Research methodology vs. research methods
The research methodology or design is the overall strategy and rationale that you used to carry out the research. Whereas, research methods are the specific tools and processes you use to gather and understand the data you need to test your hypothesis.
To further understand research methodology, let’s explore some examples of research methodology:
a. Qualitative research methodology example: A study exploring the impact of author branding on author popularity might utilize in-depth interviews to gather personal experiences and perspectives.
b. Quantitative research methodology example: A research project investigating the effects of a book promotion technique on book sales could employ a statistical analysis of profit margins and sales before and after the implementation of the method.
c. Mixed-Methods research methodology example: A study examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance might combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. It could include surveys to quantitatively assess the frequency of social media usage and its correlation with grades, alongside focus groups or interviews to qualitatively explore students’ perceptions and experiences regarding how social media affects their study habits and academic engagement.
These examples highlight the meaning of methodology in research and how it guides the research process, from data collection to analysis, ensuring the study’s objectives are met efficiently.
When it comes to writing your study, the methodology in research papers or a dissertation plays a pivotal role. A well-crafted methodology section of a research paper or thesis not only enhances the credibility of your research but also provides a roadmap for others to replicate or build upon your work.
Wondering how to write the research methodology section? Follow these steps to create a strong methods chapter:
At the start of a research paper , you would have provided the background of your research and stated your hypothesis or research problem. In this section, you will elaborate on your research strategy.
Begin by restating your research question and proceed to explain what type of research you opted for to test it. Depending on your research, here are some questions you can consider:
a. Did you use qualitative or quantitative data to test the hypothesis?
b. Did you perform an experiment where you collected data or are you writing a dissertation that is descriptive/theoretical without data collection?
c. Did you use primary data that you collected or analyze secondary research data or existing data as part of your study?
These questions will help you establish the rationale for your study on a broader level, which you will follow by elaborating on the specific methods you used to collect and understand your data.
Now that you have told your reader what type of research youâve undertaken for the dissertation, itâs time to dig into specifics. State what specific methods you used and explain the conditions and variables involved. Explain what the theoretical framework behind the method was, what samples you used for testing it, and what tools and materials you used to collect the data.
Once you have explained the data collection process, explain how you analyzed and studied the data. Here, your focus is simply to explain the methods of analysis rather than the results of the study.
Here are some questions you can answer at this stage:
a. What tools or software did you use to analyze your results?
b. What parameters or variables did you consider while understanding and studying the data youâve collected?
c. Was your analysis based on a theoretical framework?
Your mode of analysis will change depending on whether you used a quantitative or qualitative research methodology in your study. If youâre working within the hard sciences or physical sciences, you are likely to use a quantitative research methodology (relying on numbers and hard data). If youâre doing a qualitative study, in the social sciences or humanities, your analysis may rely on understanding language and socio-political contexts around your topic. This is why itâs important to establish what kind of study youâre undertaking at the onset.
Now that you have gone through your research process in detail, youâll also have to make a case for it. Justify your choice of methodology and methods, explaining why it is the best choice for your research question. This is especially important if you have chosen an unconventional approach or youâve simply chosen to study an existing research problem from a different perspective. Compare it with other methodologies, especially ones attempted by previous researchers, and discuss what contributions using your methodology makes.
No matter how thorough a methodology is, it doesnât come without its hurdles. This is a natural part of scientific research that is important to document so that your peers and future researchers are aware of it. Writing in a research paper about this aspect of your research process also tells your evaluator that you have actively worked to overcome the pitfalls that came your way and you have refined the research process.
1. Remember who you are writing for. Keeping sight of the reader/evaluator will help you know what to elaborate on and what information they are already likely to have. Youâre condensing monthsâ work of research in just a few pages, so you should omit basic definitions and information about general phenomena people already know.
2. Do not give an overly elaborate explanation of every single condition in your study.
3. Skip details and findings irrelevant to the results.
4. Cite references that back your claim and choice of methodology.
5. Consistently emphasize the relationship between your research question and the methodology you adopted to study it.
To sum it up, what is methodology in research? It’s the blueprint of your research, essential for ensuring that your study is systematic, rigorous, and credible. Whether your focus is on qualitative research methodology, quantitative research methodology, or a combination of both, understanding and clearly defining your methodology is key to the success of your research.
Once you write the research methodology and complete writing the entire research paper, the next step is to edit your paper. As experts in research paper editing and proofreading services , weâd love to help you perfect your paper!
Here are some other articles that you might find useful:
What does research methodology mean, what types of research methodologies are there, what is qualitative research methodology, how to determine sample size in research methodology, what is action research methodology.
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This is very simplified and direct. Very helpful to understand the research methodology section of a dissertation
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By Derek Jansen (MBA) Â and Kerryn Warren (PhD) | June 2020 (Last updated April 2023)
If you’re new to formal academic research, it’s quite likely that you’re feeling a little overwhelmed by all the technical lingo that gets thrown around. And who could blame you – “research methodology”, “research methods”, “sampling strategies”⌠it all seems never-ending!
In this post, we’ll demystify the landscape with plain-language explanations and loads of examples (including easy-to-follow videos), so that you can approach your dissertation, thesis or research project with confidence. Let’s get started.
Research methodology simply refers to the practical âhowâ of a research study. More specifically, itâs about how a researcher systematically designs a study  to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims, objectives and research questions . Specifically, how the researcher went about deciding:
Within any formal piece of academic research (be it a dissertation, thesis or journal article), youâll find a research methodology chapter or section which covers the aspects mentioned above. Importantly, a good methodology chapter explains not just  what methodological choices were made, but also explains why they were made. In other words, the methodology chapter should justify  the design choices, by showing that the chosen methods and techniques are the best fit for the research aims, objectives and research questions.Â
So, it’s the same as research design?
Not quite. As we mentioned, research methodology refers to the collection of practical decisions regarding what data you’ll collect, from who, how you’ll collect it and how you’ll analyse it. Research design, on the other hand, is more about the overall strategy you’ll adopt in your study. For example, whether you’ll use an experimental design in which you manipulate one variable while controlling others. You can learn more about research design and the various design types here .
Qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods are different types of methodological approaches, distinguished by their focus on words , numbers or both . This is a bit of an oversimplification, but its a good starting point for understanding.
Let’s take a closer look.
Qualitative research refers to research which focuses on collecting and analysing words (written or spoken) and textual or visual data, whereas quantitative research focuses on measurement and testing using numerical data . Qualitative analysis can also focus on other “softer” data points, such as body language or visual elements.
Itâs quite common for a qualitative methodology to be used when the research aims and research questions are exploratory in nature. For example, a qualitative methodology might be used to understand peoples’ perceptions about an event that took place, or a political candidate running for president.Â
Contrasted to this, a quantitative methodology is typically used when the research aims and research questions are confirmatory in nature. For example, a quantitative methodology might be used to measure the relationship between two variables (e.g. personality type and likelihood to commit a crime) or to test a set of hypotheses .
As you’ve probably guessed, the mixed-method methodology attempts to combine the best of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to integrate perspectives and create a rich picture. If you’d like to learn more about these three methodological approaches, be sure to watch our explainer video below.
Simply put, sampling is about deciding who (or where) you’re going to collect your data from . Why does this matter? Well, generally it’s not possible to collect data from every single person in your group of interest (this is called the “population”), so you’ll need to engage a smaller portion of that group that’s accessible and manageable (this is called the “sample”).
How you go about selecting the sample (i.e., your sampling strategy) will have a major impact on your study. There are many different sampling methods  you can choose from, but the two overarching categories are probability  sampling and non-probability  sampling .
Probability sampling involves using a completely random sample from the group of people youâre interested in. This is comparable to throwing the names all potential participants into a hat, shaking it up, and picking out the “winners”. By using a completely random sample, you’ll minimise the risk of selection bias and the results of your study will be more generalisable to the entire population.Â
Non-probability sampling , on the other hand, doesnât use a random sample . For example, it might involve using a convenience sample, which means you’d only interview or survey people that you have access to (perhaps your friends, family or work colleagues), rather than a truly random sample. With non-probability sampling, the results are typically not generalisable .
To learn more about sampling methods, be sure to check out the video below.
As the name suggests, data collection methods simply refers to the way in which you go about collecting the data for your study. Some of the most common data collection methods include:
The choice of which data collection method to use depends on your overall research aims and research questions , as well as practicalities and resource constraints. For example, if your research is exploratory in nature, qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups would likely be a good fit. Conversely, if your research aims to measure specific variables or test hypotheses, large-scale surveys that produce large volumes of numerical data would likely be a better fit.
Data analysis methods refer to the methods and techniques that you’ll use to make sense of your data. These can be grouped according to whether the research is qualitative (words-based) or quantitative (numbers-based).
Popular data analysis methods in qualitative research include:
Qualitative data analysis all begins with data coding , after which an analysis method is applied. In some cases, more than one analysis method is used, depending on the research aims and research questions . In the video below, we explore some common qualitative analysis methods, along with practical examples. Â
Moving on to the quantitative side of things, popular data analysis methods in this type of research include:
Again, the choice of which data collection method to use depends on your overall research aims and objectives , as well as practicalities and resource constraints. In the video below, we explain some core concepts central to quantitative analysis.
As youâve probably picked up by now, your research aims and objectives have a major influence on the research methodology . So, the starting point for developing your research methodology is to take a step back and look at the big picture of your research, before you make methodology decisions. The first question you need to ask yourself is whether your research is exploratory or confirmatory in nature.
If your research aims and objectives are primarily exploratory in nature, your research will likely be qualitative and therefore you might consider qualitative data collection methods (e.g. interviews) and analysis methods (e.g. qualitative content analysis).Â
Conversely, if your research aims and objective are looking to measure or test something (i.e. they’re confirmatory), then your research will quite likely be quantitative in nature, and you might consider quantitative data collection methods (e.g. surveys) and analyses (e.g. statistical analysis).
Designing your research and working out your methodology is a large topic, which we cover extensively on the blog . For now, however, the key takeaway is that you should always start with your research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread). Every methodological choice you make needs align with those three components.Â
In the video below, we provide a detailed walkthrough of a research methodology from an actual dissertation, as well as an overview of our free methodology template .
This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...
Thank you for this simple yet comprehensive and easy to digest presentation. God Bless!
You’re most welcome, Leo. Best of luck with your research!
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I am writing a APA Format paper . I using questionnaire with 120 STDs teacher for my participant. Can you write me mthology for this research. Send it through email sent. Just need a sample as an example please. My topic is ” impacts of overcrowding on students learning
Thanks for your comment.
We can’t write your methodology for you. If you’re looking for samples, you should be able to find some sample methodologies on Google. Alternatively, you can download some previous dissertations from a dissertation directory and have a look at the methodology chapters therein.
All the best with your research.
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Thank you, Derek and Kerryn, for making this simple to understand. I’m currently at the inception stage of my research.
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I’m currently working on my master’s thesis, thanks for this! I’m certain that I will use Qualitative methodology.
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I am currently doing my dissertation proposal and I am sure that I will do quantitative research. Thank you very much it was extremely helpful.
Very interesting and informative yet I would like to know about examples of Research Questions as well, if possible.
I’m about to submit a research presentation, I have come to understand from your simplification on understanding research methodology. My research will be mixed methodology, qualitative as well as quantitative. So aim and objective of mixed method would be both exploratory and confirmatory. Thanks you very much for your guidance.
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Iâm going to write synopsis which will be quantitative research method and I donât know how to frame my topic, can I kindly get some ideas..
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Great to hear that, Hyacinth. Best of luck with your research!
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Thanks for the feedback, Matobela. Good luck with your research methodology.
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You’re very welcome, Elie. Good luck with your research methodology.
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This is a very helpful site especially for young researchers at college. It provides sufficient information to guide students and equip them with the necessary foundation to ask any other questions aimed at deepening their understanding.
Thanks for the kind words, Edward. Good luck with your research!
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Great to hear that, Ngwisa. Good luck with your research methodology!
Thank you for keeping your presentation simples and short and covering key information for research methodology. My key takeaway: Start with defining your research objective the other will depend on the aims of your research question.
My name is Zanele I would like to be assisted with my research , and the topic is shortage of nursing staff globally want are the causes , effects on health, patients and community and also globally
Thanks for making it simple and clear. It greatly helped in understanding research methodology. Regards.
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Thank you Dr
I was given an assignment to research 2 publications and describe their research methodology? I don’t know how to start this task can someone help me?
Sure. You’re welcome to book an initial consultation with one of our Research Coaches to discuss how we can assist – https://gradcoach.com/book/new/ .
Thanks a lot I am relieved of a heavy burden.keep up with the good work
I’m very much grateful Dr Derek. I’m planning to pursue one of the careers that really needs one to be very much eager to know. There’s a lot of research to do and everything, but since I’ve gotten this information I will use it to the best of my potential.
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Thank Derek. This is very helpful. Your step by step explanation has made it easier for me to understand different concepts. Now i can get on with my research.
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I would like to be assisted with my research topic : Literature Review and research methodologies. My topic is : what is the relationship between unemployment and economic growth?
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Iâm currently working on my Ph.D. thesis. Thanks a lot, Derek and Kerryn, Well-organized sequences, facilitate the readers’ following.
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I am a bit confused about research design and methodology. Are they the same? If not, what are the differences and how are they related?
Thanks in advance.
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Very well written piece that afforded better understanding of the concept. Thank you!
Am a new researcher trying to learn how best to write a research proposal. I find your article spot on and want to download the free template but finding difficulties. Can u kindly send it to my email, the free download entitled, “Free Download: Research Proposal Template (with Examples)”.
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how do i reference this?
MLA Jansen, Derek, and Kerryn Warren. “What (Exactly) Is Research Methodology?” Grad Coach, June 2021, gradcoach.com/what-is-research-methodology/.
APA Jansen, D., & Warren, K. (2021, June). What (Exactly) Is Research Methodology? Grad Coach. https://gradcoach.com/what-is-research-methodology/
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The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.
Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.
You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:
Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.
I. Groups of Research Methods
There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:
II. Content
The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.
The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:
In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:
NOTE: Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.
ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.
YET ANOTHER NOTE: If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.
III. Problems to Avoid
Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.
Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.
Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.
Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].
It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.
Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.
Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!
Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.
To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .
Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods
There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.
Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.
Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.
Methods and the Methodology
Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].
The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.
Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.
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The research methodology section of any academic research paper gives you the opportunity to convince your readers that your research is useful and will contribute to your field of study. An effective research methodology is grounded in your overall approach â whether qualitative or quantitative â and adequately describes the methods you used. Justify why you chose those methods over others, then explain how those methods will provide answers to your research questions. [1] X Research source
To write a research methodology, start with a section that outlines the problems or questions you'll be studying, including your hypotheses or whatever it is you're setting out to prove. Then, briefly explain why you chose to use either a qualitative or quantitative approach for your study. Next, go over when and where you conducted your research and what parameters you used to ensure you were objective. Finally, cite any sources you used to decide on the methodology for your research. To learn how to justify your choice of methods in your research methodology, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No
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Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analysing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :
Second, decide how you will analyse the data .
Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analysing data, examples of data analysis methods, frequently asked questions about methodology.
Data are the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .
Qualitative | ||
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Quantitative | . |
You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Primary data are any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary data are information that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data. But if you want to synthesise existing knowledge, analyse historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Primary | ||
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Secondary |
In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .
In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Descriptive | ||
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Experimental |
Research method | Primary or secondary? | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|---|
Primary | Quantitative | To test cause-and-effect relationships. | |
Primary | Quantitative | To understand general characteristics of a population. | |
Interview/focus group | Primary | Qualitative | To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic. |
Observation | Primary | Either | To understand how something occurs in its natural setting. |
Secondary | Either | To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic. | |
Either | Either | To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you donât have the resources for a large study. |
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare them for analysis.
Data can often be analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analysed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that were collected:
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcherâs judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions.
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that were collected either:
Because the data are collected and analysed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardised and shared among researchers.
Research method | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | To analyse data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations). | |
Meta-analysis | Quantitative | To statistically analyse the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner. |
Qualitative | To analyse data collected from interviews, focus groups or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated. | |
Either | To analyse large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words). |
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.
In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.
For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
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Abstract : a short statement that describes a longer work.
Oral presentations usually introduce a discussion of a topic or research paper. A good oral presentation is focused, concise, and interesting in order to trigger a discussion.
An effective PowerPoint presentation is just an aid to the presentation, not the presentation itself .
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Lawrence mbuagbaw.
1 Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON Canada
2 Biostatistics Unit/FSORC, 50 Charlton Avenue East, St Joseph’s Healthcare—Hamilton, 3rd Floor Martha Wing, Room H321, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 4A6 Canada
3 Centre for the Development of Best Practices in Health, Yaoundé, Cameroon
Livia puljak.
4 Center for Evidence-Based Medicine and Health Care, Catholic University of Croatia, Ilica 242, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
5 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health – Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 USA
6 Departments of Paediatrics and Anaesthesia, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON Canada
7 Centre for Evaluation of Medicine, St. Joseph’s Healthcare-Hamilton, Hamilton, ON Canada
8 Population Health Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences, Hamilton, ON Canada
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.
Methodological studies – studies that evaluate the design, analysis or reporting of other research-related reports – play an important role in health research. They help to highlight issues in the conduct of research with the aim of improving health research methodology, and ultimately reducing research waste.
We provide an overview of some of the key aspects of methodological studies such as what they are, and when, how and why they are done. We adopt a “frequently asked questions” format to facilitate reading this paper and provide multiple examples to help guide researchers interested in conducting methodological studies. Some of the topics addressed include: is it necessary to publish a study protocol? How to select relevant research reports and databases for a methodological study? What approaches to data extraction and statistical analysis should be considered when conducting a methodological study? What are potential threats to validity and is there a way to appraise the quality of methodological studies?
Appropriate reflection and application of basic principles of epidemiology and biostatistics are required in the design and analysis of methodological studies. This paper provides an introduction for further discussion about the conduct of methodological studies.
The field of meta-research (or research-on-research) has proliferated in recent years in response to issues with research quality and conduct [ 1 – 3 ]. As the name suggests, this field targets issues with research design, conduct, analysis and reporting. Various types of research reports are often examined as the unit of analysis in these studies (e.g. abstracts, full manuscripts, trial registry entries). Like many other novel fields of research, meta-research has seen a proliferation of use before the development of reporting guidance. For example, this was the case with randomized trials for which risk of bias tools and reporting guidelines were only developed much later – after many trials had been published and noted to have limitations [ 4 , 5 ]; and for systematic reviews as well [ 6 – 8 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, studies that report on research differ substantially in how they are named, conducted and reported [ 9 , 10 ]. This creates challenges in identifying, summarizing and comparing them. In this tutorial paper, we will use the term methodological study to refer to any study that reports on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary or secondary research-related reports (such as trial registry entries and conference abstracts).
In the past 10 years, there has been an increase in the use of terms related to methodological studies (based on records retrieved with a keyword search [in the title and abstract] for “methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study” in PubMed up to December 2019), suggesting that these studies may be appearing more frequently in the literature. See Fig. 1 .
Trends in the number studies that mention “methodological review” or “meta-
epidemiological study” in PubMed.
The methods used in many methodological studies have been borrowed from systematic and scoping reviews. This practice has influenced the direction of the field, with many methodological studies including searches of electronic databases, screening of records, duplicate data extraction and assessments of risk of bias in the included studies. However, the research questions posed in methodological studies do not always require the approaches listed above, and guidance is needed on when and how to apply these methods to a methodological study. Even though methodological studies can be conducted on qualitative or mixed methods research, this paper focuses on and draws examples exclusively from quantitative research.
The objectives of this paper are to provide some insights on how to conduct methodological studies so that there is greater consistency between the research questions posed, and the design, analysis and reporting of findings. We provide multiple examples to illustrate concepts and a proposed framework for categorizing methodological studies in quantitative research.
Any study that describes or analyzes methods (design, conduct, analysis or reporting) in published (or unpublished) literature is a methodological study. Consequently, the scope of methodological studies is quite extensive and includes, but is not limited to, topics as diverse as: research question formulation [ 11 ]; adherence to reporting guidelines [ 12 – 14 ] and consistency in reporting [ 15 ]; approaches to study analysis [ 16 ]; investigating the credibility of analyses [ 17 ]; and studies that synthesize these methodological studies [ 18 ]. While the nomenclature of methodological studies is not uniform, the intents and purposes of these studies remain fairly consistent – to describe or analyze methods in primary or secondary studies. As such, methodological studies may also be classified as a subtype of observational studies.
Parallel to this are experimental studies that compare different methods. Even though they play an important role in informing optimal research methods, experimental methodological studies are beyond the scope of this paper. Examples of such studies include the randomized trials by Buscemi et al., comparing single data extraction to double data extraction [ 19 ], and Carrasco-Labra et al., comparing approaches to presenting findings in Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) summary of findings tables [ 20 ]. In these studies, the unit of analysis is the person or groups of individuals applying the methods. We also direct readers to the Studies Within a Trial (SWAT) and Studies Within a Review (SWAR) programme operated through the Hub for Trials Methodology Research, for further reading as a potential useful resource for these types of experimental studies [ 21 ]. Lastly, this paper is not meant to inform the conduct of research using computational simulation and mathematical modeling for which some guidance already exists [ 22 ], or studies on the development of methods using consensus-based approaches.
Methodological studies occupy a unique niche in health research that allows them to inform methodological advances. Methodological studies should also be conducted as pre-cursors to reporting guideline development, as they provide an opportunity to understand current practices, and help to identify the need for guidance and gaps in methodological or reporting quality. For example, the development of the popular Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were preceded by methodological studies identifying poor reporting practices [ 23 , 24 ]. In these instances, after the reporting guidelines are published, methodological studies can also be used to monitor uptake of the guidelines.
These studies can also be conducted to inform the state of the art for design, analysis and reporting practices across different types of health research fields, with the aim of improving research practices, and preventing or reducing research waste. For example, Samaan et al. conducted a scoping review of adherence to different reporting guidelines in health care literature [ 18 ]. Methodological studies can also be used to determine the factors associated with reporting practices. For example, Abbade et al. investigated journal characteristics associated with the use of the Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (PICOT) format in framing research questions in trials of venous ulcer disease [ 11 ].
There is no clear answer to this question. Based on a search of PubMed, the use of related terms (“methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study”) – and therefore, the number of methodological studies – is on the rise. However, many other terms are used to describe methodological studies. There are also many studies that explore design, conduct, analysis or reporting of research reports, but that do not use any specific terms to describe or label their study design in terms of “methodology”. This diversity in nomenclature makes a census of methodological studies elusive. Appropriate terminology and key words for methodological studies are needed to facilitate improved accessibility for end-users.
Methodological studies provide information on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary and secondary research and can be used to appraise quality, quantity, completeness, accuracy and consistency of health research. These issues can be explored in specific fields, journals, databases, geographical regions and time periods. For example, Areia et al. explored the quality of reporting of endoscopic diagnostic studies in gastroenterology [ 25 ]; Knol et al. investigated the reporting of p -values in baseline tables in randomized trial published in high impact journals [ 26 ]; Chen et al. describe adherence to the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement in Chinese Journals [ 27 ]; and Hopewell et al. describe the effect of editors’ implementation of CONSORT guidelines on reporting of abstracts over time [ 28 ]. Methodological studies provide useful information to researchers, clinicians, editors, publishers and users of health literature. As a result, these studies have been at the cornerstone of important methodological developments in the past two decades and have informed the development of many health research guidelines including the highly cited CONSORT statement [ 5 ].
Methodological studies can be found in most common biomedical bibliographic databases (e.g. Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science). However, the biggest caveat is that methodological studies are hard to identify in the literature due to the wide variety of names used and the lack of comprehensive databases dedicated to them. A handful can be found in the Cochrane Library as “Cochrane Methodology Reviews”, but these studies only cover methodological issues related to systematic reviews. Previous attempts to catalogue all empirical studies of methods used in reviews were abandoned 10 years ago [ 29 ]. In other databases, a variety of search terms may be applied with different levels of sensitivity and specificity.
In this section, we have outlined responses to questions that might help inform the conduct of methodological studies.
Q: How should I select research reports for my methodological study?
A: Selection of research reports for a methodological study depends on the research question and eligibility criteria. Once a clear research question is set and the nature of literature one desires to review is known, one can then begin the selection process. Selection may begin with a broad search, especially if the eligibility criteria are not apparent. For example, a methodological study of Cochrane Reviews of HIV would not require a complex search as all eligible studies can easily be retrieved from the Cochrane Library after checking a few boxes [ 30 ]. On the other hand, a methodological study of subgroup analyses in trials of gastrointestinal oncology would require a search to find such trials, and further screening to identify trials that conducted a subgroup analysis [ 31 ].
The strategies used for identifying participants in observational studies can apply here. One may use a systematic search to identify all eligible studies. If the number of eligible studies is unmanageable, a random sample of articles can be expected to provide comparable results if it is sufficiently large [ 32 ]. For example, Wilson et al. used a random sample of trials from the Cochrane Stroke Group’s Trial Register to investigate completeness of reporting [ 33 ]. It is possible that a simple random sample would lead to underrepresentation of units (i.e. research reports) that are smaller in number. This is relevant if the investigators wish to compare multiple groups but have too few units in one group. In this case a stratified sample would help to create equal groups. For example, in a methodological study comparing Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews, Kahale et al. drew random samples from both groups [ 34 ]. Alternatively, systematic or purposeful sampling strategies can be used and we encourage researchers to justify their selected approaches based on the study objective.
Q: How many databases should I search?
A: The number of databases one should search would depend on the approach to sampling, which can include targeting the entire “population” of interest or a sample of that population. If you are interested in including the entire target population for your research question, or drawing a random or systematic sample from it, then a comprehensive and exhaustive search for relevant articles is required. In this case, we recommend using systematic approaches for searching electronic databases (i.e. at least 2 databases with a replicable and time stamped search strategy). The results of your search will constitute a sampling frame from which eligible studies can be drawn.
Alternatively, if your approach to sampling is purposeful, then we recommend targeting the database(s) or data sources (e.g. journals, registries) that include the information you need. For example, if you are conducting a methodological study of high impact journals in plastic surgery and they are all indexed in PubMed, you likely do not need to search any other databases. You may also have a comprehensive list of all journals of interest and can approach your search using the journal names in your database search (or by accessing the journal archives directly from the journal’s website). Even though one could also search journals’ web pages directly, using a database such as PubMed has multiple advantages, such as the use of filters, so the search can be narrowed down to a certain period, or study types of interest. Furthermore, individual journals’ web sites may have different search functionalities, which do not necessarily yield a consistent output.
Q: Should I publish a protocol for my methodological study?
A: A protocol is a description of intended research methods. Currently, only protocols for clinical trials require registration [ 35 ]. Protocols for systematic reviews are encouraged but no formal recommendation exists. The scientific community welcomes the publication of protocols because they help protect against selective outcome reporting, the use of post hoc methodologies to embellish results, and to help avoid duplication of efforts [ 36 ]. While the latter two risks exist in methodological research, the negative consequences may be substantially less than for clinical outcomes. In a sample of 31 methodological studies, 7 (22.6%) referenced a published protocol [ 9 ]. In the Cochrane Library, there are 15 protocols for methodological reviews (21 July 2020). This suggests that publishing protocols for methodological studies is not uncommon.
Authors can consider publishing their study protocol in a scholarly journal as a manuscript. Advantages of such publication include obtaining peer-review feedback about the planned study, and easy retrieval by searching databases such as PubMed. The disadvantages in trying to publish protocols includes delays associated with manuscript handling and peer review, as well as costs, as few journals publish study protocols, and those journals mostly charge article-processing fees [ 37 ]. Authors who would like to make their protocol publicly available without publishing it in scholarly journals, could deposit their study protocols in publicly available repositories, such as the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/ ).
Q: How to appraise the quality of a methodological study?
A: To date, there is no published tool for appraising the risk of bias in a methodological study, but in principle, a methodological study could be considered as a type of observational study. Therefore, during conduct or appraisal, care should be taken to avoid the biases common in observational studies [ 38 ]. These biases include selection bias, comparability of groups, and ascertainment of exposure or outcome. In other words, to generate a representative sample, a comprehensive reproducible search may be necessary to build a sampling frame. Additionally, random sampling may be necessary to ensure that all the included research reports have the same probability of being selected, and the screening and selection processes should be transparent and reproducible. To ensure that the groups compared are similar in all characteristics, matching, random sampling or stratified sampling can be used. Statistical adjustments for between-group differences can also be applied at the analysis stage. Finally, duplicate data extraction can reduce errors in assessment of exposures or outcomes.
Q: Should I justify a sample size?
A: In all instances where one is not using the target population (i.e. the group to which inferences from the research report are directed) [ 39 ], a sample size justification is good practice. The sample size justification may take the form of a description of what is expected to be achieved with the number of articles selected, or a formal sample size estimation that outlines the number of articles required to answer the research question with a certain precision and power. Sample size justifications in methodological studies are reasonable in the following instances:
For example, El Dib et al. computed a sample size requirement for a methodological study of diagnostic strategies in randomized trials, based on a confidence interval approach [ 40 ].
Q: What should I call my study?
A: Other terms which have been used to describe/label methodological studies include “ methodological review ”, “methodological survey” , “meta-epidemiological study” , “systematic review” , “systematic survey”, “meta-research”, “research-on-research” and many others. We recommend that the study nomenclature be clear, unambiguous, informative and allow for appropriate indexing. Methodological study nomenclature that should be avoided includes “ systematic review” – as this will likely be confused with a systematic review of a clinical question. “ Systematic survey” may also lead to confusion about whether the survey was systematic (i.e. using a preplanned methodology) or a survey using “ systematic” sampling (i.e. a sampling approach using specific intervals to determine who is selected) [ 32 ]. Any of the above meanings of the words “ systematic” may be true for methodological studies and could be potentially misleading. “ Meta-epidemiological study” is ideal for indexing, but not very informative as it describes an entire field. The term “ review ” may point towards an appraisal or “review” of the design, conduct, analysis or reporting (or methodological components) of the targeted research reports, yet it has also been used to describe narrative reviews [ 41 , 42 ]. The term “ survey ” is also in line with the approaches used in many methodological studies [ 9 ], and would be indicative of the sampling procedures of this study design. However, in the absence of guidelines on nomenclature, the term “ methodological study ” is broad enough to capture most of the scenarios of such studies.
Q: Should I account for clustering in my methodological study?
A: Data from methodological studies are often clustered. For example, articles coming from a specific source may have different reporting standards (e.g. the Cochrane Library). Articles within the same journal may be similar due to editorial practices and policies, reporting requirements and endorsement of guidelines. There is emerging evidence that these are real concerns that should be accounted for in analyses [ 43 ]. Some cluster variables are described in the section: “ What variables are relevant to methodological studies?”
A variety of modelling approaches can be used to account for correlated data, including the use of marginal, fixed or mixed effects regression models with appropriate computation of standard errors [ 44 ]. For example, Kosa et al. used generalized estimation equations to account for correlation of articles within journals [ 15 ]. Not accounting for clustering could lead to incorrect p -values, unduly narrow confidence intervals, and biased estimates [ 45 ].
Q: Should I extract data in duplicate?
A: Yes. Duplicate data extraction takes more time but results in less errors [ 19 ]. Data extraction errors in turn affect the effect estimate [ 46 ], and therefore should be mitigated. Duplicate data extraction should be considered in the absence of other approaches to minimize extraction errors. However, much like systematic reviews, this area will likely see rapid new advances with machine learning and natural language processing technologies to support researchers with screening and data extraction [ 47 , 48 ]. However, experience plays an important role in the quality of extracted data and inexperienced extractors should be paired with experienced extractors [ 46 , 49 ].
Q: Should I assess the risk of bias of research reports included in my methodological study?
A : Risk of bias is most useful in determining the certainty that can be placed in the effect measure from a study. In methodological studies, risk of bias may not serve the purpose of determining the trustworthiness of results, as effect measures are often not the primary goal of methodological studies. Determining risk of bias in methodological studies is likely a practice borrowed from systematic review methodology, but whose intrinsic value is not obvious in methodological studies. When it is part of the research question, investigators often focus on one aspect of risk of bias. For example, Speich investigated how blinding was reported in surgical trials [ 50 ], and Abraha et al., investigated the application of intention-to-treat analyses in systematic reviews and trials [ 51 ].
Q: What variables are relevant to methodological studies?
A: There is empirical evidence that certain variables may inform the findings in a methodological study. We outline some of these and provide a brief overview below:
Q: Should I focus only on high impact journals?
A: Investigators may choose to investigate only high impact journals because they are more likely to influence practice and policy, or because they assume that methodological standards would be higher. However, the JIF may severely limit the scope of articles included and may skew the sample towards articles with positive findings. The generalizability and applicability of findings from a handful of journals must be examined carefully, especially since the JIF varies over time. Even among journals that are all “high impact”, variations exist in methodological standards.
Q: Can I conduct a methodological study of qualitative research?
A: Yes. Even though a lot of methodological research has been conducted in the quantitative research field, methodological studies of qualitative studies are feasible. Certain databases that catalogue qualitative research including the Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) have defined subject headings that are specific to methodological research (e.g. “research methodology”). Alternatively, one could also conduct a qualitative methodological review; that is, use qualitative approaches to synthesize methodological issues in qualitative studies.
Q: What reporting guidelines should I use for my methodological study?
A: There is no guideline that covers the entire scope of methodological studies. One adaptation of the PRISMA guidelines has been published, which works well for studies that aim to use the entire target population of research reports [ 71 ]. However, it is not widely used (40 citations in 2 years as of 09 December 2019), and methodological studies that are designed as cross-sectional or before-after studies require a more fit-for purpose guideline. A more encompassing reporting guideline for a broad range of methodological studies is currently under development [ 72 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, the requirements for scientific reporting should be respected, and authors of methodological studies should focus on transparency and reproducibility.
Q: What are the potential threats to validity and how can I avoid them?
A: Methodological studies may be compromised by a lack of internal or external validity. The main threats to internal validity in methodological studies are selection and confounding bias. Investigators must ensure that the methods used to select articles does not make them differ systematically from the set of articles to which they would like to make inferences. For example, attempting to make extrapolations to all journals after analyzing high-impact journals would be misleading.
Many factors (confounders) may distort the association between the exposure and outcome if the included research reports differ with respect to these factors [ 73 ]. For example, when examining the association between source of funding and completeness of reporting, it may be necessary to account for journals that endorse the guidelines. Confounding bias can be addressed by restriction, matching and statistical adjustment [ 73 ]. Restriction appears to be the method of choice for many investigators who choose to include only high impact journals or articles in a specific field. For example, Knol et al. examined the reporting of p -values in baseline tables of high impact journals [ 26 ]. Matching is also sometimes used. In the methodological study of non-randomized interventional studies of elective ventral hernia repair, Parker et al. matched prospective studies with retrospective studies and compared reporting standards [ 74 ]. Some other methodological studies use statistical adjustments. For example, Zhang et al. used regression techniques to determine the factors associated with missing participant data in trials [ 16 ].
With regard to external validity, researchers interested in conducting methodological studies must consider how generalizable or applicable their findings are. This should tie in closely with the research question and should be explicit. For example. Findings from methodological studies on trials published in high impact cardiology journals cannot be assumed to be applicable to trials in other fields. However, investigators must ensure that their sample truly represents the target sample either by a) conducting a comprehensive and exhaustive search, or b) using an appropriate and justified, randomly selected sample of research reports.
Even applicability to high impact journals may vary based on the investigators’ definition, and over time. For example, for high impact journals in the field of general medicine, Bouwmeester et al. included the Annals of Internal Medicine (AIM), BMJ, the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Lancet, the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM), and PLoS Medicine ( n = 6) [ 75 ]. In contrast, the high impact journals selected in the methodological study by Schiller et al. were BMJ, JAMA, Lancet, and NEJM ( n = 4) [ 76 ]. Another methodological study by Kosa et al. included AIM, BMJ, JAMA, Lancet and NEJM ( n = 5). In the methodological study by Thabut et al., journals with a JIF greater than 5 were considered to be high impact. Riado Minguez et al. used first quartile journals in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) for a specific year to determine “high impact” [ 77 ]. Ultimately, the definition of high impact will be based on the number of journals the investigators are willing to include, the year of impact and the JIF cut-off [ 78 ]. We acknowledge that the term “generalizability” may apply differently for methodological studies, especially when in many instances it is possible to include the entire target population in the sample studied.
Finally, methodological studies are not exempt from information bias which may stem from discrepancies in the included research reports [ 79 ], errors in data extraction, or inappropriate interpretation of the information extracted. Likewise, publication bias may also be a concern in methodological studies, but such concepts have not yet been explored.
In order to inform discussions about methodological studies, the development of guidance for what should be reported, we have outlined some key features of methodological studies that can be used to classify them. For each of the categories outlined below, we provide an example. In our experience, the choice of approach to completing a methodological study can be informed by asking the following four questions:
A methodological study may be focused on exploring sources of bias in primary or secondary studies (meta-bias), or how bias is analyzed. We have taken care to distinguish bias (i.e. systematic deviations from the truth irrespective of the source) from reporting quality or completeness (i.e. not adhering to a specific reporting guideline or norm). An example of where this distinction would be important is in the case of a randomized trial with no blinding. This study (depending on the nature of the intervention) would be at risk of performance bias. However, if the authors report that their study was not blinded, they would have reported adequately. In fact, some methodological studies attempt to capture both “quality of conduct” and “quality of reporting”, such as Richie et al., who reported on the risk of bias in randomized trials of pharmacy practice interventions [ 80 ]. Babic et al. investigated how risk of bias was used to inform sensitivity analyses in Cochrane reviews [ 81 ]. Further, biases related to choice of outcomes can also be explored. For example, Tan et al investigated differences in treatment effect size based on the outcome reported [ 82 ].
Methodological studies may report quality of reporting against a reporting checklist (i.e. adherence to guidelines) or against expected norms. For example, Croituro et al. report on the quality of reporting in systematic reviews published in dermatology journals based on their adherence to the PRISMA statement [ 83 ], and Khan et al. described the quality of reporting of harms in randomized controlled trials published in high impact cardiovascular journals based on the CONSORT extension for harms [ 84 ]. Other methodological studies investigate reporting of certain features of interest that may not be part of formally published checklists or guidelines. For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described how often the implications for research are elaborated using the Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (EPICOT) format [ 30 ].
Sometimes investigators may be interested in how consistent reports of the same research are, as it is expected that there should be consistency between: conference abstracts and published manuscripts; manuscript abstracts and manuscript main text; and trial registration and published manuscript. For example, Rosmarakis et al. investigated consistency between conference abstracts and full text manuscripts [ 85 ].
In addition to identifying issues with reporting in primary and secondary studies, authors of methodological studies may be interested in determining the factors that are associated with certain reporting practices. Many methodological studies incorporate this, albeit as a secondary outcome. For example, Farrokhyar et al. investigated the factors associated with reporting quality in randomized trials of coronary artery bypass grafting surgery [ 53 ].
Methodological studies may also be used to describe methods or compare methods, and the factors associated with methods. Muller et al. described the methods used for systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies [ 86 ].
Some methodological studies synthesize results from other methodological studies. For example, Li et al. conducted a scoping review of methodological reviews that investigated consistency between full text and abstracts in primary biomedical research [ 87 ].
Some methodological studies may investigate the use of names and terms in health research. For example, Martinic et al. investigated the definitions of systematic reviews used in overviews of systematic reviews (OSRs), meta-epidemiological studies and epidemiology textbooks [ 88 ].
In addition to the previously mentioned experimental methodological studies, there may exist other types of methodological studies not captured here.
Most methodological studies are purely descriptive and report their findings as counts (percent) and means (standard deviation) or medians (interquartile range). For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described the reporting of research recommendations in Cochrane HIV systematic reviews [ 30 ]. Gohari et al. described the quality of reporting of randomized trials in diabetes in Iran [ 12 ].
Some methodological studies are analytical wherein “analytical studies identify and quantify associations, test hypotheses, identify causes and determine whether an association exists between variables, such as between an exposure and a disease.” [ 89 ] In the case of methodological studies all these investigations are possible. For example, Kosa et al. investigated the association between agreement in primary outcome from trial registry to published manuscript and study covariates. They found that larger and more recent studies were more likely to have agreement [ 15 ]. Tricco et al. compared the conclusion statements from Cochrane and non-Cochrane systematic reviews with a meta-analysis of the primary outcome and found that non-Cochrane reviews were more likely to report positive findings. These results are a test of the null hypothesis that the proportions of Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews that report positive results are equal [ 90 ].
Methodological reviews with narrow research questions may be able to include the entire target population. For example, in the methodological study of Cochrane HIV systematic reviews, Mbuagbaw et al. included all of the available studies ( n = 103) [ 30 ].
Many methodological studies use random samples of the target population [ 33 , 91 , 92 ]. Alternatively, purposeful sampling may be used, limiting the sample to a subset of research-related reports published within a certain time period, or in journals with a certain ranking or on a topic. Systematic sampling can also be used when random sampling may be challenging to implement.
Many methodological studies use a research report (e.g. full manuscript of study, abstract portion of the study) as the unit of analysis, and inferences can be made at the study-level. However, both published and unpublished research-related reports can be studied. These may include articles, conference abstracts, registry entries etc.
Some methodological studies report on items which may occur more than once per article. For example, Paquette et al. report on subgroup analyses in Cochrane reviews of atrial fibrillation in which 17 systematic reviews planned 56 subgroup analyses [ 93 ].
This framework is outlined in Fig. 2 .
A proposed framework for methodological studies
Methodological studies have examined different aspects of reporting such as quality, completeness, consistency and adherence to reporting guidelines. As such, many of the methodological study examples cited in this tutorial are related to reporting. However, as an evolving field, the scope of research questions that can be addressed by methodological studies is expected to increase.
In this paper we have outlined the scope and purpose of methodological studies, along with examples of instances in which various approaches have been used. In the absence of formal guidance on the design, conduct, analysis and reporting of methodological studies, we have provided some advice to help make methodological studies consistent. This advice is grounded in good contemporary scientific practice. Generally, the research question should tie in with the sampling approach and planned analysis. We have also highlighted the variables that may inform findings from methodological studies. Lastly, we have provided suggestions for ways in which authors can categorize their methodological studies to inform their design and analysis.
Abbreviations.
CONSORT | Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials |
EPICOT | Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe |
GRADE | Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations |
PICOT | Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe |
PRISMA | Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses |
SWAR | Studies Within a Review |
SWAT | Studies Within a Trial |
LM conceived the idea and drafted the outline and paper. DOL and LT commented on the idea and draft outline. LM, LP and DOL performed literature searches and data extraction. All authors (LM, DOL, LT, LP, DBA) reviewed several draft versions of the manuscript and approved the final manuscript.
This work did not receive any dedicated funding.
Ethics approval and consent to participate.
Not applicable.
Competing interests.
DOL, DBA, LM, LP and LT are involved in the development of a reporting guideline for methodological studies.
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Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Table of Contents
Choosing an optimal research methodology is crucial for the success of any research project. The methodology you select will determine the type of data you collect, how you collect it, and how you analyse it. Understanding the different types of research methods available along with their strengths and weaknesses, is thus imperative to make an informed decision.
There are several research methods available depending on the type of study you are conducting, i.e., whether it is laboratory-based, clinical, epidemiological, or survey based . Some common methodologies include qualitative research, quantitative research, experimental research, survey-based research, and action research. Each method can be opted for and modified, depending on the type of research hypotheses and objectives.
When deciding on a research methodology, one of the key factors to consider is whether your research will be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative research is used to understand people’s experiences, concepts, thoughts, or behaviours . Quantitative research, on the contrary, deals with numbers, graphs, and charts, and is used to test or confirm hypotheses, assumptions, and theories.Â
Qualitative research is often used to examine issues that are not well understood, and to gather additional insights on these topics. Qualitative research methods include open-ended survey questions, observations of behaviours described through words, and reviews of literature that has explored similar theories and ideas. These methods are used to understand how language is used in real-world situations, identify common themes or overarching ideas, and describe and interpret various texts. Data analysis for qualitative research typically includes discourse analysis, thematic analysis, and textual analysis.Â
The goal of quantitative research is to test hypotheses, confirm assumptions and theories, and determine cause-and-effect relationships. Quantitative research methods include experiments, close-ended survey questions, and countable and numbered observations. Data analysis for quantitative research relies heavily on statistical methods.
The methods used for data analysis also differ for qualitative and quantitative research. As mentioned earlier, quantitative data is generally analysed using statistical methods and does not leave much room for speculation. It is more structured and follows a predetermined plan. In quantitative research, the researcher starts with a hypothesis and uses statistical methods to test it. Contrarily, methods used for qualitative data analysis can identify patterns and themes within the data, rather than provide statistical measures of the data. It is an iterative process, where the researcher goes back and forth trying to gauge the larger implications of the data through different perspectives and revising the analysis if required.
The choice between qualitative and quantitative research will depend on the gap that the research project aims to address, and specific objectives of the study. If the goal is to establish facts about a subject or topic, quantitative research is an appropriate choice. However, if the goal is to understand people’s experiences or perspectives, qualitative research may be more suitable.Â
In conclusion, an understanding of the different research methods available, their applicability, advantages, and disadvantages is essential for making an informed decision on the best methodology for your project. If you need any additional guidance on which research methodology to opt for, you can head over to Elsevier Author Services (EAS). EAS experts will guide you throughout the process and help you choose the perfect methodology for your research goals.
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When embarking on a research project, selecting the right methodology can be the difference between success and failure. With various methods available, each suited to different types of research, it’s essential you make an informed choice. This blog post will provide tips on how to choose a research methodology that best fits your research goals .
Weâll start with definitions: Research is the systematic process of exploring, investigating, and discovering new information or validating existing knowledge. It involves defining questions, collecting data, analyzing results, and drawing conclusions.
Meanwhile, a research methodology is a structured plan that outlines how your research is to be conducted. A complete methodology should detail the strategies, processes, and techniques you plan to use for your data collection and analysis.
The first step of a research methodology is to identify a focused research topic, which is the question you seek to answer. By setting clear boundaries on the scope of your research, you can concentrate on specific aspects of a problem without being overwhelmed by information. This will produce more accurate findings.
Along with clarifying your research topic, your methodology should also address your research methods. Letâs look at the four main types of research: descriptive, correlational, experimental, and diagnostic.
Descriptive research is an approach designed to describe the characteristics of a population systematically and accurately. This method focuses on answering “what” questions by providing detailed observations about the subject. Descriptive research employs surveys, observational studies , and case studies to gather qualitative or quantitative data.Â
A real-world example of descriptive research is a survey investigating consumer behavior toward a competitor’s product. By analyzing the survey results, the company can gather detailed insights into how consumers perceive a competitorâs product, which can inform their marketing strategies and product development.
Correlational research examines the statistical relationship between two or more variables to determine whether a relationship exists. Correlational research is particularly useful when ethical or practical constraints prevent experimental manipulation. It is often employed in fields such as psychology, education, and health sciences to provide insights into complex real-world interactions, helping to develop theories and inform further experimental research.
An example of correlational research is the study of the relationship between smoking and lung cancer. Researchers observe and collect data on individuals’ smoking habits and the incidence of lung cancer to determine if there is a correlation between the two variables. This type of research helps identify patterns and relationships, indicating whether increased smoking is associated with higher rates of lung cancer.
Experimental research is a scientific approach where researchers manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable. This method is designed to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Fields like psychology , medicine, and social sciences frequently employ experimental research to test hypotheses and theories under controlled conditions.Â
A real-world example of experimental research is Pavlov’s Dog experiment. In this experiment, Ivan Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning by ringing a bell each time he fed his dogs. After repeating this process multiple times, the dogs began to salivate just by hearing the bell, even when no food was presented. This experiment helped to illustrate how certain stimuli can elicit specific responses through associative learning.
Diagnostic research tries to accurately diagnose a problem by identifying its underlying causes. This type of research is crucial for understanding complex situations where a precise diagnosis is necessary for formulating effective solutions. It involves methods such as case studies and data analysis and often integrates both qualitative and quantitative data to provide a comprehensive view of the issue at hand.
An example of diagnostic research is studying the causes of a specific illness outbreak. During an outbreak of a respiratory virus, researchers might conduct diagnostic research to determine the factors contributing to the spread of the virus. This could involve analyzing patient data, testing environmental samples, and evaluating potential sources of infection. The goal is to identify the root causes and contributing factors to develop effective containment and prevention strategies.
Using an established research method is imperative, no matter if you are researching for marketing , technology , healthcare , engineering, or social science. A methodology lends legitimacy to your research by ensuring your data is both consistent and credible. A well-defined methodology also enhances the reliability and validity of the research findings, which is crucial for drawing accurate and meaningful conclusions.
Additionally, methodologies help researchers stay focused and on track, limiting the scope of the study to relevant questions and objectives. This not only improves the quality of the research but also ensures that the study can be replicated and verified by other researchers, further solidifying its scientific value.
Choosing the best research methodology for your project involves several key steps to ensure that your approach aligns with your research goals and questions. Hereâs a simplified guide to help you make the best choice.
Clearly define the objectives of your research. What do you aim to discover, prove, or understand? Understanding your goals helps in selecting a methodology that aligns with your research purpose.
Determine whether your research will involve numerical data, textual data, or both. Quantitative methods are best for numerical data, while qualitative methods are suitable for textual or thematic data.
Becoming familiar with the four types of research â descriptive, correlational, experimental, and diagnostic â will enable you to select the most appropriate method for your research. Many times, you will want to use a combination of methods to gather meaningful data.
Consider the resources available to you, including time, budget, and access to data. Some methodologies may require more resources or longer timeframes to implement effectively.
Look at previous research in your field to see which methodologies were successful. This can provide insights and help you choose a proven approach.
By following these steps, you can select a research methodology that best fits your project’s requirements and ensures robust, credible results.
Upon completing your research, the next critical step is to analyze and interpret the data you’ve collected. This involves summarizing the key findings, identifying patterns, and determining how these results address your initial research questions. By thoroughly examining the data, you can draw meaningful conclusions that contribute to the body of knowledge in your field.
It’s essential that you present these findings clearly and concisely, using charts, graphs, and tables to enhance comprehension. Furthermore, discuss the implications of your results, any limitations encountered during the study, and how your findings align with or challenge existing theories.
Your research project should conclude with a strong statement that encapsulates the essence of your research and its broader impact. This final section should leave readers with a clear understanding of the value of your work and inspire continued exploration and discussion in the field.
Now that you know how to perform quality research , itâs time to get started! Applying the right research methodologies can make a significant difference in the accuracy and reliability of your findings. Remember, the key to successful research is not just in collecting data, but in analyzing it thoughtfully and systematically to draw meaningful conclusions. So, dive in, explore, and contribute to the ever-growing body of knowledge with confidence. Happy researching!
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An increasing number of Chinese tourists exhibit reluctance in trusting and using Official Tourism Destination Websites (OTDWs). To address this hesitancy, our study developed an integrated framework and structural model based on Hofstedeâs cultural values (CV) and perceived administration service power (PASP) to explore methods for enhancing touristsâ trust in OTDWs. This research investigated the impacts of collectivism, low power distance, high context, local distinctiveness, perceived economic management power, perceived tourism management power, perceived benevolence, and perceived integrity on CV and PASP. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to analyze questionnaires completed by 324 Chinese tourists with experience in traveling and using OTDWs. The overall fit of our structural model was acceptable, and the Cronbachâs Alpha values indicated adequate reliability. Findings revealed that touristsâ trust in OTDWs is positively and significantly influenced by collectivism, low power distance, high context, and perceived benevolence. Furthermore, CV positively impacts PASP. Consequently, OTDW management departments should give special attention to collectivism, low power distance, high context, and perceived benevolence to enhance touristsâ trust in OTDWs. The studyâs results offer valuable insights for tourism destination managers to understand touristsâ preferences and optimize OTDWs.
Introduction.
Tourism plays a significant and multifaceted role in the Chinese economy, politics, and society. The Official Tourism Destination Website (OTDW) serves as a crucial government-sponsored platform for promoting tourism. Chinese individuals commonly display explicit behaviors that demonstrate their respect towards authority figures, as evidenced by studies (Chien, 2016 ). This respect for authority is closely associated with a higher level of popular trust, leading people to have a greater inclination to trust agencies endorsed by high-authority organizations, such as the government (Su et al., 2021 ). Therefore, under the influence of Chinese CV, consumers believe that the official is synonymous with a high level of competence and service compared to other organizations. OTDW enjoys a notable competitive advantage over other commercial travel websites (Cox et al., 2009 ). Thanks to this environment, and with the strong support of the government, the OTDWs were established and developed rapidly. As early as the end of July 2006, 95% of Chinese OTDWs had been established, covering 1 national ministry of culture and tourism, 33 local cultural and tourism bureaus/offices, over 300 cities, state and county-level cultural and tourism bureaus, and 302 national 5A-level scenic spots (çťçş˘ĺŽ, 2007 ).
As important information output platforms of the official authorities, OTDWs should ideally be more reliable and authoritative compared to tourism e-commerce website, tourism social network platforms, and others. However, studies have shown that the usage of official websites is actually lower than that of other commercial websites (Prideaux et al., 2008 , Wang, 2014 ). News reports showed that more than 68 percent of city residents had never used a government website, and only about 12 percent of individuals obtained government information through government websites, lagging behind the percentage of individuals who obtained such information through commercial websites, social media, and text messages (Daily October 28, 2014 ). In addition, tourism crises, such as scams and misconduct such as seafood scam in Sanya (CCTV, 2012 ), the outrageous shrimp scam bill in Qingdao (Baidu.com, 2015 ), âSnow Village rip-offsâ in Mudanjiang (Baidu.com, 2017 ) and incidents of humiliation and threats of tourists by tour guides in Yunnan (Youku, 2020 ), have weakened the trust and dependence of Chinese tourists on OTDWs. A large number of negative emotions and voices have gradually shifted from tourism enterprises to the official management departments and the OTDWs (Zheng, 2019 , Liu and Ding, 2020 , Zhu, 2020 ), resulting in a crisis of trust in OTDWs (Zhu, 2020 ).
Although some studies have examined the impact of trust on tourism websites, to the authorâs knowledge, there is no study examining the impact of combining CV and PASP on tourism websites, especially OTDWs. Moreover, a lack of understanding of how CV and PASP promotes OTDWs trust has induced calls for:
Studies on the mechanisms through which CV and PASP contribute to web trust (Lee, 2010 , Chakraborty and Sadachar, 2023 ).
Research focusing on trust in OTDWs services and not on trust in tourism goods (Zelenka et al., 2021 , Mior Shariffuddin et al., 2023 ).
Thus, the present study responds to these calls by examining the direct and indirect effects of CV and PASP on OTDWs trust. The existing research on the inherent trust advantage of OTDWs provides valuable insights into this phenomenon. This study aims to explore the underlying factors that cause tourists to hesitate when choosing to use and trust OTDW. We employ an empirical study of surveys to test the trust model (Lin and Yeh, 2013 , Rojo et al., 2020 ). The subsequent part of the paper thoroughly reviews existing literature and explains this studyâs theoretical background and methodologies. In order to examine the research hypotheses and establish the connections between the research constructs, the study utilized Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The results and discussion of the study are presented, and the theoretical contributions, practical implications, limitations and future research of the study are introduced.
Trust theory is expanded in this study by utilizing CV and PASP perspectives to establish the links between CV, PASP, and trust in OTDWs. There is a consensus on Chinese CV characteristics, such as high collectivism (COL), low power distance (LPD), strong uncertainty avoidance (UA), and matrilineal culture (Hofstede and Bond, 1988 , Wong and Lau, 2001 , Li and Xu, 2007 , Tsang, 2011 , Qiu et al., 2015 ). China, Japan and South Korea are typical representatives of high-context (HC) (Moura et al., 2015 ). In HC cultures, communication between two parties is not solely based on straightforward language but rather relies on indirect methods, such as public knowledge and shared experiences. Horng and Tsai ( 2010 ) emphasizes that food is an essential local distinctiveness (LD) in travel, and it can be very valuable to promote on OTDWs. To effectively leverage COL, LPD, UA, HC, and LD to predict touristsâ online trust, it is vital to ensure that the design of OTDWs is easily understandable and trustworthy for potential tourists.
Trust comes from the long-term accumulation of comprehensive factors, such as learning information through personal experience, which constitute the continuous trust evaluation system of tourism service ability (Schneider, 2007 ). This study utilizes two indicators from Mayerâs trust theory, namely Perceived Benevolence (PB) and Perceived Integrity (PI) (Mayer et al., 1995 , Hall and Page, 2009 , Taamneh et al., 2022 ), to assess the perceived trust of OTDW. The measurement dimension of power needs adjustment as the research field changes (Mayer et al., 1995 ). Perceived Tourism Management Power (PTMP), tourism information service ability, and local culture conveyed by OTDWs play a role in attracting, infecting and touching users (Hall and Page, 2009 ). Local management departmentsâ powers, such as Perceived Economic Management Power (PEMP) (Robin and Stephen, 2013 ) and resource control (Liu et al., 2019 ), also impact the perception and continued trust of tourists. This implies that a comprehensive understanding of PASP is crucial in this study, connecting various theories as tourists assimilate, select, and comprehend information through multiple interactions with the OTDW. The perception of a OTDWâs value and reputation, formed by tourists throughout this process, significantly impacts their trust outcome.
Website is not a culturally neutral medium (Singh et al., 2003 ), as culture value can influence touristsâ expectations, attitudes, and behavior in various aspects of the tourism experience. Buhalis and Law ( 2008 ) analyzed the OTDWs of 56 countries and found that culture value, such as COL, power distance, and masculinity-femininity, impacted the design and content of these websites. They observed that countries with LPD had more egalitarian structures and casual language. Another relevant study by Kim et al., 2019 analyzed the OTDWs of 20 Asian countries and identified that cultural value, such as PD and COL impacted the content and functionality of these websites.
Singh et al. ( 2003 ) and Laosethakul and Boulton ( 2007 ) both pointed out that China, Indonesia and Venezuela were typical representatives of low individualism whose points were 15â48. As this study focuses on Chinese tourists, the COL characteristic is particularly relevant. Although high power-distance cultures tend to create a greater sense of distance, LPD product ratings are considered more helpful and attractive (Filieri et al., 2018 , Filieri et al., 2019 ). Risk and uncertainty are âinherentâ to tourism (Holland, 2017 ). UA is the way people cope with uncertainty and ambiguous situations (Hofstede et al., 1980 ). Related to personal safety needs, people find their inner motivations to meet personal needs and reduce uncertainty(Li et al., 2013 ). Hall ( 1976 ) introduced the concept of HC culture, which is prevalent in Eastern countries, including China. WĂźrtz ( 2005 ) believed that non-verbal communication was more effective than verbal communication in HC cultures. This type of communication is transmitted indirectly, where the messageâs meaning is not conveyed directly but rather subtly implied through mood, gesture, expression, and picture, where meaning and context are inseparable. The distinctive material or intangible cultural resources, such as the unique healing practices of the Caribbean rainforest, ethnic tourism, and food in local restaurant, can be summarized as LDs for tourism (Yang et al., 2008 , Lin and Yeh, 2013 , Miocevic et al., 2022 ).
Cultural similarities stand on the opposite side of the tourism experience and can have both positive and negative effects on tourism experiences. While a similar cultural background can create positive views and boost purchase intention, it can also reduce novelty and sensory stimulation, which are important for hedonic motivation in tourism (Goossens, 2000 ). Baack and Singh ( 2007 ) confirmed that a website reflecting similar cultural values would lead users to have positive views, boosting purchase intention, as well as enhancing trust and loyalty. However, too much cultural difference may increase visitor anxiety, as different cultures have different sensitivities and influences on customers and tourists (Bhawuk and Brislin, 1992 ). In the case of Chinese tourists, their deeply rooted CVs significantly impact their behaviors and decision-making process online even without being noticed (Power, 2009 ). OTDWs need to find a balance between the sense of security brought by the touristsâ familiar CVs and the mystery and excitement brought by the tourist destinationsâ uncertain culture values. The subsequent hypotheses are posited based on the comprehensive interactions of the Chinese CV constructs.
H1: COL in OTDW has a positive impact on perceived CV of tourists.
H2: LPD in OTDW has a positive impact on perceived CV of tourists.
H3: UA in OTDW has a positive impact on perceived CV of tourists.
H4: HC in OTDW has a positive impact on perceived CV of tourists.
H5: LD in OTDW has a positive impact on perceived CV of tourists.
PASP is an index that tourists use to assess the level of government service ability (Nunkoo and Smith, 2013 ). Solely relying on the invisible hand of the market to organize and regulate itself may result in the tourism industry eventually losing sight of its original intention due to a lack of proper coordination. According to the conceptual model, perceived impacts can be categorized into policy-related impacts and tourism-related impacts, encompassing the economy, social culture, and the environment (Qin et al., 2019 ). Saptu et al., ( 2020 ) examined the impact of perceived government support on attitudes towards Agricultural Entrepreneurship, Perceived Behavioral Control, and the impact of social norms on Agricultural Entrepreneurship intention of Sabahan youth. PASP, such as perceived government support, has a significant impact on Agricultural Entrepreneurship, Perceived Behavioral Control, and industrial economy.
Ability, PB and PI indexes in trust theory have a significant impact on touristsâ trust (Mayer et al., 1995 ). It is also important to note that this relationship may be complex as the definition and operationalization of Ability may vary across studies, and different aspects of this construct may have other effects on PASP. The institutional theory of political trust is based on hypothetical trust, including three indicators of PEMP (Hetherington et al., 1998 ). Compared with the other two indicators, the effect of PEMP perceived by the public is more direct, and the cycle is shorter. PEMP can encourage capital accumulation and stimulate economic expansion (Nunkoo and Smith, 2013 ). Governments can do the same in the tourism economy (Bevir, 2009 ), for example by increasing sustainable tourism economic construction projects that affect their daily lives (Bramwell, 2011 ). PTMP is the perceived level of tourism management ability of local governments by citizens, which directly affects their trust in tourism management departments (Wong et al., 2011 , Nunkoo and Gursoy, 2012 ). Residentsâ perception of PTMP has been found to positively influence their trust in government in the real world (Oskarsson et al., 2009 , PerOla and Torsten, 2010 , Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2012 ).
Similar to PB, integrity in others has been shown to foster increased trust (Colquitt et al., 2007 ). However, there are situations that acting benevolence may seem to require compromising oneâs integrity, and vice versa. Conflicts between PB and PI are frequently encountered (Lupoli et al., 2018 , Moore et al., 2019 ). Tourists expect PB to reflect the governmentâs efforts to serve their interests when developing, which requires the government to prioritize touristsâ needs without being solely driven by profits, regardless of whether it is perceived by the tourists or not (Mcknight et al., 1998 , Belanger and Carter, 2008 ). PI and service quality in turn significantly impact PB and privacy concerns (Janssen et al., 2018 ). In such challenging situations, PB and PI conveyed by OTDWs require special attention. The subsequent hypotheses are posited based on the comprehensive interactions of the constructs. Building upon these observations, we hypothesize:
H6: PEMP in OTDW has a positive impact on PASP of tourists.
H7: PTMP in OTDW has a positive impact on PASP of tourists.
H8: PB in OTDW has a positive impact on PASP of tourists.
H9: PI in OTDW has a positive impact on PASP
Trust plays a crucial role in travel decision-making, affecting tourist satisfaction, well-being, and loyalty (Harris and Goode, 2004 , Kim, 2012 , Lee et al., 2019 ). Trust can be divided into online trust (Kim et al., 2011 ) and offline trust (Abubakar et al., 2017 ). When using e-government websites, citizensâ trust is primarily shaped by their evaluation of the officials responsible for developing, maintaining, and monitoring the system, rather than the system itself (Dashti et al., 2009 ). This indicates that the dimension of trustworthiness, namely PASP, is crucial in a network environment. Particularly in situations where the trusteeâs ability, benevolence, and integrity are uncertain or there is limited information available, an individualâs disposition to trust becomes even more pivotal. Belanger and Carter ( 2008 ) discovered that the disposition to trust has a significantly impact on both Internet trust and government trust. When government departments provide accurate and comprehensive information, it enhances public trust and subsequently increases residentsâ trust in the government (Rousseau et al., 1998 ).
Culture plays a significant role in shaping consumersâ responses, including tourists, from their decision-making process and purchase intention to loyalty and stickiness (Hofstede et al., 1999 ). The CV quality of virtual travel community significantly influences the touristâs trust, which, in turn, affects their attitude towards the website and their intention to transact (Bhawuk and Brislin, 1992 , Elliot et al., 2013 ). Trust does not directly influence website stickiness or intention to transact (Elliot et al., 2013 ), but trust is crucial in reducing uncertain risk, especially when people have limited cognition in decision-making processes (Grabner-Kraeuter, 2002 ). Tourists can enhance their culture abilities through sustainable social activities, such as pursuing spiritual experiences, which can in turn influence their perception of the CV (Woodside, 2000 , Tung and Ritchie, 2011 ).
OTDW serves not only as an important platform for disseminating official tourism information but also as a platform for displaying administrative service power. Residents of China, South Korea, and Japan tend to have a positive inclination towards experts and authorities, which makes famous online brands more easily accepted and trusted by consumers (Zeithaml et al., 2002 ). The governmentâs service capabilities and corresponding policy performance are the most powerful indicators of citizensâ trust (Robin and Stephen, 2013 ). Once the trust is established, it will positively influence the brand perceptions which will also positively affect transaction intention. The found hints at the fragility of consumerâ trust, and also reflect the extreme caution of Chinese consumers in online transactions (Chen et al., 2008 , Lin and Yeh, 2013 ). It is essential to understand how PASP affects touristsâ trust in OTDWs.
H10: CV in OTDW has a positive impact on PASP of tourists.
H11: CV in OTDW has a positive impact on Trust of tourists.
H12: PASP in OTDW has a positive impact on Trust of tourists.
Altogether, the theoretical framework of touristsâ trust model for OTDW proposed in this paper is shown in Fig. 1 :
Study framework.
SmartPLS 3.3.4 was used to confirm the reliability of the study framework and test the hypotheses. The Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) has been commonly used in numerous tourism-based research (Usakli and Kucukergin, 2018 , Koç et al., 2022 ). It enables researchers to analyze both the measurement and structural models. PLS-SEM offers several advantages (Hair et al., 2020 ), as it effectively handles data with complex hierarchical models, even with a small sample size, and it is suitable for data that does not follow a normal distribution(Wang et al., 2019 ). In this study, the structural model is complex, and since the objective was to explore the intricate relationship among the dimensions of the constructs; hence, selecting PLS-SEM was considered appropriate (Hair et al., 2020 ).
Accordingly, PLS-SEM tests the measurement and study hypotheses in two steps: assessing the measurement and structural models. SmartPLS was employed to evaluate reliability and validity in the measurement model assessment. First, the measurement model was assessed by analyzing the convergent validity, discriminant validity, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE) and correlation analysis of latent variables of the constructs and measurement items. The structural model was subsequently assessed using path analysis and the coefficient of determination. In addition, path analysis models require a sample size of at least 10 times the number of observation indicators corresponding to each latent variable in the model (Chin and Marcoulides, 1998 , Chin et al., 2003 ). As this trust model had 3â5 observation indicators for each latent variable and an effective sample size of 324, it met SmartPLSâs sample size requirements.
For data analysis, other types of software were used in this research, namely SPSS 27.0.1 and Amos 23. SPSS was utilized to conduct descriptive statistics on the survey data, while Amos was employed to perform confirmatory factor analysis on the same data.
The target population for this research is individuals with both offline travel experience and online tourism website experience, especially those who use OTDWs for travel and tourism services. As trust is a social construct that involves a willingness to rely on or have confidence in another person, institution, or concept (Rousseau et al., 1998 ), we employed a data collection approach that combined simple sampling with quota sampling. This approach provides a balanced and effective approach to data collection, utilizing the strengths of both methods to ensure the most realistic and reliable data possible.
Data were collected through the platform named WJX.cn. The following four methods were used to distribute the questionnaires from May 2022 until July 2022: (1) via social applications such as QQ friends, QQ groups, and WeChat; (2) through the purchase of promotion services on WJX.cn, allowing for the targeted distribution of questionnaires via email; (3) via electronic questionnaires sent to tourism company employees via QQ; (4) a small number of paper questionnaires were randomly distributed to tourists in the scenic area. A total of 482 questionnaires were collected in this survey. After excluding questionnaires with identical answers, 2â3 duplicate answers, and too many blank items that were not answered seriously, 324 valid questionnaires remained in this survey, accounting for 67.22% of the total. None of the differences were found to be significant by t-tests, suggesting the non-response was less likely to be a cause of concern in subsequent analysis.
The questionnaire of the study consisted of four parts. Part I gathered general data regarding gender, age, educational, and years of use internet. Part II gathered data on CV consisting of 21 items. Part III asked about PASP. Part IV consisted of three parts: the first part is about the impact of CV on PASP, the second part is about the impact of PASP on trust, and the last part is about the impact of CV on trust.
The trust model was examined using a Likert 7-level scale. In addition, we considered the possibility of removing indicators with low factor loading coefficients in the future. As a result, each latent variable was designed with 3â5 observation variables (see Table 1 ). This satisfies the fundamental requirements of structural equation modeling (SEM) for observation variables.
The initial version of the trust model questionnaire included seven demographic questions and 50 observational variable questions. Before conducting the pre-survey, the questionnaireâs content underwent revisions for grammatical and other aspects. The revisions were suggested by experts from tourism enterprises and professors from universities to ensure that the questionnaireâs language and format aligned with Chinese expression and reading habits.
Before the formal survey, a pilot study was conducted to minimize errors and assess the accuracy and relevance of the items that measure CV, PASP and trust in OTDWs. For this purpose, the pre-survey was conducted with 50 undergraduates, and the data collected was found to be reliable and valid within acceptable ranges. The pilot study produced Cronbachâs Alpha values that surpassed the minimum threshold of 0.71, indicating strong internal consistency. Based on the undergraduatesâ feedback, slight revisions were made to enhance clarity, resulting in minimal item rewording and modifications. The formal questionnaireâs complete set of questions can be found in Table 1 .
Questionnaires with only one answer and incomplete answers were excluded, hence, data from only 324 individuals were used for the statistical analysis (see Table 2 ).
From the 324 respondents, 49.69% were female and 50.31% were male. In addition, 29.01% of the respondents were between 18 and 25 years old, followed by those who were between 31 and 35 years old (26.85%). Concerning the educational level, 68.52% of the sample were either enrolled or had completed a bachelorâs degree, 19.75% were graduates or postgraduates, 0.93% had completed high school education, and 10.80% had attained a junior college diploma. In terms of previous experience with using Internet for tourism, all respondents had varying lengths of experience. About 33.33% of respondents have been using the Internet for 6-10 years to find travel information, followed by 1â5 years (29.94%), 11â15 years (22.22%), more than 16 years (12.97%), and 1.54% have been using the Internet for less than 1 year.
This study tested the second-order factor structure of PASP and constructed the PASP measurement model by taking PEMP, PTMP, PB, and PI as the first-order factors. Similarly, the CV measurement model was constructed based on the data collected from the questionnaire. Both PASP and CV measurement models were analyzed using AMOS to test the factor structure of latent variables. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 3 , and the fit indices indicate an acceptable level of fit.
As recommended by Hair et al. ( 2014a ), the final model was also examined by assessing the reliability and validity for each construct of the study. Tables 4 and 5 summarize the different reliability and validity indicators for the measurement model. As shown in Table 4 , this model has good convergent validity for the following reasons: (1) the load factors corresponding to all the observation indexes of the latent variables in this research exceed 0.7; (2) its reliability is greater than 0.85; (3) the Cronbachâs Alpha coefficients are all greater than 0.78; (4) and the AVE of all the latent variables exceed 0.58 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981 , Hair et al. 2010 , Hair et al. ( 2014a ), Hair et al. 2014b ). To verify the discriminatory validity of the metric model, the study carried out an analysis of the latent variable correlation factor load coefficient and correlation coefficient. As shown in Table 5 , the diagonally blacked numbers represent the square root of the AVE of each latent variable, and the off-diagonal elements are the correlation coefficients of each latent variable. The square root of the AVE of all latent variables has been greater than the correlation coefficient of other latent variables (Chin, 1998 ).
Furthermore, as shown in Table 6 , the factor load coefficients of each observation variable attached to the measured latent variable are higher than the factor load coefficients attached to the other latent variables (Gefen and Straub, 2005 ). All of these outputs demonstrate that the scale has acceptable levels of discriminatory validity.
A structural model was developed and tested to examine the relationship among the constructs studied: COL, LPD, UA, LD, HC, PEMP, PTMP, PB, PI, CV, PASP, and Trust. Table 7 and Fig. 2 present the results of the structural model. From the latent variable output of this study (Rojo et al., 2020 ), three major findings: (1) the explained variance R 2 showed that UA, HC, LD, COL, and PD could explain 38.7% of CV of OTDW; (2) PEMP, PTMP, PB and PI could explain 62.3% of the variance of PASP; (3) the explained variance of Trust was 72.2%. It showed that the exogenous latent variables of the trust model could better explain the endogenous latent variables. Additionally, Robustness Tests (Neumayer and PlĂźmper, 2017 , Rojo et al., 2020 ) were performed on split samples of gender and educational to avoid endogeneity issues.
PLS-SEM results.
The support of path analysis to the trust theoretical model is shown in Table 7 . At the 5% significance level, whenever the T value is 1.96, the path analysis shows that (1) COL (Standard Error = 0.055, t â=â3.896, p â<â0.005), LPD (Standard Error = 0.072, t â=â2.258, p â<â0.005) and HC (Standard Error = 0.048, t â=â8.386, p â<â0.005) have significant impacts on OTDWâs CV, and the others have no significant impact, thus providing support for hypotheses 1, 2 and 4; (2) only PB (Standard Error = 0.070, t â=â2.395, p â<â0.005) has a significant impact on PASP, thus providing support for hypotheses 8; (3) When the T critical value is greater than 1.68, PTMP (Standard Errorâ=â0.067, t â=â1.1825, p â<â0.1) has a weak impact on PASP (Lin and Yeh, 2013 ), thus providing support for hypotheses 7; (4) finally, PASP (Standard Error = 0.477, t â=â8.237, p â<â0.005) has a significant impact on Trust, and CV has a significant impact on PASP (Standard Error = 0.576, t â=â8.738, p â<â0.005), and Trust (Standard Error = 0.033, t â=â21.355, p â<â0.005), thus providing support for hypotheses 10, 11, and 12. All the factors of education level, age, gender, net age, and experience of using the internet before traveling have no significant impact on Trust.
Our results strengthen and refine prior empirical research that has started to study tourist trust toward a tourism destination (Robin and Stephen, 2013 , Liu et al., 2019 ). In fact, the evaluation of the results obtained from testing H11 and H12 reveals a more complicated and nuanced view of the relationship between CV, PASP and Trust than has been established in prior literature (Kim et al., 2011 , Nunkoo and Smith Stephen, 2014 ), indicating that our finding improves OTDWs trust. Our study provides greater insight into this relationship by considering the dimensions of CV and PASP and by drawing on SEM to study the effects of tourist trust OTDWs.
As mentioned above, the SEM approach seeks to identify effective ways that help achieve OTDW trust, based on the premise that what OTDW uses influencing factorsâthat is, how to expressâis more important than the influencing factors themselves (Hew et al., 2016 ). Following this premise, our results confirm that the effect of OTDW trust does, in fact, depend on the PASP or CV expression of OTDWs. In other words, a single influencing factor is not strong enough to affect trust. Our results thus reveal a combination of strategies where two different variables work together to enhance tourist trust.
First, destination tourism management departments should pay attention to the promotion of PASP. This result aligns with the research conducted by Liang et al. ( 2016 ) and Lee and Koo ( 2017 ) on trust in the governmentâs management of tourism-related issues in China, Taiwan, and Korea. They suggested that tourists are more likely to recommend destinations with high PASP levels to others, leading to positive word-of-mouth and increased tourism revenue. Conversely, negative experiences and memories can lead to a crisis of trust. PTMP (H7) and PB (H8) will influence OTDW trust (i.e., degree to which tourists believe that tourist destination government management cares about them and wants to help them). The strong relationship of service quality with benevolence is also supported by prior research (Tan et al., 2008 ). Destinations must combine PB with PTMP. Yet merely opting to feel PB is insufficient; that is just detailed information listing and route recommendation on OTDWs, tourists will become esthetically fatigued. In other words, the lack of PTMP changes the expected effect of an ambidextrous strategy. Our study argues that this result occurs because PTMP can fully reflect an effect of tourism management department in managing resources and punishing evil deeds, enabling PTMP to develop PB.
Our second recommendation is to focus on and target CV enhancement on OTDWs. As expected, CV has a significant effect on PASP (H10), further confirming the way government express power or PASP on the basis of prior studies. These previous studies confirmed the relationship between administration service power, trust, life, tourism benefits, and others (Kim and Fesenmaier, 2008 , Yang and Khoo, 2015 , Chou and Lee, 2018 , Han and Hyun, 2019 ). Residents perceived positive and negative impacts of tourism, knowledge of tourism, perceived power in tourism, and satisfaction with tourism significantly predicted their trust in government actors. Residents perceived positive and negative impacts of tourism were also significantly associated with their quality of life (Tichaawa et al. 2023 ). Perceived effective local government management of tourism had a strong significant effect on the residentsâ trust in government actors. Moreover, residentsâ PTMP was a significant determinant of perceived tourism benefits (Rodrigues et al. 2020 ). Residentsâ perceptions of the political and economic performance of government actors significantly predicted trust in government actors. Residentsâ support is determined by residentsâ trust in government actors and perceived benefits (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2012 , Nunkoo and Smith Stephen, 2014 ). These results confirm that perception is one of the premises, that is, the premise for trust to play a role is that the governmentâs tourism service capability and benevolence can be perceived by residents. However, these previous studies on PASP, PB and PTMP are usually conducted after tourism events, and how residents perceived and perceived the source mostly relied on the vague summaries of past experience. We argue here that the channel for instant access to government perception (that is, in a certain period of time, tourists use all the information on the OTDW to establish a logical perception ability judgment system) and the way for tourists to quickly feel PASP (that is, whether the PASP information is expressed in a manner of CV similarity or CV opposition) is to adopt similar information on CV dissemination PASP in OTDW. Contrary to previous studies, the absence and presence of PASP can only locally affect perceived trust, and more importantly, the effect of CV on trust. PASP can amplify the effect of CV on perceived trust. In this case, the result is the same whether the CV is directly influenced by itself or through the mediating effect of ability.
Our third and last recommendation is that adopting similar CVs is better for promoting perceived trust. COL(H1), LPD(H2) and HC(H4) exhibited a significant direct effect on CV, confirming that the factors why CV differs across different societies and how those differences can shape peopleâs attitudes, behaviors, and social norm. This result is in line with the previous findings of Triandis ( 1995 ) and Chen and Kim ( 2013 ), who found that HC cultures valued social relationships and trust over direct communication and task efficiency and was positively related to values such as group harmony, social obligation, and face-saving in China. COL values prioritize group loyalty, social harmony, and family relationships over individual achievement and independence (Yamamoto et al., 2022 ). This study confirmed that individualism was a strong predictor of self-confidence in America, but even in this country, COL was a significant predictor of recognizing the need for mental health services. But in Japan, where COL culture is stronger, participants, especially male participants, felt more stigmatized toward mental health professionals. In this case, COL was not a significant predictor in Japan. Our study argues that the social characteristics of CVs are not applicable to all scenes, and it is necessary to conduct CV research in each scene to find out the best form of information transmission. By using appropriate CV expressions to convey information to tourists, tourism government management can maintain and establish trust among clients, even in times of uncertainty and crisis.
Finally, regarding LD, our results show that LD has no significant effect on CV and Trust, which our study had expected to have a positive impact. This contributes to the debate concerning the relationship between LD and CV. The existing literature can be divided into several types: some found a positive relationship between LD and CV, some found a negative relationship between LD and CV, and others found a weak correlation between LD and CV. Yousaf and Xiucheng ( 2018 ) found that Japan, South Korea and Thailand attempted to strategize their countryâs potential as a preferred Halal tourism destination for Muslim tourists by introducing and promoting Halal cuisines, Halal food culture, Halal food restaurants and general Halal services of interest for Muslims. Horng and Tsai ( 2010 ) divided tourists into four categories and found that the survey results would also change if the proportion of tourists in a certain category was too large. Therefore, we have reason to believe that the majority of survey participants in this study belong to the latter two groups as our study found no significant relationship between LD and CV. This result makes perfect sense if we interpret it by expanding the sample size or narrowing the LD to a particular topic, such as food.
Key factors influencing touristsâ trust in otdws.
In this study, the construct of OTDW trust was developed and validated. To identify the key factors that affect touristsâ trust in OTDWs, the study contributed to the existing literature by highlighting the influence of CV and PASP on tourist behavior and emphasizing the pivotal role of trust in decision-making processes. The construct comprises two dimensionsâCV (including COL, LPD, UA, LD and HC) and PASP (including PEMP, PTMP, PB and PI). Throughout the related literature, the scale of trust has come under tremendous discussion, given its importance to the success of businesses. For example, Kim et al. ( 2011 ) developed a trust scale in the context of online travel agencies, and Han and Hyun ( 2015 ) determined the measurements of trust in travel brands. However, to the best knowledge of the authors, the construct of trust has never been developed in the context of an OTDW. For the current study, OTDWs trust was established and validated with the aid of both a quantitative examination of questionnaire survey. The results confirmed that trust in OTDWs involves two dimensions: cultural value and government service power. The dimensional scale of OTDW trust was consistent with some of the previous studies. For example, Kim ( 2008 ), Moura et al. ( 2015 ), Kim et al. ( 2019 ) and Horng and Tsai ( 2010 ) mentioned CV components of OTDW trust, including COL, LPD, UA, LD, and HC. Mayer et al. ( 1995 ) measured PASP components of OTDW trust, including PB, PI and ability. Nunkoo and Smith ( 2013 ), Yousaf and Xiucheng ( 2018 ) measured PASP components of residentsâ trust in tourism government, including PEMP, PTMP. Our research then further developed the trust in OTDWs scale from a more comprehensive perspective. The findings of key factors that affect touristsâ trust in OTDWs could fill the research gap regarding the preferences of CV and PASP among OTDWs.
To address the uncertainty of OTDWsâ trust information, this study proposed a trust model that includes CV and PASP to solve the dilemma of OTDWs trust. The proposed model reflects the bounded rationality such as PASP influence of tourists and the perceptual dimension such as CV influence when using OTDWs, which not only helps to address the uncertainty of OTDWs trust information but also helps to enhance trust. This study was a bottom-up exploratory study to discover the theory from the existing literature and constructed a conceptual model of tourist trust in OTDWs. Previously, most studies developed measurement trust model items from a literature review or some traditional qualitative methods e.g., (Chen and Tsai, 2007 , Kwon and Lee, 2020 , Rojo et al., 2020 ). Different OTDWs with distinct CV and PASP emphasize different aspects of their tourism destinations, leading to variations in website design and content. Therefore, this study contributes to our understanding of touristsâ trust behavioral preferences, with the aim of enriching the research findings of trust models for OTDWs. Additionally, it contributes to the body of knowledge on tourism destination network information services conceptualization.
The current study collected about 324 touristsâ questionnaire on the internet to demonstrate the impact of tourist trust in OTDWs. The results of this study also suggest that in addition to COL, LPD, and HC of CV, PB of PASP has the same impact on trust in OTDWs. Impacting on tourist use and trust of the website has been extensively discussed among academics in tourism. For example, some studies have indicated that incongruent CV is conducive to building a positive image of destination websites (Moura et al., 2015 ). Singh et al. ( 2003 ) reported that CV plays an important role in web content. Robin and Stephen ( 2013 ) argued that residentsâ perceptions of the economic performance of government actors significantly predicted trust in government actors. Our research validated the direct impact of CV and PASP on tourist trust in OTDWs and provided a new perspective for the establishment of a positive destination through OTDWs. The findings broaden the scope and discussion of trust research in OTDWs and improve our understanding of the needs and preferences of the CV and PASP in OTDWs.
Through the research, we found that trust affects the use of OTDW, and that website design details affect trust. This study provides valuable insights for tourism managers to understand touristsâ preferences and needs in OTDWs trust, selection, and use. By understanding these differences, tourism officials and web designers can tailor OTDWs to enhance the trust and satisfaction of tourists, thereby driving increased tourism economic of the destinations.
For online official tourism destination platforms, there are two aspects of practical significance that can be summarized as follows. On the one hand, this study proposes an OTDWs trust model to help official tourism destination websites produce several optional plans to promote trust. The findings imply that OTDWs should provide distinctive CV and PASP supports to meet the requirements of various types of tourists. To increase the trust of domestic tourists, OTDW managers need to fully consider factors such as collectivism, low power distance, high context, and perceived benevolence of websites. On the other hand, this research supports the platformâs ability to guide potential tourists in considering traveling to the destination. Based on our results, local administrative departments may need to redesign their programmers and focus on the significant role played by collectivism images and high context, the growing significance of low power distance and perceived benevolence in touristsâ satisfaction with services, and specific circumstances that affect touristsâ impression of PASP. For example, our study found that perceived benevolence can influence tourists, so OTDWs can recommend local specialty restaurants for food lovers, provide transportation information for self-service travellers, and offer different travel planning guidance for tourists with varying needs. Therefore, it is imperative to consider similar CV for domestic tourists on OTDWs.
While this study makes significant contributions to both theory and practice, there are several limitations that can provide rich avenues for further research. First, although the study highlights the benefits of improving website trust, the findings may not be entirely generalizable due to the uniqueness of OTDWs. In the future, researchers can test the trust theoretical framework on several actual operating OTDWs, and collect adjusted operating data before and after to establish a complete OTDW trust research system. Second, the research sample used in the study may not be entirely representative of tourists as a whole and may not accurately reflect the diversity and variability of tourists in China. Therefore, the extent to which the sample used is similar to the tourists under study is limited. Finally, it is hoped that this study can stimulate the interest of other researchers and encourage tourism website managers to apply the trust research results to OTDWs. By doing so, tourists can increase their trust, alleviate ambivalence, increase the utilization rate of OTDWs, and fully leverage the marketing functions (Zhang et al., 2015 ).
The data set generated during and/or analyzed during the current study is submitted as a supplementary file.
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This work was supported by Henan Province Key Research and Development and Promotion Special Project (Science and Technology) (No. 232102321077), Henan Provincial Philosophy and Social Sciences Program Annual Project (No. 2023BJJ107), Henan Province Vocational Education and Continuing Education Curriculum with Ideology and Politics Demonstration Project (Jiaozhicheng 2021 No.138-162), Henan University Students Off-campus Practice Education Base (Jiaogao2022 No. 358), and the Key Research Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences at Universities of Henan.
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Yingmei Wei
School of Information Science and Technology, Tibet University, Lhasa, China
Department of Economics, Sejong University, Seoul, South Korea
Binyuan Zhang
School of Management, Henan Institute of Economics and Trade, Zhengzhou, China
School of Economics and Management, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
Yuqiang Feng
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Yingmei Wei performed conceptualization and methodology. Yingmei Wei, Diwei Fan, Ting Li and Binyuan Zhang performed software, data curation, validation and formal analysis. Diwei Fan and Ting Li performed manuscript writing. Yingmei Wei and Diwei Fan revised the manuscript. Yuqiang Feng helped conceive the manuscript and approved the final version.
Correspondence to Yingmei Wei .
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The survey process and procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethics approval was obtained from the Professor Ethics Committee at the School of Economics and Management of ZUT, China. The ethical approval protocol number is 2022-GLX-001.
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Wei, Y., Fan, D., Zhang, B. et al. How to improve touristsâ trust in official tourism destination websites in Chinaâan empirical research based on CV and PASP. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 795 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03263-3
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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03263-3
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Researchers identified five sleep types; the way people move between these types yields insights about both chronic and acute conditions.
Published date, share this:, article content.
Your sleep tracker might give you information about more than just your sleep–specifically, it might give you information about chronic conditions such as diabetes and sleep apnea, and illnesses such as COVID-19.
This is one of the findings of a study that analyzed data from 5 million nights of sleep across roughly 33,000 people. Based on the new analysis, the researchers identified five main types of sleep, which they called sleep phenotypes, that can be further divided into 13 subtypes.
The researchers also found that how and how often a person switches between sleep phenotypes could offer two to ten times more information relevant to detecting health conditions than just relying on a person’s average sleep phenotype alone.
The study appears in the journal npj Digital Medicine on June 20, 2024.
Using data collected from Oura Ring–a smart ring that tracks sleep, skin temperature and other information–the researchers looked at individual people over a series of months, noting whether they had chronic health conditions such as diabetes and sleep apnea, or illnesses such as COVID-19 and the flu.
The research team found that people would often move between sleep phenotypes over time, reflecting a change in an individual’s health conditions, and creating what resembles a person’s travel log through the data-driven sleep landscape the researchers created.
“We found that little changes in sleep quality helped us identify health risks. Those little changes wouldn't show up on an average night, or on a questionnaire, so it really shows how wearables help us detect risks that would otherwise be missed,” said Benjamin Smarr, one of the study’s senior authors and a faculty member in the Jacobs School of Engineering and Halicioglu Data Science Institute at the University of California San Diego.
In addition, the researchers highlighted that tracking changes in sleep over the long term at the population scale could unlock new insights that are relevant for public health, such as whether some changes in patterns through these sleep landscapes can provide early warning for chronic illness or vulnerability to infection.
The research team’s work is based on new analyses from the TemPredict dataset from University of California, San Francisco, which was created using data collected from people wearing the commercially available Oura Ring during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic.
The analyses were led by Smarr, who is also faculty in the University of California San Diego Shu Chien - Gene Lay Department of Bioengineering, and Professor Edward Wang in the University of California San Diego Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, collaborating with the study lead at University of California, San Francisco, Professor Ashley E. Mason, a practicing sleep clinician. The lead author was Varun Viswanath, a graduate student in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of California San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering.
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These are the five sleep phenotypes researchers singled out based on data from 5 million nights of sleep across roughly 33,000 people. While many factors went into the study, the researchers also identified some trends that help to intuitively separate the 5 sleep phenotypes.
To measure how sleep phenotypes changed over time, Viswanath constructed a spatial model of all 5 million nights, in which the phenotypes were represented as different islands, composed of mostly similar weeks of sleep. Different patterns emerged over time that allowed the researchers to model each individual’s routes between islands.
From there, what helped to distinguish people with chronic conditions, such as diabetes and sleep apnea, was not their average phenotype. Instead, it was how frequently they switched between islands in this sleep landscape. In this way, even if someone switched phenotypes only rarely, the fact that they did switch could still provide useful information about their health.
The data showed that it is rare for most people to go multiple months without a few nights of disrupted sleep. “We found that the little differences in how sleep disruptions occur can tell us a lot. Even if these instances are rare, their frequency is also telling. So it's not just whether you sleep well or not – it’s the patterns of sleep over time where the key info hides,” said Wang, a coauthor and electrical and computer engineering faculty member at UC San Diego.
Conversely, people did not tend to remain in patterns defined by broken up sleep. But how often they visited specific disrupted-sleep patterns says a lot about how well they’re doing.
“If you imagine there's a landscape of sleep types, then it's less about where you tend to live on that landscape, and more about how often you leave that area,” said Viswanath, the paper’s corresponding author.
In this new paper published June 20, the research team modified the technique used in previous research that had been the largest similar investigation of sleep to date, which had drawn approximately 103,000 nights of data from the UK biobank. That previous study looked at sleep timing and awakenings and many related features, and then constructed a "landscape" of where nights fell in relation to each other. But prior researchers did not do two key things: they could not look across time, as they had only two to three nights per person; and they could not tie the resulting patterns of sleep to health outcomes.
Other large-scale sleep analyses looked at high-level differences in simple sleep characteristics, like the total time people spent asleep.
In contrast, this new work is the first to show that researchers can quantify the changing dynamics of people's sleep over time and use this quantification to give people better insights into their sleep health. The research also suggests that these changes in sleep may indicate a higher risk for a wide range of conditions.
Paper
“ Five million nights: temporal dynamics in human sleep phenotypes ” in the journal npj Digital Medicine
Paper authors
Varun K. Viswanath, Wendy Hartogenesis, Stephan Dilchert, Leena Pandya, Frederick M. Hecht, Ashley E. Mason, Edward J. Wang, and Benjamin L. Smarr
Author affiliations
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California, San Diego; Osher Center for Integrative Health, University of California, San Francisco; Zicklin School of Business, Baruch College, The City University of New York; Shu Chien—Gene Lay Department of Bioengineering, Jacobs School of Engineering, University of California, San Diego; HalÄącÄąoÄlu Data Science Institute, University of California, San Diego
Corresponding author: Varun K. Viswanath vkviswan@ucsd.edu
Funding Acknowledgments
This effort was funded under MTEC solicitation MTEC-20-12-Diagnostics-023 and the USAMRDC under the Department of Defense (#MTEC-20-12-COVID19-D.-023). The #StartSmall foundation (#7029991), and Oura Health Oy (#134650) also provided funding for this work. The views and conclusions contained herein are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies or endorsements, either expressed or implied, of the U.S. Government.
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Methodology
Published on September 6, 2019 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 22, 2023.
Thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data . It is usually applied to a set of texts, such as an interview or transcripts . The researcher closely examines the data to identify common themes â topics, ideas and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly.
There are various approaches to conducting thematic analysis, but the most common form follows a six-step process: familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up. Following this process can also help you avoid confirmation bias when formulating your analysis.
This process was originally developed for psychology research by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke . However, thematic analysis is a flexible method that can be adapted to many different kinds of research.
When to use thematic analysis, different approaches to thematic analysis, step 1: familiarization, step 2: coding, step 3: generating themes, step 4: reviewing themes, step 5: defining and naming themes, step 6: writing up, other interesting articles.
Thematic analysis is a good approach to research where youâre trying to find out something about peopleâs views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from a set of qualitative data â for example, interview transcripts , social media profiles, or survey responses .
Some types of research questions you might use thematic analysis to answer:
To answer any of these questions, you would collect data from a group of relevant participants and then analyze it. Thematic analysis allows you a lot of flexibility in interpreting the data, and allows you to approach large data sets more easily by sorting them into broad themes.
However, it also involves the risk of missing nuances in the data. Thematic analysis is often quite subjective and relies on the researcherâs judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your own choices and interpretations.
Pay close attention to the data to ensure that youâre not picking up on things that are not there â or obscuring things that are.
Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:
See an example
Once youâve decided to use thematic analysis, there are different approaches to consider.
Thereâs the distinction between inductive and deductive approaches:
Ask yourself: Does my theoretical framework give me a strong idea of what kind of themes I expect to find in the data (deductive), or am I planning to develop my own framework based on what I find (inductive)?
Thereâs also the distinction between a semantic and a latent approach:
Ask yourself: Am I interested in peopleâs stated opinions (semantic) or in what their statements reveal about their assumptions and social context (latent)?
After youâve decided thematic analysis is the right method for analyzing your data, and youâve thought about the approach youâre going to take, you can follow the six steps developed by Braun and Clarke .
The first step is to get to know our data. Itâs important to get a thorough overview of all the data we collected before we start analyzing individual items.
This might involve transcribing audio , reading through the text and taking initial notes, and generally looking through the data to get familiar with it.
Next up, we need to code the data. Coding means highlighting sections of our text â usually phrases or sentences â and coming up with shorthand labels or âcodesâ to describe their content.
Letâs take a short example text. Say weâre researching perceptions of climate change among conservative voters aged 50 and up, and we have collected data through a series of interviews. An extract from one interview looks like this:
Interview extract | Codes |
---|---|
Personally, Iâm not sure. I think the climate is changing, sure, but I donât know why or how. People say you should trust the experts, but whoâs to say they donât have their own reasons for pushing this narrative? Iâm not saying theyâre wrong, Iâm just saying thereâs reasons not to 100% trust them. The facts keep changing â it used to be called global warming. |
In this extract, weâve highlighted various phrases in different colors corresponding to different codes. Each code describes the idea or feeling expressed in that part of the text.
At this stage, we want to be thorough: we go through the transcript of every interview and highlight everything that jumps out as relevant or potentially interesting. As well as highlighting all the phrases and sentences that match these codes, we can keep adding new codes as we go through the text.
After weâve been through the text, we collate together all the data into groups identified by code. These codes allow us to gain a a condensed overview of the main points and common meanings that recur throughout the data.
Next, we look over the codes weâve created, identify patterns among them, and start coming up with themes.
Themes are generally broader than codes. Most of the time, youâll combine several codes into a single theme. In our example, we might start combining codes into themes like this:
Codes | Theme |
---|---|
Uncertainty | |
Distrust of experts | |
Misinformation |
At this stage, we might decide that some of our codes are too vague or not relevant enough (for example, because they donât appear very often in the data), so they can be discarded.
Other codes might become themes in their own right. In our example, we decided that the code “uncertainty” made sense as a theme, with some other codes incorporated into it.
Again, what we decide will vary according to what weâre trying to find out. We want to create potential themes that tell us something helpful about the data for our purposes.
Now we have to make sure that our themes are useful and accurate representations of the data. Here, we return to the data set and compare our themes against it. Are we missing anything? Are these themes really present in the data? What can we change to make our themes work better?
If we encounter problems with our themes, we might split them up, combine them, discard them or create new ones: whatever makes them more useful and accurate.
For example, we might decide upon looking through the data that âchanging terminologyâ fits better under the âuncertaintyâ theme than under âdistrust of experts,â since the data labelled with this code involves confusion, not necessarily distrust.
Now that you have a final list of themes, itâs time to name and define each of them.
Defining themes involves formulating exactly what we mean by each theme and figuring out how it helps us understand the data.
Naming themes involves coming up with a succinct and easily understandable name for each theme.
For example, we might look at âdistrust of expertsâ and determine exactly who we mean by âexpertsâ in this theme. We might decide that a better name for the theme is âdistrust of authorityâ or âconspiracy thinkingâ.
Finally, weâll write up our analysis of the data. Like all academic texts, writing up a thematic analysis requires an introduction to establish our research question, aims and approach.
We should also include a methodology section, describing how we collected the data (e.g. through semi-structured interviews or open-ended survey questions ) and explaining how we conducted the thematic analysis itself.
The results or findings section usually addresses each theme in turn. We describe how often the themes come up and what they mean, including examples from the data as evidence. Finally, our conclusion explains the main takeaways and shows how the analysis has answered our research question.
In our example, we might argue that conspiracy thinking about climate change is widespread among older conservative voters, point out the uncertainty with which many voters view the issue, and discuss the role of misinformation in respondents’ perceptions.
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
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Step 1: Explain your methodological approach. Step 2: Describe your data collection methods. Step 3: Describe your analysis method. Step 4: Evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made. Tips for writing a strong methodology chapter. Other interesting articles.
Qualitative Research Methodology. This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.
Section 2 - The Methodology. The next section of your chapter is where you'll present the actual methodology. In this section, you need to detail and justify the key methodological choices you've made in a logical, intuitive fashion. Importantly, this is the heart of your methodology chapter, so you need to get specific - don't hold back on the details here.
Provide the rationality behind your chosen approach. Based on logic and reason, let your readers know why you have chosen said research methodologies. Additionally, you have to build strong arguments supporting why your chosen research method is the best way to achieve the desired outcome. 3. Explain your mechanism.
Research methodology can be defined as the systematic framework that guides researchers in designing, conducting, and analyzing their investigations. It encompasses a structured set of processes, techniques, and tools employed to gather and interpret data, ensuring the reliability and validity of the research findings.
Turning a research paper into a visual presentation is difficult; there are pitfalls, and navigating the path to a brief, informative presentation takes time and practice. As a TA for GEO/WRI 201: Methods in Data Analysis & Scientific Writing this past fall, I saw how this process works from an instructor's standpoint.
Presenting Methodology and Research Approach 67 Table 3.1 Roadmap for Developing Methodology Chapter: Necessary Elements 1: Introduction and Overview Begin by stating purpose and research questions. Go on to explain how the chapter is organized. Then provide a rationale for using a qualitative research approach, as well as a rationale for the
Learn how to write a strong methodology chapter that allows readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research. A good methodology chapter incl...
1. Qualitative research methodology. Qualitative research methodology is aimed at understanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences. This approach is descriptive and is often utilized to gather in-depth insights into people's attitudes, behaviors, or cultures. Qualitative research methodology involves methods like interviews, focus groups, and ...
As we mentioned, research methodology refers to the collection of practical decisions regarding what data you'll collect, from who, how you'll collect it and how you'll analyse it. Research design, on the other hand, is more about the overall strategy you'll adopt in your study. For example, whether you'll use an experimental design ...
The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study's overall validity and reliability.
A quantitative approach and statistical analysis would give you a bigger picture. 3. Identify how your analysis answers your research questions. Relate your methodology back to your original research questions and present a proposed outcome based on your analysis.
Methodology in research is defined as the systematic method to resolve a research problem through data gathering using various techniques, providing an interpretation of data gathered and drawing conclusions about the research data. Essentially, a research methodology is the blueprint of a research or study (Murthy & Bhojanna, 2009, p. 32).
Here are the steps to follow when writing a methodology: 1. Restate your thesis or research problem. The first part of your methodology is a restatement of the problem your research investigates. This allows your reader to follow your methodology step by step, from beginning to end. Restating your thesis also provides you an opportunity to ...
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach. Whether you'll rely on primary research or secondary research. Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects. Your data collection methods.
Here are eight key steps to writing a methodology: 1. Restate your thesis or research problem. The first step to writing an effective methodology requires that you restate your initial thesis. It's an important step that allows the reader to remember the most important aspects of your research and follow each step of your methodology.
You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Primary vs secondary data. Primary data are any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys, observations and experiments). Secondary data are information that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in ...
A good oral presentation is focused, concise, and interesting in order to trigger a discussion. Be well prepared; write a detailed outline. Introduce the subject. Talk about the sources and the method. Indicate if there are conflicting views about the subject (conflicting views trigger discussion). Make a statement about your new results (if ...
In this tutorial paper, we will use the term methodological study to refer to any study that reports on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary or secondary research-related reports (such as trial registry entries and conference abstracts). In the past 10 years, there has been an increase in the use of terms related to ...
Conclusion: Choosing an optimal research methodology is crucial for the success of any research project. The methodology you select will determine the type of data you collect, how you collect it, and how you analyse it. Understanding the different types of research methods available along with their strengths and weaknesses, is thus imperative ...
Research Methods. The first step of a research methodology is to identify a focused research topic, which is the question you seek to answer. By setting clear boundaries on the scope of your research, you can concentrate on specific aspects of a problem without being overwhelmed by information. This will produce more accurate findings.
Cochrane Evidence Synthesis and Methods is an open access journal aiming to improve how we publish and share evidence synthesis in health and social care. Abstract This tutorial provides guidance on creating clear and informative summary of findings tables for systematic reviews of interventions.
From regional teaching conferences and online programs to pathbreaking research projects, AHA initiatives foster a community grounded in our shared commitment to understanding the past. ... Give us a call! 202.544.2422. Send us an email! [email protected]. Payments: PO Box 347214, Pittsburgh PA 15251-4214. LinkedIn Twitter Facebook Instagram ...
Other interesting articles. If you want to know more about statistics, methodology, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples. Statistics. Normal distribution. Skewness. Kurtosis. Degrees of freedom. Variance. Null hypothesis.
This research investigated the impacts of collectivism, low power distance, high context, local distinctiveness, perceived economic management power, perceived tourism management power, perceived ...
The present research utilizes an evolutionary framework to investigate the process underlying the recent rise of several populist, "strongmen" leaders. Specifically, we propose that when people experience contingent (i.e., impending) ecological threats, their need for cognitive closure is activated, making them desire strong rules (i.e., a tight society) and to be guided by a strong leader.
Tracking changes in sleep type. To measure how sleep phenotypes changed over time, Viswanath constructed a spatial model of all 5 million nights, in which the phenotypes were represented as different islands, composed of mostly similar weeks of sleep. Different patterns emerged over time that allowed the researchers to model each individual's routes between islands.
When to use thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a good approach to research where you're trying to find out something about people's views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from a set of qualitative data - for example, interview transcripts, social media profiles, or survey responses. Some types of research questions you might use thematic analysis to answer:
Wireless power transfer (WPT) is a promising technology that has the potential to revolutionize the present methods of power transmission. This paper aims to provide an overview of WPT, including ...