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Rural Development

Categories: Agriculture Economic Growth

About this sample

Words: 730 |

Published: Sep 20, 2018

Words: 730 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Introduction

Works cited.

Odurukwe, S., Matthews-Njoku, E., & Ejioku-Okereke, N. (2006). Agricultural production and poverty in Nigeria. Journal of Rural Economics and Development, 15(1), 32-45.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (1995). Agricultural development and food security in Africa. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/v8330e/v8330e00.htm
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). (1993). Rural poverty report. Rome: IFAD.
United Nations Development Program (UNDP). (n.d.). Gender and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Retrieved from http://www.africa.undp.org/content/rba/en/home/library/women-economic-empowerment/gender-and-agriculture-in-sub-saharan-africa.html
Damisa, M., & Yohanna, M. (2007). Gender roles in agricultural production: A case study of women farmers in rural Nigeria. Journal of Gender and Rural Development, 2(1), 32-42.
Abdullahi, R. (n.d.). Rural women and agricultural development in Nigeria. Retrieved from https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/11527
Afolabi, M. (2008). Women's contribution to food production in rural Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension, 12(1), 50-60.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (1995). Women in agriculture: Closing the gender gap for development. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/v9776e/v9776e00.htm
Ampaire, E. L., & Kansiime, M. K. (2016). Factors influencing women's participation in agricultural production and decision-making in Uganda. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(3), 207-227.
Mba, S. (2010). The role of women in agricultural production: A case study of rural women in Southeast Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development, 3(4), 246-252.

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Essay on Development of Rural Areas

Students are often asked to write an essay on Development of Rural Areas in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Development of Rural Areas

Introduction.

Rural areas are essential parts of a country’s landscape, often home to agriculture, forestry, and traditional industries. However, they can lack development compared to urban areas.

Importance of Rural Development

Rural development is vital for a balanced and inclusive growth. It improves living standards and reduces poverty. It also ensures food security by boosting agriculture.

Ways to Develop Rural Areas

Rural areas can be developed through education, healthcare facilities, infrastructure, and technology. Providing quality education and healthcare can improve the quality of life.

In conclusion, rural development is crucial for a country’s overall progress. It brings prosperity and reduces inequalities.

250 Words Essay on Development of Rural Areas

Rural development signifies the actions and initiatives taken to improve the standard of living in non-urban neighborhoods, remote villages, and the countryside. It is pivotal for the balanced and inclusive growth of a nation.

The Need for Rural Development

Rural areas, home to a significant portion of the world’s population, often lag in terms of infrastructure, healthcare, education, and economic opportunities. This urban-rural divide can lead to social inequity, economic disparity, and political instability. Hence, rural development is a pressing necessity.

Strategies for Rural Development

The development of rural areas should be multi-dimensional, encompassing various sectors. Firstly, infrastructure development is crucial. This includes building roads, providing electricity, and improving water supply. Secondly, the agricultural sector should be modernized and diversified to increase productivity and income.

Education and Healthcare

Education and healthcare are two pillars for the development of any society. Rural areas often lack quality educational institutions and healthcare facilities. Investment in these sectors can lead to a healthier and more educated rural populace, thus fostering development.

Economic Opportunities

Creating economic opportunities is another significant aspect of rural development. This can be achieved through promoting small-scale industries, agro-based enterprises, and providing vocational training to the rural workforce.

In conclusion, rural development is a complex, multifaceted process that requires a comprehensive and integrated approach. It is not just about economic growth, but also about enhancing the quality of life for rural inhabitants. Therefore, it is essential for the inclusive and balanced growth of a country.

500 Words Essay on Development of Rural Areas

Rural development is a critical component of comprehensive and inclusive growth of a nation. It involves enhancing the quality of life and economic well-being of people residing in rural areas. Despite the rapid urbanization, a significant portion of the global population still resides in rural regions, making their development an area of prime importance.

Rural areas often lag behind urban centers in terms of infrastructure, healthcare, education, and economic opportunities. This disparity can lead to a host of issues, including poverty, migration, and social unrest. Therefore, rural development is necessary to ensure balanced growth, social equity, and stability.

Key Aspects of Rural Development

Rural development is a holistic process and involves multiple dimensions. It is not solely about economic progress but also encompasses social, cultural, and environmental aspects.

Economic Development

Economic development in rural areas primarily involves the promotion of agriculture and allied activities. It includes modernizing farming techniques, promoting agro-based industries, and ensuring fair prices for agricultural produce. Additionally, diversifying the rural economy through the promotion of non-farm activities like handicrafts, tourism, and services sector can provide alternate income sources and reduce dependence on agriculture.

Social Development

Social development aims at improving the quality of life in rural areas. It involves enhancing education and healthcare facilities, providing clean drinking water and sanitation, and ensuring access to electricity and good quality housing. Empowering women and marginalized sections of society is also a crucial aspect of social development.

Environmental Sustainability

Rural development should also focus on environmental sustainability. It involves promoting sustainable farming practices, conservation of natural resources, and use of renewable energy sources. This not only protects the environment but also ensures the long-term viability of rural economies.

Challenges in Rural Development

Rural development faces several challenges including inadequate infrastructure, lack of quality education and healthcare, and limited access to credit and markets. Additionally, social issues like caste-based discrimination, gender inequality, and lack of awareness about government schemes often hinder rural development.

Rural development is a complex and multidimensional process. It requires coordinated efforts from the government, non-governmental organizations, and the rural community. While significant progress has been made in several areas, much work remains to be done. The aim should be to create self-reliant and sustainable rural communities that can contribute effectively to the overall growth and prosperity of the nation.

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Rural-Urban Migration, Its Causes and Effects Essay

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Introduction

The movement of people from rural areas to urban areas has been a concern focused on by many studies. According to the United Nations report, almost 50% of the total world population lives in urban areas, and the figure is expected to increase by 10% by the year 2030. This is an indication of the massive movement of people from rural areas to big cities. Rural to urban migration is higher in developing countries as compared to the developed nations. In Nigeria, a developing country, the population in cities is projected to rise from 1.9 billion to 3.9 billion between 2009 and 2030 (Ajaero & Onokala, 2013). This paper explains the causes and the impacts of migration of population from rural areas to large cities. Although the reasons for rural-urban migration vary from one country to another, the causes and effects are similar.

The factors responsible for the movement of people from rural areas to large cities are characterized by either a push or a pull. People are mostly pulled to the areas with positive characteristics and pushed from those with undesirable conditions. Rural to urban migration usually occurs as people look for perceived or actual opportunities that are missing in rural settings but present in large cities. Additionally, the migration takes place as people living in rural areas escape the hostile or unfavorable living conditions. Most urban centers have the majority of wealth, economic activities, and different services as compared to rural areas (Okhankhuele & Opafunso, 2013). On the other hand, rural areas have continuously experienced neglect and degraded environment. Most of the government policies favor the development of urban areas by deliberately and constantly creating more employment and academic opportunities, healthcare facilities, transport systems, among other infrastructural amenities in the urban areas than rural parts (Ali, Shafi, Rehman, & Jadoon, 2015). As a result, the imbalance of quality of life and development between the two areas occurs, consequently increasing the rural to urban migration.

People may decide to migrate from rural to urban areas due to disrupted economy, for instance, as a result of natural disasters like floods, drought, earthquakes, soil infertility, and misfortunes such as war family/community disputes among others. According to Isaac and Raqib (2013), most of the rural-urban migration in Ghana is due to the search for employment opportunities, which are normally concentrated in the major cities. Most of the Ghanians attribute such as migration to economic purposes. The migrants, most of whom are men, are frustrated by the limited resources for livelihood in rural areas, and the scarcity compels them to look for greener pastures in large cities so that they can get enough to take care of their families. Other migrants cite harsh environmental factors as reasons for their movement from rural areas to cities. Farming, the major economic activity in most rural areas, is adversely affected by the harsh environmental conditions such as infertile soil and inadequate rain for farming. Besides, farming faces other challenges such as limited lands, high fertilizer costs, and low crop prices. All such factors negatively affect agricultural production and profitability. As a result, the youth have continued to lose interest in farming and perceive the agricultural lifestyle as a low-status career. Therefore, they move to large cities to look for seemingly more promising jobs.

Rural to urban migration affects the conditions of the rural areas as well as those in large cities where the migrants settle after moving from their original homes. First, the population of the countryside reduces significantly, and as a result, the agricultural production and development in the regions are adversely affected (Bimerew, 2015). As the youthful move to cities to look for better livelihood, the fascinating social life in the rural areas is replaced by a gloomy condition. The youthful people have energy and vitality, and their movement leaves behind weak, aging parents and young children to carry out farming activities. As a result, the agricultural output reduces, consequently leading to decreased country’s gross domestic product as well as minimal rural income, development funds, and standard of living (Jahan, 2012).

The rural development stagnates, and the areas lack vital social amenities. For instance, the Nigerian rural areas do not have social facilities like proper roads for motor vehicle transport, industries, pipe-borne water, and electricity, as well as well-paying jobs due to increased movement of people to cities. These inadequacies have seen the Nigerian rural areas undergo a vicious poverty cycle. The majority of the educated and strong people desert rural areas, leaving behind the illiterate population in the countryside who are unable to fight poverty effectively. As a result, the standards of living in rural and large cities differ significantly, the latter being better places to live in.

The movement of people from rural regions to major cities has various consequences on the basic facilities in urban areas. Cities become overcrowded, congested, and experience high food costs, a strain on social services, as well as aggravating air and water-borne diseases. The unplanned expansion of cities also leads to the inadequate supply of social amenities such as housing, transport infrastructures, electricity, and water, as well as sewerage system issues (Isaac & Raqib, 2013). The increase in the squatter settlement in cities is perhaps the most remarkable impact of rural-urban migration. The huge increase in city population as a result of the movement has made it difficult for the urban authorities to keep records of the details of the people living in the areas properly.

Attributable to the absence of proper records, the control of some criminal activities such as robbery, theft, murder, among others, becomes a complicated affair in some of the large cities (Okhankhuele & Opafunso, 2013). Besides, the farmers surrounding the expanding cities are displaced as a result of the unplanned growth of the urban areas. Consequently, the agricultural production continues to decline and the displaced people may resort to relocating to urban areas, where job opportunities are already limited, in search of better livelihood. The majority of the people who move from urban to rural areas get jobs in informal sectors, which eventually become congested, resulting in reduced productivity and minimal opportunities for eradicating poverty. Most of the new workers in the cities tend to start up their businesses for employment, and this has made self-employment in urban areas account for 71%, 63%, 61%, and 59% of the entire informal employment in sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, Latin America, and Asia respectively.

Although the migration of people is a global phenomenon, more rural populations in the developing countries move to cities as compared to the developed nations. The migration is triggered by factors that push these people away from rural areas or opportunities and amenities in the urban regions that are not present in the countryside. Although this shift of population leads to increased self-employment in the cities, other negative impacts such as congestion, increased unemployment levels, poor drainage systems, and crime among others are caused by the scenario in urban areas. Additionally, rural areas experience low agricultural output, stagnated development, and a huge aging/weak population.

Ajaero, C. K., & Onokala, P. C. (2013). The effects of rural-urban migration on rural communities of southeastern Nigeria. International Journal of Population Research , 2 (13) , 1-11.

Ali, H., Shafi, M., Rehman, M., & Jadoon, M. (2015). Causes and effects of rural-urban migration in rural areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan. Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 6 (5), 1-6.

Bimerew, H. (2015). Rural-urban migration and its consequence on urban living: The case in Hawassa city Southern Ethiopia. Global Journal of Human-Social Science Research , 15 (4), 60-75.

Isaac, A., & Raqib, A. S. (2013). Rural-urban migration and rural community development: A case of Kpongu community of Upper West Region of Ghana. African Journal of History and Culture , 5 (4), 72.

Jahan, M. (2012). Impact of rural urban migration on physical and social environment: The case of Dhaka city. International Journal of Development and Sustainability , 1 (2), 186-194.

Okhankhuele, O. T., & Opafunso, O. Z. (2013). Causes and consequences of rural-urban migration Nigeria: A Case study of Ogun Waterside local government area of Ogun State, Nigeria. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 16 (1), 185-194.

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Essay on Agriculture and Rural Development in English for Children and Students

Table of Contents

Today, urbanization has made people from rural areas to shift to cities and towns, for better opportunities and facilities. This trend isn’t specific to a particular region of the globe, but is witnessed almost in every country. Despite this huge population shift from rural to urban centers, agriculture has remained a significant source of income and livelihood for one-third of the world population. Agriculture, at the grass root level functions as a family run business, by the farmers. Nearly 70-80% of total world’s poor people rely on agriculture for livelihood, including the farmers. Hence, the role that agriculture plays in Rural Development is significant.

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Long and Short Essay on Agriculture and Rural Development in English

We have given below Short and Long Essay on Agriculture and Rural Development in English under varying word lengths.

After reading these short and long agriculture and rural development essay, you will know what role does agriculture plays in rural development, the world statistics on agriculture; facts and figures around the world; what role does agriculture plays in economy; importance/significance of agriculture; components of rural development; Indian statistics on agriculture and rural development; steps taken by the government of India for rural development etc.

These Agriculture and Rural Development essays are especially beneficial for the students of senior secondary level and help them in essay writing, debate or other competitions.

Agriculture and Rural Development Essay – 1 (200 Words)

Nearly 45% of the total world population resides in villages, that is roughly 339 Crores. By and large, nearly 60% of the global population depends on agriculture and allied businesses. Villages primarily are agriculture based economies, not only in developing but also in developed nations around the world.

Development in rural areas, up to a large extent depends on Agriculture, as it constitutes the prime source of livelihood and food for farmers and other villagers. But, the statement also hold true, the other way round, that is agricultural in a village also depends hugely on the infrastructure developments and scientific advancements in farming.

That is, better roads, 24/7 dedicated electricity supply for farms, irrigation canals, introduction of modern farming technologies are some of the areas of rural development which in turn will mutually benefit the agriculture industry.

Agriculture and Rural Development are directly proportional to each other and a development in any one will consequently lead to the improvement of other. On the other hand a poor state of any one of them will adversely affect the other.

Agricultural economy of a village will suffer in absence of good roads and electricity, hence, stalling the overall economical as well as social development of a village.

Agriculture and Rural Development Essay – 2 (300 Words)

Introduction

Agriculture plays a significant role in rural development by way of employment creation, food production and livelihood. Almost 60% of world’s population i.e. 450 Crores (roughly) depends directly on agriculture and its allied sectors for their living. Agriculture plays a significant role in rural development by making the villages self sustainable. With better agriculture yield and growth prospects in a village, development is evidently the next natural thing to happen.

World Statistics of Agriculture

Agriculture is an industry which has the potential to end poverty and misery around the world. A little more than half of the world’s population i.e. 450 Crores depends on agriculture for livelihood. Studies reveal that agriculture is the prime source of income for 65% of the world’s poor adult population. Also, agriculture contributes to 6.4% of world’s total economic production, which roughly sums up to $5,084,800 million.

On the contrary, despite such huge potential of agriculture in improving economy and eliminating poverty, rural population in most parts of the world faces slow social and economic development. The farmers, who provide food for almost the entire world population has very low or no access to modern amenities as in urban centers. They considerably lag behind in education, health and other sectors.

Nearly 80% of population in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa that also supports the livelihood of 2.5 billion people, face economic and social marginalization.

Agriculture and Rural Development are two different aspects, yet they are also co-related. While agriculture hugely contributes in sustaining rural economy and strengthening its social structure, reducing poverty etc; rural development on the other hand, includes the developments in agriculture sector as well as other sectors like, health, education, roads, industrialization and others. Agriculture sector is obviously benefited by infrastructure development, because of better accessibility to markets and urban trade centers.

Agriculture and Rural Development Essay – 3 (400 Words)

Agriculture sector has a huge potential for transforming rural economy by making it, self sustainable. Growth in agriculture produces consequently leads to economical development and poverty eradication. It makes the village economy self sustainable; however, the overall development of a rural area depends on wide number of factors other than agriculture. The two however are closely co-related in some aspects as we will know in the following essay.

Facts and Figures

Approximately 45% of World’s population lives in rural areas, that is in terms of numbers 3.4 billion people. Also, nearly 2 billion people have agriculture as their primary source of income. Agriculture sector also employs nearly 866 million people across the globe. Out of which, approx 75% (656 million) are in south-East Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Around 80% of world food is produced by over 500 million farms run by a family.

Agriculture and Rural Economy

Agriculture is an integral part of many world economies, especially the developing ones, and hence plays a significant role in rural development. It helps the villages to be self reliant by creating new job opportunities, eradicating poverty and improving rural society.

Economic development of a rural area primarily depends on the state of agriculture in that particular area. A decline in agriculture produce will adversely affect the economy. However, over dependency of rural areas on agriculture and allied sectors for employment generation is also a challenge for rural economy.

Though, agriculture is self reliable, it is also vulnerable to natural calamities like drought, flood, storms and pollution. A year of unexpected less rain or drought could put the whole village economy on back foot in terms of economy.

The challenge is therefore to make rural economy more independent of agriculture, by introducing sectors like fish farming, honey bee farming etc.

Agriculture plays a great role in overall development of rural areas; though, it is not the only factor on which rural development depends. Overall rural development includes development in agriculture along with other sectors, like development in education, health facilities, transportation, basic amenities like water and electricity, proper infrastructure etc. There is no doubt that the development in terms of infrastructure, water and electricity will support agriculture sector and hence the village economy.

Agriculture and Rural Development Essay – 4 (500 Words)

Agriculture sector around the world is a major player in sustaining rural economy and development. It is the largest employer in rural areas and hugely contributes in its overall development. Nearly 80% of world population depends on agriculture for its livelihood by supplying food to the rest of the world. Rural development and agriculture are also co-related in more than one way, as we will find out in the following essay.

Significance of Agriculture

The contribution of agriculture in improving rural economy is immense. It sustains village economy by generating food, employment and other related means of livelihood. Agriculture sector is the huge employment provider in rural areas. It provides employment to daily wage labours as well as skilled work force in fields as well as other agriculture related activities.

Agriculture sector is also a mass producer of food, necessary for sustaining human nutritional needs. With low yield or declining agricultural activities, signs of hunger and malnutrition start showing up within no time.

Components of Rural Development

Social, economic and overall development of a rural area depends on a wide number of factors like agriculture, better planning, employment generation etc. We will discuss in brief some of the chief components of rural development below-

1) Employment Generation

Employment Creation is the main component of rural development. Though, in rural areas, agriculture sector is the largest employer. Therefore, to generate employment opportunities in villages, there is a need to strengthen agriculture sector and also setup other industries.

2) Better Planning

Better planning must be done by the government, to boost up local economy of a village by employing development model conducive to its growth. A village economy largely depends on agriculture and hence any positive changes made in the latter will automatically improve the state of former.

3) Better Roads

Better road connectivity is a major sign of rural development which also improves the agriculture sector. Better roads and connectivity to urban trade centers mean that the farm produces reach the market early and fetch good price, hence, aiding in agricultural economy as well.

4) Modern Techniques

Introducing modern techniques in agriculture and allied industries will automatically improve the overall development of villages. Using genetically modified seeds and organic fertilizers for better yield will consequently lead to overall development of rural areas.

5) Basic Amenities

Availability of basic amenities like water and electricity is also a major component of rural development. It also improves crop yield by ensuring that the field never run dry even when the natural rain is scarce. Similarly, continuous electricity supply is also beneficial for agriculture.

Agriculture and Rural Development are the backbones of the economy of a nation. This becomes more befitting in case of developing and underdeveloped economies of the world. In an agrarian economy, the more better the state of agriculture is the better will be the development around rural areas. On the other hand, rural development in terms of infrastructure and other sectors creates an environment conducive to the growth of agriculture sector.

Agriculture and Rural Development Long Essay – 5 (600 Words)

India is primarily an agriculture based economy and a large portion of its population still resides in villages. Therefore, for developing rural India, it is imperative to develop the agriculture sector by introducing new reforms and policies. In the following essay we will go through the state of agriculture and rural development in India, discussing prospects of their improvement.

Agriculture Statistics – India

Nearly 75% of India’s total population (133 Crores) depends primarily on agriculture sector for its livelihood, which roughly sums up to approximately 100.4 Crores people. Agriculture sector in India contributes around 16% of the total GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of India. It is only in third place preceded by service sector and industrial sector at first and third place respectively. Indian economy is the fastest growing economy of the world and is expected to consistently improve.

Role of Agriculture in Economy

Agriculture sector is one of the primary sectors of the Indian economy. Though, the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) contribution of agriculture has consistently declined in past six to seven decades, it still employs nearly 53% of Indian population.

Agriculture also plays a significant role in making the village economy self sustainable and independent. Rural India is still far away from industrialization and the prime source of employment for rural people is the agriculture sector.

Agriculture sector therefore is the main player in Indian economy as it sustains not only farmers but also other small businesses and vendors those rely on it. Agricultural produces are transported to markets, in turn providing employment in transport sector.

While the products breach markets, small vegetable vendors, shop keepers purchase the products for direct selling, thereby generating tremendous employment opportunities. Needless to say that agriculture sector employs skilled and unskilled labours at all levels and in all allied sectors.

Initiatives for Rural Development

1) Five Year Plan

Beginning in 1951, the Government of India has been framing and implementing five year plan, after every five year, to improve the overall development of the country, primarily in the rural areas. Under the five year plan dams had been built, irrigation canals constructed, agricultural reforms introduced etc.

2) Increased Budgetary Allocations for Agriculture

Government has in the subsequent years increased spending on agriculture and related sectors in a bid to make them independent and self reliant. The money is spent on improving agriculture sector right from the production stage to marketing stage.

3) Road Connectivity

Good roads are the most significant symbols of rural development and also the most important one. They not only reduce the distance between villages and cities but also boost up the agricultural industry by providing fast and easy transportation.

4) Giving Agricultural Credit

Giving agricultural loans at reasonable rates to small and poor farmers will also aid in rural development. When a poor farmer is given credit to purchase fertilizers, farm equipments etc, it will consequently improve village economy and development.

5) Rural Job Guarantee Schemes

Rural job guarantee schemes like MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act) which guarantees job on daily basis to rural population do a commendable job in improving the village economy. It provides job not only in agriculture sector but also in other fields such as road and building construction etc.

Indian economy is largely dependent on agriculture, while the latter depends on rural development. It is also true that economic and social development of Indian villages is primarily dependent on agriculture sector. Therefore, it wouldn’t be wrong to see agriculture and rural developments as two sides of one coin, where one depends on or is affected by changes in other.

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Essay on rural development in india.

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Read this essay to learn about Rural Development in India. After reading this essay you will learn about:- 1. Introduction to Rural Development 2. Activities and Experiments Undertaken for Rural Development 3. The Rural Development Programmes 4. Institutions 5. Observations and Problems 6. Suggestions.

Essay Contents:

Essay on the Suggestions for Rural Development in India

1. Essay on the Introduction to Rural Development:

The definition of Rural is residuary become all over the world that is defined as an urban area and whatever is not urban known as rural.

In India a settlement is defined as urban if it fulfils either of the following conditions, were adopted in the 1991 census:

(i) All statutory towns, i.e.; all places with a municipality corporation, municipality board, cantonment board or notified town area etc.

(ii) A minimum population of 5,000.

(iii) At least 75 per cent of the Male working population engaged in non-agricultural and allied activity,

(iv) A density of population of at least 400 persons per square kilometres.

Thus, the term ‘Rural’ essentially means an area, which is characterised as non-urban style of life, occupational structure and settlement pattern.

‘Development’ in general refers to the process of a general improvement in levels of living together, decreasing inequality in incomes and the capacity to sustain continuous improvements overtime. Thus the term Rural Development is viewed as an activity of a series of activities or a process, which either improves the immediate living conditions-economic, social, political, cultural and environmental or increases the potential for future living or both of the rural people.

The Royal commission on Agriculture defined Rural Development as:

“We cannot too strongly state our conviction that the directorship of agriculture is one of the key posts in Rural Development and that agricultural advance must in a very great degree depend upon the stability of the officer.”

The taskforce appointed by the Planning Commission on Integrated Rural Development in 1972 defined Rural Development as:

“After a careful consideration we have belatedly decided to take what might be considered a rather restricted view of the expression. ‘Rural Development’ we have chose to equate it with agricultural development in the widest sense so as to embrace besides crop husbandry, all the allied activities.”

According to the view of World Bank “Rural Development as a strategy design to improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people – The rural (people) poor. It involves extending the benefits of development to the poorer among those who seek a livelihood in rural areas. The group includes small-scale farmers, tenants and the landless.”

Rural Development means a strategy to improve the economic and social life of the rural poor and the rural weak in the overall spectrum of development and growth. It is not only important to raise the agricultural productivity and the rate of overall economic growth in the rural areas, but also it is to ensure that the poor and weaker sections share the benefit.

“Rural Development as a process in complex and involves the interaction of economic, social, political, technological and other situational factors. These have to be integrated with Government policies and plans with the objective of improving the quality of life of the people in the villages”.

Rural Development encompasses:

(i) Improvement in levels of living, including employment, education, health and nutrition housing and a variety of social services

(ii) Decreasing inequality in distribution of rural incomes and in rural-urban balances in incomes and economic opportunities and

(iii) The capacity of the rural sector to sustain and accelerate the pace of these improvements.

The critical element in the Rural Development is improvement living standards of the poor through opportunities for better utilisation of their physical and human resources in the absence of this utilisation of rural resources has no functional significance. Making the process of rural development self-sustaining of capital and use of technology for the benefit of the poor but their active involvement in the building up of institutions as well as functioning of these.

There are a number of definitions of rural development. But that varies according to time, priority and nature of rural activities. Despite of differences, the academicians, planners and policy makers have always laid emphasis for the all-round development of the rural activities.

However, Rural Development as a concept and as series of experiments in alternative methods of organising production, welfare and exchange in rural activities has a long history and is not the monopoly of any single system or country. Its recent popularity however is mainly symptomatic of the failure of technocratic and growth strategies pursued by most developing countries in the 1950s and 1960s.

Academics, nationals and international policy makers are carrying out the search for solution to the twin problems of rural poverty and unemployment. The noted Western economists like, Kuznets, Gerschenkron, Floud and Mccloskey provide useful insights into the history of economic development of the present day developed countries.

The growth of output and productivity in these countries during last 10 to 15 decades has been qualitatively different from that observed in earlier periods. Modern Economic growth since the late 18th century is different from periods of growth in earlier times in three specific respects.

Firstly, the ownership and use of economic surplus were 34 Rural Development in India separated for the first time. Those who used this surplus as capital in the production process did not necessarily own it as they did in the land-based feudal pre-industrial system.

Secondly, extensive use of an acceptable unit of exchange called money helped in expansion of market, which made specialization and mobility possible.

Lastly, mobility of both capital and labour in pursuit of higher gains to urban areas and distant lands occurred on an unprecedented scale. The consequent increase in output and productivity were substantial and sustained over a long period of time. These impressive increases were also accompanied by growth of population and large-scale migration from not only rural to urban areas but from nation to nation and from continent to continent.

Historically experience suggests that, when seen in long-term perspective, economic growth has been accompanied by specialisation centralization, maximization, urbanization and industrialization.

History shows that, poverty has been diminished by the growth of labour increased productivity in the agricultural sector and migration of labour to urban non-agricultural activities. The population movement occurred mainly because industry could offer the incentive of higher wages and better employment opportunities.

The role of the State has been changing significantly since the Eighteenth Century. Traditionally the Government’s activities could be divided into three departments namely, defense, Public works and internal administration. A healthy balance among the three ensured stable regimes with the advent of modern economic development; the “Public works” component has been an expanding area of State activity.

Modern development policy makers while, recognising the importance of infrastructure have been rather ambiguous about the contents of infrastructure is one of the very few illuminating contributions on the subject. Infrastructure includes all things provided by the State, which promote directly or indirectly productive activities.

Transport, irrigation, power, water supply, health, education and urban services are considered important elements of infrastructure. In a mixed economy, with a relatively important public sector, provision of infrastructure has to be carefully planned and provided by the State.

The State playing an important role in development. Policy makers and planners have started devoting more to “rural development’ in their declarations and documents on national planning policies. In various ways and for various motives they have attempted to relate to the problems of their own rural poor.

Despite, substantial and impressive increase in growth of agricultural and food outputs in some regions of a number of developing countries the plight of small and marginal farmers, agricultural and landless labourers, artisans and small retailers has not been improved significantly.

In India the term ‘Rural Development’ is not a very old phenomenon. Early in the century their exist the British rule. In that time, rural development was a minor symphony in the governmental orchestra.

The functions of the Government were limited and even the spread of each function was narrowly restricted. Thus, Development cannot but be of minor meaning and significance in the structure of the priorities of colonialism, which was also reflected in the rural areas.

The decade 1920-30 was very significant from the view of early pioneering efforts at rural development in India. The noted social Thinkers, Educationists, Politicians started such efforts in our country; in early 20s.

2. Essay on the Activities and Experiments Undertaken for Rural Development:

Programmes and projects in pre-independence periods:.

The important activities and experiments undertaken for rural development in Pre-Independence periods are:

(i) Sriniketan Experiments:

This programme was pioneered by noted scholar of the country Rabindranath Tagore. The important objective of the experiment was Economic and Moral rehabilitation of the rural community.

(ii) Martandum Project:

One Rural Reconstruction Programme was initiated by Spancer Hatch at Martandum (South Travancore) in 1921. Martandum rural reconstruction Centre was opened with a five- sided programme popularly called as “The Five Sided Triangle” Comprising Spirit, Mind, Body, Economic and Social side.

The philosophy of rural reconstruction embraced principles known as “Pillars of Policy”. The principle of ‘Self Help’ was maintained. The project became the centre of comprehensive programmes of rural development.

(iii) The Gurugaon Experiment:

The important village uplift movement was initiated by I.L.Brayne the Deputy Commissioner of Gurugaon district in 1920. This village development programme called as the “Gurugaon Scheme”. The Gurugaon Scheme claimed to deal with the whole life and the activity of the peasant and his family and to present a complete remedy from the terrible conditions in with they lived.

(iv) Rural Reconstruction Movement in Baroda:

The important rural reconstruction centre was set up in 1932 and the work commenced in a group of villages round Kosamba (Navasri district). The movement aimed at improvement in all aspect of rural life, changing the outlook of the agriculturists, the attainment of higher standard of living.

(v) Sarvodaya Scheme of Bombay:

This scheme was based on the Gandhiji’s idea of Sarvodaya. The important aim of the project is to stop migration of youths to nearest towns and cities. The supply of food for all, adequate medical facilities, free education, local self-Government, self-employment through cottage industries were highlighted in the programme.

(vi) Firka Development Scheme:

The Firka Development Scheme aimed at the attainment of the Gandhian ideal of “Village Swaraj” by brining about not only the education, economic, sanitary and other improvements of village along with the revitalisation of the spirit if people and to make them self-confident and self-reliant.

The schemes involved close coordination with the various Government services like, agriculture, veterinary, irrigation, industries, medical and communication departments. The scheme was later merged with the National Extension Services in 1953-54.

Programmes and Projects in Post-Independence Period:

Programmes and projects were also launched in post-independence and pre-planning periods.

The important among them are:

(1) The Pilot Development Project of Etawah:

The Project began under the sponsorships of the provincial Governments of Uttar Pradesh in late 1948.

The important objectives of the project were to increase the degree of productivity, social improvements, promotion of self-confidence and cooperation.

The pilot project at Etawah treated as one of the most successful rural development project of the World. The project also exhibited the exemplary Cooperation and Coordination of Government, volunteers and others.

(2) The Nilokheri Experiment :

India divided in 1947. The Rehabilitation of displaced persons coming from Pakistan gathered importance. In order to provide them gainful employment a new township was developed at Nilokheri in 1948 with the efforts of Sri S.K.Dey.

Sri Dey evolved a faith were to activate and support a triple charter of rights such as:

(i) Right to live,

(ii) Right to work for living and

(iii) Right to receive what is earned.

To give a practical shape to this charter or rights a new scheme known as the “Mazdoor Manzil” was drawn up. The basic concept of the Mazdoor Manzil was to stop the one-way traffic of labour, material, skill and culture from villages to town.

The township was intended to include institutions for medical relief and sanitation, Higher Education, Technical and Vocational Training, Veterinary aid and agricultural extension embracing agriculture, horticulture, poultry, piggery, fishery, sheep breeding and other forms of animal husbandry. The project was highly appreciated by the then Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.

The Planning for Rural Development have been received utmost attention by the planners and policy makers along with the National Plan for Economic Development. The rural development strategies were also adopted by planners as per the methods and strategies adopted for the economic development of the country. India adopted both the centralised and decentralised planning models in the process of its planned economic development.

The First Five Year Plan (1950-51 to 1955-56) adopted the Harrod-Domar model of capital accumulation and saving mobilisation as its methodological approach towards planning. Under this approach, the process of economic development must start from the villages.

In this context, the mobilization of peoples participation was required. In order to implement this ideology the Community Development Programme (CDP) was conceived. The Block administration was created as a centre of Rural Development activities.

This programme failed as blocks were quite big and left the weaker section untouched. The programme was also implemented in Orissa. The State planning machinery followed the objectives and guidelines fixed by Central Government.

The Second Five Year Plan (1955-56 to 1960-61) based on Feldman-Mahalnobis model of sectoral growth. This strategy emphasised investment in heavy industry to achieve industrialization, which was assumed to be the basic condition for rapid economic development.

A good deal of reliance was placed on cottage and small industries with the aim of reducing rural under employment, unemployment. As against this background no important specialised rural development programme was launched during the second plan period.

However, steps were taken to strengthen the ongoing community development programme. In this respect the, need for viable institutional base was felt and the Panchayati Raj System was introduced during the plan period.

Besides, specialised rural economic development programmes like, Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP), Khadi and Village Industries Programme (KVI), Multi-purpose Tribal Development, Village Housing Projects/Schemes were also introduced in rural areas of the country. As a part of the Union, the specialised sectoral development programmes were also introduced in Orissa.

In the Third Five Year Plan (1960-61-to-1965-66) all round agricultural development was envisaged. Increased agricultural production in the farm sector and activities allied to agriculture received topmost priority during the plan period.

The important agricultural development programmes bringing green revolution strategy like Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) and High Yield Varieties Programme (HYVP) were implemented in the country. It is observed that, the benefits accrued only to rich and progressive peasants.

Once again, landless and agricultural labourers were left untouched. Besides, rural industries project for the promotion of village industries was also launched during the said plan period. Health and Nutrition is regarded as important inputs required for improvement in the quality of life. To ensure appropriate and adequate nutrition to the children, for their growth Applied Nutrition Programme was introduced during the Third Five Year Plan.

The Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) in the name of “Growth with social justice” initiated efforts towards uplifting the vulnerable sections of rural society. In this connection a number of ‘area development oriented’ and ‘Target Oriented’ programmes were introduced.

Programmes such as Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA), Small Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL), Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Tribal Area Development Programme (TADP) were introduced as the important rural development programmes. These rural development programmes did succeed, but only in limited areas and numbers.

This plan paved the path for a number of rural development and poverty alleviation programmes in the country. These programmes were implemented through the existing administrative apparatus at block and village levels.

Employment generation programmes like, Crash Scheme for Rural Employment and Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Programme were also launched during the plan period. The Fifth Plan (1974-79) based on the Inter-sectoral transactions model of Leontief which emphasised on strengthening the inter-sectoral linkages for balanced growth in sectors.

The most important objectives of the Fifth Plan Period was:

(i) Removal of poverty and

(ii) Achievement of self-reliance.

In order to attain these objectives. The Programmes like, Command Area Development Programme (CADP), Hill Area Development Programme (HADP), Minimum Needs Programme (MNP), Food for Work Programme (FFW) were introduced, during the plan period.

Besides, in order to promote small-scale, village and cottage industries the District Industries Centres (DICs) were set up in all districts of the country. The 20-point Economic Programme was also introduced during the said plan period.

The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) aimed at the removal of poverty, growth, modernisation, self-reliance and social justice. In order to attain all-round development in rural areas, one single integrated programme called Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was conceived. IRDP is regarded as a multi-level, multi-sector and multi-section concept of rural development.

As a multi-level concept it encompasses rural development at various levels such as viable cluster of village communities, districts and blocks. As a multi- sector concept, it embraces development in various sectors and sub-sectors of the rural areas such as agriculture, industry, education, health and transportation etc.

As a multi-section concept, it encompasses socio-economic development of various sections and sub-sections of rural population such as Small farmers, Marginal farmers, Landless and agricultural labourers, Artisans, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Besides IRDP, the employment generation programmes like, National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP), Economic Rehabilitation or Rural Poor (ERRP), Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM), Self Employment for the Educated Unemployed Youths (SEEUY). Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) etc. were also introduced during the said plan period.

The important objectives of the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) were; building an independent self-reliant economy, establishment of social system based on equity and justice, reduction of regional imbalance and adoption of advanced technologies. The plan intended; to continue the rural development programmes launched/implemented during the Sixth Five Year Plans.

Besides, some rural infrastructural development programmes like, Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) Integrated Rural Energy Planning Programme (IREP), Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY), Million Wells Scheme (MWS), etc. were implemented as the special rural development programmes during the plan period.

The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) aimed at generation of adequate employment opportunities, Universalisation of elementary education, provision of safe drinking water and primary health care facilities, and strengthening the infrastructure. The special rural development and poverty alleviation programmes implemented in earlier plans were also intended to continue during the Eighth Five Year Plan.

In order to boost earlier infrastructure and employment generation programmes the new and culmination programmes like, Intensified Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (IJRY), Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), Operation Black Board (OBB), and District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) were introduced.

The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) aimed at generating employment opportunities in the secondary sector, all-round development of agricultural sector, strengthening the rural economy through development of agro-based industries, small- scale village and cottage industries and elimination of poverty.

As against these objectives, the programmes for self- employment, and supplementary wage employment and other programmes intended to continue during the Ninth Plan with some modifications. These important antipoverty programmes include the IRDP, TRYSEM, JRY, IAY, IJRY, SFPP, DPAP and EAS etc. The IRDP, DWCRA, TRYSEM, MWS were in operation till the end of 1998-99.

It was felt that; this fragmented approach with a multiplicity of schemes was not able to focus on the needs of the rural poor in a coherent manner. Hence these schemes were amalgamated by Government of India and merged into a single new scheme called Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) with effect from 1.4.1999. In order to create adequate infrastructural development the Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) was also implemented on the same date.

All the plan strategies for rural development based on various approaches like, growth-based approach in first Three Five Year Plans (First Five Year Plan, Second Five Year Plan, Third Five Year Plan), which was popularly known as trickle down approach.

The Fourth Five Year Plan based on Target group approach. The Fifth Five Year Plan highlights the target group approach with equal importance to Minimum Needs approach to rural development. The Sixth, Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Five Year Plan in our country adopt the target group approach for rural development.

The important elements of rural development strategies are:

(1) Appropriate Institutional Arrangements.

(2) Labour – Intensive agriculture and Minor development works.

(3) A hierarchy of development centres to bridge the wide gap between rural and urban areas and self- reliance.

(4) An active policy for social development, and

(5) Appropriate Organisational arrangements.

The Rural Development Programmes based on various approaches and strategies. These are varies according to plan and the Nature of the programme. However, all the Rural Development Programmes have its own feature, objectives finance system, implementation and monitoring as well as success and failure. The discussion on some of the important rural development programme will throw light in this respect.

3. Essay on the Rural Development Programmes in India:

India started her planned economic development through Five Year Plans in the year 1950-51. The economy of the Country has been dominated by the rural and traditional economic sectors. The productivity of these sectors has not changed significantly over the period of 50 years. The existence of massive unemployment and poverty is the common feature of Indian economy in general and rural economy in particular.

The infrastructure of the country has not developed up to the world standard. It is proper to mention here that, we have achieved little over the period of 50 years of planned economic development. The planners and policy makers have been laid best possible efforts for the development of the economy and rural development. Due to a number of factors, desired success has not been achieved so far.

However, we would like to discuss some of the important rural development programmes implemented in our country as well as the states and Union Territories from time to time. The aims and objectives of these programmes are national in nature and the progress and achievements are based on the secondary data available. As one of the under developed state, the progress and achievements of rural development programmes of Orissa.

Some comparative analysis of the R.D. Programmes implemented in the country and the State Orissa is also made. Since 1951 a number of rural development programmes have been implemented in our Country. Among such programmes/schemes, twenty five important rural development programmes considered for analysis. These programmes covers all plan periods i.e.; First Five Year Plan (1950-51 to 1955-56) to Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97).

(i) Community Development Programme (CDP):

India as an independent Country started its planned economic development process in the year 1950-51. The First Five Year Plan 1950-51 to 1955-56 based on methodical approach. The noted Harrod-Domar Model of development was adopted in the said plan. The model emphasised on capital accumulation and saving.

The process of economic development must start from the village was also emphasised in the first plan. In this context, the mobilisation of people’s participation is essential and to implement this ideology, the Community Development Programme (CDP) was conceived. The Community Development Programme was launched on 2nd October 1952.

A general village community in India can be divided into six main groups as follows:

(i) The owners of land and those who have hereditary rights of tenancy.

(ii) The sub-tenants or tenants at will.

(iii) Landless Agricultural labourers.

(iv) Village Artisans.

(v) Money lenders and Shopkeepers.

(vi) Persons in the professions or in personal services, e.g. doctors, lawyers, barbers, village officials.

Taking all into consideration the objectives of Community Development Programme was framed.

The important objective of Community Development Programme is to create an urge among the rural people for a better life and to show the way to satisfying this urge predominantly by means of self-help. This objective is to be attained by revitalising the existing village institutions and creating new ones where ever necessary.

The programme emphasized to give effects to an intensive and comprehensive programme covering all aspects of rural life; i.e.; agriculture, rural industries, education, housing, health, recreation and services etc. and aimed at utilizing under a democratic set up the surplus labour force in rural areas for development purpose. It also aims at the largest possible extension of the principle of cooperation and every effort to made to make rural families credit worthy.

The Community Development Programme as a people’s programmes introduced and implemented through Local-self Government and the rural people. The Local Self Government get further boost after the recommendation of Balwantrai Mehta’s formulation of Democratic decentralisation in the forms of village Panchayats, Panchayat Samities and Zilla Parishads.

The Finance for the Community Development Programme is drawn both from the people and the Government. Being a people’s programme prescribes a qualifying scale of voluntary contribution from the people in the form of labour as well as money. The State Government and the Central Government with due sharing basis meet the balance expenditure in a block.

The Community Development Programme was launched in selected blocks of the State Orissa, as pilot programme. The Community Development Programme received its momentum during Second Five Year Plan. The total expenditure of Rs. 822.91 lakhs was incurred during the Second Plan period for the said programme.

By the end of the Third Five Year Plan (1965-66) period there were 147 Stage I blocks, 139 Stage II blocks bringing the total number of blocks to 314. Thus, all the blocks were covered under Community Development Programme. The total expenditure under this programme was Rs 1767 lakhs.

The Community Development Programme has attained its pick during the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-1974). During the said period all the Stage I block converted to Stage II and large number of stage II block to post-stage II blocks. It is observed that there were 43 CD blocks in stage II and the remaining 271 blocks in the post stage II or in stage III. Total Fund of Rs 850 lakhs were earmarked for the programme.

Besides, special development schemes on irrigation, Agriculture extension, animal husbandry, horticulture, drinking water and communication were also implemented in seven backward districts of the State. In this respect a total sum of Rs 225 lakh has been earmarked.

The contribution of Community Development Programme to the rural development are:

(1) The setting up of a network of community development blocks covering the length and breadth of the country, thus enabling the government to reach the rural population in almost any aspect of their life,

(2) The transfer of powers and functions for implementing the programme to the elected representatives at the village, block and district levels, thereby paving the way for democratic decentralisation through a three-tier Panchayati Raj System.

The National Institute of Community Development conducted a survey to assess the impact of CDP They concluded that “the process of modernisation has reached all strata, and going to do so at a faster pace in future, but this has not resulted in any violent reaction on the part of the lower classes”.

The ideology of people’s participation through Panchayati Raj System, in absence of proper education and discipline resulted in conspicuous alienation of the weaker sections of the rural communities by the privileged classes.

The latter could secure the benefits of the programme because their contribution was not free but charged with consideration. It is observed that the whole programme suffered from lack of vitality, and was tending to generate only into a number of material benefits for a limited few.

The official agencies responsibility for implementation of development activities lacked in understanding the new climate because they were manned by those officials who were trained in the particular framework. Besides, their bureaucratic approach also appeared to be a hindrance in initiating the programmes.

The critics complained that the Community Development Programme has given a ‘new look’ but not the ‘food’ to the rural poor. It is no denying a fact that the expenditure on building the institutions for social change was larger than the expenditure incurred on productive purposes. Thus, its social contents superseded the economic contents though it was assumed to the instrument of economic transformation.

(ii) Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP):

The Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) as a package programme was very strongly recommended by Agricultural Production Team of the Ford Foundation (USA) on 1959. This programme was put into action during 1960-61.

The important objective of the programme was to improve the agricultural production in a integrated and intensified manner. This programme was introduced in selected districts of the country.

The selection of these districts was made on the basis of:

(a) The district should as far as possible have assured water supply

(b) It should have a minimum of natural hazards,

(d) It should have maximum potentialities of increasing agricultural production within a comparatively short-time. Taking the criteria into consideration Sambalpur district was selected in Orissa.

It was decided to implement for the development of Rabi Crops in 1962-63. This programme was introduced in all the 29 blocks of the district. In the second phase of the programme main thrust was given on the increase of higher yielding paddy in the Khariff extending the area under various commercial and horticulture crops and on promoting efficient soil and water management practices.

Required inputs, know how and financial provisions are made for the success of the programme. Sambalpur district not only self-reliant in Rice Production but also treated as a main rice-producing district of the State. The IADP has been a ‘Path finder’ for successful programme.

(iii) Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP):

The Third Five Year Plan (1960-65) aimed to achieve self- sufficiency in food grains and increase agricultural production to meet the requirements of industry and exports.

Besides, the mid-term appraisal of the Third Five Year Plan observed that “Much greater emphasis should be given to the development of scientific and progressive agriculture in an intensive manner in areas where a high agricultural production potentialities”.

The Government of India formulated the Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) with a view to cover at least 20 per cent to 25 per cent of the cultivated area of the country and this area should be selected for the intensive development of import crops such as wheat, paddy, millets, cotton, sugarcane, potato, pulses etc. The programme was launched in 1964-65.

The aim of IAAP was to bring about a progressive increase in the production of main crops in selected areas by an intensive package approach i.e.; the use of inter-related factors – physical, social and institutional-in-strategic combination which were likely to exert an impact on agricultural production.

It was decided to implement such programme in the selected blocks of the country as well as the state. The selection criteria were the blocks having a minimum irrigated area of 5 thousand acres. In Orissa a total of 86 blocks were covered under the Intensive Agricultural Area Programme during the period of Fourth Five Year Plan an additional 46 blocks were brought under the programme, taking total coverage of blocks up to 132.

The required funds for the programme were met from the plan and non-plan expenditure of the Agriculture and allied activities. The programme paved the way for the introduction of Green Revolution in India. The Introduction of High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) reduced the importance of IAA Programme in the State as well in the country.

(iv) High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP):

The High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) was launched in the country from the kharif seasons of 1966-67 as a major plank of new agricultural strategy under the economic planning system.

The important objective of the programme was to attain self-sufficiency in food by the end of 1970-71. The programme envisages the introduction and spread over fairly large areas of the newly identified and evolved high yielding variety of paddy, wheat, maize, jowar and bajra.

The HYVP proposes to make a technological break-through in Indian agriculture which consists of the introduction of new and high-yielding varieties of improved seeds, increased application of the right amount of fertilizers and extension of the use of pesticides so that the crop produced is not destroyed by insects.

To enable the farmers to undertake this agricultural practice, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) agreed to relax the usual terms and conditions in respect of Central Cooperative Banks (CCBs) for the purpose of financing such cultivators.

During the Fourth Five Year Plan about 742.6 thousand hectares of land was brought under the HYV programme in Orissa. This has increased to about 1860 thousand hectares of land during Fifth Five Year Plan with an investment of about Rs. 2 Crores.

This programme mainly confined to good land and to those farmers who have the resources and the adaptability to embrace the progress of technology. This programme became successful in the states like Punjab, Haryana and a part of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in general and Punjab, and Haryana in particular, where wheat is the main food crop.

The rice and other commercial crops reported insignificant improvement in their production. Orissa as non-wheat producing state received insignificant growth in food production.

(v) Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA):

The Reserve Bank of India appointed All-India Rural Credit Review Committee on 1969, under the Chairmanship of Sri B.Venkatappiah. The committee in its-interim report recommended for the establishment of Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) in following words:

“The special efforts proposed are to be restricted to those cultivators who can be developed into surplus farmers if they adopt improved techniques on the basis of support in terms of supplies, irrigation, services of machinery etc. Appropriate schemes have to be drawn up by technical experts with reference to local resources and requirements, so that such cultivators can undertake specific lines of investment (e.g. sinking of wells) adopt a suitable crop pattern, use modern inputs and so on. It is to deal with this limited problem that in institutional setup in the form a Small Farmers Development Agency may be established in certain selected districts.”

The important functions of the Agency was to:

(i) Investigate and identify the problems of small farmers and endeavour to see that the provision of various services and supplies to small farmers is ensured,

(ii) Help small farmer to secure loans from co-operative banks and other assistance like obtain improved seeds, fertilizers and other inputs,

(iii) The agency is to provide various services such as spraying of insecticides, hiring out of tractors and land leveling to small farmers through the agro-industries corporations or other appropriate bodies and institutions including cooperatives and local authorities such as Zilla Parishad and extension services,

(iv) To draw up plans for investment and production activities to be undertaken by the cultivators participating in the programme,

(v) To explore the possibility of adding to the income of the small farmers by assisting them in taking up animal husbandry activities such as dairy and poultry,

(vi) It should endeavour to promote the flow of short-term, medium- term and long-term co-operative credit to small cultivators for appropriate purposes from the Agricultural Credit Societies and Central Cooperative banks on the one hand and the land development banks on the other. The scheme was included in the Fourth Five Year Plan. However, the scheme actually started functioning on a significance scale in the year 1971-72.

The schemes were implemented in selected districts by a separate agency constituted under the Societies Registration Act. The scheme was financed by the State and Central Government on matching basis.

The provision of subsidy was also made by the agency at the rate of 25 per cent to non-tribal small farmers, 33.3 per cent to non-tribal marginal farmers and 50 per cent to Tribal farmers in capital investments and inputs subject to maximum of Rs 3000 and Rs 5000 respectively for any farmers.

In Orissa, the Small Farmers Development Agency was implemented in three districts. They were Bolangir, Dhenkanal and Ganjam. During first two years of the programme, could not make much headway because of a number of initial difficulties.

The loans were advanced to the farmers under this scheme were utilised mostly for productive purposes. Orissa stand second in utilisation of loans in all-India basis after Kerala. The State utilised about 83.6 per cent of the loans sanctioned under the scheme.

During the period between 1971-72 and 1980, about 272 lakh families in 115 blocks less than seven SFDA were benefitted. The total loans mobilised stood at Rs. 38.4 crores. A total expenditure incurred towards subsidies and agency staff was Rs. 14.8 crores.

The SFDA was the first rural development programme in the country where the Central Government, State Government and Financial Institutions maintained proper linkage for the success of the programme. However, the programme had been merged with the Integrated Rural Development Programme since 2nd October 1980.

(vi) Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFALDA):

The Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agencies were set up along with SFDA on the recommendation made by Rural Credit Review Committee (1969).

The principal objective of the programme is to assist the marginal farmers and agricultural labourers in maximum productive use of their small holding and skills by undertaking horticulture, animal husbandry and other economic activities, like rural industries etc.

The important functions of the programme were to:

(i) Identify eligible beneficiaries and their problems

(ii) To formulate economic programmes for providing gainful employment to the participants,

(iii) To promote infrastructural facilities for production, processing, storage and marketing of products

(iv) To promote rural industries.

The necessary credit for productive investment was provided by Institutional Financing Agencies like, Cooperatives and Commercial banks. Besides provision of matching subsidies were also provided to the beneficiaries.

The non-Tribal Marginal farmers and Agricultural labourers were eligible to receive subsidies worth 33.3 per cent on the capital investments and inputs, whereas this was 50 per cent for tribal beneficiaries, subject to maximum of Rs 3000/- and Rs 5000/- respectively.

The Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency was launched during the year 1971-72 in the districts of Cuttack and Keonjhar. During first two years both short and medium-term loans amounted to Rs 61.32 lakhs and Rs 45.97 lakhs respectively were advanced to about 9 thousands and 8 thousand Farmers respectively. A total sum of Rs 1.6 cores was earmarked in the year 1974-75.

This amount has increased to Rs 4.2 crores in the year 1975-76. Under the project 2.6 lakh Marginal farmers and 0.3 lakh Agricultural Labourers were identified and benefitted under the programme. Among them about 70 per cent of the beneficiaries were enrolled as members of cooperative societies.

(vii) Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP):

A Rural works programme was initiated in 1970-71 with the objective of providing development investment in drought prone areas. During the Fourth Five Year Plan the main emphasis of the programme was on labour intensive works such as medium and minor irrigation, road construction, afforestation, soil conservation and provision of drinking water. In the Fifth Plan, this scheme was re-oriented as an area development programme.

The strategy of this programme was to improve the economy of the areas covered, through a package of infrastructural and on-farm development activities with the objective of optimum utilisation of land, water, human and livestock resources. This programme was also targeted the weaker sections of the society like, Small and Marginal farmers, Agricultural Labourers and other rural poor, who have no assured source of income. Co-operative societies were organised to act accordingly.

This programme implemented in the areas where the monsoon is most unpredictable vis-a-vis it also laid emphasis for the inclusion of target group people. Thus, this programme was the first in its category, which included both the area approach and target group approach.

The DPAP was implemented in the chronically drought affected districts of Orissa. Considering the concentration of weaker sections as well as drought prone area the programme was implemented in 11 blocks of Kalahandi and 14 blocks of Phulbani district in Orissa.

During the Fourth Plan the scheme was fully financed by the Government of India. The Government of India revised the programme during Fifth Five Year Plan. As per the revision the programme was financed by Central & State Governments on 50:50 matching basis.

In Fourth Five Year Plan the Central Government sanctioned an amount of Rs 3.4 Crores to Orissa for the programme. During the years 1974-80 expenditure on the programme was stood at Rs 14.2 Crores on different schemes. The programme has been extended to 14 more blocks of Bolangir and Sambalpur districts (8 blocks in Bolangir and 6 blocks in Sambalpur) bringing total blocks to 39 in 4 districts of the State.

The State Plan allocation for the Sixth Plan was Rs 7 Crores against the anticipated expenditure of Rs 7.1 Crores. The total plan expenditure for DPA Programme during the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) was Rs 26.5 Crores. The launching of Eighth Plan was delayed by two years due to political instability in the country.

However the programme received Rs 12.7 Crores in 1990-91 and 1991-92. The Drought Prone Area Development Programme is being operated in 47 blocks (2 blocks each in Boudh, Sonepur, Dhenkanal, 12 blocks in Phulbani, 10 blocks in Kalahandi, 8 blocks in Bolangir, 6 blocks in Bargarh and 5 blocks in Nuapada districts) Spread over to 8 districts of the State during the Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97).

The Total expenditure incurred under the plan was Rs 36.9 Crores. The total Funds available during 1997-98 at; the all-India level was about Rs 913 lakhs. The total Expenditure incurred during the year was Rs 436 lakhs. The expenditure was thus 47.8 per cent of the total funds available under the programme. The percentage share of total expenditure to total funds available was about 48.6 per cent.

(viii) Integrated Tribal Development Agencies (ITDA):

Next to Africa, India has the largest concentration of the tribal population in the World. Though all the states have tribal population in various degrees of concentration, majority of them is found in Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and West Bengal. Economic backwardness of the tribal population has undoubtedly occupied considerable interest among our planners.

The First Five Year Plan laid down its priorities for tribal development in three broad categories namely education, economic uplift and health, housing and other schemes. Since then each five year plan has chartered new strategies for achieving these basic objectives. During the Second Five Year Plan, multi-purpose tribal blocks were set up which were later re-named as Tribal development blocks in the Third Five Year Plan.

Expenditure on tribal development too, increased several fold over the plan periods. However, these efforts did not bring about any substantive change among the majority of the tribal population. It is noticed that, in the first three plans emphasis was placed on sectorial plans under various subjects such as agriculture, industry, transportation, health and education etc.

Most of these were conceived at the National or at the State level. The Fourth Five Year Plan gave importance to planning at the district level and to experimental studies on growth centres for evolving a planning strategy at the grass-root level. In this context, the Government of India has sanctioned pilot projects for tribal development in the central agricultural sector.

Among the Six projects sanctioned in All-India level, Ganjam and Koraput districts were selected in Orissa. The outlay on each of these projects was Rs 2 Crores. Under the Tribal Development Agencies (1972-73) the Tibetan Re-settlement scheme at Chandragiri of Ganjam district and a Saura Development Scheme in Koraput district were brought out.

A new strategy has been evolved for planning the development of the tribal communities during the Fifth Plan period. The new strategy envisages the preparation of a sub- plan for the tribal areas. The first exercise in this regard is to demarcate the tribal areas based on the tribal population.

(i) Areas, where the tribal concentration of 50 per cent or above.

(ii) Areas of dispersed tribal population below 50 per cent.

(iii) Extremely backward and isolated little communities.

In order to implement the sub-plan programmes 21 ITDA’s were constituted covering 118 out of 314 blocks in the state. Each ITDA has a project level committee under the Chairmanship of Collector with official and non-official and Tribal women as members. They have to draw up the plan and programmes at ITDA level and review and monitor the developmental activities of different Department.

Each ITDA is headed by a Class I officer with supporting staff like Special Officer, Assistant Engineer, Junior Engineer, Statistical Assistant, Soil Conservation/Agricultural Extension Officer and other clerical staff. 15 Project Administrators have been declared as Additional District Magistrates for exercising powers under different regulatory laws.

There were about 47 thousand villages in Orissa; out of that 18.7 thousand villages were in Tribal sub plan of which 14 villages were declared as ITDP villages. They were spread over to about 98 blocks of the State up to 1977-78. A total financial outlay of Rs 189 crore was earmarked for the programme in 1979-80 with a view to cover about 2 thousand families. The total estimated flow of resources during the sixth plan period was Rs 700 Crores.

It is observed that 36 per cent of the total outlay of the State during Sixth Plan Period was earmarked for investment as against 23 per cent during fifth plan period. About 5.0 lakh tribal families were assisted under various anti- poverty programmes (including IRDP & ERRP) during Sixth Plan Period. During the Seventh Plan period, about 7.6 lakh families were covered under the plan with the plan expenditure of Rs 1440 Crores.

The plan allocation for the sub-plan during the year 1990-91 and 91-92 was estimated at Rs 391 crores and Rs 590 crores respectively. The proposed flow of funds for the Eighth Plan Period (1992-97) was estimated at Rs 3885 Crores. The Flow of funds during 1992-93 was of the order of Rs 459 Crores. This covered about 34 families.

The total funds for the year 1993-94 have increased to Rs 466 crores. Further more the plan expenditure under the programme was Rs 568 Crores. Under the plan 43 thousand families were benefitted in the year 1993-94. Where as this stood at 41 thousand during 1994-95. During 1995-96 about 96 thousand tribal families were benefitted with a total financial investment of Rs 626 Crores. The total plan out lay for the year 1996-97 and 1997-98 was Rs 862 Crores and Rs 749 Crores respectively.

(ix) Modified Area Development Approach (MADA):

Article 46 of the constitution enjoins up on the State to promote with special care the educational and economic interest of the weaker sections and in particular Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

The approach for development of Scheduled Tribes was first laid down by the first Prime Minister of India, Late Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in his “Tribal Panchseel” more particularly emphasised on the preservation of tribal culture. The Tribal Sub-plan approach was operated in mid seventies.

The objectives of the Tribal sub-plan strategy have basically remained two fold:

(i) Socio-Economic Development of S.Ts. and

(ii) Protection of tribals against exploitation.

Integrated Tribal Development Programmes in the form of Integrated Tribal Development Agencies (I T D A) were implemented in the areas where the concentration of tribal population is more than 50 per cent, and they live in extremely backward areas.

For the all-round development of the Tribals outside the Sub-plan areas a new programme called Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) was launched in 1978- 79. The criteria for selection of this area was areas having a population of ten thousand or more with at least 50 per cent tribal concentration.

The identified areas called as MADA Pockets. In these pockets individual family-oriented schemes as well as community benefit oriented programmes are to be implemented. There is a MADA level Advisory Committee for each MADA Sub-Collector concerned with officials and non- officials like peoples representatives as members. This Advisory Committee is responsible for drawn up programmes and overseas the implementation.

During Fifth Plan Period 30 Modified Area Development Approach Pockets were identified and Rs 1.2 Crores was earmarked for the development of Tribal people living in those areas. The number of pocket has increased to 37 during Six Plan period. A Total sum of Rs 5.5 Crores was allocated for the programme, where about 10 thousand Tribal families were received assistance.

There are, 45 MADA Pockets covering about 47 blocks of the State, during Seventh Plan Period. The total amount of Rs 7.2 Crores was earmarked for the implementation of different schemes. Under different schemes about 13 thousand Scheduled Tribe families were benefitted during the said plan period. In two annual plans i.e.; 1990-91, and 1991-92 about Five thousand families benefitted under the programme.

The total investment of Rs 2.2 crores and Rs 2.5 crores were made for the year 1990-91 and 1991-92 respectively. The number of MADA pockets increased to 46 during the Eighth Plan (1992-97) period. A total Fund of Rs 16.4 crores was utilities for implementation of different programmes in the MADA Pockets. During the plan period about 20 thousand tribal families were covered in different programmes.

(x) Command Area Development Programme (CADP):

The Command Area Development Programme was introduced in the Country in 1974-75 with a view to realising a fast and optimum utilisation of the irrigation potential created in the major irrigation projects. In Orissa, the programme was launched in 1976-77 covering 52 blocks in the districts of Cuttack, Puri, Balasore, Sambalpur and Bolangir.

It was spread over to about 5.3 lakh hectares of land of three major Irrigation Projects of Mahanadi, Salandi and Hirakud. The basic concept of the Programme was to step up agricultural production by optimum utilisation of water by controlled irrigation and adoption of multi-cropping pattern on an extensive scale.

The components of C A D Project which are given highest priority in realising these objectives are:

(i) Construction of field channels

(ii) Warabandi i.e; regulated and assured water supply to the farmers

(iii) Consolidation and

(iv) Adoption of Multi-cropping pattern.

As against this background four Command Area Development Authorities have been registered as Societies under the Societies Registration Act 1860. Funds sanctioned for the various schemes by State and Central Government are placed at their disposal in shape of grant-in-aid.

A special loan account was also set up by the ARDC with 50% contribution from Central Government and 25% each by the State Government and ARDC to finance on-farm development works for the ineligible and unwilling beneficiaries.

During the Fifth Plan the major achievement was, conducting of a large number of multi-crop demonstrations to make the farmers aware of the needs for having three cropping patterns. Small and Marginal farmers were also involved themselves in the programme and became members of Cooperative Societies.

A modest beginning was also made in demonstration of proper water Management by Construction of field channels to serve about 3 thousand hectares of land. A total financial provision of Rs 12.5 Crores was made for the programme.

The principle components of the Command Area Development Programme during the Sixth Five Year Plan (SOBS) have been:

(i) Construction of field channels including field drains

(ii) Topographical Survey

(iii) Soil Conservation and Survey

(iv) Rotational water supply to the beneficiary farmers

(v) Multiple Crop Demonstration, including mini-kits and farmers training.

During the said plan period about 1.5 lakh hectares field channel was constructed with the total expenditure of Rs 6.9 Crores.

The Command Area Development Programme expanded to 58 blocks in the districts of Cuttack, Puri, Balasore, Sambalpur, Bolangir and Koraput. An area of 2.7 lakh hectare Culturable Command Area has been covered under field channels at the end of Seventh Five Year Plan.

The Principal Component of CAD Programme during the Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) was:

(i) Survey Planning and Design

(ii) Construction of field channels, drains and land leveling

(iii) Rotational water supply

(iv) Adaptive Trails

(v) Farmers participation

(vi) Training

(vii) Conjunctive use of surface and ground water

(viii) Marketing and Communication and

(ix) Monitoring and evaluation.

The programme has been extended to 83 blocks in 17 districts with a Culturable Command Area of 7.4 lakh hectares during Eighth Plan Period. A total sum of Rs 18.4 Crores was spending under the programme during said plan period.

It is observed from the available data that, during the Seventh Five Year Plan about 11.14 million hectares field channels were constructed. About 1.93 million hectare of land leveling activities and 4.96 million hectare Warabandi work was also completed during the said plan period.

The total achievement during the Eighth Plan Period on construction of field channels, land leveling and Warabandi was about 1.75 M.ha, 0.14 M.ha, and 2.75 M.ha respectively. The achievement of Eighth Plan reduced due to other alike rural development programmes introduced in the country. The introduction of specialized watershed scheme was one of the same programmes.

4. Essay on the Institutions for Rural Development:

The Rural Development in India is a very old phenomenon. Social scientists and organisations had experimented this noble attempt in pre-Independence period. Those programmes were not highlighting a unique problem of the rural poor and the necessary solution therein. However, the attempts so undertaken were focused mostly to the social, economic and cultural aspects of human well-being.

The noble attempts made by great and intellectual sons of the soil could not spread over to all part of the country due to lack of government attitude and patronage. The British Government had never felt the importance of rural development in the country. The rulers felt that, rural development was a part of social welfare, which is perhaps contradictory to the British ideology and policies.

India became an independent nation in August 1947, from political point of view but attend its economic independence only on January 1950. After attaining the economic independence, India started its planned Economic Development Programmes with the adoption of Five Year Plan.

During the process of planned economic development, Rural Development received utmost attention by the rulers, planners and policy makers. Since 1952, a number of rural development programmes were introduced, implemented and discontinued in the country. The programmes are varied in nature and approach. Some of the programmes proved to be successful and some failures.

The success and failure of the programmes governed by a number of factors important among them are:

(i) Nature of the programme,

(ii) Approach of the programme,

(iii) Finance for the programme,

(iv) Implementation of the programme.

Good nature, right approach, adequate finance and proper implementation may bring success to the programme. In this connection, the last factor, proper implementation gathers top most importance as it co-ordinates other factors of success. This can be achieved through good and right institutions.

As against this background, we would like to discuss the structure and functions of the institutions established exclusively for Rural Development from time to time.

These institutions can be classified into two such as:

(i) Main institutions and

(ii) Ancillary institutions.

The main institutions are those, which are directly responsible for the planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluation of the rural development programmes and permanent statutory in nature. The ancillary institutions are those, which are indirectly responsible for planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation and temporary in nature.

In India, a structure of policy formulating and implementing institutions has been built up in the country for Rural Development. Some of them are at the national level, some are single purpose, some relate to a particular target groups, some relate to area, sector and commodity.

However, all these institutions aim at fulfilling the national objectives of economic development in general and rural development in particular. The administrative organs of Central and State Governments involved in the process of rural development are at the Centre of the Organisational Structure. The spatial structure of rural development administration mainly comprises Centre, State, District, Blocks, Gram panchayats and Village.

At the Centre, the Ministry of Rural Development is in charge of all rural development a programme including those relating to land reforms, village and cottage industries, town and country planning and rural roads etc. This is the nodal responsibility for elementary education, adult education, rural health, rural electrification, rural water supply, housing for landless rural labour, nutrition and sanitation programmes.

The ministry has also responsible for all aspects of rural reconstruction and development. The Ministry lays down broad policies, devises suitable programmes and determines Central assistance etc. In addition to the Ministry of Rural Development, the ministries of Agriculture, Commerce and Civil Supplies, Energy, Irrigation and Industry also perform functions related to rural development.

The Ministry of Agriculture is in charge of agricultural extension, Ministry of Commerce and Civil Supplies has within its purview the Development Commissioner of Handlooms, several Commodity Boards and the public distribution system. The Ministry of Energy and Irrigation deals with all matters pertaining to water resources development and irrigation and accordingly has important functions pertaining to rural development.

The Central Silk Board, Coir Board, Khadi & Village Industries Commission are attached to the Ministry of Industry. The Ministry of Rural Development, for rural development with proper co-operation and coordination from other ministries. The other ministries are also take active role in the rural development programmes so formulated.

Besides, the Ministries, the Reserve Bank of India in the past and NABARD at present play the catalytic role for the success of rural development. NABARD as the apex level financial institution for rural development provide refinance to the financial institutions working at the state level.

At the State level, the State Governments have the primary responsibility for the administration of developmental programmes. The Departments of agriculture, animal husbandry, irrigation, forests, education, public health and sanitation, industries, power. Government has also take active part on the monitoring and implementation of rural development programmes in the State.

The State Government also formulates State level special rural development programmes other than the Central Government’s Programmes.

However, The State Level Organisational Committee is headed by the Secretary for Rural Development, who is in the rank of Commissioner of rural development is assisted by one Deputy Commissioner three Assistant Commissioners and a number of technical officers and subject specialists.

Besides, a representative of the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India is associated as a member of the Committee. There are a number of Statutory Corporations, Boards and other agencies providing infrastructural, promotional and supporting services for rural development.

Important among them are:

(i) Rural Electrification Corporation,

(ii) The Central Ground Water Board

(iii) Minor Irrigation and tube well Corporations

(iv) Central and State Warehousing Corporations

(v) Central and State Seed Corporations

(vi) Food Corporation of India

(vii) The Jute and the Cotton Corporation of India

(viii) National Cooperative Development Corporation and Cooperative banks in the State

(ix) National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation

(x) State Trading Corporations,

(xi) The Handicraft and Handloom Corporations

(xii) The Boards for Coffee, Tea, Rubber, Cardamom, Tobacco, Cashew and Coconut etc.

(xiii) The National Dairy Development Board

(xiv) The Khadi and Village Industries Commission

(xv) State Khadi and Village Industries Board

(xvi) The Central Silk Board

(xviii) The State Finance Corporation

(xix) The Agro-Industries Corporation

(xx) The Marketing Regulation Boards etc. The statutory corporations and Boards works for the implementation of various rural development programmes to their expertise.

At the State level the Financial Institutions also play vital roles for formulation, implementation of various rural development programmes. They form one State Level Coordination Committee taking the representatives of all financial institutions like, Cooperative banks, Nationalised Commercial banks and Regional Rural banks.

Besides, the representatives of various government departments are also participate in the formulation and Implementation strategy of the rural development programmes. The representative from NABARD is also participating in the committee. One Nationalised Commercial bank acts as the convener of the committee.

The Third Stage of Institutional Structure for Rural Development is the District Administration. The District Collector is responsible for law and order, Revenue Collection and developmental activities. In the past, the developmental programmes so formulated by the central and state governments were channelised through the District Administration, known as the District Development Coordination Committee.

This committee consisting of the Project Officer, the Managing Director of the Central Cooperative Societies, one/two representatives from Cooperative Societies and a Special Rural Credit Officer. Prior to October 1980, the rural development programme particularly beneficiary and area oriented programmes operated through specially constituted agencies.

They are, Small Farmers Development Agencies, (SFDA) Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agencies, Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) and Integrated Tribal Development Programme (ITDP), etc. In 1980 the integrated rural development programme was launched. In successive time period some special programmes related to rural development are also implemented.

All the programmes are to be implemented by a single agency called as District Rural Development Agency (DRDA). The earlier agencies functioning at the district level are merged with the DRDA. The District Collector/Deputy Commissioner heads the DRDA.

Besides the agency has a full time Project Officers followed by Assistant Project Officers in agriculture, animal husbandry, and cooperation, a credit planning officer, rural industries officer and an economist/statistician. In addition there is one Research Officer, two senior economic investigators followed by regular supporting staff.

The peoples representatives like, the Chairman Zilla Parishad, Member of Parliament, the MLA and the representatives of Weaken Sections and women are also take active part in the planning process at the district level. The representatives of the lead bank, financial institutions also take active role with the DRDA to formulate District Credit Plans.

According to the Indian Constitution Amendment (74th) Act 1992 The State Governments constituted the District Planning and Development Board to provide necessary guidelines and direction to district planning units and to approve the district plans prepared by the planning units.

The board consists of a Chairman, a Vice-chairman and other members, viz.; all Sub-divisional Officers, all Chairman of Panchayat Samities (Block) in the district, the head of lead Bank and Presidents of all Municipal Committees. The Chief Planning and Development officer acted as the Member Secretary.

The district-planning unit comprised the Chief Planning and Development Officer, an economist, a Planning Officer, a Credit Planning Officer and other supporting staff. The position of the Chairman of DPB varies from state to state. In some State a Minister of State Government chairs it and the district Collector is the Chairman in some other.

The Block is the Fourth Important Institution for planning and implementation of rural development programmes. The overall resource situation, to identify human resource situation, particularly from the point of view of employment, to review the ongoing development activities to formulate a package of schemes/programmes to optimize production and augment employment and income, to identify gaps in infrastructure and to devise measures for filling these gaps. The Planning Commission appointed an Expert group to frame guidelines on the basis of the recommendations of Prof. M.L. Dantewala working group.

As per the guideline issued on 1978 the block level plan should have the following component:

(i) Production programmes for the target groups in the rural areas.

(ii) Manpower planning and skill development in relation to production programmes.

(iii) A supplementary works programme, where necessary to clear off the backlog of unemployment.

(iv) A programme for the self-employed in the trades and services sector.

(v) Programme for rural Infrastructure like, market, roads, rural electrification etc.

(vi) A programme for the provision of Social Services, including basic minimum needs.

(vii) A programme for Institutional support to the rural poor.

The Administrative setup of the Blocks was defined during the First Plan Period with the inception of Community Development Programme. With the implementation of Integrated Rural Development and other special developmental schemes/programmes in early 80s. The Administrative setups of the blocks were revised accordingly.

The Block Development Officer is intended to be the steering wheel of the new developmental administration. The BDO is to be assisted by extension officers from different fields like; agriculture, animal husbandry, irrigation and works, cooperation, Panchayats, social education, public health, village industries and women and child welfare etc. Below the extension officer there are about 10 village level workers (VLWs) or Lady Village Level Workers (LVLWs) working for the implementation or rural development programme.

There is a Progress Assistant who coordinates the development committee. The people’s representatives like; Chairman Panchayat Samiti, MLA and representatives of Weaker Sections and women also participate in the Developmental Planning at the block level. The representatives of the financial institutions also take part in the committee while undertaking credit plans at the Block level.

Village Panchayat is the last recognised institution responsible for planning and implementation of rural development programmes. The village Panchayat as an executive body implements the policies and decisions of the Gram Sabha comprising the entire population of the village. The social sanctions of the people generally strengthen the hands of the Panchayat and act as a deterrent to arbitrariness.

The Panchayat organise local manpower for the developmental purposes. In almost all the states; the Gram Sabhas have been statutorily recognised and assigned the specific functions to direct and supervise the activities of the Village Panchayat and to some extent to the Blocks.

The important functions performed by the Panchayats are:

(i) Civic amenities

(ii) Social welfare activities and

(iii) Development works.

The broad functions of the Panchayat are:

The people’s representatives like Ward Members; Sarapanch also took part in decision-making and implementation of the programmes. The village level worker represents the block in village committee. Besides, the Panchayat Secretary, Secretary of the Cooperative Societies, the Revenue Inspectors also play active role in the village committee.

Thus village committee comprises of the:

(i) Village level worker

(ii) Panchayat Secretary

(iii) Secretary of the Cooperative Societies.

(iv) Revenue Inspector

(v) The Sarapanch

(vi) The ward members

(vii) The villagers are the General body members.

It is to conclude that, the planning and Implementation of the rural development begins from the root i.e.; village and flows upward to the national level. Experience shows that the rural development programme decisions in respect of formulation, strategy & approach are undertaken at the national level and that flowing downward to the village in a “Trickle down approach”.

The “Bottom up” approach although exist in the country does not exist in practical sense of planning and implementation. However, the institutions for rural development are closely connected with each other, whether there exists “Trickle down” or “Bottom up” approach of planning and implementation of the rural development programmes in our country as well as the state.

5. Essay on the Observations and Problems of Rural Development :

India is an economically underdeveloped country. The condition of rural economy is worse. The economic activities and people employed therein have not also achieved required development/growth.

In order to break the jinx of rural economic sector, Government through its different plans introduced a number of rural development programmes. The programmes are also varied in nature. They are of sector, area and target oriented programmes. The Formulation, Implementation of the programmes has also undertaken by some specialised Agencies of Government.

In addition the NGOs, the Panchayati Raj institutions, financial institutions involved themselves in the success of the programmes. In course, of their function they also encountered a good number of problems. The problems were also varied in nature.

As the book/based on the macro level information/data. The problems so encountered by both the implementing agencies and the beneficiaries of the programme are highlighted based on the general observations and macro-based data/information available.

The problems mainly highlights the problems encountered by the Government as the planning and implementing machinery the Associated/ancillary agencies inevitable for the fruitful implementation of such rural development programmes, they are the Rural Development agencies/institutions/Departments, Financial Institutions, Non-Governmental Organisations, working as intermediary agencies for the implementation of rural development programmes/schemes.

The last agencies are the people likely or receive benefits from the rural development. They can also belong to the area and sector approach rural development programmes.

Thus, we can classify the rural development agency into three as; Government, Intermediary/Ancillary agencies and the targeted people/beneficiaries. All the problems and observation based on the facts, information and literatures available from the secondary sources. These may not hold good in all respects.

(i) More Generalized Programme :

Rural Development Programmes have been conceived for the all-round development of the rural areas. However, the rural development programmes are launched in the context of general problems of the rural areas. It fails to give importance to some particular and area issues. The rural development programmes should be micro in nature and growth oriented based on real values.

(ii) Inadequate Coordination :

As per the Guidelines all the developmental programmes in the rural areas are to be planned/formulated by the DRDA in cooperation and coordination of other departments and financial institution, agencies of peoples representatives etc. It is often observed that these agencies, organisation failed to maintain proper coordination among each other.

All the agencies/organisations are trying their best to stick to their own principles and ideologies. In the process cooperation and coordination are not maintained. The Agencies responsible for the formulation, Implementation and evaluation of the Rural Development Programme is required to maintaining good coordination among them.

(iii) Based on Ruling Party Principles and Ideologies :

In India, the rural development programmes are conceived/launched as per the principles and ideologies of the ruling party. Besides, in the participation for planning, formulation and implementation through their representatives tried to maintain such principles and ideologies.

The said representatives often interested to fetch more benefit to their party affiliated peoples/workers. This does not cover the problems of all class people. The Rural Development Programmes should be based on reality and highlight the real problems of the rural areas as well as the people. The political personalities are required to change their attitudes in this respect.

(iv) Inadequate Funds :

The rural development programmes require more capital investment. The Economic Sectors of rural areas remain more or less traditional. These sectors also adopt traditional methods of production. In order to attain rural development the transformation of technologies is required. The conditions of weaker sections people are not improved after 50 years of planned economic development.

The upliftment of their socioeconomic condition also require high dose of investment. In our country, a fixed amount of funds are allocated for a particular rural development Programme. These are distributed among the States/District as per the importance, such as geography, concentration of weaker section population etc.

The share of the Fund to cope with the local problems seems to be inadequate. Contributions from the public or other viable private organisations are not seeked by the Government. Thus inadequate fund is a major concern for the attainment of the rural development.

(v) Land based Economy :

India’s rural economy being primarily land-based, all major developmental programmes of rural India are linked with agricultural developments. It is also evident that most of the available resources are controlled by few, this reinforces the hegemony of the few over many and the benefits do not tickle down to those who need them most.

Besides, the precarious land and man ratio suggests that by introducing radical land redistribution in rural India very limited egalitarian goals can be achieved and if done so, that will mean only sharing of poverty and no real development.

(vi) Authority Structure:

Rural development plan implementation is required to be accepted by the local level functionaries who attend the District consultative committee meetings and that they are in a position to mobilise financial and organisational resources to fulfil accepted commitments.

It is observed that the authority structure in the administration and the banks is such that those who attend such meetings are neither in a position to accept firm commitments on behalf of their departments, banks without reference to higher authorities not to act accordingly.

Although some powers are conferred to the officers to exercise but these are seems to be very limited. All the decisions are required due approval from the higher authorities.

(vii) Leakage of Benefits :

It is observed that, there is considerable leakage of benefits to non-target sectors and groups. Most of the rural development programmes are conceived to improve the Socio-Economic condition of the weaker sections like small, marginal farmers, agricultural and non-agricultural labourers, rural artisans, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and deprived women etc. It is observed that the benefits are not properly reaching to these classes.

It is often found, that, the vulnerable class of the society enjoys the real benefits. The subsidy components of the rural development programmes tend to allow to non-target groups, specially the programme implementing bureaucratic class, rather than including expansion of production base of the beneficiaries.

Due to illiteracy and ignorance the real benefits sometimes enjoyed by the Third party commonly speaking the middlemen and the village touts including the petty personnel having a little political affiliation.

(viii) Low Sustaining Impact :

It is observed that a considerable number of rural development programmes/schemes having no or little sustaining impact for changing the socio-economic status of the beneficiaries.

The assets created from the credit assistance of financial institutions and subsidies of the development/administrative agencies are short lived (Particularly in-case of livestock assets) failed to push the beneficiaries up on the scale of production and productivity. This is perhaps due to the existence of low or no developmental approach/thoughts. This factor again dominated by the lack of awareness about the programmes.

(ix) Dominance of Welfare over Productivity:

In India, most of the rural development programmes are based on the basic welfare principles. These schemes are backed by both credit and subsidy components. Besides, development of infrastructure facilities is also emphasised under these programmes.

It is also evident that provision of long-term credit and based on the principle of write off by political parties also have adverse effect on the productivity of economic sectors. It is observed that the subsidy component is often extending up to 100 per cent in some selected schemes and class of beneficiaries. This reduces the productive motive, attitude of the beneficiaries.

(x) Based on the Principles and Policies of Political Parties :

In our country most of the rural development programmes are either based on the principles of the political parties or biased by their ideologies. Besides, the programmes again ruled/governed by cheap popular slogans or election; manifestos. Due to these, causes the programmes failed to attain the expected success.

It is also observed that after the completion of one political party’s rule the next political party, which assumes power, hesitates to carry out the same. Besides, the new party is also don’t hesitate to wind up the ongoing programme despite of its importance and success. In India, due to these problems, the rural development has not attained after five decades of the planned economic development.

6. Essay on the Suggestions for Rural Development in India:

1. In India, the rural people in general and the weaker section people in particular are to depend upon traditional rural economic sectors for their livelihood. The rate of literacy in rural areas is very low in comparison to urban areas. Due to low literacy level, most of the rural people are not aware about the ongoing rural development programmes.

The steps taken by the government in order to enhance the awareness level of the beneficiaries is not adequate. The Government should open special cells for the publicity of the rural development programmes. The Government is required to adopt the publicity method, which is conducive to the nature and requirement of the rural people.

The people are to be provided with adequate instruments for enhancement of awareness level. The existing system of publicity about the rural development is required to be re-considered and should be based on rural realities prior to the Selection of the Scheme as well as the Beneficiaries, the implementing agencies should provide details of the programme to the rural people, who are likely to be benefitted serious endeavour is, therefore, needed to make the rural people aware about the resources earmarked for rural development in various Government departments.

2. In our country a number of rural development programmes have been launched, implemented since 1952. It is often said that, the rural development programmes failed to attain its desired goal due to improper identification of the programmes, schemes and the beneficiaries therein.

The Implementing Agencies attitude to implement the programme is target oriented. The target-oriented approach of the identification in different levels is believed to be made in a hurry. This approach forced the agencies for wrong identification of programmes, schemes and beneficiaries. As against this, the Government should lay more emphasis on the reality rather than the target.

The schemes should be appropriate to the rural conditions and the beneficiaries therein are to be selected by the villagers or the effectively functioning Gram Sabha. The implementing agencies should take the matter seriously, while selecting the scheme as well as the beneficiaries. The selection of the schemes is needed to be made by the beneficiaries. Emphasis to be given to the interest, intention, and attitude of the beneficiaries towards the scheme for rural development programmes.

It is to conclude that, A realistic programme on rural development with the potentiality of the successful implementation, can only be prepared if rural poor are taken into confidence and are assisted to draw the development programme, taking the village as unit. Outsiders, as technocrats, Economists etc. should only assist them as Friends to make their own decision.

3. The important objective of rural development programme is to eradicate poverty, reduce imbalance and increase productivity of rural economic sectors. Thus, the beneficiaries of rural development programmes are rural poor living below the poverty line. The poverty line in India determined by the relative standards.

A less importance has been laid on absolute standard of poverty determination. Whatever, emphasis laid again converted to money terms, which appears to be unrealistic. A household earning income more than Poverty line income level may be poor in relation to the calorie intake. Thus, the determination of poverty line required reconsidered. Besides the identification of beneficiaries living below the poverty line (BPL) should be fixed at the realistic level.

4. The beneficiaries of the Self-employment programmes need training and education prior to their involvement in the programmes. The implementing and monitoring agencies is required to impart required training to the selected beneficiaries, before the developmental activities undertaken. Besides, rural people should be provided with the scope of expressing their own felt needs and need to be provided with an opportunity to choose economic activities for their own development.

5. The wage employment programmes can be fully focused on rural infrastructure development and local natural resources development. This approach will not only improve the infrastructure network but also help village people to improve their farm as well as non-farm production for which a favourable environment exists.

6. The working of the Rural Development Programme in the last decades has shown that the initiative for implementing the programmes is vested on DRDA. The role of DRDA is more or less confined to the planning and release of subsidies for rural development programmes.

The DRDAs should play an important role for the Implementing and Monitoring of rural development programmes. Regular monitoring and evaluation of rural development programmes in real manner could solve the ongoing problems encountered therein and can also helpful to solve the problems. This will pave the path of success to the rural development programmes and attainment of rural development.

7. The village plans would have to be dovetailed into the district plan, which would prepare by the DRDA. Proper appraisal of the rural development schemes is needed. Besides, for the success of Rural Development Programmes it should be ensured that the Project Directors of the DRDA are given tenure of not less than three years so as to inculcate in them a sense of commitment to the programme. The other staff in the key posts should not be disturbed frequently

8. The various Government departments with specialised expertise and banks should work in close co-operation with the district planning unit in order to have a coordinated and scientific plan, the availability of local resources, the potential for alternative productive works and of viable schemes, to be looked into.

9. Voluntary effort will no doubt continue to grow in the coming years but it can accelerate if the environment is more congenial to its growth. Voluntary Organisations with professional and Managerial Capabilities can act as a catalyst and can organise beneficiaries, involve people in planning and development and provide the necessary support to make development a reality. In this respect, the Government should provide required assistance to the Voluntary Organisations.

10. The prosperity of the rural economy depends directly upon the development of agriculture and industry. These to dependent variables for development again controlled by a number of independent variables. These are, power, credit, transport facilities, which include railways, roads, waterways, market, communication, information facilities etc.

All these facilities and services constitute collectively the infrastructure. The development and expansion of these facilities are an essential pre-condition for attainment of economic development and rural development. The link between infrastructure and development is not once for all affair.

It is a continuous process and progress in development has to be preceded, accompanied and followed by progress in infrastructure, if we are to fulfill our declared objectives of a self-accelerating process of economic development. Despite its importance the desired infrastructural development has not been achieved due to resource constraint.

In view of the resource constraint, further expansion of facilities may be secured by a shift of priority from high cost technology to low cost technology, from public funding to private financing and from large-scale public management to small-scale private/cooperative/community management in appropriate areas required for rural development.

11. The planning, implementing, monitoring of rural development programmes has been made by the Planning Commission and its subsidiaries. In the process they have been facing a number of difficulties. Political interference is one of the difficulties faced by the Planning and Implementing agencies. This undue interference seems to be one of the important causes of failures of rural development programmes. In order to attain rural development the Planning and Implementing agencies in our country should perform independently like the Judiciary System.

Strategies for Rural Development in India
7 Major Rural Development Policies of India

India , Essay , Rural Development in India

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Essay on Rural Development Programme in India

In this essay we will discuss about Rural Development Programme in India. After reading this essay you will learn about: 1. Introduction to Rural Development Programme in India 2. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) 3. National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) 4 . Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) 5. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) and Others.

Essay on the Present Scenario of Rural Development Programme in India.

Essay # 1. Introduction to Rural Development Programme in India:

The majority of population in India (about 73 per cent) is living in rural areas. Living conditions of the rural people are very poor. Under such a situation, development of rural areas must receive adequate attention in various schemes designed for the development of Indian economy.

Accordingly, since the inception of economic planning in India, the First Plan introduced the Community Development Programme and on 2nd October, 1952, first 55 Community Development Projects were inaugurated where each project was covering three Development Blocks.

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With the passage of time, more and more such projects were developed and at the end of the Fifth Plan, about 5,028 Blocks were developed to cover almost all villages of the country, The community development programmes had undertaken ambitious schemes for alround development of rural areas which included improvement of agricultural techniques, exploring supplementary sources of employment, extension of minor irrigation facilities, improvement of transportation facilities, provision for social services and development of co-operatives and panchayats.

Till the end of Fifth Plan, about Rs. 671 crore were spent on these community development projects.

Inspite of these attempts, the Community Development Programme could not make much headway as it failed to enthuse the villages into the spirit of self-help, self-reliance and co-operative effort. Thus, the planners were worried about the failure of this community development programme as it failed to attract more and more rural people within its fold.

In the meantime lot of changes have taken place. At the Centre, the Ministry of Community Development and Co-operation was abolished and was replaced by a New Ministry of Rural Development for accelerating the pace of rural development of the country.

Accordingly, since the Sixth Plan onwards, various self employment programmes and wage employment programmes were introduced. In the former category the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was undertaken in 1980.

Again in the later category, the Food for Work Programme (FWP) was initiated in 1977-78 for generating additional gainful employment and to create durable community assets by utilising surplus food-grains accumulated as buffer stocks in the country.

But this FWP created a little impact on the market wage rate, generation of employment etc. Thus later on, this FWP was restructured into the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) from October 1980.

Thus, from April 1, 1981, the NREP became a regular programme in the economic planning of the country since the Sixth Plan, Later on various other employment programmes were also introduced which include. Training for Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Area (DWCRA), Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) etc. Let us analyse some of these programmes in detail.

Essay # 2. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP):

The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) seeks to promote self-employment by developing productive assets and providing inputs to the rural poor through a mix of subsidy and bank credit.

The Sixth Plan proposed to integrate multiplicity of agencies for providing rural employment such as Employment Guarantee Scheme, Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA), Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers (MFAL) Development Agency, Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Command Area Development Programme (CADP), Desert Development Programme (DDP) etc.

As all these programmes overlap each other and therefore it became essential to integrate these programmes for effective monitoring and accounting. In this programme there was an “integration of sectoral programmes, spatial integration, integration of social and economic process, and above all the policies with a view to achieving a better fit between growth, removal of poverty and employment generation.”

Accordingly, the Sixth Plan introduced the Integrated Rural Development Programme on 2nd October, 1980. This programme was initiated as a multi-pronged attack on the problem of rural development was designed as an anti-poverty programme.

The Sixth Plan (1980-85) in its drafts mentioned that “such multiplicity of programmes for the rural poor operated through a multiplicity of agencies should be ended and replaced by one single integrated programme operative throughout the country.”

Main Objectives:

The process of economic development carried out in a country like India has benefitted mostly the relatively developed areas and also the relatively better off people. Inspite of various attempts the benefits have not reached up to the backward areas and its backward people.

To rectify this situation, designing of special programme for eradicating poverty became urgent. Thus, for the alleviation of rural poverty, poor people should be endowed with productive assets or skills for their fruitful self-employment by which they can earn greater incomes and thus cross the poverty line.

Basic objective of IRDP as introduced in the Sixth Plan was to promote self-employment of the poor households along-with the transfer of productive assets, so that they can earn income sufficient enough to cross the poverty line. Thus, the Sixth Plan (1980-85) conceived and designed IRDP as an anti-poverty programme.

The plan also emphasised that these people were poor because they did not possess any productive assets of their own except their labour, nor did they possess any special skills. Thus, the plan document mentioned, “Any development strategy which aims at improving the lot of the poor must aim at creating new productive assets for them.”

All these assets would normally include sources of irrigation for those possessing some land, bullocks, other farm implements, seeds and fertilizers, animals for dairy and other animal husbandry activities, tools and training for cottage industries, handicrafts, village industries etc.

Sub-Schemes of IRDP for Rural Development:

In recent years, two special sub-schemes of IRDP are also introduced. These include—Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM), and Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA).

The Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) is to train rural youth from the target group of families in skills so as to enable them to take up self/wage employment. It has been laid down in this programme that the coverage of youth from SC/ST communities should be at least 50 per cent of total trained rural youth. Out of the total beneficiaries, at least 40 per cent should be women.

The programme of Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) aims to improve the socio-economic status of the poor women in the rural areas through creation of group of women for income generating activities on a self-sustaining basis.

Table 8.1 shows achievements under such schemes in recent years.

Table 8.1 reveals that in 2003-2004, total number of families assisted under IRDP/SGSY was 0.90 million and in 1992-93, total number of families assisted was 2.07 million as against the target of 1.88 million. In respect of TRYSEM, total number of rural youth trained was 0.17 million and 0.28 million in 1998-99 and 1992-93 respectively as against the target of 0.29 million and 0.30 million during the respective period.

In respect of DWCRA, about 50,000 groups in 1998-99 and 9,000 groups in 1992-93 were formed. In respect of JRY/JGSY/SGRY-II, mandays of employment generated in 2003-2004 and 1992 T 93 were 392 million and 782 million respectively. In respect of EAS, SGRY-I mandays of employment generated was 372.8 million in 2003-2004. In respect of PMRY, total employment generated was 1.8 lakh in 2003-04 a5 against the target of 3.0 lakh.

Weaknesses:

(a) Selection of ineligible families.

(b) Difference between cost and value of asset to the extent of Rs 500 was noticed in 18 per cent cases showing leakages and malpractices.

(d) No incremental income was generated in 22 per cent cases.

(e) Adequate infrastructure facilities were not available to beneficiaries of the programme.

Essay # 3. National Rural Employment Programme (NREP):

The National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) replaced and restructured the Food for Work Programme in October 1980. NREP was a centrally sponsored scheme implemented with 50: 50 sharing basis between the Centre and the States. The 50 per cent Central assistance was received in the form of food-grains and cash assistance as well. This programme was conceived as wage-employment programme.

Objectives :

The main objectives of NREP were:

(a) Generating additional gainful employment opportunities to the extent of 300-400 million mandays per year for the unemployed and underemployed persons in the rural areas;

(b) To create durable community assets for strengthening rural economic and social infrastructure which includes drinking water wells, community irrigation wells, minor irrigation works, village tanks, rural roads, schools, panchayat houses etc.; and

(c) Bringing improvement in the overall quality of life in rural areas and to improve nutritional standards of the rural poor through supply of food-grains as part of wage.

Overriding objective was to make provision of wage employment for the rural poor. Under this programme, the shelf of projects was prepared on the basis of felt needs of entire rural community. The Sixth Plan in its report observed,

“A large number of people in the rural areas are without assets and need to be provided wage employment. This segment of the rural poor which largely depends on wage employment virtually has no source of income during the lean agricultural period. The National Rural Employment Programme is conceived in the main to take care of this segment of the rural poor.”

The programme was implemented through District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) at the district level. It was decided that at the district level, 50 per cent of the expenditure would be incurred on wage component, 25 per cent be incurred on social forestry and 10 per cent for the benefit of scheduled caste and scheduled tribes.

Progress and Evaluation of NREP under the Sixth Plan:

During the Sixth Plan period a sum of Rs 1,620 crore was allocated under this programme. But the actual total expenditure both by the Central and State Government was to the extent of Rs 1,834 crore.

During this plan period, there was decline in the utilisation of food-grains mainly due to inadequate arrangements of distribution, lower market price of food-grains at open market and preference for coarse grains instead of rice and wheat supplied under this programme.

Considering this situation the government decided to subsidise food-grains by 37 paisa to 40 paisa per kg for its distribution under this programme from January, 1984. Table 8.2 shows the progress of NREP.

Table 8.2 shows that during the Sixth Plan about 1775 million mandays of gainful employment was generated as against the target of 1,500 to 2,000 million mandays. The utilisation of food grains was to the extent of 20.57 lakh tonnes. But the programme had no clear cut focus about target group of beneficiaries.

Thus “it is not known how much of this has been directed towards those who are landless and the poorest among the poor. To the extent the programme had apparently lacked a direct focus on the target group population for whom it was meant.”

However, the Seventh Plan in its draft observed that the programme had resulted a substantial impact in respect of stabilisation of wages in rural areas, containing prices of food-grains, creating community assets which are expected to raise the level of living of the rural population.

Progress and Evaluation of NREP under the Seventh Plan :

Seventh Plan allocated an outlay of Rs 2,487 crore for NREP and set a target to generate employment to the extent of 1,445 million mandays.

Regarding the progress of work under NREP, Table 8.2 reveals that during the first four years of the Seventh Plan, total actual expenditure incurred was amounted to Rs 2,940 crore as against the target of Rs 2,487 crore for the entire plan period, Again in respect of employment generation about 1,477.53 million mandays of employment was generated during the first four years as against the target of 1,960 million mandays for the entire Seventh Plan period. During first three years, about 30.10 lakh tonnes of food grains were distributed among the rural poor at subsidised rates.

Essay # 4 . Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) :

The Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) was launched on 15th August 1983 with objectives of generating gainful employment opportunities, to create productive assets in rural area and also for the improvement of overall quality of rural life.

In this programme, the guarantee has not been operationalised due to lack of funds. In this programme again, preference in employment was given to landless labourers, women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

This programme is totally funded by the Central Government. While allocating resources to State and Union Territories 50 per cent weightage has been given on the number of agricultural labourers, marginal farmers and marginal workers and the remaining 50 per cent weightage to the incidence of poverty.

The programme also envisaged that wage component of a project should not be less than 50 per cent of the total expenditure on the programme. 10 per cent of the allocations should be earmarked exclusively for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

In this programme various projects like social forestry, Indira Awaas Yojana and Million Wells Scheme were included. In 1989-90, the RLEGP and NREP were merged with Jawahar Rozgar Yojana.

Essay # 5. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY):

Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) was launched on 28th April, 1989, by the then Prime Minister Late Rajiv Gandhi. In this programme all the existing rural wage employment programmes were merged into JRY. Thus, the NREP and RLEGP were merged within the single programme called JRY. From 1st April 1999, JRY is restructured and renamed as Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY).

Main features of JRY are as given below:

1. JRY has set a target for reaching every single panchayat.

2. The scheme envisaged to benefit 440 lakh of families lying below the poverty line in India through panchayats.

3. In JRY, the Central assistance component would be 80 per cent and the state’s share would be 20 per cent in 1989-90, the centre made a provision of Rs 2100 crore for JRY.

4. In JRY, the allocation of fund among different states has been done in proportion to the size of population below the poverty line only. Further devolution of funds to the districts has been determined by the criteria of its backwardness.

5. JRY made adequate provision of funds for their village panchayats to run its employment scheme for the rural poor. On an average, a village panchayat with its population 3000-4000 people will receive between Rs 80,000 and Rs 1 lakh every year. It was decided to provide employment to at least one member in each poor family for at least 50 to 100 days annually.

6. JRY reserved 30 per cent of the employment generated particularly for women.

Achievements and Evaluation:

In 1989-90 and 1990-91, total employment generated under JRY was 864 and 875 million mandays respectively. In 1991-92, the achievement of JRY in respect of generation of gainful employment was to the tune of 808 million mandays as against the target of 735 million mandays.

In 1992-93, the achievement was 782 million mandays as against the target of 776 million mandays of employment and in 1999-2000, the achievement was 194 million mandays as against of 375.2 million mandays of employment generated during 1998- 99.

The 1999-2000 budgets provide for an allocation of Rs 1,665 crore and the employment generation has been targeted at 396 million mandays. But the total mandays of employment generated under JRY during 1999- 2000 (up to Feb. 2000) was to the extent of 194.5 million mandays.

Again, in respect of JRY, total number of mandays of employment generated during the Eighth Plan was 4,037.4 million as against the target of 4,040.8 million.

Essay # 6. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) :

On 15th August, 1995, another social welfare scheme, namely, National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) was announced. This multi-dimensional NSAP for the poor encompasses old age pension, family benefit in case of death of the bread winner and maternity benefit.

The NSAP is a centrally sponsored programme with 100 per cent central funding and it is intended to ensure that social protection to the beneficiaries throughout the country is uniformly available without interruption. The NSAP consists of the following three components :

(a) National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS)—providing a pension of Rs.75 per month to destitutes and above 65 years of age.

(b) National Fiamily Benefit Scheme (NFBS)—providing Rs.5,000 in case of death due to natural causes and Rs.10,000 in case of accidental death of the primary bread-winner to the bereaved household.

(c) National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS)—Providing Rs.300 per pregnancy up to the first two live births. This programme involves an expenditure of Rs.867 crore in a full year. In 1999-2000, an outlay of Rs.725 crore has been provided for this scheme.

Regarding the achievements of NSAP, it is observed that the number of beneficiaries under NOAPS were 5.43 million in 2001-2002 as compared to 6.42 million in 1998-99. Number of beneficiaries under NFBS were 0.16 million in 2001-2002 as compared to 0.26 million in 1998-99. Again, number of beneficiaries under NMBS were 1.45 million in 2000-01 as compared to 1.51 million in 1998-99.

Essay # 7. Rural Group Life Insurence Scheme (RGLIS) :

The Government had launched a new scheme, namely, Rural Group life Insurance Scheme (RGLIS) on 15th August, 1995 in order to provide life insurance coverage to the rural people of the country. The objective of the scheme is to promote social insurance in the rural areas with the active involvement of the Panchayats and to partly alleviate the distress caused by the death of the bread-winner among the rural poor.

The scheme is being administered by the Life Insurance Corporation (LIC) of India and implemented by the Panchayats in the rural areas for the age group of 20-60 years. Under this new scheme, a life cover of Rs 5,000 is provided to the rural population for an annual premium of Rs 60 to Rs 70 depending upon the age of entry in the Scheme.

As on December 31, 1995, the Scheme has been implemented in 12 states and Union Territories and 50,312 persons under 897 Panchayats have been covered under the scheme.

Essay # 8. Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY)/National Rural Livelihoods:

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and allied programmes such as Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) and Million Wells Scheme (MWS) have been restructured into a single self-employment programme called the Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) from April 1999.

The following objectives are:

(i) Introducing focussed approach to poverty alleviation;

(ii) Capitalising advantages of group lending; and

(iii) Overcoming the problems associated with multiplicity of programmes.

The SGSY is conceived as a holistic programme of micro enterprises covering all aspects of self- employment which includes organising rural poor into Self Help Groups (SHGs). It integrates various agencies— District Rural Development Agencies, banks, line departments, Panchayati Raj Institutions, non-government organisations and other semi-government organisations. This programme is basically a self-employment programme.

The objective of SGSY is to bring the existing poor families above the poverty line by providing them income generating assets through a mix of bank credit and government subsidy and to ensure that an assisted family has a monthly net income of at least Rs 2,000. Subsidy under SGSY is uniform at 30 per cent of the project cost subject to a maximum of Rs 7,500.

In respect of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, it is 50 per cent subject to a maximum of Rs 10,000. For groups, the subsidy is 50 per cent subject to a ceiling of Rs 1.25 lakh. There is no monetary limit on subsidy for irrigation projects. SGSY is funded by the Centre and states in the ratio of 75: 25.

Regarding the achievements of SGSY, it is observed that the number of families assisted were 0.90 million in 2003-04 as compared to 1.66 million families assisted under IRDP in 1998-99.

Up to November, 2005, the Centre and Status, sharing the costs on 75: 25 basis, has allocated Rs 8,067 crore, of which Rs 6,980 crore had been utilised to assist 62.75 lakh self-employed.

Since inception in 1999 up to 2012-13 (March 2012) 43.34 lakh SHGs have been formed and 14.46 lakh SHGs have taken up economic activities. Moreover, a total number of 179 lakh Swarojgaries have been assisted with a total investment of Rs 46,273.55 crores. Out of total Swarojgaries, 86.26 lakh SC/STs and 109.02 lakh women Swarojgaries have been assisted which constitutes 47.47 per cent and 60.88 per cent respectively.

The SGSY has been restructured as National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), now renamed as ‘Aajeevika’ in order to implement it in a mission mode in a phased manner for targeted and time bound delivery of results.

The main feature of NRLM is as follows:

“To reduce poverty by enabling the poor households to access gainful self employment and skilled wage employment opportunities resulting in appreciable improvement in their livelihoods on a sustainable basis, through building strong and sustainable grassroots institutions of the poor.”

Every family residing in the rural areas should be out of object poverty and enjoy a decent quality of life.

NRLM Guiding Principles:

The guiding principles include:

a. Social mobilization and building strong institutions of the poor is critical for unleashing the innate capabilities of the poor.

b. An external dedicated and sensitive support structure is required to induce the social mobilization, institution building and empowerment process.

c. Facilitating knowledge dissemination, skill building, access to credit, access to marketing, and access to other livelihoods services enable then to enjoy a portfolio of sustainable livelihoods.

d. Task under NRLM is to reach out to 7 crore rural poor households (35 crore population) and stay engaged with them till they come out of object poverty.

e. Building strong, self managed and self reliant institutions of the poor through dedicated support structures, financial inclusion, sustainable livelihood promotion and partnerships with NGOs, banks, training institutions, private sectors.

Main Components of NRLM:

Main components of NRLM includes universal social mobilisation through formation of SHGs; form strong peoples institutions; universal inclusion furthered through linkage with SHGs, banks for securing credit; capacity building and training; provision of revolving fund; and enuring monitoring, evaluation and transparency.

NRLM would be uniformly extended to all States and Union Territories, except Delhi and Chandigarh. The states have been given the prerogative to decide on the phasing on NRLM in their states.

Essay # 9. Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) :

Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) has been restructured and streamlined with effect from April 1999, and has been renamed as Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY). This is basically a wage employment programme. The primary objective of JGSY is creation of demand driven village infrastructure including durable assets at the village level to enable the rural poor to increase the opportunities for sustained employment.

The secondary objective is generation of supplementary employment for the unemployed poor in the rural areas. The wage employment under the programme is given to Below Poverty Line (BPL) families.

While there is no sectoral earmarking of resources under JGSY, 22.5 per cent of the annual allocation must be spent on beneficiary schemes for Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribes and 3 per cent of annual allocation is to be utilised for creation of barrier free infrastructure for the disabled. Another objective is to generate supplementary employment for the unemployed rural poor.

Regarding the achievements of JGSY, it is observed that total mandays of employment generated under this programme were 268.32 million in 2000-01 as compared to 375.2 million mandays under JRY in 1998-99.

Essay # 10. Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) :

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) was launched in September 2001. The scheme aims at providing wage employment in rural areas as also food security, along with the creation of durable community, social and economic assets. The scheme is implemented on a cost sharing ratio of 75: 25 between the Centre and the States.

The ongoing programmes like Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) and Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) would subsequently be fully integrated within the scheme with effect from April 1, 2002. In 2003-04, total employment generated under SGRY-I and SGRY-II were 372.83 million and 391.65 million respectively.

In 2005-06, 82.18 crore person days were generated with the centre releasing Rs 5,497 crore as cash component and about 37 lakh tones of food-grains to the States/UTs. Besides, in 2007-08, up to December, 2007, the number of person days generated under SGRY was 11.60 crore, while the Centres’ contribution in terms of the cash and food-grains components up to December, 2007 were Rs 1,142 crore and 9.55 lakh tonnes respectively.

Essay # 11. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) :

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) was launched on December 25, 2000, as a 100 per cent centrally sponsored scheme. The primary objective of PMGSY is to provide all-weather connectivity to all eligible unconnected habitations in rural areas of the country having population of 500 persons and above in plain areas and 250 persons and above (as per 2001 census) in special category states, selected tribal and desert areas.

It also permits upgradation of existing rural roads. In 2001-02, an amount of Rs 2,500 crore was allocated for this scheme. Since inception, projects for providing new connectivity to 1, 44,717 habitations with a road length of 5, 44,462 km have been cleared at an estimated cost of Rs 1,82,560 crore including upgradation cost.

A total of 3, 99,979 km. road length has been completed and new connectivity has been provided to over 97,838 habitations upto March 2014. During 2013-14, about 25,316 km of all-weather road including new connectivity to 6,560 habitations has been completed at an expenditure of Rs 13,095 crore. Upgradation selected existing roads has also been taken up.

The programme is funded mainly from the accruals of diesel cess in the Central Road Fund.

In addition, support of the multilateral funding agencies and the domestic financial institutions are being obtained to meet the financial requirements of the programme. National Rural Road Development Agency (NRRDA), an agency of the Ministry of Rural Development registered under the Societies Registration Act, provides operational and technical support for the programme.

Essay # 12. Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY) :

Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY) was introduced in 2000-01 with the objective of focusing on village level development in five critical areas, i.e., health, primary education, drinking water, housing and rural roads, with an overall objective of improving the quality of life of people living in the rural areas.

This scheme constitutes the following programmes within its fold:

(i) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (Gramin Awas):

This scheme is to be implemented on the pattern of Indira Awas Yojana with the objectives of sustainable habitat development at the village level and to meet the growing housing needs of the rural poor,

(ii) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana—Rural Drinking Water Project:

Under this programme, a minimum 25 per cent of the total allocation is to be utilised by the respective States/UTs on projects/schemes for water conservation, water harvesting, water recharge and sustainability of drinking water sources in respect of areas under Desert Development Programme and Drought Prone Areas Programme.

(iii) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY):

PMGY launched in 2000-01 envisages allocation of additional central assistance to the states and UTs for selected basic services such as primary health, primary education, rural shelter, rural drinking water, nutrition and rural electrification. For 2003-04 as well as 2004-05, the annual allocation of additional central assistance for PMGY was Rs 2,800 crore.

Essay # 13. Food for Work Programme, 2001 :

Food for Work Programme was initially launched with effect from February 2001 for five months and was further extended. The programme aims at augmenting food security through wage employment in the drought affected rural areas in eight states, i.e., Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttaranchal.

The centre makes available appropriate quantity of food-grains free of cost to each of the drought affected States as additionality under the programme. Wages to be paid by the State Government can be paid partly in kind (up to 5 kgs of food-grains per manday) and partly in cash. The workers are paid the balance wages in cash, such that they are assured of the notified Minimum Wages.

This programme stands extended up to March 31, 2002 in respect of notified “natural calamity affected Districts.” For 2004-05, Rs 2,020 crore have been allocated for the programme in addition to 20 lakh tonnes of food-grains.

Essay # 14. Annapurna :

The Annapurna scheme came into effect from April 1, 2000 as a 100 per cent centrally Sponsored Scheme. It aims at providing food security to meet the requirement of those senior citizens who though eligible for pensions under the National Old Age Pension Scheme, are not getting the same.

Food-grains are provided to the beneficiaries at subsidised rates of Rs.2 per kg of wheat and Rs.3 per kg of rice. The scheme is operational in 25 States and 5 Union Territories. More than 6.08 lakh families have been identified and the benefits of the scheme are passing on to them.

Essay # 15. National Food for Work Programme (NFFWP) :

The National Food for Work Programme was launched as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) in November 2004 in the 150 most backward districts to generate additional supplementary wage employment with food security. States receive food-grains under NFFWP free of cost.

The focus of the programme is mostly related to work relating to water conservation, drought proofing (including afforestation and tree plantation), land development, flood control/protection (including drainage in waterlogged areas) and rural connectivity in terms of all-weather roads.

In 2004-05, allocation of Rs 2,020 crore and 20 lakh tonnes of food-grains generated 7.85 crore person days of employment. In 2005-06, of the allocation of Rs 4,500 crore and 15 lakh tonnes of food-grains (Revised), Rs 219 crore and 11.58 lakh metric tonnes of food-grains had been released up to January 27, 2006. About 17.03 lakh person-days were generated up to December 2005.

Essay # 16. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme Act (MGNREGA):

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGA) was implemented from February 2, 2006 after passing of the NREG Act in the Parliament in September 2005. This scheme is now being launched in 200 identified districts of the country with the objective of providing 100 days of guaranteed unskilled wage employment to each rural household opting for it.

The outgoing programmes of SGRY and National Food for Work Programme (NFFWP) have been subsumed under NREGA in these districts. NREGA will gradually cover all districts of the country within five years. This is for the first time a job guarantee scheme has been introduced in the country.

The NREGA, being a demand driven scheme, has its definite focus on works relating to water conservation, drought proofing, land development, flood control/protection and rural connectivity in terms of all-weather roads.

Of the Rs 11,300 crore allocated for NREGA in 2006-07 (BE), Rs 6,714.98 crore was released up to January 31, 2007. Till January 31, 2007, about 3.47 crore job cards have been issued and of the 1.50 crore households, who have demanded employment, 1.47 crore household have been provided employment under this scheme.

Under this scheme, up to December 2006, of the 53.65 crore person-days of employment generated, 21.13 crore were for women, and of about 5.81 lakh works taken up, 2.34 lakh were completed.

The coverage of scheme was expanded to 330 districts in 2007-08. Again the coverage was extended to all rural districts of the country in 2008-09. At present 619 districts are covered under MGNREGA. During the year 2008-09, more than 4.51 crore households were provided employment under the scheme.

As against the budgeted outlay of Rs 33,000 crore for the year 2013-14, an amount of Rs 5,894.03 crore has been released to the states/UTs.

The number of households covered under the scheme increased considerably from 3.39 crore in 2007-08 to 3.80 crore in 2011-12 and then to 4.78 crore in 2013-14 with an average wage employment of 46 person days.

Out of the 219.72 crore person days of employment created under the scheme during 2013-14, 23 per cent and 17 per cent were created in favour of SC and ST population respectively and 53.0 per cent in favour of women. The average wage rate per day has also been increased from Rs 65 in 2006-07 to Rs 132 in 2013-14.

However, the successful implementation of MGNREGA finally depends on two important factors are:

(i) efficient and regular functioning of Panchayat institutions and

(ii) the proper use of Right to Information Act.

Thus NREGS provides a social safety net for the vulnerable groups of people of our society and thereby made an attempt to attain growth with equity.

Essay # 17. Present Scenario of Rural Development Programmes in India:

Thus, we have seen that under the present Ministry of Rural Development two important schemes, viz., Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and Jawahar Razgar Yojana (JRY) are being implemented throughout the country through a mix of government allocation or subsidy and bank credit.

In recent years, two more schemes, viz., Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) and Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) are also included as two special sub-schemes of IRDP.

Targets and achievements of all these programmes in recent years have already been analysed in Table 8.1. During the Eighth Plan, the rural development programmes will be revamped completely. A decision has been taken to prepare a basket of rural development programmes from which the States can choose suitable schemes.

The States will thus have adequate flexibility in providing rural development programmes to the people.

Total budgetary allocation for rural development has been enhanced from Rs 10,956 crore in the Seventh Plan to Rs 30,000 crore in the Eighth Plan showing a three-fold hike in the allocation. Again the total allocation in rural development increased from Rs 6,609 crore in 1995-96 to Rs 11,960 crore in 2002-03 and then to Rs 15,654 crore in 2006-07.

This is no doubt a welcome trend. But through mere increase in budgetary allocation alone the lot of the rural poor cannot be improved. Rather it requires a sincere bureaucratic attempt, timely action, selection of proper schemes and their proper implementation. Moreover, expenditure on rural development as per cent of total government expenditure decreased from 2.69 per cent in 2006-07 to 2.46 per cent in 2007-08.

But the things are not moving so smoothly. On May 4, 1993 a parliamentary committee tabled its report in the parliament where it lambasted the Ministry of Rural Development and expressed deep anguish over the pattern of expenditure incurred by the department on its various development schemes during the past three financial years, i.e., from 1990-91 to 1992-93.

The report revealed that a large chunk of allocation had been shown as spent in the last quarter of each financial year. This amply demonstrated, as the standing committee on urban and rural development commented, that such a pattern of expenditure was a glaring reflection on the “lack of proper planning and implementation leading to wasteful expenditures without any productive results.”

Showing a break-up of the year-wise expenditures, the committee disclosed that 41.8 per cent of the fund was actually utilised in the last three months of 1990-91 followed by 38.85 per cent in 1991-92 and 35 per cent in 1992-93.

What is still more stunning rather than shocking was that not a single rupee was spent till December 1992 out of Rs 10 crore allocated under the rural housing sector and a sum of Rs 5 crore which was sanctioned only in the last quarter.

Considering the above position it can be established that a whopping amount running into crores go down the drain in the fair name of rural development year after year and those responsible for such a lapse go unpunished. Thus, under such a situation, if the department concerned does not shed its inertia no amount of money would help the country to achieve its objective of bringing about a change in the rural scenario.

Thus, the present scenario demands that if the rural development scheme is to be implemented in its right spirit then there should be a sincere and timely attempt on the part of bureaucratic administration, banking administration and political administration.

Moreover, sincere attempt should also be made for proper identification and selection of target group beneficiary, creation of appropriate productive assets, controlling misuse of loan, considering the regional differences for determining the strategy of such programmes, checking leakages and corruption involved in the implementation of programmes and to arrange for growing and spontaneous public participation in every aspect of such programmes.

Moreover, the success of this rural development programme in realising its goal of lifting all the people above the poverty line in truest sense and also in generating the scope of both self-employment and wage employment throughout the country finally rests on arousing the consciousness of the rural people about their rights and benefits involved in all such programmes.

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Essay on Agriculture for Students and Children

500+ words essay on agriculture.

Agriculture is one of the major sectors of the Indian economy. It is present in the country for thousands of years. Over the years it has developed and the use of new technologies and equipment replaced almost all the traditional methods of farming. Besides, in India, there are still some small farmers that use the old traditional methods of agriculture because they lack the resources to use modern methods. Furthermore, this is the only sector that contributed to the growth of not only itself but also of the other sector of the country.

Growth and Development of the Agriculture Sector

India largely depends on the agriculture sector. Besides, agriculture is not just a mean of livelihood but a way of living life in India. Moreover, the government is continuously making efforts to develop this sector as the whole nation depends on it for food.

For thousands of years, we are practicing agriculture but still, it remained underdeveloped for a long time. Moreover, after independence, we use to import food grains from other countries to fulfill our demand. But, after the green revolution, we become self-sufficient and started exporting our surplus to other countries.

Besides, these earlier we use to depend completely on monsoon for the cultivation of food grains but now we have constructed dams, canals, tube-wells, and pump-sets. Also, we now have a better variety of fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds, which help us to grow more food in comparison to what we produce during old times.

With the advancement of technology, advanced equipment, better irrigation facility and the specialized knowledge of agriculture started improving.

Furthermore, our agriculture sector has grown stronger than many countries and we are the largest exporter of many food grains.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Significance of Agriculture

It is not wrong to say that the food we eat is the gift of agriculture activities and Indian farmers who work their sweat to provide us this food.

In addition, the agricultural sector is one of the major contributors to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and national income of the country.

Also, it requires a large labor force and employees around 80% of the total employed people. The agriculture sector not only employees directly but also indirectly.

Moreover, agriculture forms around 70% of our total exports. The main export items are tea, cotton, textiles, tobacco, sugar, jute products, spices, rice, and many other items.

Negative Impacts of Agriculture

Although agriculture is very beneficial for the economy and the people there are some negative impacts too. These impacts are harmful to both environments as the people involved in this sector.

Deforestation is the first negative impact of agriculture as many forests have been cut downed to turn them into agricultural land. Also, the use of river water for irrigation causes many small rivers and ponds to dry off which disturb the natural habitat.

Moreover, most of the chemical fertilizers and pesticides contaminate the land as well as water bodies nearby. Ultimately it leads to topsoil depletion and contamination of groundwater.

In conclusion, Agriculture has given so much to society. But it has its own pros and cons that we can’t overlook. Furthermore, the government is doing his every bit to help in the growth and development of agriculture; still, it needs to do something for the negative impacts of agriculture. To save the environment and the people involved in it.

FAQs about Essay on Agriculture

Q.1 Name the four types of agriculture? A.1 The four types of agriculture are nomadic herding, shifting cultivation, commercial plantation, and intensive subsistence farming.

Q.2 What are the components of the agriculture revolution? A.2 The agriculture revolution has five components namely, machinery, land under cultivation, fertilizers, and pesticides, irrigation, and high-yielding variety of seeds.

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Essay, Paragraph or Speech on “Rural Development” Complete Essay, Speech for Class 10, Class 12 and Graduation and other classes.

Rural Development

Essay No. 01

Rural India is where three-fourths of our countrymen live. The nation can therefore be strong and prosperous only when all villages are freed from backwardness and poverty. The Government of India is committed to the cause of bringing about rapid and sustainable development in the rural areas.

The Ministry of Rural Development is engaged in implementing a number of schemes which aim at enabling rural people to improve their living standards. Education, removal of poverty and speedy socio-economic progress is the goal with which the development programmes are being implemented through a multi pronged strategy, reaching out to the most disadvantaged sectors of society Huge priority is being accorded to provide clean drinking water, rural housing and road. The social security programmes are being implemented for providing assistance to the destitute and downtrodden. Assistance and encouragement to voluntary agencies and training of functionaries forms part of the emphasis on accelerated rural development. The ministry is constantly endeavouring to empower the Panchayt Raj institutions in terms of functions, power and finance. In the new initiative the Gram sabha has become the most significant institutions. Non-Government Organisations self help group and Panchayati Raj institutions have been accorded adequate role to make participating democracy meaningful and effective. Development of waste lands desert and drought prone areas has also been undertaken along with land reforms.

By way of holistic approach to the task of ensuring a sustainable development of land Rural Development Ministry has created two department viz. Department of Land Resources and Department of Drinking Water Supply in addition to the Department of Rural Development. This will facilitate coordinated policy interventions as well as quality improvement in the related development schemes.

Keeping in view the betterment of backward and the most backward sections of the society in rural areas of the country, Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme has been implemented through a parliamentary Act. Under the scheme, a person under a village household will get 100 day employment work with a wage of Rs. 60 on daily basis. All the existing employment schemes of the central government will merge into this mega scheme. Initially this scheme has been implemented in 200 districts of the country.

To ensure that maximum benefits of the programmes accrue to the people in villages the ministry has adopted a four pronged strategy of creating awareness about the programmes, ensuring transparency in them encouraging peoples participation in the development process and promoting concept of social audit for accountability.

The allocation of funds for rural development has been stepped up from Rs. 30,000 crore in the Eight Plan to Rs. 42,874 crore in the Ninth Plan. The Ministry has a plan allocation of Rs. 12,265 crore of the year 2001-200. This includes Rs. 9,205 crore for the schemes of the Department of Rural Development, Rs. 900 crore for those of the Department of Land Resources and Rs. 2,160 crore for the schemes of the Department of Drinking Water Supply.

Rural Poverty — Poverty levels in the country are expected to come down to less than 20% at the end of the 10th plan period.

However since each and every state is not expected to add to the growth at the national average, Bihar together with Jharkhand and Orissa have nearly 50% of the country’s poor.

According to planning commission estimates, some 10 crore people who are below the poverty line would be living in undivided Bihar and Orissa. Total number of people who fall into the category of poor would be 22 crore at the end of the 10th plan period.

There are states which together with undivided Madhya Pradesh, undivided Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and West Bengal would account for a little more than 80% of the poor in the country at the end of the 10th plan period. Poverty levels would continue to reign high in these four states despite substantial reduction in the percentage of poor population.

Rural poverty will continue to be higher than urban poverty. The national average for rural poverty has been pegged at 21.07% while urban poverty is estimated to 15-5 at the end of the 10th plan period.

Considering that a significant portion of India lives is rural areas, in absolute numbers about 17 crore people in rural areas would remain poor in 2007. In comparison the number for urban areas is pegged at a little under 5 crore people. States such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Delhi would have higher ratio of urban poor than rural poor in 2007.

Improvement of Village Panchayats – The 73rd constitutional amendment in 1992, which conferred constitutional status on the Panchayti Raj Institution was considered to be means of decentralization and more effective delivery of rural development initiatives. A decades down the line through the required institutional framework has been put in place in nearly all the states but the extent of decentralization attained is only modest.

The issue is partly related to the peculiar aspects of the fiscal position of local bodies. While they are expected to take up a largest share of development activities in a decentralised framework, their own revenue mobilisation capacity does not grow correspondingly. Apart from this fiscal issue the autonomy of local body gets affected by the inadequacy of powers transferred to them by the state government. A working group of the planning commission for the Tenth Plan period also observed that through the progress on political devolution the PRIs in terms of election has been well established. The Gram Sabha in most Panchayti Raj acts have been entrusted with only ceremonial functions. Thus the goal of decentralised planning is still far from being realised.

The working group has therefore suggested that the powers and functions of the local bodies should be enlarged significantly. It has also recommended greater power of taxation and avenues for non-tax revenue to these bodies and provision of united grants.

Essay No. 02

Rural lives in villages. About.70% of its population lives in villages, scattered all over the country like stars in the night sky. About 96% of India’s geographical area is covered by villages. The vast majority of India living in rural areas cannot be taken lightly in any planning aimed at socio-economic development of the country.

It is now increasingly being felt that no planning can be successful unless more and more attention is paid to rural development schemes and poverty alleviation programmes. Therefore, many new schemes to ameliorate the conditions of the rural population are being launched, and the old ones are being completed expeditiously. That this rural bias and thrust has registered a success is evident from the fact that the poverty line has come down significantly, from over 57% in 1961 to 26% in 1999-2000. The implementation of various community development programmes in the first three Five Year Plans and specific poverty alleviation and unemployment removal programmes during the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Five Year Plans have gone a long way in the upliftment of the masses in the villages. The quantum of financial assistance and allocation under the Ninth Five Year Plan was raised substantially and many major structural changes have been effected to achieve the targeted goals of rural development, poverty alleviation and employment generation schemes. Consequently, the number of beneficiaries is rising rapidly. The Constitutional sanction granted to gram panchayats, etc. has further boosted the morale of rural institutions.

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) is a major instrument to alleviate rural poverty. The main objectives of IRDP are to raise families of the identified target group above the poverty line and create substantial opportunities of self-employment in the villages. The funds for this programme are shared 50:50 between the Centre and the states. In case of the Union Territories, complete financial assistance is provided by the Centre. The scheme is being implemented through the District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) and block level functionaries at the grass root levels. At the level of the state, there is a co-ordination committee headed by the chief secretary to look after its overall implementation. IRDP was first launched in 1978-79 in 2,300 blocks and, was extended to cover all the 5,011 blocks of the country from October 2, 1980.

The scheme, meant to improve the social and economic condition of the poorest of the rural poor, is being evaluated through research conducted by independent and government institutions. According to the report of January-December 1989, about 20% of the old families crossed the poverty line of Rs. 3,500 and 28% of the revised poverty line of Rs.6,400. However, about 78% of the families had incremental income. Nearly 34% of the assisted families belong to destitute and 46%, very poor groups. The major impact of the scheme is that it benefits the poorest and the most deprived sectors of the society. The families eligible for help under the scheme are those where the annual family income is less than Rs. 4,800 per year. It also includes families of small and marginal farmers whose operational holding is less than 5 acres of land. The final selection of these poor families is done through grain panchayats and gramsabhas. Special attention is being paid to women. They are organised in groups for productive activities. These groups are given training and provided with suitable monetary help for increasing their family income.

Then there is the National Scheme of Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM), launched as a centrally-sponsored scheme on 15 August, 1979. The main emphasis of the scheme is on equipping rural youth, in the age group of 18-35 years, with necessary skills and technology to take up vocations for self-employment in agriculture and allied activities, industry, services and business. There are some special schemes to improve the lot of rural women and children, under which groups of 5-10 rural women are formed for carrying on income generating activities. Each group is sanctioned a revolving fund of Rs. 15,000. In case of states, the fund is shared equally by the Centre, state government and UNICEF, while in the Union Territories, the Centre bears Rs. 10,000 per group and the balance is borne by UNICEF. UNICEF also bears the expenditure on the staff component for a period of six years. The scheme has taken significant strides since its beginning in 1982.

Similarly, various pilot projects have been launched to generate employment. These include Crash Scheme for Rural Employment (CSRE), Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Programme (PIREP) and National Rural Employment Programme. These schemes and programmes specifically aim at generating additional gainful employment opportunities, creation of durable community assets and improvement of overall quality of life in the rural areas. To improve the lot of landless labourers, the Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) was launched in 1984. The programme guarantees employment to at least one member of every landless labour family up to 100 days in a year. The Jawahar Rozgar Yojana is an ambitious programme being implemented through the village panchayats. It seeks to guarantee employment to at least one person in a rural household living below the poverty line. It was launched in 1989. Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana, launched in April 1999, is a new scheme for rural development.

The budget for the year 1995-96 was again a village-oriented one: in which many gifts were given to the rural masses. It envisaged establishment of Rural Infrastructure Development fund, a technological development and modernisation fund for small scale industries, with Rs.200 crores initial capital, a National Social Assistance Scheme to give a minimum old age pension and lumpsum survivor benefits to the poor and maternity benefits to poor women, among many other schemes. It also proposed to set up an exclusive line of credit of Rs. 400 crores to co-operative and regional, rural banks to meet the needs of scheduled castes and tribes in a 100-odd predominantly rural, tribal districts. There is also a proposal to begin a Group Life Insurance Scheme of the LIC to be implemented by the panchayats in rural areas. The liberal package for the rural poor and vulnerable sections of the village society is laudable, but the main problem is that all the benefits do not reach the targeted poor people. Much of the funds are misappropriated by intermediaries responsible for the implementation of these packages.

Essay No. 03

“Even after 56 years of independence, right from the Nehru era to the Vajpayee era, the rural India of today still short of basic amenities, as in drinking water, electricity, roads, housing, food and clothing.”

India is a vast country containing more than five lakh villages. Seventy percent of the population of India lives in villages. Therefore, the welfare of our country lies in the welfare of our villages. Our country cannot develop as long as our villages remain backward. It is a matter of shame that even after more than forty years of independence, our villages continue to be backward and under-developed. Our villages do not have even the basic amenities of life. There are no good schools, no hospitals and no good roads. Even drinking water and electricity are not available there. There is no sanitation. Most of our villages have no drains. People continue to live in the most unhygienic condition. They fall an easy prey to various diseases and die unattended in the absence of sufficient medical facilities. They live in dirt, misery and poverty. They are illiterate and ignorant. They are badly exploited by the money-lenders, the so-called men of religion and unscrupulous politicians. All this must change now.

Our economy is developing fast, industries and big corporate are going globalised, with liberalization, tremendous changes are being felt in Information technology, manufacturing, service\ sector, but nobody thinks of the rural development to make it as fast as in these sectors. Then what all this progress and development means. Benefitting to 30% of the total population, already developed and above poverty does not mean actual development. The National Literacy Mission was launched in 1988 with the intention of bring about total literacy by 2005. Under Total Literacy Campaign 80 million people in 417 districts have been covered and 18.44 million people have been covered in 178 districts under the Post Literacy Campaign. Most of the marginal farmers have taken to dairying and have become a part of the white revolution in India. Dairy Development has helped the country’s programme of rural development. Amul in Gujarat is the success story of co-operative dairying, which has enabled large number of villagers in Gujarat in raising their standards of living through economic growth. The establishment to rural bank has been “to fulfill the aims of institutionalizing the credit structure and enhancing its area and coverage.” They are intended to save the rural population from banking on the money lenders. Funds would be allocated at low rates of interest to rural entrepreneurs to start small scale industries.

The present government realized the gravity of the situation and has taken some important measures to develop infrastructure in the country side. The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) launched on Dec 25, 2000, seeks to provide road connectively through good all weather roads to all unconnected habitations having a population of more than 1000 persons by the year 2003 and those with a population of more than 500 persons by the end of the Tenth plan i.e. 2007. An investment of about Rs. 38000 crore has been made so far in the water supply sector. According to government have been covered by the provision of drinking water facility. The revised rural water supply programme envisaged:

The involvement of the people in the choice of scheme designs, control of finances and management arrangements.
Shifting the role of government from direct service delivery to that of facilitator.
Partial cost sharing either in cash or kind or both.
100% responsibility of operation and maintenance by end users.

Under the Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY), it is proposed to tackle quality related problems like fluorides, arsenic and iron contamination, blackishness and also sustainability of drinking water services. The states are also being encouraged to promote schemes of water conservation, rain water harvesting ground water recharge in respect of regions where programmes such as Desert Development Programmes, Drought Prone Area Development Programme are running.

SGSY (Swaranajayanti Gram Swarojagar Yojana) was also launched on April 1, 1999 to support the family income of rural poor. The scheme aimed at establishing a large number of micro enterprises for individuals or group or self help groups, in order to bring every assisted family above the poverty line. Four or Five activities identifiedin each block based on the resources, occupational skills of the people and .he availability of markets with the start of SGSY, all the old rural development programmes like IRDP, DWCRA, TRYSEM etc. have ceased to operate. In addition to discussed programmes and schemes there are so many other programmes like Employment Assurance Programme, Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana, National Social Assistance Programme, Annapurana Scheme and the like, for the development of the rural area.

Recently several new schemes were introduced to strengthen the rural infrastructure. The Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF), RIDF-V was allocated Rs. 3500 crore. The Annapurna scheme intends to provide 10 kg of food grains free to senior citizens in the rural areas. Under a new Education Guarantee Scheme, new school would be opened with in 1 km radius of habitants, in the coming years. The existing Jawahar Rozgar Yojana was modified and renamed as Gram Samridhi Yojana. All funds under the scheme would be placed at the disposal of Gram Panchayat, to be used with the sanction of the Grams Sabha. All the existing self-employment schemes were merged into a single programme called the Swaran-Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana. Similarly all the existing schemes of housing for the poor were merged to form the Samagra Awas Yojana, under which 140 lakh houses would be constructed for the homeless in the next few years. The Ninth plan accords priority to agriculture and rural development with a view to generating productive employment and eradication of poverty. As India resides in villages sincere effects must be undertaken by our national leaders for the decentralization of powers. Short sigh tedness, lack of understanding and determination have already led to the poor plight of the rural population. The political leaders should realize their responsibilities and apply their foresight to achieve the objectives of rural development.

Though a lot of initiative has been taken by the present government to improve the economic conditions of rural people and providing infrastructure to boost the rural economy, yet much more is required keeping in view the peculiarity of our rural areas in the field of education, electrification, drinking water, health and hygiene sector etc. The implementation is to be properly checked to bring the needed results.

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Meaning Of Rural Development

Rural Development in India

Rural development usually refers to the method of enhancing the quality of life and financial well-being of individuals, specifically living in populated and remote areas.

Traditionally, rural development was centred on the misuse of land-intensive natural resources such as forestry and agriculture. However today, the increasing urbanisation and the change in global production networks have transformed the nature of rural areas.

Rural development still remains the core of the overall development of the country. More than two-third of the country’s people are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood, and one-third of rural India is still below the poverty line. Therefore, it is important for the government to be productive and provide enough facilities to upgrade their standard of living.

Rural development is a term that concentrates on the actions taken for the development of rural areas to improve the economy. However, few areas that demand more focused attention and new initiatives are:

Public health and Sanitation
Women empowerment
Infrastructure development (electricity, irrigation, etc.)
Facilities for agriculture extension and research
Availability of credit
Employment opportunities

Importance of Rural Development

Rural development is important not only for the majority of the population residing in rural areas, but also for the overall economic expansion of the nation.

Rural development is considered to be of noticeable importance in the country today than in the olden days in the process of the evolution of the nation. It is a strategy that tries to obtain an improved and productivity, higher socio-economic equality and ambition, and stability in social and economic development.

The primary task is to decrease the famine that exists in roughly about 70 percent of the rural population, and to make sufficient and healthy food available.

The secondary task is to ensure the availability of clothing and footwear, a clean environment and house, medical attention, recreational provision, education, transport, and communication.

Objectives of Rural Development

The objectives composed by the government in the sixth five-year plan for rural development are:

To improve productivity and wages of rural people
To guarantee increased and quick employment possibilities
To demolish unemployment and bring a notable decline in underemployment
To guarantee an increase in the standard of living of the underprivileged population
To provide the basic needs: elementary education, healthcare, clean drinking water, rural roads, etc.

Solved Questions.

1. Explain rural development and its importance.

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Essay On Rural Development For Students & Children In Simple English

The world is changing, and the way we educate our children is becoming more important than ever. This essay will provide some insight into how to teach children in a way that makes them feel safe and happy while also teaching them about their environment.

Rural development is development that is done to enhance the living circumstances of people in rural regions, as well as to develop and transform rural areas into urban areas. Many nations value the development of rural regions, and India is no exception. Many Indians live in rural areas in villages that are underdeveloped, and people here live as if they are ruining their lives, and each day they confront new difficulties in the society they live in.

The welfare of the nation and its growth are both reliant on the wealth of the villages. There are individuals living without their daily requirements because they are unable to get them. They are not supplied with adequate water or any of the other necessities of life, since people in this region often struggle every day to obtain these necessities. There is no growth, no structures as in metropolitan areas, and most people live in tiny communities and go about their daily lives.

Methods For Rural Area Development

Essay-On-Rural-Development-For-Students-038-Children-In-Simple

Because there are many methods to transform a rural region into an urban sector, the governments of all countries, including India’s, should pay attention to these areas and improve the status of the villages.

People who are educated and live in urban areas should visit these rural areas and plan many projects for the development of these areas on a low budget so that the government can handle the development of these areas properly with the help of employees who are well educated and know everything there is to know about these sectors.

There should be little education and many schools for the children in these areas because the sanitation problem is the main problem that is sabotaging the country’s development. The government should see this problem and solve the sanitation problem as soon as possible because it is the main problem that is sabotaging the country’s development.

The government should take certain steps to help individuals who do not practice good cleanliness. If they are unable to do so, they should be taught, and numerous schools should be established to educate those who are unable to practice good hygiene. When the inhabitants in these regions are able to assist those who are attempting to turn the area into an urban sector, the villages will see significant growth.

Following Rural Development

1625962526_745_Essay-On-Rural-Development-For-Students-038-Children-In-Simple

When there is a decent road and a proper means of communication in rural regions, the techniques of agriculture and supply issues should also be applied, and as a result of all of this, the people in the villages will be able to live their lives correctly, just like the people in the cities.

Proper education and various schemes should be implemented because, as a result of the education provided to the children in this village, each child will be able to make a name for themselves in some fields and will be able to proudly represent our country, resulting in the overall development of our country in all fields.

If you have any more questions on Essay Rural Development, please post them in the comments section below.

Rural development notes is a essay that discusses rural development for students and children in simple English. Reference: rural development notes .

Frequently Asked Questions

What is rural development essay.

A rural development essay is a type of academic writing that typically discusses the economic, social, or cultural aspects of rural areas.

What is the importance of rural development?

Rural development is the process of improving the quality of life for rural communities. It is a broad term that includes several activities, such as economic development, education, health care, transportation, and social services.

What is the role of education in rural development?

Education is the key factor in rural development. Without education, people will not be able to get jobs and earn money.

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Guest Essay

Biden Wants to Send Billions to Rural America, but This Must Happen First

By Tony Pipa

Mr. Pipa is a senior fellow at the Center for Sustainable Development at the Brookings Institution.

President Biden regularly emphasizes how the major pieces of legislation he has signed — the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, the CHIPS and Science Act and the Inflation Reduction Act — expand opportunities for Americans.

This is especially true for rural Americans. Those three laws appropriated billions of dollars — about $464 billion — for many projects that could be particularly relevant to rural communities, allowing them to dream of a different economic future.

I am often asked if rural voters will give Mr. Biden credit for all that money and the changes it could bring and will show their appreciation at the ballot box. My answer is that it is unrealistic to expect place-specific investments to have an immediate impact on elections.

Rural places remain skeptical that federal policymakers have their best interests at heart. Proving otherwise will take intention and time.

Above all, implementation matters. These investment opportunities will be meaningless unless they reach rural America. For that to happen, federal and local officials and many people in between will need to focus on intentional targeting and sensitivity to the challenges that rural places face.

It is important to keep in mind that many rural governments are led by unpaid elected officials, and few rural city halls have staffs to work on planning, project development and grant writing.

Only 15 percent of Michigan’s smallest jurisdictions , for example, express confidence in their ability to get access to federal grants, whereas the rate for jurisdictions over 30,000 people is close to 40 percent. A national survey published in 2019 found more than half of rural counties experienced moderate or significant fiscal stress, so for programs where local governments must match the federal funding, those counties face an additional challenge.

This does not bode well for equitable distribution of those federal investments. According to analysis I did with a fellow researcher, just 2 percent of the appropriations in the bills are reserved exclusively for rural places. Getting any of the remainder means vying successfully with larger jurisdictions.

The demand among rural and small towns clearly exists. For two new programs geared toward energy improvements in remote and rural communities under 10,000 people, the Department of Energy received more than 1,000 submissions combined. The new Recompete pilot program , intended to enable economic renewal in distressed places and overseen by the Economic Development Administration at the Department of Commerce, received a deluge of 565 applications — the most applications the development agency has received for a national program in its history. About half of the areas that were eligible are rural.

The scale of interest compounds the challenge. These and other programs’ popularity, combined with rural communities’ limited resources, means that success rates will be exceptionally low. It highlights the importance of leveling the playing field so the most vulnerable communities are not left out.

A critical first step will be to make sure that local communities have the staff and access to the expertise and administrative capacity necessary to secure and manage these investments.

As the Biden administration makes major investments in creating technical assistance centers in communities across the country, rural places must get to participate and benefit.

Congress also has a vital and continuing role to play. The Rural Partnership and Prosperity Act is bipartisan legislation that has been proposed in the Senate and the House of Representatives , and it is now included in the negotiations for the 2024 Farm Bill . Such a measure could be a game changer in getting flexible support directly to rural partnerships so they can unlock these opportunities.

The processes and requirements to gain access to those investments could also be simplified; no one should be required to fill out a 400-page application. We’ve already seen some improvements. The administration has put so-called navigators in selected communities to help them identify funding opportunities, and some agencies like the U.S. Forest Service have modified their processes to help communities apply for grants. These advances ought to be more widely adopted across the federal government.

States or financial and nonprofit intermediaries will also have the final say on the fate of much of the investment that is important for rural places, like broadband and water .

It’s not just about access to these opportunities. The extent to which local communities are in the driver’s seat and how widely the benefits accrue beyond local elites will be instrumental in avoiding the extractive practices that have often haunted rural economies. This means taking the time and providing the chance for people to influence the decisions that will affect them.

Take rural Humboldt County, Calif., where plans are underway to put immense wind turbines off its coast, a clean energy installation large enough to provide 6 percent of the state’s supply of electricity. A decision is pending by a state agency as to whether any of that electricity will land in Humboldt itself, where some federally recognized Native tribes do not have dependable power to this day.

The biggest risk is that politics stop the momentum created by these laws, because the investments are just getting started. For example, the money has not even begun to flow to local projects from the infrastructure act’s signature $42.5 billion investment to close the broadband gap .

Leading policy voices on the right have proposed dissolving or consolidating agencies like the Economic Development Administration and pulling these resources without offering an alternative vision for supporting rural development. That will simply once again starve rural places of investment. It does not seem like a long-term winning strategy.

Nor does vilifying an entire segment of the rural population based on specious analysis , as parts of the liberal elite seem wont to do.

The struggles that portions of rural America are experiencing were decades in the making. Common sense dictates that the solutions will not transpire overnight. Congress and the Biden administration have put the initial pieces in place to help many rural places transition to a brighter economic future. The president’s campaign pitch to rural voters ought to be the opportunity to stay the course. The political rewards may be far in the future, but it’s the right thing for rural communities — and for the country.

Tony Pipa is a senior fellow at the Center for Sustainable Development at the Brookings Institution, where he leads the Reimagining Rural Policy Initiative and hosts the “ Reimagine Rural ” podcast.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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Essay on Rural Development

How to Make Sure Rural Electrification Actually Powers Economic Development

Ama Baafra Abeberese Ama Baafra Abeberese

Shaping energy transitions.

Summary: While it may be easy to assume that electricity inevitably fosters economic development, recent research has found that, in many cases, rural electrification has had surprisingly limited impacts on living standards [1], [2]. This memo suggests complementary measures that could maximize the benefits of rural electrification and ensure that it actually alleviates poverty.

Subsidize electrical appliances

The economic benefits of electrification can only be realized when electricity is put to productive use. Access to a grid connection or an off-grid system does not mean rural households or businesses also have access to the financial resources to purchase new electrical appliances or equipment. Programs that provide electricity without an immediate practical application often result in underutilization. Studies show that, in Kenya and Bangladesh, wealthier households gained more from rural electrification efforts than less wealthy households, as they were better positioned to buy electrical appliances [3], [4].

Policy Action: Support household and firm purchases of electrical appliances, e.g., through subsidized loans. One positive example of pairing electrification with support to purchase appliances is the 1930s US rural electrification program, which is shown to have increased income. The program financed electricity generation, transmission, and distribution in rural areas via government loans. Its effectiveness partly stemmed from concurrently offering government-funded low-interest loans to purchase electrical appliances [3]. A variety of appliances, including milking machines, refrigerators, water heaters, sewing machines, and washing machines, enhanced household and farm productivity.

Disseminate information on productive uses of electricity

While residential electricity use is important, electrification’s potential to generate income and galvanize long-term economic growth lies in its non-residential consumption. Therefore, having firms that utilize electricity for production is crucial to harnessing rural electrification’s full benefits. A study in India found no economic gains from electrification in small villages but found gains in larger villages because they had more firms [1].

Limited awareness of the potential transformative uses of electricity can also curb the effectiveness of rural electrification. The information barrier is particularly salient in rural areas given the baseline low levels of electricity and, hence, little familiarity with its uses. A 2009 study in rural Benin concluded that households and firms underutilized electricity due to a lack of awareness about its potential uses [5]. For instance, despite potential productivity gains from using electricity to power machines, firms mainly used electricity for lighting.

Policy Action: Disseminate information and encourage productive uses of electricity, particularly in newly-connected communities. Some World Bank rural electrification projects include the promotion of productive uses through outreach to small businesses [6]. For instance, in Indonesia’s rural electrification project, the power utility partnered with local NGOs to disseminate information on uses of electricity to rural businesses via radio communications, community meetings, field visits, and demonstrations of the use of electrical equipment [7]. Similarly, Peru’s rural electrification program promoted productive uses of electricity, which led to the adoption of electrical equipment for processing food commodities, wood, and metals, as well as for pumping water for agriculture [8]. The success of the 1930s US electrification program was also partly due to an information campaign on the productive uses of electricity, such as storage and irrigation [3].

Build complementary infrastructure

Complementary infrastructure, such as roads, enhance the economic impact of rural electrification programs. Electrification can power production processes, but these production processes require inputs, and the output from production has to be subsequently sold in markets. Transportation infrastructure boosts development by enhancing market access, complementing the role of electricity in production.

Policy Action: Implement an integrated infrastructure framework that complements electricity with other infrastructure. For example, the Kalangala Integrated Infrastructure Programme in Uganda developed roads, ferries, water supply systems, and power plants in the Kalangala fishing town, making it one of the wealthiest regions in the country due to its easy access to markets, fish processing facilities, and refrigeration capabilities [9]. Studies on rural India and sub-Saharan Africa also find synergies between electrification and road access [10], [11], [12]. Access to both electricity and roads yields greater increases in production and employment than access to either alone.

Improve reliability and affordability

Connecting villages to the grid cannot improve development outcomes if consumers are unable to afford electricity or if it is of poor quality due to frequent outages. To cope with outages and high prices , firms may switch to less electricity-reliant production processes, leading to a reduction in productivity and growth. Studies in India and Ghana have found output and productivity are negatively affected by high electricity prices and outages [13], [14], [15].

Policy Action: Increase electricity reliability and affordability through investment planning to align generation with growing energy demand, carefully targeting subsidies to the poorest consumers to minimize waste and financial burden, making utilities financially viable through measures such as prepaid metering to reduce theft and non-payment, and smart metering to detect electricity quality issues. Successful interventions include the use of prepaid metering in South Africa, which reduced utilities’ revenue recovery costs [16], and smart metering in the Kyrgyz Republic, which improved electricity service quality [17].

In assessing electrification programs, it is important to recognize that the full economic benefits of rural electrification may only occur in the long term and only after the root causes of the limiting factors are addressed. Further research on the effectiveness of these complementary actions and policies can help design successful and economically effective rural electrification programs.

Burlig, Fiona, and Louis Preonas. 2022. “Out of the Darkness and Into the Light? Development Effects of Electrification in India.” https://www.fionaburlig.com/s/RGGVY_paper_20220216.pdf
Lee, Kenneth, Edward Miguel, and Catherine Wolfram. 2020a. “Experimental Evidence on the Economics of Rural Electrification.” Journal of Political Economy, 128(4): 1523-1565.
Lee, Kenneth, Edward Miguel, and Catherine Wolfram. 2020b. “Does Household Electrification Supercharge Economic Development?” Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(1): 122-144.
Khandker, Shahidur R., Douglas F. Barnes, and Hussain A. Samad. 2012. “The Welfare Impacts of Rural Electrification in Bangladesh.” Energy Journal, 33 (1): 187–206.
Peters, Jörg, Marek Harsdorff, and Florian Ziegler. 2009. “Rural electrification: Accelerating Impacts with Complementary Services.” Energy for Sustainable Development, 13(1): 38-42.
ESMAP (Energy Sector Management Assistance Program). 2023. “Accelerating the Productive Use of Electricity: Enabling Energy Access to Power Rural Economic Growth.” World Bank: Washington, DC. https://www.esmap.org/Accelerating-the-Productive-Use-of-Electricity
Finucane, James, Juliette Besnard, and Raluca Georgiana Golumbeanu. 2021. “Raising Rural Productive Uses of Electricity: A Case Study of a Successful Utility-NGO Partnership in Indonesia.’’ Live Wire: 2021/119. World Bank: Washington, DC.
Wagstaff, James. 2019. “Off-Grid Innovation Improves Thousands of Lives in Rural Peru.” ESMAP Impact: 15/2019. World Bank: Washington, DC. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/541211565721769744/pdf/Off-Grid-Innovation-Improves-Thousands-of-Lives-in-Rural-Peru.pdf
World Bank. 2023. “Kalangala Integrated Infrastructure Programme, Bugala Island, Uganda.” https://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership/subnational-and-municipal/kalangala-integrated-infrastructure-programme-bugala-island-uganda .
Chaurey, Ritam, and Duong Trung Le. 2022. “Infrastructure Maintenance and Rural Economic Activity: Evidence from India.” Journal of Public Economics, 214 (2022): 104725.
Eynde, Oliver Vanden, and Liam Wren-Lewis. 2023. “Complementarities in Infrastructure: Evidence from Rural India.” Paris School of Economics, Working paper No. 2021-29. https://shs.hal.science/halshs-03225063v2
Abbasi, Mansoureh, Mathilde Lebrand, Arcady Mongoue, Roland Pongou, and Fan Zhang. 2023. “Roads, Electricity, and Jobs: Evidence of Infrastructure Complementarity in Sub-Saharan Africa.” https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4516253
Allcott, Hunt, Allan Collard-Wexler, and Stephen D. O’Connell. 2016. “How Do Electricity Shortages Affect Industry? Evidence from India.” American Economic Review, 106(3): 587-624.
Abeberese, Ama Baafra, Charles Godfred Ackah, and Patrick Opoku Asuming. 2021. “Productivity Losses and Firm Responses to Electricity Shortages: Evidence from Ghana.” World Bank Economic Review, 35(1): 1-18.
Abeberese, Ama Baafra. 2017. “Electricity Cost and Firm Performance: Evidence from India.” Review of Economics and Statistics, 99(5): 839-852.
Jack, Kelsey, and Grant Smith. 2020. “Charging ahead: Prepaid Metering, Electricity Use, and Utility Revenue.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 12(2): 134-168.
Meeks, Robyn C., Arstan Omuraliev, Ruslan Isaev, and Zhenxuan Wang. 2023. “Impacts of Electricity Quality Improvements: Experimental Evidence on Infrastructure Investments.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 120 (2023): 102838.

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Success Stories

New mexico winery harnesses sun’s power to make wine and cider.

Man holding two bottles of wine in front of Black Mesa Winery sign

As you drive north of Santa Fe, New Mexico, through Velarde, it might be easy to miss the small vineyard nestled in the middle of Black Mesa. If you stop in, though, you will have the opportunity to taste wine flavored with local choke cherries, prickly pear fruit from the property, and chiles grown in the valley. If the taste of New Mexico doesn’t let you know where you are, the chile ristras and relaxing mountain scenery will.

Jerry and Lynda Burd purchased the vineyard and its winery in 2000. Since then, they have expanded by adding more vines and have started producing cider made with 100% local apples. Lynda designs all the bottle artwork using New Mexico-inspired designs.

“We say it is art in the bottle, because my wife is an artist and she does the art on the outside and I do the art on the inside,” said Jerry. “It has worked for us to be able to do that and focus on the art of winemaking and also how it looks to people.”

It may be hard to notice how many environmentally friendly practices the winery has at first glance, but a quick visit to the Black Mesa Winery and Cidery website provides a long list of what the company calls “green practices.” The list includes energy efficiency, water usage, and considerations for local wildlife—particularly beneficial insects and birds.

“We don’t use spray on the vines, because we don’t want it to kill the ladybugs and the spiders, because they help kill whiteflies,” shared Jerry. “We have about 400 hummingbirds that nest down here. Hummingbirds can’t take sugar water to their babies—all they can take is protein—so they catch some of the whiteflies and take them to their babies. So, we make sure we keep our hummingbirds happy, too.”

The winery also uses solar power. Thanks in part to a Rural Energy for America Program grant from Rural Development, on sunny days the winery uses 100% solar energy. Not only has this helped the company be more environmentally friendly, but also it has helped the company market its products.

“I think the solar has helped, because people are always looking for something different, or something more friendly for the environment,” said Jerry. “It’s fun to know that we are actually taking advantage of the New Mexican sun.”

The Burds installed the solar panels in June 2023. They say the new panels have helped reduce the company’s carbon emissions by over 21 tons and saved over 489 trees and 2,142 gallons of gas since then.

Another way the winery is helping the environment is through composting and using drip irrigation from a well on the property.

Man standing on trail with solar panels and mountains in background

“The trimmings from the vines, the grape skins—everything about a grape that doesn’t ferment—gets put in the compost,” said Jerry. “All the water on the place is pumped back into the vines. Nothing leaves the property.”

The Burds’ care for the environment might only be overshadowed by their care for the community. Four years ago, they started a summer farmers market on the property. They also host community events with local food vendors and have local bands play live music every Wednesday and Friday.

The property also hosts a wine-glass-shaped labyrinth that Lynda designed and their employees built using river and lava rocks from the valley. You can find it by following the petroglyph trail behind the vineyard, where you can see rock carvings from different timeframes. The trail and labyrinth are a relaxing place to take a stroll while you drink a freshly poured glass of wine or cider.

When asked what his favorite part of owning the winery was, Jerry took no time to think about his response.

“I have got to meet a lot of really neat people,” he said. “I’ve seen a lot of smiles and met people from all over the world because they come to Santa Fe and Taos. I see them taste the wines and ciders and say it’s so good, so it’s kind of a pat on the back.”

To learn more about how Rural Development might be able to help you or your business, check out our list of financial assistance programs . To view more photos of the winery, visit the Rural Development Flickr page.

New Mexico: District 3

Working Together for Change on Spruce Head Island: Maine Oyster Company Goes Green with REAP Grant

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The various chapters provide a wide-ranging multidisciplinary exploration of approaches and models capable to account for small farm's role in the food system and in its outcomes, as well as to suggest policies capable to change the food systems' development trajectories towards sustainable con ﬁ gurations. The Introduction describes the rationale and the aim of the book, together with ...
Essay On Rural Development For Students & Children In Simple English
The essay on rural area is a short essay that discusses the importance of rural development for students and children. Rural development is development that is done to enhance the living circumstances of people in rural regions, as well as to develop and transform rural areas into urban areas. Many nations value the development of rural regions ...
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In these three essays, I analyse the effects of institutions on rural development through the lens of natural resource management in chapter 1, agricultural productivity in chapter 2, and rural agglomeration economies in chapter 3. In chapter 1, we study whether the standard tragedy of the commons problem for groundwater is intensified by ...
Write an essay on agriculture and rural development in english
Write an essay on agriculture and rural development in english | Essay writing on agriculture and rural development in english | 10 Lines on agriculture and ...
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This is especially true for rural Americans. Those three laws appropriated billions of dollars — about $464 billion — for many projects that could be particularly relevant to rural communities ...
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Rural industrial integration refers to the process of relying on technological innovation and industrial model innovation to promote the optimal allocation of factors such as land, capital, and labor in rural areas, promote the optimization of a rural industrial structure, rural property rights stability, agricultural and rural development, and ultimately achieve the extension of the ...
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The importance of the Rural Development: T (...)[/dk_lang] [dk_lang lang="mr"]What is Rural Development? Rural Development refers to process of improving or uplifting the living conditions of the people living in rural areas.
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Summary: While it may be easy to assume that electricity inevitably fosters economic development, recent research has found that, in many cases, rural electrification has had surprisingly limited impacts on living standards [1], [2]. This memo suggests complementary measures that could maximize the benefits of rural electrification and ensure that it actually alleviates poverty.
New Mexico Winery Harnesses Sun's Power to Make Wine and Cider
As you drive north of Santa Fe, New Mexico, through Velarde, it might be easy to miss the small vineyard nestled in the middle of Black Mesa. If you stop in, though, you will have the opportunity to taste wine flavored with local choke cherries, prickly pear fruit from the property, and chiles grown in the valley. If the taste of New Mexico doesn't let you know where you are, the chile ...

Rural Development

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1. Essay on the Introduction to Rural Development:

2. Essay on the Activities and Experiments Undertaken for Rural Development:

Programmes and Projects in Post-Independence Period:

3. Essay on the Rural Development Programmes in India:

(i) Community Development Programme (CDP):

(ii) Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP):

(iii) Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP):

(iv) High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP):

(v) Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA):

(vi) Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFALDA):

(vii) Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP):

(viii) Integrated Tribal Development Agencies (ITDA):

(ix) Modified Area Development Approach (MADA):

(x) Command Area Development Programme (CADP):

4. Essay on the Institutions for Rural Development:

5. Essay on the Observations and Problems of Rural Development :

(i) More Generalized Programme :

(ii) Inadequate Coordination :

(iii) Based on Ruling Party Principles and Ideologies :

(iv) Inadequate Funds :

(v) Land based Economy :

(vi) Authority Structure:

(vii) Leakage of Benefits :

(viii) Low Sustaining Impact :

(ix) Dominance of Welfare over Productivity:

(x) Based on the Principles and Policies of Political Parties :

6. Essay on the Suggestions for Rural Development in India:

Related Articles:

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Essay on Rural Development Programme in India

Essay # 1. Introduction to Rural Development Programme in India:

Essay # 2. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP):

Main Objectives:

Sub-Schemes of IRDP for Rural Development:

Essay # 3. National Rural Employment Programme (NREP):

Objectives :

Progress and Evaluation of NREP under the Sixth Plan:

Progress and Evaluation of NREP under the Seventh Plan :

Essay # 4 . Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) :

Essay # 5. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY):

Achievements and Evaluation:

Essay # 6. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) :

Essay # 7. Rural Group Life Insurence Scheme (RGLIS) :

Essay # 8. Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY)/National Rural Livelihoods:

NRLM Guiding Principles: