & Evolution

7.3.3 End of Topic Test - Populations & Evolution

7.3.4 Types of Selection

7.3.5 Types of Selection Summary

7.3.6 Overview of Speciation

7.3.7 Causes of Speciation

7.3.8 Diversity

7.3.9 End of Topic Test - Selection & Speciation

7.3.10 A-A* (AO3/4) - Populations & Evolution

7.4 Populations in Ecosystems

7.4.1 Overview of Ecosystems

7.4.2 Niche

7.4.3 Population Size

7.4.4 Investigating Population Size

7.4.5 End of Topic Test - Ecosystems & Population Size

7.4.6 Succession

7.4.7 Conservation

7.4.8 End of Topic Test - Succession & Conservation

7.4.9 A-A* (AO3/4) - Ecosystems

8 The Control of Gene Expression (A2 only)

8.1 Mutation

8.1.1 Mutations

8.1.2 Effects of Mutations

8.1.3 Causes of Mutations

8.2 Gene Expression

8.2.1 Stem Cells

8.2.2 Stem Cells in Disease

8.2.3 End of Topic Test - Mutation & Gene Epression

8.2.4 A-A* (AO3/4) - Mutation & Stem Cells

8.2.5 Regulating Transcription

8.2.6 Epigenetics

8.2.7 Epigenetics & Disease

8.2.8 Regulating Translation

8.2.9 Experimental Data

8.2.10 End of Topic Test - Transcription & Translation

8.2.11 Tumours

8.2.12 Correlations & Causes

8.2.13 Prevention & Treatment

8.2.14 End of Topic Test - Cancer

8.2.15 A-A* (AO3/4) - Gene Expression & Cancer

8.3 Genome Projects

8.3.1 Using Genome Projects

8.4 Gene Technology

8.4.1 Recombinant DNA

8.4.2 Producing Fragments

8.4.3 Amplification

8.4.4 End of Topic Test - Genome Project & Amplification

8.4.5 Using Recombinant DNA

8.4.6 Medical Diagnosis

8.4.7 Genetic Fingerprinting

8.4.8 End of Topic Test - Gene Technologies

8.4.9 A-A* (AO3/4) - Gene Technology

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Structure of ATP

Resynthesis of ATP

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