essay on crime prevention

Essay on Crime Prevention

Crime is a global problem affecting each and every country. Every country suffers from increased crime rates which result to insecurities and a negative impact on the economy. This increased crime rate is fueled by poverty, parental negligence, low self-esteem, alcohol, and drug abuse, resulting from the lack of proper moral values (Topalli & Wright, 2014). Moral values are responsible for determining what is right and wrong and also establish what is socially acceptable. They are ideas considered by society as important and contribute to one’s general personality, and thus, without them, an individual is lost. It is significant to prevent crimes to raise the quality of life of all citizens. Preventing crimes also results to long-term benefits as it reduces social cost resulting from crimes and the costs involved with the formal criminal justice system. In order to prevent these crimes, there is the need to develop evidence-based and comprehensive approaches addressing several factors impacting crimes, including moral values on growing children.

Crimes result from negative moral values, and thus there is a need to promote positive youth development and wellbeing. Horace Mann believes that this prevalence of crime in society could be reduced by moral instruction in schools (Spring, 2019). He argues that for the crime rate to reduce, the moral value of the general public needs to be shaped accordingly. According to him, the most accurate method of doing this is by incorporating moral instruction in the education system. He referred to this method as putting a police officer in every child’s heart. This would enable the child to be conscious of the evil in society and be aware of good and bad. This would guide them as they grow up and prevent them from engaging or committing any crime.

The American Education book portrays crime as a global nuisance, and the more accurate and effective method to prevent it is through education. Mann suggests in this book that the number of police required by society would significantly be reduced by schooling. Thus, education is portrayed as a source of knowledge and a significant tool that would help reduce crime rates remarkably. It is supposed to do this by allowing students to acquire more educational attainment that leads to high paying jobs and thus higher earnings, which increases the opportunity cost of crime and consequently reducing crime. Mann also believes that education would reduce the crime rate by affecting individuals’ personality traits associated with crime. This is done by making students become patient, disciplined and moral. Despite this being a more suitable method of preventing crimes in society, it is not as effective as Mann and other researchers rate it.

Mann theory of preventing crime through schooling is a considerate method, but it is not enough to do so. There is no causal relationship between crime rates and school attendance (Lochner, 2020). It is assumed that schooling and crime rates are related, and thus if school attendance is increased, a consequent crime reduction would be noticed. However, this is wrong, and Mann theory has not proved a reality. According to Joel et al. (2021), the percentage of 5-to 17-years-old students increased from 82.2 in 1959-1960 to 91.9 percent in 2004-2005. The average days of attendance also increased from 160.2 in 1959-1960 to 169.2 in 1999-2000. There was also a rapid increase in violent crimes in 1960-2000 from 160.9 to 506.5 per 100,000 residence (Spring, 2019). As the number of students attending school and the attendance days increased from 1960 to 2004, so did the crime rate. This is proof that the crime rate is irrespective of the number of students going to school and the average days of attendance, and thus Mann theory is ineffective.

Moral value instruction is a vital tool to prevent crimes but implementing it only through schooling, such as Mann suggested, is not only a failing strategy but a waste of time and resources. Moral values in children need to be implemented in many different ways to ensure that they stick as they develop into adults (Damon, 2008). Implementing these moral values would ensure that they grow into morally upright adults, thus reducing crime rates. Implementing moral value through schooling is advised, but it would work with a combination of many other methods including through religion and good parenting. Religion helps in the spiritual growth of a person and emphasizes moral codes aimed to develop values such as social competence and self-control, which are major virtues in crime hating people. According to the study done by Brown and Taylor (2007) on how religion impacts child development, it was found that social competence and the psychological adjustment of third-graders were positive influenced with several religious factors. This shows that religion helps in developing children to become adults with a positive and better judgement that would keep them from engaging in any crime and thus would contribute to crime rate reduction.

Parents are responsible for their children, and they are required to guard and guide them as they contribute to their personality. According to Penn (2015), how a child turns out as an adult depends on how their parents brought them up. As a result of this, it is crucial for parents to be careful of how they handle their children. It is the responsibility of every citizen of a county to help fight and prevent crimes, and thus it is the responsibility of parents to reduce the crime rate by training their children to be better people in future. They should be consistent with rules and monitor their children behaviour to ensure that they instil good moral value in them, equipping them with the knowledge of good and evil. If a child is raised in a way that makes them hate crime, then they would not engage in any, and this would contribute to the general reduction of crime in the society.

In conclusion, the main way of preventing crime is by instilling positive moral values on growing children to ensure that they develop into morally upright adults who would not engage in criminal activities. It is assumed that to instil this moral values in children and prevent crimes in future, the best way is through schooling. But this is not the case as there is no causal relationship between crime rates and schooling, and thus schooling will not necessarily result to a reduced crime rate. In order to ensure that moral values are successfully instilled in children, schooling would have to be combined with other methods, some of which include religion and good parenting, resulting in adults who are conscious of good and evil. Increased crime rate is a problem experienced by all countries globally, and the only way to fight it is by shaping the personality of the future generation by instilling positive moral values as their driving force.

Topalli, V., & Wright, R. (2014).  Affect and the dynamic foreground of predatory street crime  (1st ed.).

Spring, J. (2019). American Education.  https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429274138

Lochner, L. (2020). Education and crime.  The Economics Of Education , 109-117.  https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815391-8.00009-4

Joel, M., Bill, H., Jijun, Z., Xiaolei, W., Ke, W., & Sarah, H. et al. (2021).  National Center for Education Statistics: The Condition of Education 2019. NCES 2019-144 . ERIC. Retrieved 5 July 2021, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED594978.

Damon, W. (2008).  Moral child: Nurturing children’s natural moral growth  (3rd ed.). FREE Press.

Brown, S., & Taylor, K. (2007). Religion and education: Evidence from the National Child Development Study.  Journal Of Economic Behavior & Organization ,  63 (3), 439-460.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2005.08.003

Penn, H. (2015).  Understanding early childhood  (3rd ed.). Open University Press.

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1 Crime Prevention and Public Policy

Brandon C. Welsh is a Professor of Criminology at Northeastern University, and the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Visiting Professor and Senior Research Fellow at the Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement in Amsterdam and a Steering Committee member of the Campbell Collaboration Crime and Justice Group.

David P. Farrington is Emeritus Professor of Psychological Criminology in the Institute of Criminology at the University of Cambridge, England.

• Published: 18 September 2012
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This article introduces crime prevention, which often refers to the attempts to prevent crime or criminal offending before the actual act has been committed. It studies four main crime prevention strategies, namely developmental prevention , community prevention , situational prevention , and criminal justice prevention . It provides an overview of the key theories that support these strategies and notes some relevant research on effectiveness. This article also considers the development of crime prevention in the United States and identifies several key issues that challenge the prevention of crime.

Crime prevention has come to mean many different things to many different people. Programs and policies designed to prevent crime can include the police making an arrest as part of an operation to deal with gang problems, a court sanction to a secure correctional facility, or, in the extreme, a death penalty sentence. These measures are more correctly referred to as crime control or repression. More often, though, crime prevention refers to efforts to prevent crime or criminal offending in the first instance—before the act has been committed. Both forms of crime prevention share a common goal of trying to prevent the occurrence of a future criminal act, but what further distinguishes crime prevention from crime control is that prevention takes place outside of the confines of the formal justice system. 1 In this respect, prevention is considered the fourth pillar of crime reduction, alongside the institutions of police, courts, and corrections (Waller 2006 ). This distinction draws attention to crime prevention as an alternative approach to these more traditional responses to crime.

In one of the first scholarly attempts to differentiate crime prevention from crime control, Peter Lejins ( 1967 , p. 2) espoused the following: “If societal action is motivated by an offense that has already taken place, we are dealing with control; if the offense is only anticipated, we are dealing with prevention.” What Lejins was trying to indicate was the notion of “pure” prevention, a view that had long existed in the scholarship and practice of American criminology (Welsh and Pfeffer 2011 ). It is this notion of crime prevention that is the chief concern of this volume.

There are many possible ways of classifying crime prevention programs. 2 An influential scheme distinguishes four major strategies (Tonry and Farrington 1995 b ). Developmental prevention refers to interventions designed to prevent the development of criminal potential in individuals, especially those targeting risk and protective factors discovered in studies of human development (Tremblay and Craig 1995 ; Farrington and Welsh 2007 ). Community prevention refers to interventions designed to change the social conditions and institutions (e.g., families, peers, social norms, clubs, organizations) that influence offending in residential communities (Hope 1995 ). Situational prevention refers to interventions designed to prevent the occurrence of crimes by reducing opportunities and increasing the risk and difficulty of offending (Clarke 1995 b ; Cornish and Clarke 2003 ). Criminal justice prevention refers to traditional deterrent, incapacitative, and rehabilitative strategies operated by law enforcement and agencies of the criminal justice system (Blumstein, Cohen, and Nagin 1978 ; MacKenzie 2006 ).

In Building a Safer Society: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention , Michael Tonry and David Farrington ( 1995 a ) purposely did not address criminal justice prevention in any substantial fashion. This was because this strategy had been adequately addressed in many other scholarly books and, more importantly, there was a growing consensus for the need for governments to strike a greater balance between these emerging and promising alternative forms of crime prevention and some of the more traditional responses to crime. Also important in their decision to focus exclusively on developmental, community, and situational prevention is the shared focus of the three strategies on addressing the underlying causes or motivations that lead to a criminal event or a life of crime. Crucially, each strategy operates outside of the criminal justice system, representing an alternative, perhaps even a socially progressive, way to reduce crime. For these same reasons, we have adopted a similar approach in this volume.

A chief aim of this essay is to provide some background on this view of crime prevention. It also serves as an overview of the key theories that support these three main crime-prevention strategies, important research on effectiveness, and key issues that challenge the prevention of crime. Several observations and conclusions emerge:

Crime prevention is best viewed as an alternative approach to reducing crime, operating outside of the formal justice system. Developmental, community, and situational strategies define its scope.

Developmental prevention has emerged as an important strategy to improve children’s life chances and prevent them from embarking on a life of crime. The theoretical support for this approach is considerable and there is growing evidence based on the effectiveness of a range of intervention modalities.

Community crime prevention benefits from a sound theoretical base. It seemingly holds much promise for preventing crime, but less is known about its effectiveness. Advancing knowledge on this front is a top priority. Nevertheless, there are a wide range of effective models in community-based substance-use prevention and school-based crime prevention.

The theoretical origins of situational crime prevention are wide ranging and robust. The strategy boasts a growing evidence base of effective programs and many more that are promising. There is also evidence that crime displacement is a rare occurrence.

Crime prevention is an important component of an overall strategy to reduce crime and is widely supported by the public over place and time. A special focus on implementation science and higher quality evaluation designs will further advance crime-prevention knowledge and practice. Striking a greater balance between crime prevention and crime control will go a long way toward building a safer, more sustainable society.

The organization of this essay is as follows. Section I looks at key historical events that have influenced the development of crime prevention in America. Sections II, III, and IV introduce, respectively, the major crime-prevention strategies of developmental, community, and situational prevention. Section V discusses a number of important cross-cutting issues.

I. A Short History of Crime Prevention in America

The modern-day history of crime prevention in America is closely linked with a loss of faith in the criminal justice system that occurred in the wake of the dramatic increase in crime rates in the 1960s. This loss of faith was caused by a confluence of factors, including declining public support for the criminal justice system, increasing levels of fear of crime, and criminological research that demonstrated that many of the traditional modes of crime control were ineffective and inefficient in reducing crime and improving the safety of communities (Curtis 1987 ). For example, research studies on motorized preventive patrol, rapid response, and criminal investigations—the staples of law enforcement—showed that they had little or no effect on crime (Visher and Weisburd 1998 ). It was becoming readily apparent among researchers and public officials alike that a criminal justice response on its own was insufficient for the task of reducing crime. This observation applied not only to law enforcement but also to the courts and prisons (Tonry and Farrington 1995 b ). Interestingly, this loss of faith in the justice system was not unique to the United States. Similar developments were taking place in Canada, the United Kingdom, and other Western European countries, and for some of the same reasons (Waller 1990 ; Bennett 1998 ).

writing in the mid-1980s, the observations of American urban affairs scholar Paul Lavrakas perhaps best captures this need to move beyond the sole reliance on the criminal justice system:

Until we change the emphasis of our public policies away from considering the police, courts, and prisons to be the primary mechanisms for reducing crime, I believe that we will continue to experience the tragic levels of victimization with which our citizens now live. These criminal justice agencies are our means of reacting to crime—they should not be expected to prevent it by themselves. (1985, p. 110, emphasis in original)

These events, coupled with recommendations of presidential crime commissions of the day—the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice ( 1967 ), chaired by Nicholas Katzenbach, and the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence ( 1969 ), chaired by Milton S. Eisenhower—ushered in an era of innovation of alternative approaches to addressing crime. A few years later, the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals ( 1973 ) sought to reaffirm the role of the community in preventing crime. Operating outside of the purview of the justice system, crime prevention came to be defined as an alternative, non–criminal justice means of reducing crime.

A focus on neighborhood, family, and employment was at the heart of this new approach to addressing crime, with a special emphasis on the most impoverished inner-city communities. Nonprofit organizations were the main vehicle used to deliver programs in these substantive areas. A number of situational or opportunity-reducing measures were also implemented to ensure the immediate safety of residents. Some of these programs included neighborhood patrols and block watches (Curtis 1987 , p. 11). By some accounts, this urban crime-prevention and reconstruction movement produced a number of models of success and many more promising programs (see Curtis 1985 , 1987 ).

This mode of crime prevention also came to be known as community-based crime prevention , an amalgam of social and situational measures (see Rosenbaum 1986 , 1988 ). The approach was popularized with a number of large-scale, multisite programs referred to as comprehensive community initiatives (Hope 1995 ; Rosenbaum, Lurigio, and Davis 1998 ). Examples included T-CAP (Texas City Action Plan to Prevent Crime) and PACT (Pulling America’s Communities Together).

The roots of this comprehensive approach—on the social side, at least—go as far back as the early 1930s, with Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay’s Chicago Area Project (CAP; Shaw and McKay 1942 ). The CAP was designed to produce social change in communities that suffered from high delinquency rates and gang activity. Local civic leaders coordinated social service centers that promoted community solidarity and counteracted social disorganization, and they developed other programs for youths, including school-related activities and recreation. Some evaluations indicated desirable results, but others showed that CAP efforts did little to reduce delinquency (see Schlossman and Sedlak 1983 ).

The New York City–based Mobilization for Youth (MOBY) program of the 1960s is another example of this type of crime-prevention initiative. Funded by more than $50 million, MOBY attempted an integrated approach to community development (Short 1974 ). Based on Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin’s ( 1960 ) concept of providing opportunities for legitimate success, MOBY created employment opportunities in the community, coordinated social services, and sponsored social-action groups such as tenants’ committees, legal-action services, and voter registration. But the program ended for lack of funding amid questions about its utility and use of funds.

A newer generation of these programs, which includes the well-established Communities That Care (CTC) strategy developed by David Hawkins and Richard Catalano ( 1992 ), incorporates principles of public health and prevention science—identifying key risk factors for offending and implementing evidence-based prevention methods designed to counteract them. The CTC has become the best developed and tested of these prevention systems.

By the early 1990s, crime prevention found itself in the national spotlight, although not always to the liking of its supporters. This came about during the lead up to and subsequent passage of the federal crime bill of 1994—the most expensive initiative in history (Donziger 1996 ). Known officially as the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, it ultimately became famous for its authorization of funding to put 100,000 new police officers on the streets, as well as infamous for making 60 more federal crimes eligible for the death penalty and authorizing $10 billion for new prison construction. Crime-prevention programs (in the broadest sense) were allocated a sizable $7 billion, but most of this was used on existing federal programs like Head Start in order to keep them afloat (Gest 2001 ).

From the beginning of the bill’s debate on Capitol Hill and across the country, crime prevention—especially programs for at-risk youth—was heavily criticized. The growing political thirst to get tough on juvenile and adult criminals alike, with an array of punitive measures, sought to paint prevention and its supporters as soft on crime. Midnight basketball became their scapegoat. Prevention was characterized as nothing more than pork-barreling—wasteful spending of taxpayer dollars. The end result of all of this was mixed: crime prevention had received substantial funding, but it had been relegated to the margins in the public discourse on crime (Mendel 1995 ).

In more recent years, crime prevention has emerged as an important component of an overall strategy to reduce crime. One reason for this is the widely held view of the need to strike a greater balance between prevention and punishment (Waller 2006 ). Another key reason has to do with a growing body of scientific evidence showing that many different types of crime-prevention programs are effective (Sherman et al. 1997 , 2006 ; Welsh and Farrington 2006 ) and many of these programs save money (Drake, Aos, and Miller 2009 ). Not surprisingly, the economic argument for prevention has attracted a great deal of interest from policymakers and political leaders (Greenwood 2006 ; Mears 2010 ). The recent evidence-based movement (see Welsh and Farrington 2011 ) has figured prominently in these developments in raising the profile of crime prevention.

II. Developmental Crime Prevention

The developmental perspective postulates that criminal offending in adolescence and adulthood is influenced by “behavioral and attitudinal patterns that have been learned during an individual’s development” (Tremblay and Craig 1995 , p. 151). The early years of the life course are most influential in shaping later experiences. As Greg Duncan and Katherine Magnuson ( 2004 , p. 101) note: “Principles of developmental science suggest that although beneficial changes are possible at any point in life, interventions early on may be more effective at promoting well-being and competencies compared with interventions undertaken later in life.” They further state that: “early childhood may provide an unusual window of opportunity for interventions because young children are uniquely receptive to enriching and supportive environments…. As individuals age, they gain the independence and ability to shape their environments, rendering intervention efforts more complicated and costly” (pp. 102–103).

Developmental prevention is informed generally by motivational or human development and life-course theories on criminal behavior, as well as by longitudinal studies that follow samples of young persons from their early childhood experiences to the peak of their involvement with crime in their teens and twenties. Developmental prevention aims to influence the scientifically identified risk factors or “root causes” of delinquency and later criminal offending.

The theoretical foundation of developmental prevention is robust, and is the subject of the two opening essays of this volume. Frank Cullen, Michael Benson, and Matthew Makarios overview the major developmental and life-course theories of offending, with a special interest in how the theories explain why some individuals “are placed on a pathway, or trajectory, toward a life in antisocial conduct and crime.” David Farrington, Rolf Loeber, and Maria Ttofi summarize the most important risk and protective factors for offending. They conclude that impulsiveness, school achievement, child-rearing methods, young mothers, child abuse, parental conflict, disrupted families, poverty, delinquent peers, and deprived neighborhoods are the most important factors that should be targeted in intervention research.

Richard Tremblay and Wendy Craig’s ( 1995 ) classic, sweeping review of developmental crime prevention documented its importance as a major strategy in preventing delinquency and later offending. It also identified three key characteristics of effective developmental prevention programs: (1) they lasted for a sufficient duration—at least one year; (2) they were multimodal, meaning that multiple risk factors were targeted with different interventions; and (3) they were implemented before adolescence. Since then, many other reviews have been carried out to assess the effectiveness of developmental prevention, often focusing on a specific intervention modality. This is the approach taken in the next three essays.

Holly Schindler and Hirokazu Yoshikawa review the evidence on preschool intellectual enrichment programs. They find that preschool interventions focused specifically on child-relevant processes (i.e., cognitive skills, behavior problems, or executive functioning) have shown impressive results. Equally desirable effects on long-term behavioral outcomes, including crime, have been demonstrated by what they call “two-generation” preschool programs, which also include a focus on parenting skills or offer comprehensive family services.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of parent training for children up to age five years, by Alex Piquero and Wesley Jennings, shows that this intervention is effective in reducing antisocial behavior and delinquency. The authors also find that parent-training programs produce a wide range of other important benefits for families, including improved school readiness and school performance on the part of children and greater employment and educational opportunities for parents. Training in child social skills, also known as social competence, is the subject of another systematic review and meta-analysis by Friedrich Lösel and Doris Bender. This type of intervention generally targets the risk factors of impulsivity, low empathy, and egocentrism. The authors find that the overall effect of skills training is desirable and that the most effective programs used a cognitive-behavioral approach and were implemented with older children and higher risk groups who were already exhibiting some behavioral problems.

In the final essay in this section, Deborah Gorman-Smith and Alana Vivolo take on the much broader subject of the prevention of female offending through a developmental approach. This is important because little is known about what may work for this population. Their review of prevention programs confirms that most studies continue to focus on male offending; the mostly poor evaluation designs of existing programs for girls and adolescent females prohibit a valid assessment of effectiveness, and a gendered analysis of mixed programs is often lacking.

III. Community Crime Prevention

More often than not, community-based efforts to prevent crime are thought to be some combination of developmental and situational prevention. Unlike these two crime-prevention strategies, there is little agreement in the academic literature on the definition of community prevention and the types of programs that fall within it. This stems from its early conceptions, with one view focused on the social conditions of crime and the ability of the community to regulate them, and another that “it operates at the level of whole communities regardless of the types of mechanisms involved” (Bennett 1996 , p. 169).

Tim Hope’s ( 1995 ) definition that community crime prevention involves actions designed to change the social conditions and institutions that influence offending in residential communities is by far the most informative. This is not just because it distinguishes community prevention from developmental and situational prevention, but also because it highlights the strength of the community to address the sometimes intractable social problems that lead to crime and violence. This focus on the social factors leaves aside physical redesign concepts, including Oscar Newman’s ( 1972 ) defensible space and C. Ray Jeffery’s ( 1971 ) crime prevention through environmental design. Ron Clarke ( 1992 , 1995 b ) describes how these important concepts are more correctly viewed as contributing to the early development of situational crime prevention.

Numerous theories have been advanced over the years to explain community-level influences on crime and offending and that serve as the basis of community crime-prevention programs (for excellent reviews, see Reiss and Tonry 1986 ; Farrington 1993 ; Sampson and Lauritsen 1994 ; Wikström 1998 ). Steven Messner and Gregory Zimmerman’s essay makes a unique contribution to this body of knowledge. Through a macro-sociological lens, the authors elucidate the distinguishing features and evolution of the community–crime link. In a separate essay, Wesley Skogan expounds on the nature of disorderly behavior and its relevance to crime, communities, and prevention. Of particular importance is the role that disorder may play in the destabilization and decline of neighborhoods.

While there is a rich theoretical and empirical literature on communities and crime, up until recently less was known about the effectiveness of community crime-prevention programs. Review after review on this subject—going back to Rosenbaum’s ( 1988 ) and Hope’s ( 1995 ) classics—have consistently reported that there are no program types with proven effectiveness in preventing crime. Importantly, this was not a claim that nothing works and that community crime prevention should be abandoned (Sherman 1997 ; Welsh and Hoshi 2006 ). Some program types were judged to be promising. 3

More recent research finds that some community-based programs can make a difference in preventing crime. Jens Ludwig and Julia Burdick-Will report on the effects of the Moving to Opportunity (MTO) program, which gave vouchers to low-socioeconomic status (often, minority) families to enable them to move to better areas. The large-scale experimental test of the program, which involved 4,600 families in five cities across the country, showed that it was particularly effective in reducing violent crime by youths. The authors also discuss another similar poverty-deconcentration experiment in Chicago that was equally effective.

Christopher Sullivan and Darrick Jolliffe review the effectiveness of two well-known community-based crime-prevention modalities: peer influence and mentoring. They find that programs designed to influence peer risk factors for delinquency are somewhat promising, while mentoring, where the evaluation research is more extensive and robust, can be effective in preventing delinquency. In one systematic review and meta-analysis it was found that mentoring was more effective in reducing offending when the average duration of each contact between mentor and mentee was greater, in smaller scale studies, and when mentoring was combined with other interventions.

Important to all forms of crime prevention, but implicit in community prevention, is the element of partnerships among stakeholder agencies and individuals. Dennis Rosenbaum and Amie Schuck review and assess the literature on comprehensive community partnerships in the context of community crime prevention. They offer several key conclusions, including that these partnerships have wide public appeal, can be difficult to implement because of their complexity, and are most effective when there is a commitment to prevention science and evidence-based practice.

The next two essays diverge slightly from our focus on communities and the prevention of crime, but their importance to the field and this volume cannot be overstated. Abigail Fagan and David Hawkins review the evidence of the effectiveness of community-based substance-use prevention initiatives, while Denise Gottfredson, Philip Cook, and Chongmin Na summarize the evidence of the effectiveness of school-based crime-prevention programs. In both cases, the authors report on a number of successful preventive interventions for youths.

IV. Situational Crime Prevention

Situational prevention stands apart from the other crime-prevention strategies by its special focus on the setting or place in which criminal acts take place, as well as its crime-specific focus. No less important is situational prevention’s concern with products (e.g., installation of immobilizers on new cars in some parts of Europe, action taken to eliminate cellphone cloning in the United States) and on large-scale systems such as improvements in the banking system to reduce money laundering (Clarke 2009 ).

Situational crime prevention has been defined as “a preventive approach that relies, not upon improving society or its institutions, but simply upon reducing opportunities for crime” (Clarke 1992 , p. 3). Reducing opportunities for crime is achieved essentially through some modification or manipulation of the physical environment, products, or systems in order to directly affect offenders’ perceptions of increased risks and effort and decreased rewards, provocations, and excuses (Cornish and Clarke 2003 ). These different approaches serve as the basis of a highly detailed classification system of situational crime prevention, which can further be divided into 25 separate techniques, each with any number of examples of programs (Cornish and Clarke 2003 ). Part of Martha Smith and Ron Clarke’s essay is devoted to an overview of the current classification scheme, as well as the theoretical and practical developments that led to its present form.

The theoretical origins of situational crime prevention are wide-ranging (see Newman, Clarke, and Shoham 1997 ; Garland 2000 ), but it is largely informed by opportunity theory. This theory holds that the offender is “heavily influenced by environmental inducements and opportunities and as being highly adaptable to changes in the situation” (Clarke 1995 a , p. 57). Opportunity theory is made up of several more specific theories, including the rational-choice perspective, the routine-activity approach, and crime-pattern theory. According to Smith and Clarke, these three theories have had the greatest influence on the research and practice of situational crime prevention, and they are described in detail in their essay.

Also important to the theoretical basis and the practical utility of situational prevention is the widely held finding that crime is not randomly distributed across a city or community but is, instead, highly concentrated at certain places known as crime “hot spots” (Sherman, Gartin, and Buerger 1989 ). For example, it is estimated that across the United States, 10 percent of the places are sites for around 60 percent of the crimes (Eck 2006 , p. 242). In the same way that individuals can have criminal careers, there are criminal careers for places (Sherman 1995 ). The essay by Anthony Braga reviews the empirical and theoretical evidence on the concentration of crime at places, times, and among offenders.

Fairly or unfairly, situational crime prevention often raises concerns over the displacement of crime. This is the notion that offenders simply move around the corner or resort to different methods to commit crimes once a crime-prevention project has been introduced. 4 Thirty years ago, Thomas Reppetto ( 1976 ) identified five different forms of displacement: temporal (change in time), tactical (change in method), target (change in victim), territorial (change in place), and functional (change in type of crime).

What Clarke ( 1995b ) and many others (e.g., Gabor 1990 ; Hesseling 1995 ) have found and rightly note is that displacement is never 100 percent. Furthermore, a growing body of research has shown that situational measures may instead result in a diffusion of crime-prevention benefits or the “complete reverse” of displacement (Clarke and Weisburd 1994 ). Instead of a crime-prevention project displacing crime, the project’s crime-prevention benefits are diffused to the surrounding area, for example. The essay by Shane Johnson, Rob Guerette, and Kate Bowers, which reports on a meta-analysis of displacement and diffusion, provides confirmatory evidence for these general points. They also find that a “diffusion of benefit is at least as likely as crime displacement.”

Like the other crime-prevention strategies, numerous reviews have been carried out over the years to assess the effectiveness of situational crime-prevention programs. By far the most comprehensive reviews have been conducted by John Eck ( 1997 , 2006 ). They focused on the full range of place-based situational measures implemented in both public and private settings. In keeping with their evidence-based approach, the reviews included only the highest quality evaluations in arriving at conclusions about what works, what does not work, and what is promising. This had the effect of excluding many situational measures with demonstrated preventive effects—including steering-column locks, redesigned credit cards, and exact-change policies (see Clarke 1997 ). Some of these first-generation situational prevention measures were assessed in weak evaluations that could not convincingly support the assertion that the program produced the reported effect.

John Eck and Rob Guerette’s esssay presents an updated and slightly modified review of place-based crime prevention. They assess the evidence for the effectiveness of various situational measures implemented in five common types of places: residences, outside/public, retail, transportation, and recreation. They find a range of situational measures that are effective in preventing different crimes in each of these settings.

Two other essays review the effectiveness of situational measures applied in other contexts. Paul Ekblom looks at the role of the private sector in designing products that work against crime. A number of successful programs are profiled and critical issues discussed in what the author calls the “arms race” between preventers and offenders. Louise Grove and Graham Farrell review the effectiveness of situational measures designed to prevent repeat victimization of residential and commercial burglary and domestic and sexual violence. The authors find that a number of different measures are effective in preventing repeat victimization, especially of residential and commercial burglary.

V. Advancing Knowledge and Building a Safer Society

The final section of this volume looks at a number of key issues that cut across the three crime-prevention strategies. The first of these concerns implementation. Ross Homel and Peter Homel cover the complexities and challenges of implementing crime-prevention programs, as well as the process of moving from small-scale projects to large-scale dissemination and how to mitigate the attenuation of program effects. As with the science of the effectiveness of crime prevention, the authors call for a science of implementation that conforms with principles of good governance.

The second of these key issues concerns evaluation. An evaluation of a crime-prevention program is considered to be rigorous if it possesses a high degree of internal, construct, and statistical conclusion validity 5 (Cook and Campbell 1979 ; Shadish, Cook, and Campbell 2002 ). Put another way, we can have a great deal of confidence in the observed effects of an intervention if it has been evaluated using a design that controls for the major threats to these forms of validity. Experimental and quasi-experimental research methods are the types of designs that can best achieve this, and the randomized controlled experiment is the most convincing method of evaluating crime-prevention programs. This is the subject of David Weisburd and Joshua Hinkle’s essay. Among the many benefits of randomized experiments, the authors note that randomization is the only method of assignment that controls for unknown and unmeasured confounders, as well as those that are known and measured. They also note that the randomized experiment is no panacea and may not be feasible in every instance, and in these cases other high-quality evaluation designs should be employed.

The next essay by Doris MacKenzie, on the effectiveness of correctional treatment, represents a departure from our focus on alternative, non–criminal justice approaches to preventing crime. Its inclusion in this volume is meant to be an important reminder of a key policy conclusion in our field: it is never too early and never too late to effectively intervene to reduce criminal offending (Loeber and Farrington 1998 , forthcoming). While we maintain that it is far more socially worthwhile and just as well as sustainable to intervene before harm is inflicted on a victim and the offender is under the supervision of the justice system, it is important to recognize that this is not always possible; prevention programs are by no means foolproof.

Public opinion on crime prevention is also important to its future development and practice. Encouragingly, there appears to be a great deal of public support for the kinds of crime prevention covered here. Traditional and economic-based opinion polls consistently show that the public supports government spending on crime prevention rather than on more punitive responses, including building more prisons (Cullen et al. 2007 ), and that the public is willing to pay more in taxes if people know that the money will be directed toward crime prevention rather than crime control (Cohen, Rust, and Steen 2006 ; Nagin et al. 2006 ). These and other important findings are at the center of Julian Roberts and Ross Hastings’s review of international trends in public opinion concerning crime prevention.

In the final essay of the volume we set out our modest proposal for a new crime-prevention policy to help build a safer, more sustainable society. Among its central features are the need to overcome the “short-termism” politics of the day; to ensure that the highest quality scientific research is at center stage in political and policy decisions; and to strike a greater balance between crime prevention and crime control.

Crime-prevention programs are not designed with the intention of excluding justice personnel. Many types of prevention programs, especially those that focus on adolescents, involve justice personnel such as police or probation officers. In these cases, justice personnel work in close collaboration with those from such areas as education, health care, recreation, and social services.

Among the most well known classification schemes include those by Brantingham and Faust ( 1976 ), van Dijk and de Waard ( 1991 ), and Ekblom ( 1994 ).

Promising programs are those where the level of certainty from the available scientific evidence is too low to support generalizable conclusions, but where there is some empirical basis for predicting that further research could support such conclusions (Farrington et al. 2006 ).

See Barr and Pease ( 1990 ) for a discussion of “benign” or desirable effects of displacement.

Internal validity refers to how well the study unambiguously demonstrates that an intervention had an effect on an outcome. Construct validity refers to the adequacy of the operational definition and measurement of the theoretical constructs that underlie the intervention and the outcome. Statistical conclusion validity is concerned with whether the presumed cause (the intervention) and the presumed effect (the outcome) are related.

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Why data-informed community engagement is crime prevention and policing reimagined

The dice framework for public safety involves police, but it does not prioritize law enforcement or use it as a singular intervention strategy.

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This essay is reprinted with permission from the Violence Reduction Project

America needs a data-informed approach to crime prevention that maximizes many existing local services and resources. Police, but not just the police, have an important role to play in deterring offenders, hardening targets and affecting crime rates. Other stakeholders must also share the burden of crime prevention. The data-informed community engagement (DICE) framework for public safety involves police, but it does not prioritize law enforcement or use it as a singular intervention strategy.

DICE coordinates responses by multiple stakeholders to develop and deploy place-based strategies that disrupt situational contexts and opportunities for crime.

DICE efforts in Atlantic City, Newark, Dallas and Kansas City have shifted the focus of crime prevention away from strictly person-based law enforcement by analyzing data to learn where and why people tend to commit crimes in certain settings. Multifaceted responses disrupt these contexts for crime. These four cities exemplify current “best practices” for DICE, and offer insights for how to adopt it in other municipalities of all sizes across the country.

Atlantic City police connect shootings to drug sales

Police in Atlantic City, New Jersey used data analytics to connect shootings to drug sales and related turf conflicts whereby certain “convenience stores” are the places where drug buyers are solicited. Nearby “laundromats” are locations where drug transactions are made. “Vacant buildings” located nearby are used by drug dealers as stash houses for drugs and weapons and by drug buyers to use drugs after purchase. These data-driven insights were shared with community leaders to form a consensus that certain areas will probably experience shooting incidents in the future.

Multiple local perspectives were solicited to interpret the data analysis and plan a strategy to mitigate this crime problem at key areas. Police focused patrols around laundromats and conducted business checks with convenience store managers every shift. The city’s Planning and Development Department prioritized remediation of vacant properties and the installations of new LED streetlights around these businesses. The local electric utility authority and mercantile association also collaborated in the process. Data analytics and ground-level input helped police in Atlantic City solve crime problems in diverse ways, beyond the status quo.

Bright data remedies

Andrew Ferguson, a former public defender, introduced the term “bright data” in his book, “ The Rise of Big Data Policing .” He explains that a data-driven ability to identify crime risks does not always require a law enforcement remedy.

Ferguson recommends remedies that are “smart (precise and focused),” “illuminating (revealing hidden problems and patterns)” and that decouple crime problems from policing solutions. Such “bright data remedies” offer a contrast to big data policing because “in some cases, police may be necessary to address the identified risk, but in other cases, a nonpolice response might suggest a better, more long-lasting solution.”

Newark Public Safety Collaborative

Contemporary data analysis methods can identify risks and situational contexts for crime with a focus on places, not people. [1] Techniques like risk terrain modeling [2] diagnose environmental conditions that connect with crime problems. Checked and balanced by human analysts and local knowledge, these analytic resources can empower change agents with “bright data insights” to best use existing local resources to address problems in coordinated and comprehensive ways. Newark, New Jersey offers a compelling and sustainable example of this.

The Newark Public Safety Collaborative [3] launched in 2018 based on evidence from a prior National Institute of Justice study that reduced gun crimes in high-risk areas of Newark by 35% compared to control areas.

Housed in the School of Criminal Justice at Rutgers University, the Newark Public Safety Collaborative coordinates the various strengths of dozens of community stakeholders working to address problems that connect with violent crime throughout the city. It democratizes data and analytics that were once available only to the police department and makes them accessible and understandable to everyone – including other city agencies, non-profit organizations, businesses, and neighborhood groups.

This informs a variety of local efforts by local stakeholders, such as:

• Ensuring safe passages for children to walk to school;
• Adding better lighting in priority areas;
• Remediating vacant lots at high-risk places;
• Improving access to housing for people at risk of victimization.

One recent initiative involves a poster contest and flyer distribution campaign to reduce auto theft. Preliminary evidence suggests it’s working quite well, plus community members are invested in the intervention program and share credit for its success.

a Place-based, data-informed and community-engaged approach to crime prevention

Community leaders and change agents who participate in DICE programs like the Newark Public Safety Collaborative gain locally contextualized data and insights that supplement their own expertise and resources to efficiently focus on places that need them most.

While each of their initiatives may appear separate from one another, they combine to produce a deliberate and impactful response to crime problems throughout the city as a whole because everyone is acting on the same information to guide their plans and actions. The data, analyses, interpretations of results and intervention plans are accessible and transparent. The result is a comprehensive, sustainable, and measured crime prevention strategy for the City of Newark. Policing is just one small part of the larger effort.

A place-based, data-informed and community-engaged approach to crime prevention takes the focus off of personal characteristics and, instead, considers why certain interactions among people occur at particular places. Offenders select the environments where they’ll commit crime, and these settings become “hot spots” because they are the most suitable places for illegal behavior over-and-over again. Hot spots persist when the contexts for crime located there are not addressed. They are symptoms of other phenomena that demand further inquiry.

Police and other community leaders must seek to understand what makes problem places attractive settings for illegal behaviors. Ending the inquiry at only where the problem persists is like documenting repeated playful behaviors at a particular place without acknowledging the presence of swings, slides, open fields, and other features that make the area attractive and suitable for the expected outcome of playful activity.

To prevent crime, we must endeavor to analyze why interactions of people occur at particular places resulting in repeated crime outcomes. Such an assessment invites new ways of addressing chronic problems at these settings that go beyond a law enforcement response. Retired Police Chief Henry White went so far as to explain [4] how DICE “improves community relations and does not define people as the problem…. [it can] “reduce crime without contributing to mass incarceration.”

Dallas, Kansas City initiatives

Dallas, Texas is another city poised to be a leader of data-informed community engagement through its newly created Office of Integrated Public Safety Solutions housed within city hall. This office was heavily influenced by Operation Safe Surroundings , a short downloadable eBook from the Rutgers Center on Public Security that serves as a DICE implementation guide.

Another initiative in Kansas City , Missouri is spearheaded by the Kansas City Police Department but invites participation by multiple city agencies. An article in the peer-reviewed journal Police Quarterly [5] reports that this initiative significantly reduced violent crimes by over 22% during the first year.

Sharing the burden of public safety with multiple stakeholders

These and other cases demonstrate the potential for DICE to support innovative problem-solving and fairer distributions of public resources . For example, the Kansas City Police Department officers shared risk terrain modeling analyses with management-level members of municipal departments such as Regulated Industries, Public Works and the Health Department. A business with numerous code violations was identified in the risky area and dealt with by the fire marshal. At the same time, the transit authority removed a problematic bus stop nearby. These facilities were connected to the situational contexts of crimes in the problem area. So, the responsive actions were designed to mitigate these spatial risks and encourage new routine activities in the area.

Debates over defunding police have led to a general desire to reimagine crime prevention and public safety through a process that transfers some police responsibilities to other entities. Success in this regard will depend largely on access to data and analytics to inform strategic plans and allocate related resources in ways that meet community expectations.

Coordinated responses to crime problems require a routine and synchronized sharing of data analytics among all partners involved. To date, these tools remain largely in the hands of police departments, who also control the messages informed by them. This monopoly tends to yield outcomes that prioritize law enforcement activities or do not necessarily align with community priorities. This may be partly due to unrealistic expectations police leaders believe are set for their departments, as they’re often tasked with single-handedly solving complex crime problems. But preventing crime does not have to be so one-sided and isolating.

Reimagining crime prevention requires embracing new expectations for policing that share the burden of public safety with multiple stakeholders. Data-informed community engagement is crime prevention and policing reimagined.

1. Caplan JM, Kennedy LW. Risk Terrain Modeling: Crime Prediction and Risk Reduction . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2016.

2. Caplan JM, Kennedy LW, Barnum JD, Piza EL. (2015). Risk Terrain Modeling for Spatial Risk Assessment . Cityscape , 2015; 17(1), 11-20.

3. Giménez Santana A, Caplan JM, Kennedy LW. (forthcoming). Data-Informed Community Engagement: The Newark Public Safety Collaborative. In E. Piza & B. Welsh (Eds). The Globalization of Evidence-Based Policing: Innovations in Bridging the Research-Practice Divide. London, UK: Routledge Press.

4. Melamed S. Can Atlantic City’s Bold Experiment take Racial Bias out of Predictive Policing? The Philadelphia Inquirer, August 10, 2017.

5. Caplan JM, Kennedy LW, Drawve G, Baughman J. (In Press). Data-Informed and Place-Based Violent Crime Prevention: The Kansas City, Missouri Risk-Based Policing Initiative. Police Quarterly .

Joel Caplan, Ph.D., helps cities and towns prevent crime and improve community policing. He helps them make data-informed decisions about policies and programs that enhance public safety. Dr. Caplan is a Professor at Rutgers University School of Criminal Justice (SCJ) and serves as Director of the SCJ Master’s Program and Director of the Rutgers Center on Public Security (RCPS). Dr. Caplan has professional experience as a police officer, 9-1-1 dispatcher and emergency medical technician.

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Future of Crime Prevention: Developmental and Situational Strategies

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Engaging Community to Prevent Crime and End Police Violence

• Community Engagement
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“Here in North we have tons of law enforcement and no security. My cousins in Minnetonka have tons of security -- and no enforcement.”

In August 2016, less than a month after local police killed Philando Castile, a young Black woman made that point at a community safety event in North Minneapolis. Implied in her statement are two pieces of wisdom. First, research shows that non-police systems and resources in a community can prevent crime, or create “security.” Second, far from ensuring safety or security, police themselves can cause violence and insecurity. Black people, Native people, and other already-marginalized people bear the brunt of police violence and non-protection.

Now it’s September 2020, just three months after local police killed George Floyd, and the movement to end police violence has grown to be the largest mass movement in generations. More people than ever are grappling with a question that follows the young woman’s statement: What can prevent crime and end police violence?

One answer from the research is: community engagement.

By “community engagement” I mean a collaborative process where groups of people work together to address issues that impact their lives. Examples include: organizing a block watch to reduce the risk of harm during riots, supporting local mutual aid efforts to distribute food and necessities to those in need, and calling elected officials to make public policy changes.

Community engagement and crime prevention.

Research shows that community engagement is a necessary part of preventing crime, in a number of ways.

• Individuals engaging with each other . Where individuals in an area have good relationships with each other, they can create a condition called “collective efficacy,” or “a willingness to intervene for the common good.” One study found that where that willingness to intervene is high, crime is low, even when controlling for the influence of other issues, such as poverty and the length of time people have lived in the community.
• Grassroots organizing . Where community organizations engage in grassroots organizing, they can help create social and political power to address community problems. Evidence shows this type of organizing is “central to initiatives to prevent gun and youth violence.” 
• Community power in government . A synthesis of case studies finds that community wisdom can ensure that government is tackling the root conditions that fuel violence. One national assessment found that cities that approach public safety in coordination with community have the lowest rates of youth violence.

Community engagement and ending police violence.

Community work to end police violence goes back generations , with roots in anti-racist responses to Jim Crow, and more modern work grounded in the violent police response to the civil rights movement and Movement for Black Lives. This work has proved central to everything from capturing police violence to advancing solutions. Just recently in Minneapolis, community members:

• Filmed and shared videos of Minneapolis Police officers that captured horrific violence and cast great doubt on the accuracy of official police statements
• Reported on the chemical weapons, less lethal projectiles, and other state violence used to suppress both peaceful protests and riots
• Sued to enforce access to public records on complaints against Minneapolis Police officers and their resolutions

One impact of this type of community engagement nationwide is public attitude shifts ; more Americans than ever before believe that police violence is a very serious problem.

Additionally, local organizations such as Black Visions Collective , MPD150 , Reclaim the Block , and Root + Restore have been pivotal in framing and moving forward solutions. Their work has helped:

• Share critiques of popular reforms, including the lack of evidence that de-escalation, implicit bias training, early intervention systems, and body-worn cameras improve police officer behavior
• Organize actions including marches, community safety meetings, mutual aid projects, and campaigns to pressure elected officials  
• Remove police officers from Minneapolis and St. Paul Public Schools
• Secure the Minneapolis City Council’s commitment to divest from the Minneapolis Police Department and invest in a community-based vision of public safety

Similar work to shift resources and responsibilities from police departments, and empower community-based crime prevention has happened across the country, some captured in this database .

Community engagement and what’s next.

Everybody deserves to be safe from violence, including police violence. Community engagement is a key mechanism to both prevent crime and end police violence. Stakeholders interested in advancing those twin goals should center community wisdom, understand the evidence behind it, and advance policies that shift power and resources from police to community-based crime prevention.

Read more about crime prevention impacts of community engagement and other factors that contribute to community safety .

Learn about wilder's community safety and criminal justice research..

Photo courtesy of Clay Banks via Unsplash .

Lindsay Turner was a research associate at Wilder Research.

Everybody deserves to be safe from violence, including police violence. Community engagement is a key mechanism to both prevent crime and end police violence.

Learn more about community engagement and research

Using a Framework for Community-Engaged Research

Talking Terms: When Community Engagement and Research Intersect

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The New Policing, Crime Control, and Harm Reduction

by Anthony A. Braga | July 2017

The “new policing,” as described by Professor Fagan, captures a concerning element of the slow drift of the police profession away from community problem-solving models of policing popularized during the 1980s and 1990s and towards more aggressive enforcement strategies over the last two decades. It is important to note here that the so-called new policing also has desirable elements that better position police departments to enhance public safety and security. The police should embrace an analytical approach to understanding crime patterns and trends. Crime is highly concentrated in small high-risk places, and committed by and against a small number of people who are at high-risk of being the victim of a crime or party to it (Braga, 2012). Police managers should also be held accountable for their performance in detecting and addressing these identifiable risks.

The new policing model unfortunately emphasizes increased law enforcement action over more nuanced prevention strategies that engage the community. One-dimensional and overly-broad police surveillance and enforcement strategies do little to change the underlying dynamics that drive serious urban violence and have generally not been found to be effective in controlling crime (e.g., see Braga et al., 2015). Indiscriminate police enforcement actions also contribute to mass incarceration problems that harm disadvantaged neighborhoods (Young and Petersilia, 2016). This is particularly true when such an approach is coupled with a “crime numbers game” managerial mindset that promotes yearly increases in arrest, summons, and investigatory stop actions as key performance measures (Eterno and Silverman, 2012). Indeed, Professor Fagan makes a strong case that aggressive enforcement strategies in the new policing may heighten racial and economic disparities and possibly reinforce segregation.

Fagan’s essay, however, does not focus on the kinds of crime control strategies that police executives could pursue in the new policing model that would help reduce harmful consequences on poor and disadvantaged neighborhoods. As suggested by former President Obama’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing (2015), police strategies that unintentionally violate civil rights, compromise police legitimacy, or undermine trust are counterproductive. This is precisely why they recommended that law enforcement agencies develop and adopt policies and strategies that reinforce the importance of community engagement in managing public safety. While community policing programs have not been found to be effective in reducing crime, they have been found to generate positive effects on citizen satisfaction, perceptions of disorder, and police legitimacy (Gill et al., 2014). Moreover, community engagement strategies implemented as part of community policing programs can provide important input to help focus problem-oriented policing, hot spots policing, and focused deterrence approaches, which do seem to reduce crime (Weisburd et al., 2010; Braga et al., 2014; Braga and Weisburd, 2012).

Developing close relationships with community members helps the police gather information about crime and disorder problems, understand the nature of these problems, and solve specific crimes. Community members can also help police prevent crime by contributing to improvements to the physical environment and through informal social control of high-risk people. In this way, police strategies focusing on high-risk people and high-risk places would cease to be a form of profiling and become a generator of community engagement projects (Braga, 2016). Indeed, a central idea in community policing is to engage residents so they can exert more control over dynamics that contribute to their own potential for victimization and, by doing so, influence neighborhood levels of crime (Skogan and Hartnett, 1997). Preventing crime by addressing underlying crime-producing situations reduces harm to potential victims as well as harm to would-be offenders by not relying solely on arrest and prosecution actions.

Community engagement in developing appropriately focused strategies would help to safeguard against indiscriminate and overly aggressive enforcement tactics and other inappropriate policing activities, which in turn erode the community’s trust and confidence in the police and inhibit cooperation. Collaborative partnerships between police and community members improve the transparency of law enforcement actions and provide residents with a much-needed voice in crime prevention work. Ongoing conversations with the community can ensure that day-to-day police-citizen interactions are conducted in a procedurally just manner that enhances community trust and compliance with the law (Tyler, 2006).

Community problem-solving strategies, rather than aggressive enforcement, should be the last prong of the new policing model. In the context of racial and economic segregation, the positive impacts of such a policy change could be profound. Reduced mobility driven by fears of undue police attention, financial burdens imposed by fines and other criminal justice system costs, employment and education limitations associated with criminal records, and other negative externalities experienced by residents of disadvantaged neighborhoods would diminish. Effective police-community partnerships could improve the connection of local residents with a range of government and non-profit resources that promote public safety by improving neighborhood conditions. Safer neighborhoods are more attractive to private businesses who can provide jobs and much needed goods and services to local residents. In this way, police departments could be key initiators of longer-lasting social and economic changes that undo the harms associated with racial and economic segregation.

The ideals of community policing have been around for a long time. Unfortunately, many police departments do not seem to be embracing these approaches with fidelity to the original principles (National Research Council, 2004). It is perhaps not surprising that even though community policing has been widely adopted, at least in principle, substantial conflict between police and the communities they serve continues to occur. It is high time that police departments reinvest in implementing community policing with a much more meaningful commitment to problem-solving and prevention-oriented approaches that emphasize the role of the public in helping set police priorities. By doing so, “new policing” strategies can be oriented towards reducing harm while controlling crime.

Braga, Anthony A. 2012. “High Crime Places, Times, and Offenders.” In The Oxford Handbook on Crime Prevention , edited by Brandon C. Welsh and David P. Farrington. New York: Oxford University Press.

Braga, Anthony A. 2016. “Better Policing Can Improve Legitimacy and Reduce Mass Incarceration.” Harvard Law Review Forum , 129 (7): 233 – 241.

Braga, Anthony A., Andrew V. Papachristos, and David M. Hureau. 2014. “The Effects of Hot Spots Policing on Crime: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Justice Quarterly , 31 (4): 633 – 663.

Braga, Anthony A. and David L. Weisburd. 2012. “The Effects of Focused Deterrence Strategies on Crime: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 49 (3): 323 – 358.

Braga, Anthony A., Brandon C. Welsh, and Cory Schnell. 2015. “Can Policing Disorder Reduce Crime? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 52 (4): 567 – 588.

Eterno, John and Eli Silverman. 2012. The Crime Numbers Game: Management by Manipulation . New York: CRC Press.

Gill, Charlotte, David L. Weisburd, Cody Telep, Zoe Vitter and Trevor Bennett. 2014. “Community-Oriented Policing to Reduce Crime, Disorder and Fear and Increase Satisfaction and Legitimacy Among Citizens: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Experimental Criminology , 10 (4): 399–428.

National Research Council. 2004. Fairness and Effectiveness in Policing: The Evidence. Committee to Review Research on Police Policy Practices . Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. 2015. Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

Skogan, Wesley and Susan Hartnett. 1997. Community Policing , Chicago Style. New York: Oxford University Press.

Tyler, Tom R. 2006. Why People Obey the Law: Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and Compliance (rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Weisburd, David L., Cody Telep, Joshua Hinkle, and John Eck. 2010. “Is Problem Oriented Policing Effective in Reducing Crime and Disorder?” Criminology & Public Policy , 9 (1): 139–172.

Young, Kathryne M. and Joan Petersilia. 2016. “Keeping Track: Surveillance, Control, and the Expansion of the Carceral State.” Harvard Law Review , 129 (7): 1318 – 1360.

Anthony A. Braga is Distinguished Professor and Director of the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Northeastern University’s College of Social Sciences and Humanities. 

More in Discussion 24: Policing and Segregation

Policing and Segregation

by Jeffrey A. Fagan

The Dynamics of Policing and Segregation by Race and Class

by Monica Bell

The New Policing, Crime Control, and Harm Reduction

by Anthony A. Braga

High Volume Stops and Violence Prevention

by Philip J. Cook

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Community Violence Intervention

What is community violence intervention.

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Community violence generally happens outside the home in public spaces. Most community violence involves a relatively small number of people as victims or perpetrators. Still, its effects impact entire communities, eroding public health, causing economic disruption, and contributing to lasting individual and community traumas. Mitigation efforts typically focus on high-risk individuals, gun violence, specific violent crime problems, as well as the historical and structural challenges that often result in community violence.

Community violence intervention (CVI) is an approach that uses evidence-informed strategies to reduce violence through tailored community-centered initiatives. These multidisciplinary strategies engage individuals and groups to prevent and disrupt cycles of violence and retaliation, and establish relationships between individuals and community assets to deliver services that save lives, address trauma, provide opportunity, and improve the physical, social, and economic conditions that drive violence.

Guiding Principles

Community centered.

The CVI approach must be informed by and tailored to community residents and stakeholders, and everyone involved must prioritize the community's needs. This means social service partners are engaged to align and collaborate with residents and law enforcement partners to reduce violence and build community.

Evidence Informed

Each CVI strategy should be built using evidence generated by multiple disciplines and a variety of methods. Evidence used to support a CVI program may include findings from research and evaluation, case studies, expert opinions, or documented lessons learned from the field. Ideally, a CVI program will engage in research and evaluation to help build the evidence base for what works.

Equitable and Inclusive

Care must be taken to guarantee the community members most affected and most disenfranchised are included in creating CVI solutions and benefiting from them.

Effective and Sustainable

 CVI programs must demonstrate measurable impacts on violence and community wellbeing, and they must have access to resources that enable responses to new and ongoing challenges over time.

OJP Support

In FY2022, the Department of Justice launched the Community Based Violence Intervention and Prevention Initiative (CVIPI) , a historic federal investment in community violence Intervention programs. This initiative seeks to prevent and reduce violent crime in communities by supporting comprehensive, evidence-based violence intervention and prevention programs based on partnerships among community residents, local government agencies, victim service providers, community-based organizations, law enforcement, hospitals, researchers, and other community stakeholders.  

These historic investments in community violence intervention strategies support community infrastructure and expand the role of community partners as a complement to law enforcement.  — Amy Solomon, Assistant Attorney General

The Office of Justice Programs and several of its program offices—the Bureau of Justice Assistance , National Institute of Justice , Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention , and Office for Victims of Crime —are taking a collaborative approach to help ensure jurisdictions have access to expertise and resources to address community violence.

OJP Funding

In FY 2022 and FY 2023, OJP awarded nearly $200 million in CVIPI grants, which are funded in part through dedicated resources from the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act.

Current Funding

Fy24 office of justice programs community based violence intervention and prevention initiative site-based, community-based violence intervention and prevention initiative (cvipi) research and evaluation.

 Awards to Community Based Organizations

Awards to local governments, awards to state governments, awards for research & evaluation,  awards to capacity building intermediaries, awards to training & technical assistance providers, past funding opportunities,  bureau of justice assistance.

FY 2023 Office of Justice Programs Community Based Violence Intervention and Prevention Initiative

• Grants.gov deadline: May 18, 2023, 8:59 p.m. ET
• JustGrants deadline: May 25, 2023, 8:59 p.m. ET

FY 2022 Office of Justice Programs Community Based Violence Intervention and Prevention Initiative

• Grants.gov deadline: June 16, 2022, 8:59 p.m. ET
• JustGrants deadline: June 21, 2022, 8:59 p.m. ET

 National Institute of Justice

NIJ FY23 Community-Based Violence Intervention and Prevention Initiative (CVIPI) Research, Evaluation, and Associated Training & Technical Assistance Support

• Grants.gov deadline: May 22, 2023, 11:59 p.m. ET
• JustGrants deadline: June 5, 2023, 8:59 p.m. ET

FY 2022 Evaluation of OJP Community Based Violence Intervention and Prevention Initiative (CVIPI) Projects

• Grants.gov deadline: June 7, 2022, 11:59 p.m. ET

View all NIJ CVIPI projects  

OJP Resources

Visit the National CVIPI Resource Center to request training and technical assistance from CVI experts.

Subscribe to learn more about this and other OJP efforts.

Listen to the Community Violence Intervention podcast.

A step-by-step checklist for community led and evidence informed strategies.

Definitions of terms associated with community violence intervention

Explore the extensive community based violence intervention and prevention catalog from communities stories, fact sheets, webinars, and more.

607 Crime Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

When writing a research paper about criminology or law, you have to consider your topic carefully. Our team came up with 465 titles, along with some crime essay examples to assist you in your assignment.

🏆 Best Crime Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

👍 good crime topics for essays, ✅ simple & easy topics about crime, 💡 most interesting crime topics to write about, 📌 useful crime topics for essays, 📑 interesting crime topics, ❓ crime research questions.

• Unemployment Leads to Crime Essay In the 1990s, the rate of unemployment was low and so was the rate of property crime. Crime rates increase steadily in society, and the rate of crime is connected to unemployment and low wages.
• Youth Crime as a Major Issue in the World The relationships that exist in the families of the youths could facilitate the indulgence in criminal activities for example when the parents are involved in crime, when there is poor parental guidance and supervision, in […]
• Applying Developmental Theories of Crime to Jeffrey Dahmer In the framework of this theory, Dahmer’s obsession with dissecting animals and necrophilic fantasies from a young age are not connected to the other events in his life but are simply manifestations of his latent, […]
• Three Pathways to Crime Identified by Loeber It encompasses an account of an individual’s past in the course of time of problem behavior in a continuing increment of seriousness of problem behavior.
• The Effects of Mass Media Glorifying Crime and Criminal Lifestyle Crime has and will dominate popular media, ranging from the traditional police and detective shows/movies to documentaries, and more recently the ‘true crime’ genre or psychological thrillers attempting to tell the story from the perspective […]
• Impact of Crime on Wider Society Therefore, just as some organs in the body can be removed in order to improve the health of a person, the people who cause problems in the society can also be removed so that the […]
• Technology for Crime Prevention With the modern computer technology and advanced software, criminal justice system has been in a capacity to compile data and store it as well as share its analysis with other agencies both in and out […]
• Chris Watts and His Murder Crimes Watts pleaded guilty to the killings of his children and wife. Watts concluded the interview by saying he was sorry and repented for his actions after seeking refuge in God.
• Frankston Serial Killer: Background, Crimes, and Motives At the time, the police noted that Denyer was with his girlfriend. The letter claimed that Denyer knows his whereabouts, and that he was planning to break out of prison to kill him.
• Types of Crime Analysis The goals of tactical analysis are to recognize crime trends and to develop the best suited strategies to address them. This is a matter of great concern and the department would inquire more into the […]
• Marxists and Functionalists’ Views on Crime and Deviance Also, the essay seeks to explain why people commit crimes in reference to a social and political transition, poverty, globalization of crime and state bureaucracy in order to evaluate the most effective conceptual approach to […]
• Displacement: Crime Prevention It refers to circumstances where crime intervention efforts make the cost of committing an offense greater than the benefits accruing from the crime.
• International Organized Crime: The 14K Triads in Hong Kong Being one of the largest transnational criminal organizations globally, the 14K does not depend on the strict structure, operates according to the principles of secrecy, and it is rather difficult to bring the organization to […]
• The Impact of Social Media on the Rise in Crime For example, Jones cites revenge porn, or the practice of publishing a partner’s intimate contact on social media, as one of the results of social media use.
• Solving the Issue of Crime As the director of the county juvenile court, the research question related to the problem at hand should state as follows: What are cost effective methods of solving the proliferation of violent street gangs in […]
• Investigating Crimes against Property According to the Uniform Crime Report of the Federal Bureau of Investigations, there are about 9,767,915 cases of property crimes reported in America annually.
• Infamous Crimes: Laci Peterson’s Murder Even during the war in Iraq, the search for her and the ultimate arrest of Scott Peterson led the news. Her cell phone and purse were still in the house, and a neighbor said she […]
• Youth Crime According to Conflict Theory The second one is that the youth might engage in criminal activities and violence due to misappropriation of resources, lack of jobs, and inadequate strategies to meet their social needs.
• Suspect, Crime Scene, and the Victim: Evidence Triangle In every crime investigation, it is mandatory that the evidence gathered be adequate to draw the link between the suspect, crime scene and the victim.
• Crimes Against Property, Persons, and Public Order The least in ranking is crimes against public order for they have no serious repercussions to lives and livelihood of the involved people.
• Why Does Crime Exist in Society? Philosophically this is the equivalent of saying that without evil one would not recognize good, and while this is evident in the criminal world and the world of law, it only provides some explanation as […]
• Crime TV: How Is Criminality Represented on Television? The public’s views and comprehension of crime are heavily influenced by television, the internet, and print media, which can spread the message about the exaggerated danger to society.
• White Collar Crimes From a Marxist Criminological Perspective Marxist criminologists interpret it in the following way: “…the crimes of the upper class exert a greater economic toll on society than the crimes of the ‘ordinary people’”.
• Parental Responsibility for Crimes of Children Parents should be held responsible for the crime of their children because in most cases criminal involvement of children is the result of lack of parental control.
• Consequences of Committing Crime These factors affect the behavior of an individual and might lead them to criminal activities depending on the effect of the overall combination of the elements mentioned above.
• Crimes Against Person Cases of murder falls in the rule of felony murder which is well stipulated by the constitution of any given country and the penalty is administered depending on whether the case was committed in an […]
• Social Theories of Crime in Explaining Gang Violence This theory incorporates the strain theory as well as the social disorganization it points out that as a result of strain and societal segregation there is a particular culture that establishes for the low income […]
• White Collar Crime Parties affected by the crime and how it affects them White collar criminals place more emphasis on their personal needs than their organization’s to the point of downplaying the real costs of their actions.
• Zodiac Movie: Crime, Media Reporting and Ethics The development of the events and the rise of the killer’s popularity began as soon as the reporters of the San Francisco Chronicle received and discovered the letter with threats to American society.
• Social Cultural Causes of Crime There is need to highlight the social cultural factors of crime and describe the necessary positive measures to prevent the occurrences of crime.
• An Epidemic of Knife Crime in the UK In the case of the former, it is evident that social class plays a key role in the emergence of knife crimes across the UK.
• Youth Crime in Functionalism and Conflict Theories The analysis will focus on determining factors contributing to youth engagement in criminal acts, examining the types of delinquencies they are likely to commit, and establishing the socio-psychological facets associated with the teenagers in the […]
• The Cause of the Crime Since it takes a lot of time and resources to get involved in crime, it is evident that involvement in crime is entirely due to decision of the person to gain the rewards that are […]
• Crimes and Criminal Tendencies: Cause and Effect The school makes demands of control, discipline, and accountability which are difficult for the low self-control student to meet, and, for this reason, early school leaving is a result of low self-control, not a cause […]
• Crime: What Modifies the Human Acts? A young man entering medical school has, as proximate and intermediate ends, the passing of his exams, and the advance from the first to the second class; more remote ends are the exams and classes […]
• Bernie Madoff Ponzi’s Crime Scheme The image of the American Dream and the Strain Theory works in reverse as well: if a person fails to possess lots of quantifiable treasure, then the social order will consider him as a disappointment.
• The Influence of Peer Groups on Youth Crime The impact of youth crime on the community is profound, and so is the influence of criminal behavior on the lives of adolescents.
• Aileen Wuornos’ Background and Crimes Aileen Wuornos began her series of murders in 1989. For a short period, she killed seven people, and all of them were men.
• Relationship Between Crime Rates and Poverty This shows that the strength of the relationship between the crime index and people living below the line of poverty is.427.
• Campus Crimes Types and Causes According to the college administrators’ records, crimes in campuses were minimal in the 19th century and in the early 20th century.
• The Genre of Crime and Gangster Movies The gangster movies always tend to idolize the gangster figures with a relation to the sinister activities that always define crime and the lifestyles of the gangsters.
• Developmental Crime Prevention Developmental crime prevention is a subsystem of special criminological crime prevention, the target of which is the pre-criminal forms of deviant and delinquent behavior of minors.
• “The Functions of Crime” by Emile Durkheim In the article “The Functions of Crime”, Emile Durkheim argues clearly that crime should be treated and analyzed as a normal aspect of a given society.
• Andrew Luster’s Crime and Media Attention Henry Luster, a psychiatrist, and Elizabeth Luster, the parents of Andrew Luster. The film concluded with a snapshot of Luster and an appeal for witnesses to his whereabouts to notify authorities.
• Crime Scene Investigation in Criminal Justice In the process of controlling the crowd and maintaining order with the aid of the police officers, I took some photographs of the surrounding and then approached the main spot of event. I managed to […]
• Cyber Bullying and Positivist Theory of Crime Learning theory approaches to the explanation of criminal behavior have been associated with one of the major sociological theories of crime, the differential association theory.
• Social Disorganization and Crime Social disorganization can be conceptualized as the incapability of the community structure to attain the common values of its members and maintain effective social controls, or as the failure and degeneration of social institutions and […]
• The Phases of a Crime and Their Importance in Psychological Profiling Attempt and accomplishment, the third and fourth phases of a crime respectively, differ in the sense that an attempt is a failed crime.
• CCTV Cameras: Surveillance and the Reduction of Crime The present paper will seek to argue that greater surveillance is not a desirable answer to the problem of crime and that other solutions are required to reduce crime rates in the long term.
• Organized Crime – John Gotti’s Analyze He argues that the American social structure and its structure of wealth distribution and that dream of achieving the ‘American dream’ all require crime to maintain social stability in the face of structural inequality.
• Statistics of Crime Costs to the UK Healthcare The statistic is describing the claims by Labour that the NHS uses 500 million a year to treat wounds caused by knife crimes.
• Drug, Crime and Violence This essay offers a brief discussion of how the abuse of illegal drugs is related to both crime and violence. It is prudent to mention that drug and violence have been noted to be closely […]
• Cultural Criminology: Inside the Crime To facilitate an understanding of cultural criminology, it is essential to consider such ideas as crime as culture, culture as crime, the media constructions of crime control and corruption, and political dimensions of culture, crime, […]
• Cyber-Bullying Is a Crime: Discussion It is easy to see the effects of cyber-bullying but it is hard to find out who is the bully making it hard for authorities to pin the blame on the perpetrator of a crime […]
• Crime and Deviance Crime is an act that is against the norm of a society and the registered law of the entire country. A person is usually taken to the court of law where the offence is listened […]
• Capital Punishment and Deterrence of Crime For the case of murder or crimes that necessitate capital punishment, the incentive to commit murder is directly related to the uncertainties that punishments for the crime will generate.
• The Impact of the Internet on Traditional Crime How the Internet helps the criminals The advancement in the modern computer technologies and the Internet has put radical changes in the concept of information and the mode of exchanging the data.
• The Drug Crime Story of the Stickup Kids In the first part, Contreras situates the participants in the historical context of New York and the South Bronx, the epicenter of the rise of the crack-cocaine trade.
• Criminology: Application of Crime Theories For an action to amount to crime, there has to be a breach of law followed by the administration of punishment by the state to the accused.
• Factors Influencing the Commission of Crime Some of the factors that contribute to the decision-making of the offender are based on time constraints, the ability of the information available, agreeing with the offender’s plans as well as the availability of favorable […]
• Crimes in Biological, Psychological, Sociological Theories With the course of time, people also started paying attention not to the very commitment of crimes but to the triggers that made a person act in a particular way.
• Cybercrime and Cyber-Related Crimes The introduction of computer technology has created room for cyber crimes and cyber related crimes that have caused many people pain and losses to the society.
• The Evolution of Behavioral and Cognitive Development Theories of Crime Behavioral theory is based upon the principles of behavioral psychology and is the basis for behavior modification and change. This theory is founded on the belief that the way in which people organize their thoughts […]
• Functionalist Approach to Deviance and Crime This paper looks at the functionalist approach to the explanation of the causes of deviance and crime. Some level of deviance is however healthy as it leads to better adaptation of the society.
• Anthropological Theory of Crime Criminal law is a division of law that elucidates crimes, describes their nature and defines available punishment for a criminal offense.
• Crime in Canada: Causes, Regulation and Legislation There are those activities that are universally accepted to constitute a crime, however, what might be considered the crime in one society is not necessarily applied in a different society; for instance, looking at a […]
• White Collar Crimes: Bernard Madoff Ponzi Scheme A Ponzi scheme is a white collar crime in which the perpetrator encourages people to invest in a business and promises high dividends within a short period of time.
• How Biochemical Conditions and Brain Activity are Linked to Crime Studies have shown that areas with high rates of homicide and other forms of violence had a lot of lead in the air.
• TV Violence, Increasing Crime Levels and Child Aggression Most of the proponents of that theory state that by witnessing a certain behavior in fiction people become more prone to repeating it in real life. One of the powers these advancements have given us […]
• Corporate Crime – BP Oil Spill The spill contributed to the disruption of the ecosystem and the wildlife, these included both aquatic and terrestrial wildlife. This contributed to the loss of life, environmental pollution and health issues among others.
• The Most Effective Crime Prevention Strategies in the Past Two Decades The conditions are; the desire of the criminal to carry out an offence, the opportunity to carry out the crime and finally the possession of skills and tools necessary for commitment of the crime.
• Anti Money Laundering and Financial Crime There are a number of requirements by the government on the AML procedures to be developed and adopted by the firms in the financial service in industry in an attempt to fight the illegal practice.
• “Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal” by Adler This includes the extent, nature, control and cause of crime in the society. It focuses on supernaturalism in the definition and address of crime in society.
• Substance Abuse and Crime Logically, it is still not possible to prove the theories that correspond to criminal behaviour studies and consequently the correctness and relevancy of the theories vary in application depending on the strain of the situation, […]
• The British Crime Survey’s Strengths and Weaknesses The British Crime Survey’s main purpose is to check the crime level and the number of affected people in England. The investigation performed by the British Crime Survey is in the form of an interview, […]
• Freakonomics: What Attributed to the Sharp Drop In Crime? This article focuses on these reasons that were thought to have led to reduction of the rising crime rates experienced in United States in the 1990s and refutes the claims flaunted by the theorists.
• Approaches to Crime Prevention The objective of the criminal justice system is to ensure proper enforcement of the standards of conduct in protecting the rights of the individuals and the community in a free society.
• The Major Theories of Crime Causation The survival of any civilization hinges on the establishment of laws and codes of conduct and the subsequent obeying of the same by the members of the society.
• Medea’s Justification for Her Crime Medea felt Jason had betrayed her love for him and due to her desperate situation she was depressed and her normal thinking was affected that she started thinking of how she would revenge the man […]
• Crime Prevention and Risk Management This brochure will outline some basic notions of risk management and assessment and crime and victimization prevention; additionally, it will provide the reader with some basic strategies of daily risk management and include sources for […]
• Sentencing Philosophies in Crime That makes it difficult to know how severe the crime is in relation to the sentence. The objectives of sentencing are to protect society.
• Prostitution as a Victimless Crime The association in the law and morality in the subject of prostitution is been a wide concern as prostitution can be considered as one of the oldest phenomena of humankind in a way of practicing […]
• Victimless Crimes: Definition and Types Again, the taxpayers are the victims in such a case as they have to contribute to the rehabilitation of the drug users. As such, some of the so-called victimless crimes have identifiable victims.
• Processing a Crime Scene That is why, for the effective investigation, it is important to take all the necessary crime scene processing measures correctly, and the role of the first responding officer is particularly significant.
• Crime Causes in Sociological Theories The former can be characterized as the outcome of the constructive or adverse influence of rewards/ penalties on the individual’s behavior.
• The Relationship Between Wealth Distribution and Crime Rates According to Anser et al, the levels of crime and violence in the community depend on the difference between the risks or costs and potential gains.
• The Community Policing Impact on Juvenile Crime Moreover, the involvement of the police when it comes to community activities and narrowing the gap between law enforcement and youth is also related to criminal activity in the region.
• American Serial Killer Joseph Paul Franklin’s Crimes The reason for changing his name as because he wanted to join the Rhodesian Army and due to his criminal background, he was forced to change the name. The couple were killed and Franklin confessed […]
• Transnational Organized Crime in Port Security Operations Transnational organized crime manifests in seaports across three primary trajectories of trafficking through the port, infiltration of the port structure and economy, and governance of the port management.
• Crime and Delinquency, Eric Smith’s Case Thus the psychological problems that smith developed were due to the experiences he had gone through the courtesy of his bright red hair, freckles, and speech problems.
• The Three Strikes Law in Countering Crime The preceding level of severe felonies in the United States was critical, and the community considered the three strikes laws enrollment a necessity.
• Surveillance as the Answer to the Crime Issue One of the main features of the “surveillance society” is the use of closed-circuit television that allows for detecting and preventing crimes.
• Computer Forensics: Identity Theft The forensics process that is maintained in the framework of computer-related technologies provides professionals with the opportunity to gather, analyze, and report on the information.
• Nature of Crime in the UAE The irony of this phenomenon is that most embassies in the UAE advise their citizens to take normal security precautions while in the country, yet they are among the biggest offenders.
• Organ Trade: Legal Position and Crime The rise in demand for organs for transplant and the scarcity of organs to transplant have led to the rise of the organ trade with healthy persons putting up their organs for sale due to […]
• Analyzing Graffiti as a Crime Other types of graffiti such as the commercial graffiti are categorized as crimes because making use of graffiti as a form of advertisement is usually against the advertisement along with media laws established in most […]
• Street Crime in Australia As such, it follows suit that crime, and to be specific street crime, must be analyzed in the context of how it is related to the society as a whole but not in isolation5.
• Crime Control: Curbing Market Failures Since this study notes that crime is a direct result of the intrigues in the market, and the market is too diverse to control, the only solution to the reduction in crime is the control […]
• The Theft of a Laptop in Various Crime Scenarios This paper seeks to evaluate different situations that involve the theft of a laptop with the aim of establishing the types of crime they represent and the differences between them.
• Electronic Crime: Online Predators on Facebook Facebook, as one of the many social network sites, will be addressed in this paper and after looking at the dangers that such sites pose to the contemporary world, a conclusion will be arrived at […]
• “Making Crime Pay” by Katherine Beckett The writer suggests that even if the call for tougher penalties is seen as the answer to the problem, those calling for these penalties are not necessarily affected by the rising crime. There is need […]
• Current Trends in Globalization of Crime Hence, the major cause of the drugs smuggling routes over the U.S.-Mexico border is still the discrepancies between the U.S.and Mexican drug enforcing legislation as well as the lack of cross-border cooperation.
• Document Falsification Crime and Response to It The crime is often described as a white color crime as the modification of documents is primarily used for illegal monetary benefits and deception of others. The current response to falsified documents is sufficient and […]
• Note-Taking and Crime Scene Photography Concerning the effectiveness of notes, generally, they should contain a high level of detail, and straightforwardness and cover all areas of the crime scene.
• Hacking as a Crime and Related Theories The move to embrace the novel technology has led to the emergence of a new form of crime and behavior referred to as “hacking”. Today, the term is used to refer to individuals engaged in […]
• Crime Prevention Strategies and Quality of Life The aim of crime prevention strategies is to create conditions that cut the chances and motivation for crime, transforming the capability of the criminal justice system to handle crimes.
• Generalisation of Persons Who Commit Crime The generalisation about the people who commit crime indicates flaws in the processes of thinking and possible outcomes. It appears that the society chooses to pay attention to crime committed by specific groups, such as […]
• Natural and Legal Crime Conceptual Distinction Natural crime is therefore described as a crime against the fundamental laws of nature as well as personal crimes which could or may sometimes not be against the laws of the land.
• Does Drug Interdiction Increase or Decrease Drug-Related Crime? Thesis: Drug interdiction helps to reduce drug-related crime by reducing the flow of drugs into the country and by disrupting the flow of funds into the hands of the terrorists.
• Crime and Punishment in Texas As for the number of prisoners, Texas has the highest number of them, and this is due to the fact that it is one of the states with the highest population in the United States.
• Effective Physical Security and Crime Prevention Therefore, for effective implementation of the defense-in-depth strategy for the protection of assets, it is important to address the following issues: knowing the enemy, understanding the external enemies, defending against an internal enemy, and knowing […]
• Crime Scene Investigation and Evidence Classification They include the explanation of physical evidence to identify purposes, the discussion of the differences between class and individual characteristics of physical evidence, and the evaluation of the class characteristics’ importance.
• The First Officer at Crime Scene One should perfectly realize the fact that the crime scene investigation is an extremely important and, at the same time, complex process that determines the success of the whole case and contributes to the improved […]
• Raskolnikov’s Crime in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” Using the ingenuity of Fyodor Dostoevsky and his eternal masterpiece Crime and Punishment, the paper is going to prove the idea that the actual crime committed by Rodion Raskolnikov was the arrogance he had towards […]
• Fort Lauderdale’s Law Enforcement and Crime Rates 1 percent of French background, 1. 0 percent of Dutch background, 1.
• A Marxist Approach to Global Crime The capitalistic economic system fosters most of the global crimes by encouraging the exploitation of one group by another and promoting the self-interest of the individuals who engage in these forms of crime.
• Social Issues; Crime and Poverty in Camden This has threatened the social security and peaceful coexistence of the people in the community. The larger the differences between the poor and the rich, the high are the chances of crime.
• Prohibition and the Rise of Organized Crime In the 1920s, the United States was facing worrying rates of crime that called for the intervention of the Congress to avert the situation.
• Concepts and Reasons of Violent Crimes in Modern Society The environment has specifically been pointed out to be influential in the case of corporate affairs whereby the risk of exposure of huge corruption claims may lead to elimination of the whistle blowers.
• An Inchoate Crime Under the conspiracy element in the Wisconsin Statutes, conspiracy is defined as the agreement or combination of forces by two individuals with the intent of committing a crime.
• The Connection Between Drugs and Crime The central viewpoint is that it is not an absolute truth that drug use is not an obvious cause of crime.
• Criminal Justice & Security: Measuring Crime Statistics NIBRS is a part of UCR; it has been in place since 1989, and its aim is to ensure the collection of detailed crime reports from law enforcement agencies.
• How America’s Top Cop Reversed the Crime Epidemic Bratton and his fellows at the NYPD employed computer mapping to identify areas that experienced high crime levels, and then made use of all resources available in the police to fight these crimes.
• Cyber Crimes: Court – United States vs. Ancheta Reasoning: The jury argued that the defendant conspired to violate the Computer Fraud Abuse Act as well as the CAN-SPAM Act, caused havoc to computer networks of the national defense department of the federal government, […]
• Age-Crime Relationships and Motivations Of the three major factors outlined by basis theory, opportunities availability is the most determinant factor of crime commission among the youths as lack of jobs makes them engage in criminal activities in order to […]
• “Crimes Against Humanity” by Ward Churchill Throughout the essay, he puts a lot of words and phrases in quotation marks to underline the unique and figurative meaning of these phrases.
• Crime Scene Reconstruction During crime scene simulation, the specialists are supposed to apply scientific methods in order to reconstruct a crime and answer the most important questions related to it that slow down the process of investigation.
• Forensic Psychology: Media and Crime Relationship Consequently, it is arguable that exposure to stimuli involving violence such as the one found in a violent video game and some TV programs including cartoons may cause activation of aggressive scripts among children.
• Crime Scene Investigation: Principles and Process Besides, the paper presents the qualities that crime investigators should have to guarantee a successful inquiry process. Upon arrival on a scene or the site of the crime, one should: Offer assistance to the injured […]
• Society’s Response to Crime Impacts on Justice True, the decisions of the court are generally based on nature of the crime, evidence and the manner of the plaintiff and defendant.
• Crime Reporting in Irish Media The impact of the increase in crime reporting is the rise in worrisome behaviors among the citizens. On the other hand, there is an increase in crime rates, especially cyber crimes and sexual offenses.
• Robert Merton’s Strain Theory Explaining Economic Crime Trends This theory states that “crime occurs when there are not enough legitimate opportunities for people to achieve the success goals imposed by the society”.
• White-Collar Crime-Related Data Sources in the US The data available in NCVS to examine the utility of employing the NCVS to quantify white-collar crimes includes the list of white-collar crimes and their classification.
• Design Theory in “Ornament and Crime” Essay by Loos One of the striking examples of this opinion is the desire to combine the interior and exterior decoration of the building, making them a logical continuation of each other.
• Drug Crimes and Merton’s Anomie It is also reported that in the year 2004, seven percent of the State inmates in the United States jails and eighteen percent of the Federal prisoners pointed out that they engaged in committing offenses […]
• Sociological Perspectives on Crimes of Power: Enron Selfish ambitions of people are dangerous to the organization because this will lead to the downfall of the company in the long run as it happened with Enron.
• Petty Crime Offenses: A Case of Mary Lee It is easy for the prosecution, in this case, to request the judge to sentence the defendant due to her criminal behavior.
• White Collar Crime: Insidious Injuries This is one of the main issues that should be considered since it is important for understanding the dangers of these injuries and reducing their risks. These are some of the main challenges that can […]
• Crime Factors & Levels in South Africa vs. Canada Developed and developing countries have different level of crime and crime control from the developing countries. This crime is concentrated in the urban of Ontario, British Columbia and other areas like Quebec.
• Relationship Between Unemployment and Crimes Agnew, argue that crime is caused by strain that a person face throughout life, and this can be contributed to the degree of educational inequality in society.
• Middle Class and Crime: Historical Analysis of Crime The middle class norms place a high evaluation on the cultivation and possession of skills and on the tangible achievements which are presumed to witness the possession of skills and the application of effort.
• Psychological Theories Explaining Violent Crime Genetic influences refer to the blueprints for behavior that are contained in a person’s chromosomes. It is theoretically possible for a person to carry genes that influence behavior; the behavior they express would be the […]
• Situational Crime Prevention SCP focuses on deterring crime by increasing the risk and effort in committing a crime. However, they add that the effect of such measures varies based on the location and type of crime targeted.
• Gender Factors of Crime in Campus Occurrence of violence in campus usually puts the media in a dilemma because of the perceived impact that the information would have on students, their perception and fear while in school.
• Problem‐Oriented Policing in Violent Crime Places In this study funded by the National Institute of Justice, the researchers investigate the impact of problem-oriented policing in Jersey City.
• Crime Prevention at the Workplace: Employee Theft Considering that any form of employee theft induces substantial harm to the financial performance of companies, the integration of adequate crime prevention procedures in the corporate security system is of great importance.
• Shoe Impression at a Crime Scene It is the transfer of material from the shoe to the surface. The print results from the static charges between the sole of the shoe and the surface.
• Victims of Crime Act: History and Development The necessary part of the paper is the information about changes to the original policy. The discussion of this act and how necessary it is for the criminal justice system in The United States is […]
• Controlling Organized Crime In some instances, law enforcement officers have to get court orders first before they are allowed to search the premises of criminal suspects and this makes it difficult for them to stop different criminal incidents […]
• Social Criticism Work in the Scandinavian Crime Fiction Novels The issue of revenge being a better option in the Swedish society is evident when, at the end of the novel, Blomkvists makes efforts to bring down the executive who worn the lawsuit mentioned at […]
• Crime Theories: Psychodynamics and Rational Choice The rational choice theory explained the causes of crime to be the ability of an individual to commit the crime, their need for valuable possessions and money, their physical health and ability to commit the […]
• Forensic Psychology Role in the Investigation of Crime The use of the methods majorly depends upon the complexity of the crime, nature of evidence available and level of forensic technology available.
• Canada Crime Victims Foundation The foundation was officially started in 2002 to address the plight of such victims and it aims at providing basic education particularly to those dealing with victims of violence, in addition to undertaking comprehensive research […]
• To What Extent Are New Technologies and Organized Crime Linked? There are three major issues in the assessment of the crime and technology which will form the basis of our argument in this research paper; the level of information technology that is used by the […]
• Race, Ethnicity and Crime There are a number of opposing issues concerning racism and disparity that has led to complication in the discussion of the issue of racism in the Criminal Justice System. The larger the differences between the […]
• DNA Analysis: A Crime-Fighting Tool or Invasion of Privacy? This paper set out to demonstrate that DNA analysis offers a versatile tool for fighting crime and therefore ensuring the success of our civilization.
• The Federal Bureau Investigation Crime Statistics The NIBRS is an event-based reporting system that will replace the usual data provided by the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports. The traditional UCR Program was summary-based, and NIBRS is incident-driven.
• NGO Analysis of Canadian Crime Victim Foundation Joe and Lozanne Wamback founded the Canadian Crime Victim Foundation during the summer of 2002. They worked hard to overcome the imbalances in Canada’s criminal justice system and provide for victims of crime.
• Extortion in Organized Crime Groups Blackmailing is a standard tool in organized crime, as it relies on one’s ability to threaten with severe consequences for non-compliance.
• The Crimes of Charles Manson, Serial Killer Even though his people did it himself, he was not involved in this, and the organization of a particular group of people is not in itself an immoral act but is prohibited in some places.
• Guidelines for Responsible Reporting on Hate Crimes
• Water Pollution as a Crime Against the Environment
• The Crime of Attempt: Adequate Punishment
• Hate Crimes from a Biblical Perspective
• Categories of Crime in Current Justice System
• Impact of Cyber Crime on Internet Banking
• Crime Scene Investigation Techniques
• The Most Effective Crime Reduction Approaches
• Mental Health of Crime Offenders
• A Theoretical Perspective on Crimes
• Cryptocurrency Crimes in Financial Markets
• Discussion on the Role of Crime
• Crime Prevention With Rational Choice Theory
• Research in Criminal Justice: Crime Solvability Factors
• Terrorism and Transnational Organized Crime as Threats to Homeland Security
• Gender Factor of Crime Motivation
• Sexual Crimes and Behavioral Problems Treatment
• State Crimes: Strategies to Resisting Tortures in Prisons
• Police Administration Issue: Crime Victim Rights
• Hate Crimes and Biblical Worldview
• Sociology Can Be Applied to Offenders and Crimes
• Crime Problems and Criminal Justice
• Suitability of Electronic Monitoring: Crime Control Perspective
• Low Crime Clearance Rates in the United States
• Crime Control and Prevention Methods
• Crimes and Victimization: Gender Issues
• Transnational Organized Crime in the United States
• Police Corruption: A Crime With Severe Consequences
• Analysis of Crime and Punishment Bill
• Investigating and Reporting White Collar Crimes: The Case of Bernie Madoff
• Curtis Sliwa’s “The Guardian Angels”: Fighting Crime in New York City
• “Time and Crime: Which Cold-Case Investigations Should Be Reheated?”: Key Ideas
• “Hot Spots of Crime…” Article by Weisburd & White
• Crime of Ricin Using or an Easy Way Out
• Substance Use During Pregnancy as a Crime
• The Crime and Justice Impact on New Media
• Legal Issues Related to Cyber Crime Investigations
• Crime Rates in the United States
• Processing a Physical and Electronic Crime Scene
• Criminalistics: Forensic Science, Crime, and Terrorism
• Crime Trends in the Jurisdiction
• Websites Against Cyber Crimes: Investigating High-Tech Crime
• Crimes, Future Challenges and Issues
• Juvenile Crime and Human Institutions’ Solutions
• Crime of Extortion and Potential Defense
• Alternative Punishment for Minor Drug-Related Crimes
• The United States Uniform Crime Report’s Aims
• Department of Justice Project on Organized Crime
• Illegal Immigration Policies and Violent Crime
• Major Crimes Committed by Women
• Finding a Crime Series: Murders Committed by John Wayne Gacy
• Review of High Tech Crime Investigation
• Analysis of Crime and Violence Trauma
• Crime Maps of Detroit and Michigan
• Criminologists’ Views on Crime and Justice Issues
• Napoleon Beazley: Analysis of Crime
• Case Study on Tax Crimes: Distributional Implications of Joint Tax
• Aspects of Sexual Crime Myth
• Analysis of the Social Context of Crime
• Overrepresentation of African Americans in Crime Statistics
• Business-Related Crime and Preventive Measures
• Factors Affecting Losses From Property Crime
• Reasons Why Women Are Often the Victims of Violent Crimes
• Hate Crimes and Implications
• Juvenile Violent Crime and Children Below Poverty
• Mens Rea and Actus Reus of Crime: A Case Study
• Increasing Level of Fear of Crime and Its Cause
• Criminological Theories Explaining Overrepresentation of African Americans in Crime Statistics
• The Crime Scene Investigation Effect Theory
• Profiled in Life & Death: Crime Victims’ Compensation and Young People of Color
• Prison Sentence Alternatives for Drug-Related Crimes
• Juvenile Crime of Lionel Tate: Causes and Effects
• View of the Financial Crimes
• Crime Commitment and Punishment
• Crimes Against Humanity – Genocide
• Ordinary vs. Hate Crime Activities: Key Differences
• Public Perceptions of Racial Crimes
• Rediscovery of Crime Victims
• Public Perceptions of Crime Analysis
• Crime and Violence: Modern Social Classification
• The New Perspective in the Management of Crime and Offenders
• Measuring Crime Within Lynfield Estate
• Restoring the Requirement of Mens Rea for All Crimes
• GIS Comparing to Areas in Baltimore in Comparison to Crime
• Comparing the Rate of Crime between the US, Japan, and Mexico
• Who Are the Two Partners in All Crimes?
• State Report: Crime Rates in Wisconsin
• Victimless Crimes in the United States of America
• Youth Crime Statistics in the US
• Hate Crimes – Bullying
• The Crimes of Sexual Assault in Canada
• Social and Cultural Inequalities Impact On Crime Experience: London
• Prison Reforms for Handling Crime Effectively
• The ‘Street Games’ Athletic Intervention to Reduce Youth Crime
• Conspiracies in Society: Power Elite and State Crimes Against Society Theories
• Asian Hate Crimes in the United States
• Disability Hate Crimes in England and Wales
• Close-Circuit Television: Crime Control vs. Privacy
• Victims and Crime Evaluation
• Hate Crime Problem Overview
• “Adventures in Crime” Book by Amanda Archer
• Managing the Hate Crimes and Preparing Officers
• Adaptations to Anomie. Theories of Crime
• Rape Theories and Policies to Minimize Crimes
• “Legend” Crime Drama Directed by Brian Helgeland
• Federal Statutes: White-Collar Crime
• Juvenile Use of Drug and Committing of Crime
• Data-Based Analysis Approach in Preventing Crime at Dallas Police Department
• Researching Hate Crimes in America
• Crimes Against Unborn Children
• Crime in 2020 During COVID-19
• Evidence of a Relationship Between Crime and Economy
• Federal, State, and Local Hate Crime Laws
• The Costs and Benefits of Dealing With Juvenile Crimes in Boot Camps
• Property Crime in Boston and Detroit
• Main Aspects of Organized Crime Models
• Crime Control Perspective & the Due Process Perspective
• History of Crime Measurement vs. Contemporary Situation
• Profiling and Analytical Skills in Crime Detection
• The Difference Between Media Depiction and the Reality of Crime
• The Use of Social Crime Prevention Techniques in the UK
• Lipstick Analysis in Crime Detection
• Effects of Community Policing Upon Fear of Crime
• Homeland Security: Digital Crime and Terrorism Activities
• Problem-Oriented Crime Intervention and Policy Analysis
• Affect of the Organized Crime in Australia
• Crime Challenges in the 21st Century
• Deviance and Deviant Crimes
• Human Consciousness Leading to Hate Crimes
• The Government Solutions of Violent Crimes
• Crime Statistics in United States
• Causes of Committing Crimes
• Sexual Crimes: Criminal Liability
• Crime in Virginia: Nature and Trends
• Noble Cause Corruption – A Crime-Fighting Sub-Culture
• Insider Trading Crime and Sentencing
• Criminal Street Gangs as Organized Crime Groups
• Developmental Theories and Crime Prevention Programs
• Race and Culture Factors in Crime
• Analysis of Mental Health in Crime
• Isla Vista Mass Murder as a Hate Crime
• The Genetics of Crime: ‘Criminal Gene’
• The Links Between Gender and Crime
• Crime Prevention Strategies at Walden University
• Louisiana’s Crime Law: Victim Rights
• Crime Prevention, Law Enforcement and Correction Theories
• Applied Crime Prevention in Hollywood 20 Cinema Location
• White-Collar Crime: Importance of Awareness
• Factors Related to Crime and Their Influence
• The Effects of Campus Shootings on Fear of Crime on Campus
• Global Crimes Impact Assessment
• Improving Crime Policy in Canada by Using Criminological Evidence
• Computer Crime in the United Arab Emirates
• Hate Crime Statistics in Los Angeles and New York Metropolitan Areas
• Theories on Crime
• Criminology in Brief: Understanding Crime
• White-Collar Crime: The Notorious Case of Ford Pinto
• White Collar Crime Characteristics
• The Wire: A Crime-Drama Television Series
• The Crime of Robbing the Big City Bank
• Social Developmental Crime Prevention Programs
• The Crime Phenomenon: Victimization and Its Theories
• White-Collar Crime: An Overview
• “Thinking About Crime: Sense and Sensibility in American Penal Culture” by Michael Tonry
• Gender Crime Rates: The Role of Division of Labor
• Official Crime Statistics: ‘Criminal Activity’ Measure
• Organized Crimes: Review
• Types of Crime in Cyberspace
• A Research of the Crime in State Nevada
• Marriage and Crime Reduction: Is There a Relationship?
• Medical Crimes in the Health Industry
• Application of CompStat Crime Model in Los Angeles
• Problems Related to Defining and Regulating Crimes in the Home
• The Crimes of Charles Manson
• Copyright Implications: Crime Punishable by Law
• Crime in America: What We May Learn From Its Causes?
• Reducing Crime Rates by Analyzing Its Causes
• Crime and Family Background Correlation
• White-Collar Crime Conceptual Study
• Impact of Economic Characteristics on Sex Crimes
• Juvenile Crime Statistics
• Factors Contributing to Gender Disparity in White Collar Crimes
• Comparison Between Organized Crime And Terrorism
• Mental Illness Relationship to Crime
• Models of Organized Crime Executive Summary
• White Collar Crime-Enron Corporation
• Actus Reus and Mens Rea Aspects of Crime
• Houston City Demographics and Crime Profile
• Hate Crime Against the Jewish Community
• Anomie, Crime, and Weakened Social Ties in Social Institutions
• State of Crime in California
• The Highest Crime Rate: Metropolitan County of Jefferson
• Identifying Crime Patterns
• Increasing the Rates of Crimes in Modern World
• Crime Analysis Data Sources
• Corporate Regulation and Crime
• Understanding the Causes of Juvenile Crime
• White-Collar Crime Offenders and Legislation
• Strategic, Tactical, and Administrative Crime Analysis
• Methamphetamine Drug Crime Registration
• Crime Analysis Conceptual Study
• Classical and Biological Theories of Crime
• Property and Computer Crimes
• Increasing the Severity of Punishments Imposed for Crime
• Crime in the Suites Effects of Power and Privilege
• Causes of Organized Crime Analysis
• Mr. Charles Dempsey Court Case: Cause and Consequences of the Crime
• The Fears of Reporting a Crime: Why Witnesses Do Not Report Crimes
• Investigation Methods: Terrorism and Cyber Crime
• Neighborhood Watch Programs and Crime Prevention
• Impact of Globalization and Neoliberalism on Crime and Criminal Justice
• Routine Activities Theory of Crime by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson
• Electronic Crime Scene Investigation & Good Practice Guide
• Economy and Crime: The Relationship
• White-Collar Crimes: Prevention and Fight
• What Is a Crime? Is It Possible to Prevent Crime?
• Transnational Crime and International Policing
• Asian Crime: Different Cultures, Different Attitudes
• International White-Collar Crime
• Community Cohesiveness and Incidence of Crime
• Crime Theories: Intimate Partner Violence in the US
• Processing the Crime Scene: Tools and Techniques
• Forensic Serology and Its Key Aspects in Investigating Crimes
• The Relationship of Drugs and Crime
• Detrimental Effects of Gender Influenced Crime and Interventions
• The Prevention of Crime and Community Justice
• Use of the Information Technology to Solve Crimes: DNA Tests and Biometrics
• Using the Internet to Solve a Crime
• Nature of Crime in the State of Virginia
• Crime and Social Learning Theory Concept
• The Future of Global Crime: Globalization and Integration
• The Parallel Between Crime and Conflicts in Africa, Asia and Latin America
• Globalization and the Internet: Change of Organized Crime
• War on Crime Influence on Power Shift Among Various Groups
• Trends in Police Recorded Crime in Northern Ireland
• Human Factor in Enabling and Facilitating E-Crimes
• Financial Crime and Employment
• Power Elite: Deviance and Crime Discussion
• The Crime of Sexual Violence Committed by Men
• Screening in Aviation: Prevention of Crime
• Seligman & Perspective on the Drop in Crime Rates
• Human Trafficking as a Global Crime Industry: Labor, Slavery, Sexual Slavery, Prostitution, and Organ Harvesting
• Salem Witchcraft Hysteria: Crime Against Women
• Depiction of White-Collar Crime: Toxic Chemicals and Effects of the Pollutions
• History of Crime in America Since the Early 1800s
• US Attorney’s Office Press Release on Birmingham Crimes
• Cyber Technology: Organized Crimes and Law Enforcement
• Crime Myths and Domestic Terrorism
• State or Federal Crime: Texas Kidnapping Study
• Recidivism Rates for Sex Crimes
• Prevention of Sex Offenders From Committing Crimes
• Impacts of the Society’s Response to Crime
• Policing Operations: Application of New Technologies to Combat Crime
• Drugs, Crime, and Violence: Effects of Drug Use on Behavior
• Hate Crimes in the United States: Bias Toward the Victim’s Identity
• The Nature of Crime: Underlying Drivers Making People Criminals
• Theoretical Impact on Sex Crimes Investigations
• Searching and Recording the Crime Scene
• Social Pressure and Black Clothing Impact on Crime Judgments
• Personal vs. Collective Responsibility in War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity
• Without a Trace: Crime Scene Field Notes
• Economic Recession and Crime Rates
• The Self Control Theory of Crime
• Criminal Justice System: Crime Scene Investigation
• Philosophical Theory of Law and Justice and Problem of Crime and Justice
• Urban Relationship Between Poverty and Crime
• Community Policing as a Tool Against Crime
• Ornament and Crime: Economic Aspects
• Does Crime Make Economic Sense?
• Women’s Crime: Gendered Criminology Theory
• Crimes Against the State: Terrorist Attacks and Death Penalty
• Crime Rates in UK: Quantitative Methods
• Gang-Related Crimes in Irish Cities
• Minor Disorders and Serious Crimes
• Social Program for Management of Crimes Against Women
• Do Drug Enforcement Laws Help to Reduce Other Crimes?
• Organized Crime Investigation in Different Countries
• Crime, Criminality, and Prisons in the USA
• Cutting-Off Hand Keeps Off Crimes in the Country
• Organized Crime in the United States
• Crime Mysteries of Jack the Ripper
• China’s Legal System: Crime and Punishment
• Criminal Investigations: Nature of Crime Investigators
• NGOs and the Fight Against Crime
• Sociology and Representation of Crime in the Media
• Crime Punishment: Humane Treatment of Prisoners Today
• Probing Crime Based on Conduct Report
• Criminal Justice for Physically Injured Crime Victims
• Major Theories of Crime Causation
• Elements of Crime and Intentional Tort
• Future of Crime Corrections
• Hate Crime as a Core Subject of Criminology
• Youth Crime and Punishment
• Policy Recommendations for Controlling Crime
• City Violence, Crimes and Disruption
• Responsibility for the Most Horrific Crimes Issue
• Crime Prevention Programs in America
• Rape: The Misunderstood Crime
• Sex Crimes and Burglary: Patterns, Benefits, and Risk
• Alcohol and Crime in the U.K., the United States, and Australia
• Prostitution as a “Victimless” Crime
• Enron Scandal and Business Crime
• Crime Policy and Practices: Trying Juveniles as Adults
• White-Collar and Political Crimes
• Three Perspective of One Crime
• Financial Cost of Crime to Society
• The History of Cyber Crimes and the Most Popular Forms of Cyber Crimes
• Violence and Society: Multiple Perceptions of Crime
• Law Enforcement: White-Collar and Corporate Crimes
• Crime in High Schools
• White Collar Crime: When Looks Can Be Deceiving
• Nazi’s Crimes Against Jews During World War II
• Crime Victimization in America: Data Statistics
• Prevention & Control Of Crime
• Crime and Subcultures in the Urban Area
• Crime in Inner City Neighborhoods
• Date Rape Is Not a Crime: Discussion
• Criminology: Drugs, Crime and Control
• Youth Crime. Prejudice: Is It Justified?
• New York City Community Policing and Crime Reduction
• Crime, Justice and the Media Relations
• State Corporate Crime and Criminological Inquiry
• Strain Theory: Sociological Explanation of Crime
• Granite City Building Inspectors: Service Crime
• Torts and Crimes. Liability for Traffic Accidents
• The General Theory of Crime
• Crime Laboratories: Accreditation and Certification
• Situational Crime Prevention Strategy
• Policing Crime and Disorder Hot Spots
• Crime of Genocide: Justice and Ethical Issues
• White-Collar Crimes and Deferred Prosecution
• The Uniform Crime Statistics Over 5 Years
• Cyber Crime in the U.S. and Nigeria
• Forensic Biology in Crime Scene Investigations
• The Concept of Uniform Crime Reporting Program
• Property Crime and Typologies
• Greater Surveillance Is Not a Desirable Answer to the Problem of Crime
• The Key Types of Crimes
• Crime Prevention in the United States
• Crimes That Teenagers Do Not Commit
• Crime Investigation With Global Positioning System
• National Crime Victimization Survey and Analysis
• The Crime of Innocence
• Computer Crimes: Viewing the Future
• Important Crime Scene Responsibilities
• Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime
• Crimes Against Small Businesses and Prevention Strategies
• Computer Crime Investigation Processes and Analyses
• Crime Prevention and Juvenile Delinquency
• Longford: British Biographical Crime Drama Film
• Immigration and Crime Rates in the United States
• Organized Crime in New York and Chicago
• Gender and Crime in Campus: Correlation Analysis
• Conflict & Crime Control vs. Consensus & Due Process Model
• Capturing Crime, Criminals and the Public’s Imagination
• National Missing and Unidentified Persons System
• “Broken Windows” and Situational Crime Prevention Theories
• Crime and Criminal Justice News
• Deterrence: Discouraging Offenders from Re-Committing Crimes
• General Trends of Crime Over the Past Twenty Years
• Religion Role in Crime Definition
• Transnational Organized Crime: Counterstrategy
• Serial Killers, Their Crimes, and Stereotypes
• Crime Analysis Writing and Alert Website Content
• Economics of Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking
• Achieving Total Security in the Community
• Organized Crime Series Analysis
• International Law: War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity
• Fear from Media Reporting of Crimes
• Crime Theories Differentiating Criminal Behavior
• Tactical Crime Analysis and Statistical Cases
• Comparing Different Indexes of Crimes
• Anomie and Strain Crime Theories
• Crime Theories: Shooting in Northwest Washington
• White-Collar Crime Theories and Their Development
• Robert Courtney’s Crime as Input to Business Regulation
• Three-Strikes Law Ineffective in Crime Reduction
• Violence, Security and Crime Prevention at School
• Electronic Crimes and Federal Guidance in Regulation
• Phoenix Park: Community-Based Crime Prevention
• Forensic Science: Examining Crime Evidence
• Human and Drug Trafficking as Transnational Organised Crimes
• Alleged Crimes: Aggravated Assault and Drug Dealing
• Offenders’ Age and Anti-Black Hate Crimes
• The Role of Location in Crime Fiction
• Crimes Against Persons: Theory and Doctrine
• Prohibition as a Cause of Increased Crimes Illegal Activity
• Crime Prevention Approaches
• Crime Scene Investigation: Types of Analysis
• White-Collar Crimes Causes
• Differences of Crime Perception in North Jersey
• Children as Victims of Crime
• Crime and Victimization Trends
• Crime Data: Collection and Analysis Tools
• Crime Rates of Sex Crimes and Firearm Violence
• Hate Crimes in Modern Society
• Organized Crime in the Balkans
• Compliance Impact on Financial Crimes
• Fascination With Crime Through the Art of Photography
• Closed-Circuit Television Cameras in Crime Reduction
• Marijuana Crime in California State and Federal Courts
• Internet Crimes and Digital Terrorism Prevention
• Deterrence Theory and Adolescent Sex Crimes
• Immigration Services Against Crime and Terrorism
• Digital Crime Causes and Theories
• Pink-Collar Criminal: Gender in White-Collar Crime
• Nanjing Massacre as Japan’s Denied War Crime
• Gender and Crime Correlation in Strain Theory
• Police Patrol Presence in Crime “Hot Spots”
• National Impact on Organized Crime
• Organized Crime and Current Laws
• Civic Virtue in Crime Commitment and Revelation
• ”Crime and Justice in the United States” by Bohm & Haley
• Computer Crimes and Internet Security
• Crime Television Series: “Al Fin Cayó!”
• War Crimes in “Zambak/Muslims” by S. Mehmedinovic
• Internet Crime Prevention by Law and E-Business
• Hate Crimes and Anti-Discrimination Laws
• Crime Prevention and Control Effectiveness
• Crime Scene Investigation Stages and Protocols
• Race, Ethnicity and Crime in America
• White Collar Crimes Focus
• Can Genetics Cause Crime?
• Are the Laws Propagating Crime?
• When Was the First True Crime?
• Does Capital Punishment Deter Crime?
• Does Crime and Violence Affect the Tourism Industry?
• Does Drug Use Cause Crime or Does Crime Cause Drug Use?
• Does Marriage Reduce Crime?
• What’s the Origin of Crime?
• Does Social Deprivation Relate to Crime?
• Why People Commit Crime?
• Why Crime Rates Will Drop?
• What Are the Social Causes of Youth Crime?
• What Causes High Crime Rate?
• What Are the Proper Steps in a Crime Investigation?
• What Are the Psychological Causes of Crime?
• What Are the Causes of Youth Crime in the UK?
• What Are the Major Problems with Regard to the Collection of Crime Statistics?
• How Accurate Are Official Crime Statistics?
• What Is the First: Crime or Law?
• How Did American White Collar Crime Transform?
• What Are the Seven Elements of a Crime?
• How Does Globalization Impact on Crime and Victimisation?
• How Can Crime Best Be Measured?
• Why Does Crime Change over Time?
• How Crime and Deviance Can Be Seen as Functional for Society?
• Computer Forensics Essay Topics
• Drug Trafficking Research Topics
• Crime Prevention Research Topics
• Organized Crime Titles
• Crime and Punishment Titles
• Mass Incarceration Essay Topics
• Criminal Procedure Titles
• Cheating Questions
• Chicago (A-D)
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IvyPanda . "607 Crime Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." March 2, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/crime-essay-topics/.