thesis on motivation

• < Previous

Home > ETDs 2023- > 333

Graduate Thesis and Dissertation 2023-2024

Work motivation and occupational attitudes: an application of self-determination theory among rangers.

Richard L. Elligson Jr , University of Central Florida Follow

wildlife law enforcement, conservation, policing, self-legitimacy, job satisfaction, criminal justice

Job attitudes of rangers play a key role in the implementation and effectiveness of conservation initiatives. As such, scholars have begun to examine the attitudes rangers hold towards their role, organization, and external working environment. However, little is known about work motivation among rangers. Work motivation is a key predictor of employee performance, job attitudes, and well-being. The relationship between work motivation and ranger occupational attitudes may offer insight that conservation agencies can leverage to improve positive job attitudes. Guided by self-determination theory and the criminal justice literature, this study examines the relationship between ranger work motivation and attitudes towards self-legitimacy, job satisfaction, and turnover intent. Using survey data collected from a large, international sample of rangers, path analysis is employed to calculate the effects of different forms of work motivation on job attitudes. Results indicate that autonomous motivation (i.e., intrinsic and identified regulation) are significantly and positively associated with ranger perceptions of self-legitimacy and job satisfaction. Additionally, job satisfaction is significantly and negatively associated with turnover intent. Implications include organizational strategies for enhancing autonomous motivation, such as managerial autonomy support as well as implementing organizational justice in the workplace in both ranger and broader policing contexts. Future research should account for the role of work motivation when examining occupational attitudes and consider integrating self-determined work motivation into existing theories.

Completion Date

Committee chair.

Moreto, William

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

College of Community Innovation and Education

Criminal Justice

Degree Program

application/pdf

Release Date

Length of campus-only access, access status.

Doctoral Dissertation (Open Access)

Campus Location

Orlando (Main) Campus

STARS Citation

Elligson, Richard L. Jr, "Work Motivation and Occupational Attitudes: An Application of Self-Determination Theory Among Rangers" (2024). Graduate Thesis and Dissertation 2023-2024 . 333. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd2023/333

Accessibility Status

Meets minimum standards for ETDs/HUTs

Since August 27, 2024

Browse Advisors

• Browse recent Advisors

Advanced Search

• Notify me via email or RSS
• Colleges & Departments
• Disciplines
• Expert Gallery
• My STARS Account
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Follow STARS
• About STARS

Home | About | FAQ | My Account | Accessibility Statement

Privacy Copyright

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 23 August 2024

Different motivation, different achievements: the relationship of motivation and dedication to academic pursuits with final grades among Jewish and Arab undergraduates studying together

• Efrat Gill 1   na1 ,
• Oz Guterman 1   na1 &
• Ari Neuman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1416-5522 2   na1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1079 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

144 Accesses

Metrics details

Much research has indicated disparities between majority and minority groups in academic achievements. In Israel, differences have been recorded between the ethnic majority of students of Jewish origin and the ethnic minority of students of Arab origin. One possible reason for these findings might be differences in motivation, influenced by the respective cultures of the Jewish ethnic majority and Arab ethnic minority. The present research examined the relationship between differences in academic achievements of 73 students of Jewish origin and 74 students of Arab origin studying together and patterns of motivation and dedication to academic pursuits. The findings indicate considerable differences between the two populations in final grades and in motivational patterns and dedication to academic pursuits. In addition, in each of the research populations, different motivations were associated with a higher level of grades.

Similar content being viewed by others

Race, academic achievement and the issue of inequitable motivational payoff

Academic self-discipline as a mediating variable in the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement: mixed methodology

Self-perceptions as mechanisms of achievement inequality: evidence across 70 countries

Academic achievement among majority and minority groups.

In many societies, academic education is considered key to social mobility and is especially important for minority groups (Alsulami, 2018 ; Baskakova et al., 2017 ; Bautista et al., 2023 ; Dominguez-Whitehead, 2017 ). In a review of studies that examined the effect of academic education on the social status of minority groups, Arar and Mustafa ( 2011 ) found that academic education strengthened minority groups by enabling better integration into the labor market, thereby enabling the minority groups better economic, social, and political status. Given the importance of this factor, it is alarming to see data on the gaps between the majority and minority groups in academic achievement. This gap does not exist in all minority groups and there are even cases in which minority groups have higher academic achievements. However, in cases where there is a gap, it is an obstacle to the progress of minority groups (Pérez-Martín and Villardón-Gallego, 2023 ).

Gaps in education and academic success between majority and minority groups at all levels of education have been widely documented in the literature. According to Martin et al. ( 2017 ), this is one of the most difficult and frustrating problems for policymakers. For example, the data on the gaps between students of African American and of white origin in the United States over the last three decades indicated significant differences in grades in favor of the latter (Bowen and Bok, 1998 ; Charles et al., 2009 ; Hung et al., 2020 ). At the college level, students of Latin American and African American origin in the United States had lower academic achievements (average grade and graduation scores) and took a longer time to graduate compared with students of white or Asian origin (Bowen et al., 2009 ; Kugelmass and Ready, 2011 ).

The gap between academic achievements of majority and minority groups in Israel

In Israel, too, there are gaps between the ethnic majority and minority groups, such as, for example, students of Jewish and Arab origin. Arar and Mustafa ( 2011 ) contended that the characteristics of students of Arab origin in Israel’s higher education system were similar to those of other minority groups in the world.

Lufi and Parish-Plass ( 2010 ) argued that the differences between Jewish-origin and Arab-origin students in academic achievements were reflected in a number of academic and educational indicators. Feniger et al. ( 2013 ) found that after completing high school, about 69% of Jewish-origin students eligible for a matriculation certificate continued on to higher education, compared with only 51% of Arab-origin students. Moreover, 74% of the Jewish-origin students completed their studies at the end of the qualifying period, compared with 62% of the Arab-origin students. In other words, about half (51%) of the Jewish-origin students entitled to a matriculation certificate completed a bachelor’s degree, compared with about one-third (32%) of the Arab-origin students. In addition to their relatively low rates of enrollment in academic institutions, the dropout rate among Arab-origin students has been shown to be higher, approximately 16.6% within two years of entering, compared with 12% among Jewish-origin students (Mustafa, 2007 ). Examination of the data on gaps in education over several years revealed an upward trend in the level of education among the Arab population in the last decades, however, the gap between Jews and Arabs remained (Guterman and Gill, 2023 ; Central Bureau of Statistics, 2020 ). These differences were also found to be associated with cultural disparities. The Arab society in Israel is characterized by a higher level of collectivism compared to Jewish society, and these differences were found to be linked to the academic achievements of students, among other factors. (Guterman et al., 2024a ). The Arab society in Israel is generally more traditional, placing a greater emphasis on belonging to the extended family. In this regard, family identity is, on average, more significant for Arab-origin students, and there is a tendency in Arab society in Israel towards more collectivist motivations (Guterman et al., 2024b ).

Differences in motivation and dedication to academic pursuits and cultural differences between Jews and Arabs in Israel

One of the explanations for these gaps between students of Jewish and Arab origin in academic achievements may be motivational differences. Several studies examined the level of motivation of high-school students of Jewish and Arab origin and showed that the desire to pursue academic degrees was higher among students of Arab origin (e.g., Feniger et al., 2021 ; Khattab, 2005 ). However, the effect of different types of motivation on the academic success of the two groups was not examined.

One of the possible explanations for the differences between students of Jewish and Arab origin in Israel in level of motivation and dedication to academic pursuits lies in the cultural differences between these population groups in terms of collectivism and individualism. As explained, previous research has found that students of Arab origin have a higher tendency toward collectivism than students of Jewish origin do (e.g., Amzaleg and Masry-Herzallah, 2022 ).

Research on motivation and dedication to academic pursuits

Several academic models and theories are dedicated to examining the motivation and dedication that individuals exhibit toward their academic endeavors. Each of these theoretical frameworks offers different explanations for the gap in academic achievements between Jewish and Arab populations in Israel, as well as potential disparities between these two groups in motivation and dedication to academic pursuits. Achievement goal theory (AGT; Ames, 1992 ), one of the most widely used theoretical frameworks in the research of motivation to learn (Huang, 2012 ; Urdan and Kaplan, 2020 ), explains students’ purposes for studying. Elliot and Trash ( 2001 ) defined motivation for achievement, and especially motivation for academic achievement as the purpose for which a person engages in goal-driven activities (p. 140). A number of studies have shown the connection between achievement goals in an academic setting and students’ learning behaviors (see, e.g., Meece et al., 2006 ) and examined the characteristics of students who continue to succeed in challenging learning environments.

Earlier studies in the field distinguished between two types of goals: mastery goals, in which the purpose is to develop abilities, and performance goals, in which the purpose is to demonstrate mastery (Ames, 1992 ; Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ). Recent studies have added an approach-avoidance dimension, whereby approach goals arise from the motivation to succeed or the motivation to avoid failure, respectively. Huang ( 2012 ) argued that approach motivation is generally associated with higher academic achievement and avoidance motivation is associated with lower academic achievement.

The underlying factor of motivational orientations is the way in which students assign meaning to school and learning. Nicholls ( 1992 ) argues that mastery goals and performance goals stem from students’ theories about education and learning. These theories are shaped by cultural meanings associated with education in their respective communities and their personal experiences within educational contexts (Maehr and Nicholls, 1980 ). This perspective suggests that in schools within different cultural groups, students may have different theories regarding school and learning.

Significant cultural differences are evident between minority and majority groups. Generally, majority groups adhere to a distinct cultural group that is different from that of minority groups, allowing for the distinction between ‘majority culture’ and ‘minority culture.' Indeed, this viewpoint aligns with the findings that highlight disparities between these groups, in academic achievements. For example, the 2009 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), identified significant achievement gaps between immigrant and non-immigrant students was identified across all domains in most OECD countries. Immigrant students generally exhibited lower proficiency levels compared to their non-immigrant counterparts: in reading in 23 countries, in mathematics in 24 countries, and in science in 25 out of 28 countries. Additionally, academic difficulties were more prevalent among second-generation immigrants compared to first-generation immigrants (OECD, 2012 ).

Disparities in academic achievements were found in Israel between the majority Jewish population and the Arab minority. The gap in achievements was evident in the results of the 2002 PISA exam. According to the exam results, students of Arab origin achieved lower scores than those of Jewish origin, ranking Israel 31st in mathematics, 30th in reading, and 33rd in science out of 42 countries assessed. Conversely, if only scores of Jewish-origin students were considered, Israel would have ranked 12th. It was found that ~60% of students of Arab origin in Israel struggle with reading comprehension, compared to 30% among students of Jewish origin. In the Arab sector, despite an improvement in academic achievements, the eligibility rates for matriculation certificates remain low; among students of Arab origin, the eligibility rate stood at 34%, compared to 51% among students of Jewish origin. Regarding the quality of the matriculation certificate, a higher percentage of Jewish-origin students met the university entry requirements—87%, compared to 73% among Arab-origin students. Additionally, the dropout rate among youth is significantly higher in the Arab sector (Mi-Ami, 2003 ).

Indeed, previous research on differences between Jewish and Arab students in terms of achievements indicated the important role of learning goals (Guterman et al., 2024a ). The study found that the level of approach-avoidance goals of the Arab students was indeed lower than those of the Jewish students. This finding suggests the possibility that the collectivist perceptions of this population might lead to less willingness to create challenges, thus creating more passive and less active coping.

Another common model of motivation is the expectancy-value theory (EVT), a motivational framework that describes the correlation between an individual’s expectation of success in a task and the perceived value attributed to that task. First introduced by Atkinson in 1957 EVT was further developed by Wigfield and Eccles ( 2000 ). This theory comprises two principal components: expectancy and value. Expectancy is an individual’s belief in their ability to achieve success in a task, addressing the question, “Can I effectively execute this task?” Expectancy beliefs are influenced by past accomplishments or failures, thus shaping one’s perception of their likelihood of success. Value refers to the perceived importance, utility, or enjoyment associated with a task, addressing the question, “Do I consider this task worthwhile?” Value is influenced by an individual’s prior experiences, beliefs, and personal objectives. EVT identifies four distinct types of values: intrinsic value (the enjoyment derived from the task), attainment value (the personal significance of achieving success in the task), utility value (the practical usefulness of the task), and cost (the negative aspects associated with engagement in the task).

EVT offers an interesting look at the differences between groups. However, unlike AGT, differences between Jews and Arabs have not yet been examined from the perspective of this theory. In our opinion, and in accordance with EVT, there are no expected differences between the groups in the degree of desire to succeed (value). In other words, even though it is possible that the desire to succeed stems from different motivations, such as a desire for personal achievement (individualism) or a desire for group achievements (collectivism), there is no reason to assume that the desire for success itself would be different.

In contrast, there may be differences in the belief of individuals in their ability to succeed (expectancy). An individualistic perception directs individuals to focus on their own abilities. Indeed, research has shown a correlation between individualism and self-efficacy (Earley, 1994 ). In this respect, according to EVT, students of Jewish origin, who come from a more individualistic society, can be expected to show more active strategies compared with students of Arab origin, whose society is more collectivist.

The present study

The present study focused on motivation and dedication to academic pursuits among students of Jewish and Arab origin who were studying together in a college in Israel. To this end, a questionnaire validated in previous research in Israel was used to examine academic motivational patterns (Eliassy, 1999 ). The students were enrolled at an institution in which approximately half of the students were Jews and the other half were Arabs. The research examined several hypotheses:

In keeping with previous research, including studies conducted with students in academic institutions in Israel (Guterman and Neuman, 2019 ), a gap will be found between the groups in student grades, where the students of Jewish origin will have higher final grades than their peers of Arab origin.

A positive correlation will be found between the level of motivation to study and the final grade point average.

In light of the character of Arab culture in Israel, which is typically more collectivist than Jewish culture (Lapidot-Lefler and Hosri, 2016 ; Sagy et al., 2001 ), the level of passive engagement in learning (which refers to the performance of assignments given by lecturers) will be higher among students of Arab origin compared with those of Jewish origin. As noted, this hypothesis is based on previous findings that suggested a greater reliance on sources of authority as a basis for personal action in Arabs compared with Jewish society in Israel (Lapidot-Lefler and Hosri, 2016 ; Sagy et al., 2001 ).

Participants

The research was conducted with 147 students, all enrolled at the same college in Israel. The sample was divided between 74 students of Arab origin and 73 students of Jewish origin (according to their self-reports, as explained later). To enable examination of differences between the groups, we matched them in terms of the gender and age of the participants.

At the time of the research, the students were in their second year of bachelor’s degree studies. There were 109 female students (74.15% of the sample) and 38 male students (25.85%). Differences between the samples in the distribution of genders were examined using Chi-square analysis; no significant differences were found between the groups of Arab and Jewish origin in terms of the distribution of men and women; Χ 2 (1) = 0.96, p  > 0.5 (among the Arab students: 55 women and 19 men; among the Jewish students: 54 women and 19 men).

The participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 57. The mean age was 24.78 with a standard deviation of 6.64. To examine the differences between the groups in this respect, an independent sample t -test was conducted. No significant differences were found, t (145) = 0.44, p  > 0.05 (Arabs: M  = 24.54, SD = 7.27; Jews: M  = 25.02, SD = 5.98).

The researchers invited social sciences students to participate in the research during their classes at Western Galilee College. They explained that participation was voluntary and were assured that the data would not affect their grades or be used for any purpose other than the research. After the students gave their consent to participate in the research, meetings were arranged to administer the different questionnaires included in the research. The students signed to indicate their consent to participate in the research as well as permission for the research team to examine their final grades. The grades were collected two and a half years after completion of the questionnaires, according to the approval of the Ethics Committee of the college. Seven students dropped out of studies and were therefore not included in the research.

Instruments

Motivational patterns questionnaire.

Eliassy ( 1999 ) developed a questionnaire of 24 items in which the respondents rank the degree to which the statements fit them on a scale of 1 (“not at all true”) to 4 (“true to a great degree”). The items refer to different aspects of studying that represent patterns of high and low motivation in terms of quality and test the degree to which the student expresses willingness to demonstrate each of them. The Hebrew version regarding motivational patterns includes five subscales: (a) persistence when encountering difficulties during studies (such as difficult questions in homework assignments, study material that is hard to understand, and the like). In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale was 0.71; (b) active involvement in studying, where the items examine the degree to which the student demonstrates interest in what is going on in class during lessons and their active participation in activities during lessons (that is, the degree to which the student engages in actions that reflect involvement, such as expressing an opinion, raising one’s hand, and the like). In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale was 0.84; (c) passive involvement in studying, where the items also examine the degree of interest expressed by the student in what is happening in class during lessons, but in this case referring to situations when they turn their attention to what is happening during the lesson but do not take any specific action. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale was 0.82; (d) willingness to invest effort in studying (the degree to which the student is willing or chooses to put effort and time into studies, both in class and at home). In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale was 0.81; and (e) seeking challenges in studying (the extent to which the student prefers to engage in complex or simple assignments in studies, in terms of the level of difficulty and the personal challenge they pose to the individual). In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale was 0.77.

Academic achievements

The student’s final grades were collected from the college’s databases. The data were collected in accordance with the consent of the study participants and the approval of the Research Ethics Committee.

Demographic questionnaire

The respondents completed a demographic questionnaire that included questions about gender, study track, year of studies, age, and ethnic origin.

To test the hypotheses, several stages of analysis were conducted. First, the differences between Jewish and Arab students in all variables were analyzed. Second, the relationships between the research variables were examined, and finally, hierarchical regression was conducted to examine interactions between the variables in their contribution to explaining the variance in the final bachelor’s degree grades.

Differences between the students of Arab and Jewish origin in terms of the variables

To examine the differences between the students of Jewish origin and those of Arab origin in motivational patterns, a one-way MANOVA was performed. To examine the differences between the groups in final grades, a t -test was conducted.

The MANOVA regarding differences between the students of Jewish and Arab origin in motivational patterns showed a significant difference between the groups, F (5,141) = 4.01, p  < /−1. Eta 2  = 0.13. The results, means, and standard deviations of the motivational patterns by group are presented in Table 1 .

As the table shows, significant differences were found between the students of Jewish origin and their classmates of Arab origin in motivational patterns of willingness to invest effort in studies and seeking challenges in studies. In both these variables, the scores of the students of Jewish origin were higher, on average, than those of the students of Arab origin.

In addition, an independent sample t -test was conducted to examine whether there were differences between the students of Jewish and Arab origin in their final grades; it showed significant differences between the students in final grades, t (206) = 6.53, p  < 0.001. The average grades of the students of Jewish origin were higher than those of the students of Arab origin (Arabs: M  = 71.98, SD = 9.91; Jews: M  = 81.93, SD = 8.51).

Correlations among the research variables

To examine the correlations among the research variables and the between them and the final grades, Pearson correlations were calculated for each group. The correlations between the two motivational patterns and between these patterns and the final grade among students of Jewish origin and of Arab origin are presented in Tables 2 and 3 .

The tables show that among the students of Arab origin, there was a positive correlation between the final grade and passive involvement in studies. In comparison, among the students of Jewish origin, there was a positive correlation between final grade and active involvement in studies. In other words, among the students of Arab origin, the greater their passive involvement in studies was, the higher their final grades were, and among the students of Jewish origin, the greater their active involvement in studies, the higher their final grades were.

In contrast, in both groups, a negative correlation was found between involvement in studies (whether active or passive) and persistence when encountering difficulties with studies. In other words, in both groups, the less the student’s passive or active involvement in studies, the less their persistence when facing difficulty. In fact, in both groups, there was a positive correlation between the two types of involvement in studies (passive and active), where the greater the involvement of one type was, the greater the involvement of the other, as well; in other words, these variables were not independent. Furthermore, in both groups, a negative correlation was found between willingness to invest effort in studies and persistence when encountering academic difficulties. In other words, the greater the willingness to invest effort in studies, the lower the level of persistence when encountering difficulty. In both groups, a positive correlation was found between persistence when encountering academic difficulties and seeking challenges in studies: the greater the persistence when encountering difficulties, the greater, too, was the student’s search for challenges when studying.

In both groups, there was a positive correlation between passive involvement in studies and willingness to invest effort in studies. However, among the students of Jewish origin, there was also a positive correlation between active involvement and willingness to invest effort in studies, but among those of Arab origin such a correlation was not found. In other words, in both groups, the greater the passive involvement in studies, the greater the willingness to invest effort in studies, but only among those of Jewish origin did we also find that the greater the active involvement in studies, the greater the willingness to invest effort in studies.

In both groups, a negative correlation was found between passive involvement in studies and seeking challenges in studies, that is, the greater the passive involvement in studies, the less the search for challenges. Furthermore, among the students of Jewish origin, a negative correlation was also found between passive involvement in studies and willingness to invest effort in studies, that is, the greater the passive involvement in studies, the lower the willingness to invest effort. However, among the studies of Arab origin, no correlation was found between these two variables.

Regression analysis of explained variance of final grades among students of Jewish and Arab origin

To examine the contribution of the research variables to the explained variance in final grades, a separate regression analysis was performed for each of the groups. In both analyses, the first stage was to perform a multiple regression that included all the variables mentioned, even though some of them were not found to be associated with the final grade. The purpose of this analysis was to examine whether these variables might be found to contribute due to interaction with other variables. Next, a hierarchical regression was performed, where the variables that had been shown to correlate with the final grade, either as a main effect or an interaction, were entered. These regressions included three steps: (a) demographic characteristics (age and gender); (b) motivational patterns (persistence when encountering difficulties in studies, active involvement in studies, passive involvement in studies, willingness to invest effort in studies, and seeking challenges in studies); and (c) interaction of the motivational patterns with the demographic characteristics, to examine whether the contribution of the motivational patterns was dependent on the demographic characteristics of the student.

In the first two steps, the variables were force-entered; in the third step, which examined the contribution of the interactions to the explained variance, only those interactions that had been found to contribute to the explained variance significantly ( p  < 0.05) were entered. The regression regarding the students of Arab origin indicated that the level of explained variance was 30%; in comparison, the regression regarding students of Jewish origin indicated that the level of explained variance was 13%. The beta coefficients of the explained variance in each of the regressions are presented in Table 4 .

As the table shows, in the regression regarding the students of Arab origin, the results of the first step, which included only the demographic variables (age and gender), showed a significant contribution of 14% to the explained variance in final grades. In the regression regarding the students of Jewish origin, the same regression did not indicate a contribution to the explained variance in final grades. In the regression regarding the students of Arab origin, age was found to correlate positively with final grade: the older the student, the higher the grade. In the second step, when the five variables of the student’s motivational patterns (persistence when encountering difficulties in studies, active involvement in studies, passive involvement in studies, willingness to invest effort in studies, and seeking challenges in studies) were entered, both the regression regarding the students of Arab origin and that regarding students of Jewish origin indicated a significant contribution of 12% to the explained variance.

In the regression regarding students of Jewish origin, active involvement in studies correlated positively with the final grade (the greater the active involvement in studies, the higher the final grade). Furthermore, in the regression regarding Arab students, passive involvement in studies correlated positively with final grade (the greater the passive involvement in studies, the higher the final grade). In addition, among the students of Arab origin, a negative correlation was found between active involvement in studies and final grade (the greater the active involvement, the lower the final grade).

In the third step, when the interaction of willingness to invest effort in studies with age was entered, a significant contribution was found in the group of students of Arab origin. This interaction contributed an additional 4% to the explained variance in final grades among the Arab students. In the regression regarding students of Jewish origin, this interaction did not contribute significantly to explained variance in grades.

To reach a deeper understanding of the interactions, Aiken and West’s ( 1991 ) method was employed. Figure 1 presents a graphic description of the interaction of “willingness to invest effort in studies” with “age” among the students of Arab origin.

Relationship between willingness to invest effort in studies and final grades among older and younger students.

As shown, among the younger students of Arab origin, the willingness to invest effort in studies did not correlate significantly with final grades, β  = 0.20, p  > 0.5. In contrast, among the more mature students of Arab origin, a significant negative correlation was found between willingness to invest effort in studies and final grades, β  = –0.23, p  < 0.5. In other words, among these students, the greater their willingness to invest effort in studies, the lower their final grades were.

Consistent with the research hypotheses and the findings of previous research, a significant difference was found between the groups of students in final undergraduate grades. The students from the Jewish ethnic majority had higher grades than those from the Arab ethnic minority. In addition to this finding, which corroborates that of earlier studies, the results of the present study also indicated differences between the groups in terms of motivational patterns. The students of Jewish origin scored higher than those of Arab origin in seeking challenges and willingness to invest effort in learning.

These findings are consistent with the two models presented in the introduction with respect to seeking challenges. One possible explanation arises from the difference between the groups in achievements. The grades of the students of Arab origin were lower; therefore, it is reasonable that the studies were more difficult for them, and this may have posed a greater threat to them compared with their Jewish counterparts. As presented in the introduction, this finding is consistent with many research findings on the gap between Jews and Arabs in Israel in academic achievements (Ayalon et al., 2019 ; Blass, 2020 ; TIMSS, 2023 ; OECD, 2018 ; Zuzovsky, 2008 ).

These figures are not unique to Israel. Modern society is characterized by substantial migration both between and within countries, leading to the intersection of diverse languages, cultures, and identities. Consequently, numerous nations are comprised of different ethnic minorities that are distinguished by distinctive characteristics. This situation, occasionally intensified by successive waves of migration, gives rise to numerous social advantages alongside complex challenges. Among the latter, the socioeconomic assimilation of minority group members stands out prominently. Discrepancies between majority and minority population groups in educational accomplishments often serve as a notable contributor to the prevailing disparities in these realms (Lauri et al., 2022 ; OECD, 2019 ; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2023 ).

In light of the greater difficulty, they may have been less able to seek challenges in their studies. In further research, it would be interesting to examine the level of threat that students experience and the relationship between this and the degree to which they seek challenges.

With regard to the willingness to invest effort in studies, the results were contrary to the research hypotheses. It was hypothesized that the need to cope with a greater academic challenge would lead to a greater willingness to invest in studies. However, the more complex task of coping for the Arab students may have created an opposite effect, that is, perhaps it led them to give up and created a negative feeling, expressed in less willingness to invest effort in studies. Another possible explanation of this finding might be based on the cultural differences between the groups. As discussed in the Introduction (Lapidot-Lefler and Hosri, 2016 ; Sagy et al., 2001 ), Arab society in Israel is more collectivist and places greater emphasis on authority figures than Jewish society does. Accordingly, it is possible that the students of Arab origin tended to invest more according to the social demands led by the authority figures of the lecturers, and were therefore less inclined to invest beyond the formal requirements. In further research, it would be interesting to examine these explanations by means of qualitative interviews with students from both sectors, which could shed light on the feelings created by facing difficulties and its impact on students’ willingness to invest effort in studies, as well as the way members of the two groups perceive the concept of investing in studies.

Another finding that emerged from the research was the positive correlation among the students of Arab origin between passive engagement in learning and final grades, compared to the positive correlation among the Jewish students between active engagement in learning and final grades. Possible explanations for this finding might also be drawn from the results of previous research that compared these two groups. Specifically, here too, the finding may stem from the different attitudes of the students of Jewish and Arab origin to authority figures. Students from the more traditional Arab society, which places greater emphasis on authority, might be less inclined to be active and take the initiative beyond the specific definitions of the system so that their main effort is expressed in passive learning. In contrast, students from less traditional Jewish society, which stresses authority less, may tend to base their efforts more on personal initiative and less on the demands of the system. It would be interesting for further research to include measures associated with cultural variables, such as conformism or the perception of authority figures, in order to examine these explanations.

Another finding of the present study was the lack of correlation between willingness to invest in studies and final grades among the younger students of Arab origin, and the negative correlation between these two variables among the older students of Arab origin. This might indicate a change in perceptions over time. As presented earlier, among students of Jewish origin, there was a positive correlation between willingness to invest effort in studies and final grades. One possible explanation of these findings is that these students, who were raised in modern Arab society, are less traditional and less influenced by the potential conflict between a collectivist society that places more emphasis on instructions of the system and less on personal effort and the competitive, individualistic society in which they study. This might explain the negative correlation found among the older, but not the younger students of Arab origin. In this case, too, further research that combines measures of the level of collectivism of students might be useful in examining this explanation of the present findings.

The findings of the present research are important, but the study nevertheless had some limitations. First, the types of motivation considered were derived from the literature and research instruments. There is an advantage to using instruments that have been tested in previous research as well as previous research findings, but this method also has an intrinsic shortcoming. For example, the present study did not include an examination of the fit of the division into types of motivation presented in the questionnaires with the taxonomy of types of motivation as perceived by these participants. In the future, it would be interesting to conduct a qualitative examination of how students perceive the types of motivation they feel, followed by a quantitative examination of the research questions of the present study, taking this taxonomy into account.

Second, because of the limited number of respondents, the research examined differences between the groups without considering their subgroups, which could have a strong impact on the findings. For example, the Arab ethnic minority in Israel is composed of several different groups, such as Muslims, Christians, and Druze, which have different characteristics. The Jewish population in Israel can also be divided into groups in different ways. It would be interesting for further research to examine the impact of belonging to these groups on the attitudes and perceptions of the respondents in the two groups. Third, the present research referred to undergraduate studies in a mixed institution, where about half of the respondents belonged to each group. Naturally, the results might be different in other institutions, with different proportions between the groups. It is essential to continue to study this important issue among different population groups, in order to obtain a fuller view of the findings.

Despite these limitations, the present research offers an important contribution. It deepens the understanding of the relationship between the types of motivation and the academic achievements of students. Moreover, the results indicated how this relationship might be influenced by the cultural and personal characteristics of the learners, thus providing a new perspective and enhancing the understanding of this field. Understanding differences between ethnic minority and majority groups also contributes, together with further research in the field, to the ability to help members of ethnic minorities integrate and advance socially, by means of evidence-based practice. From this perspective, research in this field may inform better-focused and well-founded assistance to groups that currently demonstrate lower achievements. Thus, it is hoped that the present research will serve as the basis for further studies that will broaden the understanding of this field.

For instance, targeted interventions aimed at low socioeconomic status (SES) populations can concentrate on defining diverse goals and ensuring alignment with these objectives. Such research illustrates that the challenge lies not only in skills but also in addressing a cultural gap concerning learning objectives. Given that learning goals correlate with academic achievements, efforts to uplift low-SES populations should emphasize not only technical aspects but also the perception of learning goals. Moreover, understanding the correlation between culture and learning goals paves the way for a more profound theoretical comprehension of this domain.

Aiken LS, West SG (1991) Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions. Sage, Newbury Park, CA

Google Scholar  

Alsulami H (2018) The effect of education and experience on wages: the case study of Saudi Arabia. Am J Ind Bus Manag 8(1):129–142

Ames C (1992) Classrooms: goals, structures, and student motivation. J Educ Psychol 84(3):261

Article   Google Scholar  

Amzaleg M, Masry-Herzallah A (2022) Cultural dimensions and skills in the 21st century: the Israeli education system as a case study. Pedagog Cult Soc 30(5):765–785

Arar K, Mustafa M (2011) Access to higher education for Palestinians in Israel. Educ Bus Soc 4(3):207–228

Atkinson JW (1957) Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychol Rev 64 (6, Part 1), 359–372

Ayalon H, Blass N, Feniger Y, Shavit Y (2019) Educational inequality in Israel. From research to policy. Taub Center for Social Policy Studies in Israel, Jerusalem, Israel ‏

Baskakova DY, Belash OY, Shestopalov MY (2017) Graduates’ employment: expectations and reality. In: 2017 IEEE VI forum strategic partnership of universities and enterprises of hi-tech branches (Science. Education. Innovations) (SPUE). IEEE, St. Petersburg, Russia, pp. 128–131

Bautista MA, González F, Martinez LR, Munoz P, Prem M (2023) Dictatorship, higher education and social mobility. Working paper 2023-121. Becker Friedman Institute for Economics, University of Chicago‏

Blass N (2020) Achievements and gaps: the status of the Israeli education system. Taub Center for Social Policy Studies in Israel

Bowen WG, Bok D (1998) The shape of the river: long-term consequences of considering race in college and university admissions. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ

Book   Google Scholar  

Bowen WG, Chingos MM, McPherson MS (2009) Crossing the finish line: Completing college at America’s public universities. Princeton University Press

Central Bureau of Statistics in Israel (2020) Demographic characteristics. Society in Israel, No. 12. https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/Statistical/statistical%20184mun.pdf . Accessed 22 Mar 2023

Charles CZ, Fischer MJ, Mooney MA, Massey DS (2009) Taming the river: negotiating the academic, financial, and social currents in selective colleges and universities. Princeton University Press

Dominguez-Whitehead Y (2017) Impediments to pursuing graduate studies in South Africa: the role of the family, social class, and race. J Comp Fam Stud 48(2):197–215

Dweck CS, Leggett EL (1988) A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychol Rev 95(2):256

Earley PC (1994) Self or group? Cultural effects of training on self-efficacy and performance. Adm Sci Q 39(1):89–117

Eliassy L (1999) The influence of the learning environment on the students’ goal orientation in the heterogeneous classroom [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Bar Ilan University Ramat-Gan, Israel

Elliot AJ, Trash TM (2001) Achievement goals and the hierarchical model of achievement motivation. Educ Psychol Rev 13:139–156

Feniger Y, Ayalon H, Mcdossi O (2013) Access to higher education among young people from the periphery: social life in Israel. Research report. Gandyr Foundation

Feniger Y, Bar-Haim E, Blank C (2021) From social origin to selective high school courses: ability grouping as a mechanism of securing social advantage in Israeli secondary education. Res Soc Stratif Mobil 76:100627

Guterman O, Neuman A (2019) Similar goals, different results: differences in group learning goals and their impact on academic achievements. J Furth High Educ 43(6):729–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2017.1394990

Guterman O, Gill E (2023) Differences between students of Jewish and Arab origin in reasons for deciding to study. Educ Urban Soc 55(1):119–137

Guterman O, Neuman A, Gill E (2024a) Learning goals and level of individualism among undergraduate students. Educ Inq. https://doi.org/10.1080/20004508.2024.2359750

Guterman O, Neuman A, Gill E (2024b) Support or interference? Support and academic achievements among majority and minority groups of undergraduate students studying together. Int J Changes Educ. https://doi.org/10.47852/bonviewIJCE42022264

Huang C (2012) Discriminant and criterion-related validity of achievement goals in predicting academic achievement: a meta-analysis. J Educ Psychol 104(1):48

Hung M, Smith WA, Voss MW, Franklin JD, Gu Y, Bounsanga J (2020) Exploring student achievement gaps in school districts across the United States. Educ Urban Soc 52(2):175–193

International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (2023) TIMSS 2023: mathematics and science achievement in Israel. https://www.iea.nl/publications/study-reports/timss-2023-mathematics-and-science-achievement-israel

Khattab N (2005) The effects of high school context and interpersonal factors on students’ educational expectations: a multi-level model. Soc Psychol Educ 8(1):19–40

Kugelmass H, Ready DD (2011) Racial/ethnic disparities in collegiate cognitive gains: a multilevel analysis of institutional influences on learning and its equitable distribution. Res High Educ 52(4):323–348

Lapidot-Lefler N, Hosri H (2016) Cyberbullying in a diverse society: comparing Jewish and Arab adolescents in Israel through the lenses of individualistic versus collectivist cultures. Soc Psychol Educ 19(3):569–585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-016-9339-9

Lauri T, Põder K, Kunitsõn N (2022) Discrimination or explained differences? Individual and school-level effects explaining the minority achievement gap. J Baltic Stud 54(3):1–28

Lufi D, Parish-Plass JIM (2010) Differences between Arab and Jewish students in demographic and personality variables and their connection to academic success. Stud Educ 1/2:259–273

Maehr ML, Nicholls JG (1980) Culture and achievement motivation: a second look. In: Warren N (ed) Studies on cross-cultural psychology, vol. 2. Academic Press, New York, pp. 221–267

Martin ND, Spenner KI, Mustillo SA (2017) A test of leading explanations for the college racial-ethnic achievement gap: evidence from a longitudinal case study. Res High Educ 58(6):617–645

Meece JL, Anderman EM, Anderman LH (2006) Classroom goal structure, student motivation, and academic achievement. Annu Rev Psychol 57:487–503

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Mi-Ami N (2003) Background document for discussion: academic achievements in the Arab sector. Submitted to the Committee on the Rights of the Child. Knesset Research and Information Center. http://www.knesset.gov.il/committees/heb/material/data/2003-11-03.rtf . Accessed 7 Jul 2024

Mustafa M (2007) Changes in higher education among the Arab minority in Israel in the last decade. In: Arar H, Haj Yihye K (eds.) Academics and higher education among the Arabs in Israel: issues and dilemmas. Ramot, Tel Aviv, Israel, pp. 13–47

Nicholls JG (1992) Students as educational theorists. In: Schunk D, Meece J (eds.) Student perceptions in the classroom. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 267–286

OECD (2012) Untapped skills: realizing the potential of immigrant students. OECD Publishing, Paris

OECD (2018) Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA): results from PISA 2018. Country note: Israel. Equity related to socio-economic status. https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_ISR.pdf

OECD (2019). The Road to Integration: Education and Migration. OECD Reviews of Migrant Education. OECD Publishing: Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/d8ceec5d-en

Pérez-Martín M, Villardón-Gallego L (2023) University experiences of students in a gender minority. Sustainability 15(5):4054

Sagy S, Orr E, Bar-On D, Awwad E (2001) Individualism and collectivism in two conflicted societies: comparing Israeli–Jewish and Palestinian–Arab high school students. Youth Soc 33(1):3–30

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2023) The condition of education 2023: achievement gaps. https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2023222

Urdan T, Kaplan A (2020) The origins, evolution, and future directions of achievement goal theory. Contemp Educ Psychol 61:101862

Wigfield A, Eccles JS (2000) Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. Contemp Educ 25(1):68–81

CAS   Google Scholar  

Zuzovsky R (2008) Capturing the dynamics behind the narrowing achievement gap between Hebrew-speaking and Arabic-speaking schools in Israel: findings from TIMSS 1999 and 2003. Educ Res Eval 14(1):47–71

Download references

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Efrat Gill, Oz Guterman, Ari Neuman.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Human Resources, Western Galilee College, Acre, Israel

Efrat Gill & Oz Guterman

Department of Education, Western Galilee College, Acre, Israel

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed equally to this article.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ari Neuman .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval.

The research received approval from the Ethics Committee of Western Galilee College. #OG25718.

Informed consent

The researchers invited social sciences students to participate in the research during their classes at Western Galilee College. The researchers explained that participation was voluntary, and participants were assured that the data would not affect their grades or be used for any purpose other than the research. After the students gave their consent, in principle, to participate in the research, meetings were arranged to administer the questionnaires. The students signed an informed consent form to indicate their consent to participate in the research as well as permission for the research team to examine their final grades.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Gill, E., Guterman, O. & Neuman, A. Different motivation, different achievements: the relationship of motivation and dedication to academic pursuits with final grades among Jewish and Arab undergraduates studying together. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1079 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03548-7

Download citation

Received : 15 October 2023

Accepted : 01 August 2024

Published : 23 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03548-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Thesis employee motivation and performance

Related Papers

marven dela cruz

Mario Gacho

Anuary Mgalu

The study was about the effect of employees’ motivation on employees’ performance. A case study of National Social Security Fund: Head Quarters. The main objective of the study was to assess the influence of employees’ motivation on the employees’ performance. While the specific objectives were to examine the influence of: working environment on employees’ performance, intrinsic factors on employees’ performance and extrinsic factors on employees’ performance. The methodology of the study included the use of Primary data. The method used to collect data/information was questionnaire and reviews from different Management and Motivation books, documents and journals concerning with the topic of employees retrenchment. Analysis and interpretation of the findings revealed the influence of employees’ motivation on the employees’ performance in parastatal organizations can be influenced with the environment of work itself which comprises physical environment and support also intrinsic and extrinsic factors if carefully used they can improve general employees’ performance. Some of recommendations and suggestions provided to organizations is to provide training and seminars to the managers on how to motivate their employees which will result to improve their performance Therefore if organizations observe the given recommendations and suggestions concern with what to do when doing employees motivation because the recommendation will help the organization to attain a required performance as well as satisfy employees needs in the organization.

Christopher Gyimah

Employee motivation describes an employee‘s intrinsic enthusiasm about and drives to accomplish work. Every employee is motivated about something in his or her life. Motivating employees about work is the combination of fulfilling the employee's needs and expectations from work and workplace factors that enable employee motivation or not. These variables make motivating employees challenging. Information about motivating employees is readily available but it‘s hard to apply the ideas in many workplaces. Too many workplaces still act as if the employee should be grateful to have a job. Managers are on power trips and employee policies and procedures are formulated based on the assumption that you cannot trust employees to do the right thing. Communication is never transparent and there is always a secret message or a hidden agenda. Motivating employees in this work environment is tough, if not impossible. Fortunately, most work environments are not in this extreme. They each have their own set of problems, but managers appreciate that motivating employees will bring positive results for the Organization. This study used a multi-method approach. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected to answer the research questions. Both interviews and questionnaires were used to gather these data and analysis were done using words, graphs, tables and statistics. The one on one interviews and the administration of questionnaires was of an enormous help to the researcher for effective comparison of all responses. After the study it was found that motivation serves as a factor which influenced performance and hence increases productivity. It is therefore important that employees of Phinphonrat Tangtrongjit 12 School are well motivated to ensure continuous good performance in terms of student’s development, competitions and external examination results.

Sunday . E . Abioye

Global Journal of Management and Business Research

Thejani Hewage , udayangani rathnayaka

Employee motivation can be recognized as one of the most important managerial practices where most of the organizations are looked at. Many researchers found that, there's a direct impact of conducting employee motivational programs on the performance of the employees and finally, the performance of the organization. In order to satisfy the external customers, the organizations need to satisfy the internal customers first because, with a proper satisfaction of the internal customers the satisfactory level of the expected outcome of the employee will be able to deliver to the target consumer. The study was based on the evidences that showed an issue of employee demoralized behavior due to various factors which are mainly originated from the administration system of the institute. According to the preliminary study which was conducted by the researcher, it was identified that, the opportunities to promote for the higher level is very low and also they are not satisfied with the financial and the non-financial incentives received from the institute. Abstract-Employee motivation can be recognized as one of the most important managerial practices where most of the organizations are looked at. Many researchers found that, there's a direct impact of conducting employee motivational programs on the performance of the employees and finally, the performance of the organization. In order to satisfy the external customers, the organizations need to satisfy the internal customers first because, with a proper satisfaction of the internal customers the satisfactory level of the expected outcome of the employee will be able to deliver to the target consumer. The study was based on the evidences that showed an issue of employee demoralized behavior due to various factors which are mainly originated from the administration system of the institute. According to the preliminary study which was conducted by the researcher, it was identified that, the opportunities to promote for the higher level is very low and also they are not satisfied with the financial and the non-financial incentives received from the institute. Non-probabilistic convenience sampling technique has applied for the study to select sample respondents. It has selected 15 respondents out of the 55 lecturers of population. The research problem which has centered for the study is to identify "How extent the employee motivation on the employee performance with special reference to SLITHM. Intrinsic motivation and the extrinsic motivation have taken as the independent variables of the study and the employee performance has taken as the dependent variable of the study. Five research objectives including the key objective has developed for the study and 06 hypotheses were made for the study. Descriptive statistics have used to analyses the data with the aid of SPSS statistical package. According to the study findings, there's a strong uphill positive linear relationship in between the incentives to the employee performance, Employee recognition to the employee performance and Empowerment of employees to the employee performance.

Annales Universitatis Apulensis Series Oeconomica

Larisa Dragolea

Polonia University Scientific Journal

olena shtepa

Himanshu Pankaj Boro

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Rasty Yulia

Almana : Jurnal Manajemen dan Bisnis

Constantin Coderie

Raymond Baluku

Lucia Morosan-Danila

isreal favour

Zubair Pirzada

isaac chingle

Journal of Business and Social Sciences Research

Pooja Dangol

Business and Entrepreneurial Review

Azimah Hanifah

Studies in Asian Social Science

Momina Abid

IJMSBR Open Access Journal , Abdul Amid Aziz Jalloh

Kerathum Juma

Novi Farhiyah

Joanes Kyongo

Asian Journal of Economics and Business Management

Setyo Riyanto

Faculty of Business & Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cawangan Kedah eBooks

SITI FAIRUZA HASSAM

FRIDAY CHRISTOPHER

Mochamad Iqbal Rizki

Iqbal Rizki

Surapaneni Mohana Murali Krishna

Supriya Mahajan

Majalah Bisnis &amp; IPTEK

Alvin Noor Syawal

Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences

tati hartati

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Personality Psychology — Motivation

Essays on Motivation

🌟 the importance of writing a motivation essay 📝.

Motivation is like that extra sprinkle of magic dust that gives us the boost we need to achieve our goals and dreams ✨✨. It's the driving force behind our actions and the fuel that keeps us going when things get tough. Writing an essay about motivation allows us to delve deeper into this fascinating topic and explore its various aspects. So, why not grab your pen (or keyboard) and let's dive into the world of motivation! 💪📚

🔍 Choosing the Perfect Motivation Essay Topic 🤔

When it comes to choosing a topic for your motivation essay, there are a few things to consider. First, think about what aspect of motivation you find most intriguing. Is it personal motivation, motivation in the workplace, or maybe the psychology behind motivation? Once you have a general idea, narrow it down further to a specific angle that interests you the most.

💡 Motivation Argumentative Essay 💪📝

An argumentative essay on motivation requires you to take a stance and provide evidence to support your viewpoint. Here are ten exciting topics to get those creative juices flowing:

• The role of intrinsic motivation in academic success
• The impact of extrinsic rewards on employee motivation
• Does social media affect motivation levels in teenagers?
• The connection between motivation and self-esteem
• How does motivation differ between genders?
• The influence of music on motivation levels
• Does money truly motivate people in the workplace?
• The effects of positive reinforcement on motivation
• The link between motivation and mental health
• How does goal-setting impact motivation?

🌪️ Motivation Cause and Effect Essay 📝

In a cause and effect essay, you explore the reasons behind certain motivations and their outcomes. Here are ten thought-provoking topics to consider:

• The causes and effects of procrastination on motivation
• How does a lack of motivation impact academic performance?
• The relationship between motivation and success in sports
• The effects of parental motivation on children's achievements
• How does motivation affect mental well-being?
• The causes and effects of burnout on motivation levels
• The impact of motivation on work-life balance
• How does motivation affect creativity and innovation?
• The causes and effects of peer pressure on motivation
• The relationship between motivation and goal attainment

💬 Motivation Opinion Essay 💭📝

In an opinion essay, you express your personal thoughts and beliefs about motivation. Here are ten intriguing topics to spark your imagination:

• Is self-motivation more effective than external motivation?
• Are rewards a necessary form of motivation?
• Should schools focus more on intrinsic motivation?
• The role of motivation in achieving work-life balance
• Is motivation a learned behavior or innate?
• The impact of motivation on personal growth and development
• Does motivation play a significant role in overcoming obstacles?
• Is fear an effective motivator?
• The role of motivation in maintaining a healthy lifestyle
• Can motivation be sustained in the long term?

📚 Motivation Informative Essay 🧠📝

An informative essay on motivation aims to educate and provide valuable insights. Here are ten fascinating topics to explore:

• The psychology behind motivation and its theories
• How to stay motivated in challenging times
• The impact of motivation on personal and professional success
• Motivation techniques for achieving fitness goals
• The role of motivation in leadership and management
• Motivation in the context of mental health and well-being
• The history of motivation research and key figures
• Motivation strategies for students and educators
• Motivation and its connection to creativity and innovation
• Motivation in different cultural and societal contexts

📜 Thesis Statement Examples 📜

Here are a few thesis statement examples to inspire your motivation essay:

• 1. "Motivation, whether intrinsic or extrinsic, plays a pivotal role in driving individuals towards achieving their goals and aspirations."
• 2. "This essay explores the multifaceted nature of motivation, examining its psychological underpinnings, societal influences, and practical applications."
• 3. "In a world filled with challenges and opportunities, understanding the mechanisms of motivation empowers individuals to overcome obstacles and reach new heights of success."

📝 Introduction Paragraph Examples 📝

Here are some introduction paragraph examples for your motivation essay:

• 1. "Motivation is the driving force behind human actions, the invisible hand that propels us toward our goals. It is the spark that ignites the fire of determination within us, pushing us to overcome obstacles and realize our dreams."
• 2. "In a world where challenges often outnumber opportunities, motivation serves as the compass guiding us through life's intricate maze. It is the unwavering belief in our abilities and the fuel that keeps our ambitions burning bright."
• 3. "Picture a world without motivation—a world where dreams remain unfulfilled, talents remain hidden, and aspirations remain dormant. Fortunately, we do not live in such a world, and this essay delves into the profound impact of motivation on human lives."

🔚 Conclusion Paragraph Examples 📝

Here are some conclusion paragraph examples for your motivation essay:

• 1. "As we conclude this journey through the realm of motivation, let us remember that it is the driving force behind our accomplishments, the cornerstone of our achievements. With unwavering motivation, we can surmount any obstacle and turn our aspirations into reality."
• 2. "In the grand tapestry of human existence, motivation weaves the threads of determination, perseverance, and success. This essay's culmination serves as a testament to the enduring power of motivation and its ability to shape our destinies."
• 3. "As we bid farewell to this exploration of motivation, let us carry forward the knowledge that motivation is not just a concept but a potent force that propels us toward greatness. With motivation as our guide, we can continue to chase our dreams and conquer new horizons."

📄 Motivation Research Paper Outline 📄

I. introduction 🌟.

• Definition of Motivation
• Importance of Studying Motivation
• Research Questions or Hypotheses
• Objectives of the Study
• Significance of the Study
• Scope and Limitations

II. Literature Review 📖

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
• Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
• Self-Determination Theory
• Research on Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
• Studies on Workplace Motivation
• Impact of Motivation on Performance and Productivity
• Gaps in the Literature

III. Research Methodology 🔬

• Qualitative, Quantitative, or Mixed Methods
• Sampling Techniques
• Sample Size
• Surveys, Interviews, Observations, etc.
• Data Analysis Techniques
• Ethical Considerations

IV. Results and Discussion 💬

• Tables, Graphs, and Charts
• Interpretation of Data
• Comparison with Previous Studies
• Theoretical Implications
• Practical Implications

V. Conclusion 🏁

• Summary of Findings
• Conclusions Drawn from the Study
• Recommendations for Future Research
• Limitations of the Study

VI. References 📚

• Citations of all Sources Used

VII. Appendices 📑

• Additional Material (e.g., Survey Instruments, Interview Guides)

John Proctor’s Motivation in Arthur Miller’s The Crucible

Finding of what motivates you: nick vujicic, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

Motivation Letter (bachelor of Business Administration)

The main types of motivation, motivation and its various types, pushing beyond limits: finding motivation to succeed, let us write you an essay from scratch.

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

My Motivation to Study Medical/health Administration

Life as a student-athlete, learning styles and motivation reflection , my motivation to undergo a masters program in business, entrepreneurship, and technology, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

Expert-written essays crafted with your exact needs in mind

My Letter of Motivation: Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Assessment of my motivation and values, overview of the motivational theories for business, autonomy, mastery, and purpose: motivation, applying work motivation theories to business situations, drive-reduction theory and motivation, the impact of motivation and affect on judgement, my motivation to study biomedical engineering in the netherlands, research of the theories of motivation: expectancy theory and the equity theory, understanding of my personal motivation, the motivation letter for you, herzberg two-factor theory of motivation, motivation in different aspects of our lives, the importance of motivation in human resource management, my motivation to get a bachelor degree in nursing, my potential and motivation to excel in the field of medicine, my motivational letter: mechanical engineering, motivation letter for computer science scholarship, effective management and motivation of employees, your motivation to do sports.

Motivation is the drive or desire to achieve a goal or take action. Motivational states are commonly understood as forces acting within the agent that create a disposition to engage in goal-directed behavior.

Intrinsic, extrinsic, unconscious, and conscious.

Theories articulating the content of motivation: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, Alderfer's ERG theory, Self-Determination Theory, Drive theory.

• Motivation can come from both internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic) sources.
• Different people are motivated by different things, such as rewards, recognition, or personal satisfaction.
• Setting specific, achievable goals can increase motivation levels.
• Motivation can fluctuate based on external factors like stress, fatigue, or distractions.
• Motivation is closely linked to productivity and success in various aspects of life.

The topic of motivation is important because it plays a crucial role in determining individual behavior, performance, and overall well-being. Understanding what motivates people can help in creating effective strategies for personal growth, goal achievement, and boosting overall satisfaction and success. It is a key aspect of psychology, education, management, and various other fields that aim to enhance human performance and well-being.

Relevant topics

• Growth Mindset
• Procrastination

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Bibliography

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

8 Most Effective Ways to Increase Motivation for Thesis Writing 

Writing a master’s or doctoral thesis is a tough job, and many students struggle with writer’s block and putting off work. The journey requires not just skill and knowledge but a sustained motivation for thesis writing. Here are eight essential strategies to help you find and maintain your motivation to write your thesis throughout the thesis writing process.

Know why you lack motivation

It’s important to understand whether you’re just avoiding writing (procrastination) or if you genuinely don’t feel interested in it (lack of motivation). Procrastination is when you delay writing even though you want to finish it, while a lack of motivation for thesis writing is when you have no interest in writing at all. Knowing the difference helps you find the right solution. Remember, not feeling motivated doesn’t mean you can’t write; it just might be less enjoyable.

Recognize external vs. internal motivation

In the early stages of your academic journey, things like job prospects or recognition may motivate you to write your thesis. These are external motivators. Over time, they might become less effective. That’s why it’s important to develop internal motivators, like a real passion for your topic, curiosity, or wanting to make a difference in your field. Shifting to these internal motivators can keep you energized about your thesis writing for a longer period.

Develop a writing plan

As you regularly spend time on your thesis, you’ll start to overcome any initial resistance. Planning and thinking about your work will make the next steps easier. You might find yourself working more than 20 minutes some days. As you progress, plan for longer thesis writing periods and set goals for completing each chapter.

Don’t overwhelm yourself

Getting stuck is normal in thesis or dissertation writing. Don’t view these challenges as impossible obstacles. If you’re frustrated or unsure, take a break for a few days. Then, consult your advisor or a mentor to discuss your challenges and find ways to move forward effectively.

Work on your thesis daily

Try to spend 15-20 minutes daily on tasks related to your thesis or dissertation. This includes reading, researching, outlining, and other preparatory activities. You can fit these tasks into short breaks throughout your day, like waiting for appointments, during commutes, or even while cooking.

Understand that thesis writing motivation changes

Realize that thesis writing motivation isn’t always the same; it changes over time. Your drive to write will vary with different stages of your research and life changes. Knowing that motivation can go up and down helps you adapt. When you feel less motivated, focus on small, doable parts of your work instead of big, intimidating goals.

Recharge your motivation regularly

Just like you need to rest and eat well to keep your body energized, your motivation for thesis writing needs to be refreshed too. Do things that boost your mental and creative energy. This could be talking with colleagues, attending workshops, or engaging in hobbies that relax you. Stay aware of your motivation levels and take action to rejuvenate them. This way, you can avoid burnout and keep a consistent pace in your thesis work.

Keep encouraging yourself

Repeating encouraging phrases like “I will finish my thesis by year’s end” or “I’ll complete a lot of work this week” can really help. Saying these affirmations regularly can focus your energy and keep you on track with your thesis writing motivation .

Remember, the amount you write can vary each day. Some days you might write a lot, and other days less. The key is to keep writing, even if it’s just rough ideas or jumbled thoughts. Don’t let the need for perfection stop you. Listening to podcasts where researchers talk about their writing experiences can also be inspiring and motivate you in your writing journey.

Paperpal is an AI writing assistant that help academics write better, faster with real-time suggestions for in-depth language and grammar correction. Trained on millions of research manuscripts enhanced by professional academic editors, Paperpal delivers human precision at machine speed.

Try it for free or upgrade to  Paperpal Prime , which unlocks unlimited access to premium features like academic translation, paraphrasing, contextual synonyms, consistency checks and more. It’s like always having a professional academic editor by your side! Go beyond limitations and experience the future of academic writing.  Get Paperpal Prime now at just US$19 a month!

Related Reads:

How to make your thesis supervision work for you.

• 6 Tips for Post-Doc Researchers to Take Their Career to the Next Level
• How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)
• Presenting Research Data Effectively Through Tables and Figures

CACTUS Joins Hands with Taylor & Francis to Simplify Editorial Process with a Pioneering AI Solution

You may also like, how to cite in apa format (7th edition):..., academic integrity vs academic dishonesty: types & examples, the ai revolution: authors’ role in upholding academic..., the future of academia: how ai tools are..., how to write your research paper in apa..., how to choose a dissertation topic, how to write a phd research proposal, how to write an academic paragraph (step-by-step guide), five things authors need to know when using..., 7 best referencing tools and citation management software....

Topics for a Strong Thesis on Motivation

At a glance, thesis on motivation seems to be quite easy to complete. Well, probably it easier to write a thesis on motivation than a Finance thesis, for instance. However, this is an illusive opinion. Paper on such a topic can be rather challenging. It can be compared to a leadership thesis . Nowadays, we can hear a lot of talks about this personal quality. Still, is there an absolutely precise definition of this phenomenon? Do all people mean the same things when they talk about leadership?

Motivation is the same ambiguous phenomenon. On the one hand, it encourages people in different good and ambitious actions. On the other hand, motivation can direct people to some wrongdoings. Thus, writing a thesis on motivation will be really exciting. You have a possibility to go deeper into peoples’ minds.

Since motivation is a rather broad topic, it should be narrowed down to some specific aspects that you may discuss in your thesis on motivation.

• In your theses on motivation you can try to explain this phenomenon. Think of its origins, ways of achieving motivation, general significance of this feeling in our life.
• If you want to be even more specific in your thesis on motivation, you can investigate its importance for a certain field. For instance, it would be great if you study motivation in the sphere of human resource management.
• One more interesting and really suitable topic to consider in your thesis on motivation is motivation among students. Basically, there are two types of motivation that are distinguished among students: intrinsic and extrinsic. Think in your theses on motivation which one is more helpful for studies.

So, with an appropriate topic for your thesis on motivation you can kill two birds with one stone. You can produce a captivating paper and you can get some personal benefits.

Related Posts

Free sociology thesis ideas.

Ideas for Writing a Physics Thesis

Free architecture dissertation topics, thesis in astronomy: what to write about, information technology dissertation topics.

• Build Your Own Box
• Ingredients

blends tailored to your unique needs.

• Shop Blends
• Refer a Friend, Get $25

(  8,205 Reviews )

One month supply

• Boost your willpower to beat procrastination
• Convenient daily-dose packets for a month's supply of nootropics
• Feel the effects within 60 minutes
• Sustains energy and focus to tackle your to-do list
• 3rd party lab tested for purity and potency

24 daily doses delivered monthly

Select preference:

• Caffeine free

Subscribe & Save $40 Skip or Cancel Anytime.

One Time Purchase

Monthly Delivery Billed monthly

$79/Mo 34% off

Ships in 1-2 business days

• Take one packet in the morning on days you need to perform your best and remain calm, even in stressful conditions.
• Take one packet 30 minutes before starting a task that requires elevated focus.

The effects vary based on genetics and experience. It can take as little as 30 minutes to feel the impact, but some may need a few days of consecutive use.

Taking on an empty stomach with glass of water after waking up is most effective.

Trusted by experts

Dr. gabrielle lyon.

Functional Medicine & Nutritional Sciences

“I work with CEOs, celebrities, and other top performers in my practice. Thesis is what I recommend and take personally for focus and cognition. I even used it to help me nail my first TedX talk.”

Gabrielle’s blends

Professional Basketball Player & Mental Health Advocate

“With a busy life on and off the court, Thesis gives me energy and focus to get through the longest days and keep me sharp.”

Kevin's blends

Ultra-endurance Athlete & Nutrition Advocate

"Thesis has provided a substantial benefit to my ability to focus. Creativity works best for me — I take it 30 mins before a podcast or writing and it helps get me into the zone."

RICH’s blends

• Maintain willpower
• Manage procrastination
• Manage stress

CDT (Dynamine) has been shown to help with cognitive control and reaction time during mentally demanding tasks.

Ingredients to maintain willpower & support productivity

• GMP Certified
• Gluten Free

Helps with cognitive control and reaction time during mentally demanding tasks.

Artichoke Extract

Shown to strengthen the connection between brain synapses.

L-Phenylalanine

Amino acid precursor to dopamine and norepinephrine, involved in sustaining attention.

Supports red blood cell dilation and improves blood flow to the brain.

Known to support energy levels and is essential for nerve health.

Enhance cognitive abilities, and increase alertness and focus.

Improve cognitive performance, promotes relaxation, and regulates healthy mood states.

See All ( 7 )

(  8905 Reviews )

All reviews are from real customers. Read more about our review policy ^

Mon Aug 26 2024

This is my go to blend when I need to get stuff done, that I have been putting off...and it helps so subtly, that I often think as I'm completing a task that I'm surprised my chore/project is done.

I felt so motivated not just in my daily tasks, but life ambitions. I felt more confident and capable and approached opportunities with a great mindset. I finally cleared out my inbox… does that count?

Motivation may be my favorite blend. it’s my go to for “blasting thru the to do list”. if i know what I need to do, Motivation helps me stay focused and centered. i call Motivation my Getting Things Done blend. Amazing stuff. ❤️

It gave me the feeling of "you got this".

In situations where I would normally allow negative thoughts to prevent me from working on small or large tasks, I felt motivated to keep going.

Showing 1 to 5 of 7955 results

Choose your Thesis blend

Get started for just $79/month

Maintain focus and Support attention

Fight fatigue and Build mental stamina

Maintain willpower and Support productivity

Support memory and Promote deep thinking

Verbal fluency and Maintain confidence

Feelings of calm and Positive outlook

• Promote Energy
• Fight Fatigue
• Build Mental Stamina

TeaCrine® has been shown to increase energy, motivation, and concentration.

• Maintain Focus
• Support Attention
• Enter Flow State

Alpha-GPC has been shown to support healthy cognitive function and physical performance.

• Maintain Willpower
• Manage Procrastination
• Support Productivity

CDT (Dynamine® ) has been shown to help with cognitive control and reaction time during mentally demanding tasks.

• Support Memory
• Promote Deep Thinking
• Maintain Processing Speed

Synapsa® has been shown to significantly improve working memory.

• Spark Inspiration
• Support Verbal Fluency
• Manage Stress

KSM-66® Ashwagandha has been shown to significantly reduce stress and anxiety.

• Encourage calm state
• Support mental flexibility
• Promote positive outloook

Zembrin® has been shown to improve in mood and disposition.

Frequently Asked Questions

You will receive our Motivation formulation to help you start new routines, break out of bad habits, and get the to-do list done.

This order includes a four week supply of nootropics, an instructional booklet, and access to our team of experts and wellness coaches to help you set and achieve your goals!

You will also receive email messages with additional instructions to make the most of this exploratory month.

We offer the most advanced nootropic system available, to find the exact compliment for your specific brain chemistry and desired areas of focus.

Our innovative Starter Kit allows you to experience multiple formulations, and determine what works best. Our process is complex because we’ve found that it yields the best results in the shortest amount of time.

If we could formulate one pill that would work for everyone, we would! Because the human brain is deeply complex, that is just not possible.

Depending on your genetics and experience with nootropics, the effects can be felt in as little as 30 minutes after taking each blend.

Nootropics have the most impact when taken on an empty stomach, just after waking from a normal night of rest.

Some people may need a few days of consecutive use to feel the effects of the nutrients.

Thesis is shipped from our headquarters in New York City, via First Class Mail through the USPS, and takes about 1-3 business days to arrive within the continental US. Orders will be shipped same-day whenever possible.

If you are in need of priority shipping, email us ([email protected]) as soon as your order is placed, and we will upgrade it for you!

30-Day Money Back Guarantee

Try Thesis risk-free for 30 days, or your money back on your first order.

Advertisement

Theories of Motivation in Education: an Integrative Framework

• Review Article
• Open access
• Published: 30 March 2023
• Volume 35 , article number  45 , ( 2023 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Detlef Urhahne   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7709-0011 1 &
• Lisette Wijnia   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7395-839X 2  

115k Accesses

21 Citations

22 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Several major theories have been established in research on motivation in education to describe, explain, and predict the direction, initiation, intensity, and persistence of learning behaviors. The most commonly cited theories of academic motivation include expectancy-value theory, social cognitive theory, self-determination theory, interest theory, achievement goal theory, and attribution theory. To gain a deeper understanding of the similarities and differences among these prominent theories, we present an integrative framework based on an action model (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018 ). The basic model is deliberately parsimonious, consisting of six stages of action: the situation, the self, the goal, the action, the outcome, and the consequences. Motivational constructs from each major theory are related to these determinants in the course of action, mainly revealing differences and to a lesser extent commonalities. In the integrative model, learning outcomes represent a typical indicator of goal-directed behavior. Associated recent meta-analyses demonstrate the empirical relationship between the motivational constructs of the six central theories and academic achievement. They provide evidence for the explanatory value of each theory for students’ learning.

Similar content being viewed by others

Motivation to Learn and Achievement

The Other Half of the Story: the Role of Social Relationships and Social Contexts in the Development of Academic Motivation

Overview of the Educational Motivation Theory: A Historical Perspective

Explore related subjects.

• Artificial Intelligence

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Motivation is one of the most studied psychological constructs in educational psychology (Koenka, 2020 ). The term is derived from the Latin word “movere,” which means “to move,” as motivation provides the necessary energy to people’s actions (Eccles et al., 1998 ; T. Jansen et al., 2022 ). In the scientific literature, motivation is often defined as “a process in which goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained” (Schunk et al., 2014 , p. 5). Research on academic motivation focuses on explaining why students behave the way they do and how this affects learning and performance (Schunk et al., 2014 ).

Several major theories have been established in research on motivation in education to describe, explain and predict the direction, initiation, intensity, and persistence of learning behaviors (cf. Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016 ). Each theory has its own terms and concepts to designate aspects of motivated behavior, contributing to a certain inaccessibility of the field of motivation theories. In addition, motivation researchers create their own terminology, differentiate, and extend existing theoretical conceptions, making it difficult to draw precise boundaries between the models (Murphy & Alexander, 2000 ; Schunk, 2000 ). This leads to the question of whether it would be possible to consider the most important theories of academic motivation against a common background to gain a deeper understanding of the similarities and differences among these prominent theories.

In the past, several researchers have worked to provide an integrative meta-theoretical framework for classifying motivational processes. Hyland’s ( 1988 ) motivational control theory used a system of hierarchically organized control loops to explain the direction and intensity of goal-orientated behavior. Locke ( 1997 ) postulated an integrated model for theories of work motivation, starting from needs, values and personality, and environmental incentives through goal choice and mediating goal and efficacy mechanisms to performance, outcomes, satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Murphy and Alexander ( 2000 ) classified achievement motivation terms into the four domains of goal, interest, intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation, and self-schema. De Brabander and Martens ( 2014 ) tried to predict a person’s readiness for action primarily from positive and negative, affective and cognitive valences in their unified model of task-specific motivation. Linnenbrink-Garcia and Wormington ( 2019 ) proposed perceived competence, task values, and achievement goals as essential categories to study person-oriented motivation from an integrative perspective. Hattie et al. ( 2020 ) grouped various models of motivation around the essential components of person factors (subdivided into self, social, and cognitive factors), task attributes, goals, perceived costs, and benefits. Finally, Fong ( 2022 ) developed the motivation within changing culturalized contexts model to account for instructional, social, future-oriented, and sociocultural dynamics affecting student motivation in a pandemic context.

In this contribution, we present an integrative framework for theories of motivation in education based on an action model (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018 ). The action model is a further development of an idea by Urhahne ( 2008 ) to classify the most commonly cited theories focusing on academic motivation, including expectancy-value theory, social cognitive theory, self-determination theory, interest theory, achievement goal theory, and attribution theory, into a common frame (Schunk et al., 2014 ). We begin with introducing the basic motivational model and then sort the main concepts and terms of the prominent motivation theories into the action model. Associated recent meta-analyses will illustrate the empirically documented value of each theory in explaining academic achievement.

The Basic Motivational Model

The basic motivational model in Fig. 1 shows the determinants and course of motivated action. The model is grounded on the general model of motivation by Heckhausen and Heckhausen ( 2018 , p. 4) to introduce the universal characteristics of motivated human action. Heckhausen ( 1977 ) had worked early on to organize constructs from different theories into a cognitive model of motivation. The initial model differentiated four types of expectations attached to four different stages in a sequence of events and helped group intrinsic and extrinsic incentive values of an action as well (Heckhausen, 1977 ). Later, Heckhausen and Gollwitzer ( 1987 ) extended the model to the Rubicon model of action phases to define clear boundaries between phases of motivational and volitional mindsets (Achtziger & Gollwitzer, 2018 ; Gollwitzer et al., 1990 ). The four phases of the Rubicon model can be described as follows: In the predecisional phase of motivation, individuals select or set a goal for action on the basis of their wishes and desires. The postdecisional phase of volition is a time of preparation and planning to translate the goal into action. This is followed by the actional phase of volition that involves the actual process of action. Once the action is completed or abandoned, the postactional phase of evaluating the outcome and its consequences has begun (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018 ). Since the Rubicon model depicts the entire action process from an emerging desire to the final evaluation of the action outcome, it provides a broad basis for classifying various current motivational theories.

The basic motivational model

Specifically, our model proposes that motivated behavior arises from the interaction between the person and the environment (Murray, 1938 ). In Fig. 1 , possible incentives such as the prospect of rewards and opportunities of the situation stimulate the motives, needs, wishes, and emotions of a person’s self, which come to life through generating an action goal (Dweck et al., 2003 ; Roeser & Peck, 2009 ). A person’s current goal is translated into an action at a suitable opportunity. The action is carried out, and the action’s outcome indicates whether and to what extent the intended goal has been achieved. The outcome has to be distinguished from the consequences of the action, which may consist of self- and other evaluations, rewards and punishments, achievement emotions, or effects of the outcome on long-term goals (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018 ). The basic model is intentionally parsimonious and somewhat reflects considerations by Hattie et al. ( 2020 ) on integrating theories of motivation that distinguish between self, goals, task (action), and costs and benefits (consequences) as major dimensions of motivation. Similarities also emerge to Locke ( 1997 ), who bases the integrative model of work motivation theories on a comparable action sequence. The specificities of each component of the basic motivational model are now explained in more detail.

The situation represents the social, cultural, and environmental context in which individuals perform motivated actions (Ford, 1992 ). Recently, there has been a trend within motivation research to place greater emphasis on situating motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ; Nolen, 2020 ; Nolen et al., 2015 ; Pekrun & Marsh, 2022 ; Wentzel & Skinner, 2022 ). Researchers want to better account for the social and cultural differences between persons (Usher, 2018 ) or take note of the embeddedness of individuals in multiple contexts (Nolen et al., 2015 ). The basic motivational model includes these extensions of current motivation theories and refers to the situatedness of motivation. The situation represents the overarching context for the complete action sequence, even though it is depicted in the basic motivational model by only one box. The situation and the person’s self are intimately interwoven, and motivation can be regarded as a result of their interaction (Roeser & Peck, 2009 ). The situation evokes motivational tendencies in the self, and the self contains experiences about the motivation to avoid or master certain situations (King & McInerney, 2014 ).

The self has not played a major role in motivation research for a long time (Weiner, 1990 ). This was partly due to Freud’s psychoanalytic theories, which recognized the id rather than the ego as the motivational driver of behavior. Moreover, behavioristic approaches that characterized motivation and learning as fully controllable from the outside also neglected mental constructs such as the self (McCombs, 1991 ). It was only with the greater prevalence of cognitive and social-cognitive theories that the self found its way back to motivational research (Weiner, 1990 ). The self is now frequently addressed in hypothetical constructs such as self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977 ), self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985 ), self-regulation (Bandura, 1988 ), self-theories (Dweck, 1999 ), ego orientation (Nicholls, 1989 ), self-based goals (Elliot et al., 2011 ), self-serving bias (McAllister, 1996 ; Miller & Ross, 1975 ), and identity (Eccles, 2009 ).

In our model, the self is the starting point of motivated action. It enables people to select goals, initiate behaviors, and sustain them until goals are accomplished (Baumeister, 2010 ; McCombs & Marzano, 1990 ; Osborne & Jones, 2011 ). Thus understood, the self is an active agent that translates a person’s basic psychological needs, motives, feelings, values, and beliefs into volitional actions (McCombs, 1991 ; Roeser & Peck, 2009 ). James ( 1999 ) referred to this part of the self as the “I-self,” the thinking and acting person itself, to distinguish it from the “Me-self,” the reflection of oneself through its physical and mental attributes. The “Me-self” is central to constructs such as self-concept, self-worth, or self-esteem (Harter, 1988 ) and remains important in depicting different motivational constructs in the course of action. However, in the basic motivational model, the “I-self” is recognized as the repository of motivational tendencies and the energizer of motivated action (King & McInerney, 2014 ).

This view of the self corresponds with insights from neuroscientific research. In Northoff’s ( 2016 ) basis model of self-specificity, the self, and in particular self-specificity, is viewed as the most fundamental function of the brain. Self-specificity and self-relatedness refers to “the degree to which internal or external stimuli are related to the self” (Hidi et al., 2019 , p. 15) and references the I-self, the self as subject and agent (Christoff et al., 2011 ). Self-specificity involves spontaneous brain activity—the resting state of the brain and independent of specific tasks or stimuli external to the brain—and is viewed as fundamental in influencing basic and higher-order functions, such as perception, the processing of reward, emotion, memory, and decision-making (Hidi et al., 2019 ; Northoff, 2016 ). Furthermore, Sui and Humphreys ( 2015 ) indicated that self-related information processing functions as an “integrative glue” that influences the integration of different stages of processing, such as linking attention to decision-making. Neuroscientific findings, therefore, seem to support the view of the self as the starting point of motivated behavior.

The goal contains the cognitive representation of an action’s anticipated incentives and consequences. Goals are the basis of all motivated behavior (cf. Elliot & Fryer, 2008 ). This view is consistent with Schunk et al. ( 2014 ), who defined motivation as a process to instigate and sustain goal-directed behavior. Cognitive theories on motivation place special emphasis on the goals that people pursue (Elliot & Hulleman, 2017 ). Goals are intentional rather than impulsive, consciously or unconsciously represented, and guide an individual’s behavior. People are not always aware of the various influences on their goals. Sensations, perceptions, thoughts, beliefs, and emotions that affect goal pursuit are potentially experiential, but typically not consciously perceived (Bargh & Gollwitzer, 2023 ; Dweck et al., 2023 ). Goals are closely related to the person’s self. In line with Dweck et al. ( 2003 , p. 239), we assume that “contents of the self—self-defining beliefs and values—come to life through people’s goals.”

The action is carried out to either approach or avoid an anticipatory goal state (Beckmann & Heckhausen, 2018 ). Thus, motivated behavior can be directed to either approach a positive event or avoid a negative one (Elliot & Covington, 2001 ). An action can be brief or extended over a longer period. If an action goal is considered unattainable, it is devalued, and the action is directed toward other more attractive goals (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018 ). The action may or may not be visible to an observer. Thus, to act is to engage in any form of noticeable or indiscernible behavior, especially cognitive behavior, to reach a desired or avoid an undesired goal state.

The outcome is any physical, affective, or social result of an individual’s behavior. The action outcome is an important indicator of mastering a standard of excellence (Heckhausen, 1991 ). It is often accompanied by intrinsic valences such as feelings of self-worth, self-actualization, or appropriate accomplishment (Mitchell & Albright, 1972 ).

The consequences of an action are far more varied than the mere outcome. Vroom’s ( 1964 ) instrumentality theory considered the outcome of an action as instrumental for reaching subsequent consequences. Vroom ( 1964 ) suggested that the valence of an outcome depends on the valence of the consequences. For example, the value of school grades should depend on how the students themselves, classmates, and parents evaluate the grades achieved, what rewards, punishments, and achievement emotions are associated with the school grades, and whether the grades help achieve long-term goals such as moving up to the next grade level. The consequences of an action are often accompanied by extrinsic valences such as authority, prestige, security, promotion, or recognition (Mitchell & Albright, 1972 ).

In addition, the manifold consequences of an action affect the design of future situations and the goals that can be pursued within these situations. New possibilities to act open up and novel incentives of the situation start to interact with the self. A new action sequence, as shown in Fig. 1 , has begun.

In the following sections, we will use the action model to explain and classify six central motivation theories. Motivated action in the educational context serves to attain academic achievement, and we will make use of meta-analyses to underline what is currently known about the predictive strength of the major theoretical models. Academic achievement is certainly not the only reportable variable related to motivation. However, this visible evidence of learning is an appropriate indicator to convince individuals of the theory’s nature and value (Hattie, 2009 ). The role of affective factors in the action model is explained in more detail in the discussion.

Expectancy-Value Theory

Grounded on the research by Tolman ( 1932 ) and Lewin ( 1951 ), expectancy-value theories depict motivation as the result of the feasibility and desirability of an anticipated action (Achtziger & Gollwitzer, 2018 ; Schnettler et al., 2020 ). The expectancy is usually triggered by the incentives of the situation and expresses the subjective probability of the feasibility of the current action (Atkinson, 1957 ). The value indicates the desirability of an action which is determined by the incentives of the situation and the anticipated consequences of the action. In Atkinson’s ( 1957 ) achievement motivation theory, expectancy and value were assumed to be inversely related. The greater the desirability, the more difficult the feasibility of an action and vice versa. Thus, knowing the subjective probability of success was regarded as sufficient to determine the incentive value of a task. However, it turned out that the assumption of a negative correlation between expectancy and value was not tenable (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992 ). In a more modern view, expectancy and value beliefs are assumed to jointly predict achievement-related choices and performance (Eccles et al., 1983 ; Trautwein et al., 2012 ).

Situated expectancy-value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000 ) is a modern theoretical framework for explaining and predicting achievement-related choices and behavior. Expectancy of success and subjective task values are regarded as proximal explanatory factors determined by a person’s goals and self-schemas. These, in turn, are shaped by the individual’s perception and interpretation of their developmental history and sociocultural background. Eccles and Wigfield ( 2020 ) refer to their theory as situated to highlight the importance of the underlying influences on currently held expectancy and value beliefs.

The expectancy component in the situated model (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ) is called expectation of success (Atkinson, 1957 ; Tolman, 1932 ). It represents individuals’ belief about how well they will do on an upcoming task, targeting the anticipated outcome of an action. The expectancy component of Eccles’ motivation theory shows some similarity to self-concept of ability and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977 ; Harter, 2015 ; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2016 ; Schunk & Pajares, 2009 ). However, the expectation of success does not focus on the present ability (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003 ) but the future (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000 ), and it targets the perceived chances of success rather than the perceived probability of performing an action which may lead to success (Bandura, 1977 ; Muenks et al., 2018 ).

The value component of the situated model is divided into three types of value beliefs and three types of costs that contribute to approaching or avoiding certain tasks (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ). The three value beliefs are attainment value, intrinsic value, and utility value. The three types of costs are named opportunity costs, effort costs, and emotional costs (cf. Flake et al., 2015 ; Jiang et al., 2018 ).

Attainment value represents the importance of doing well on a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ). This belief is strongly associated with the person’s self, as aspects of one’s identity are touched upon during performing an important task (Wigfield et al., 2016 ). Intrinsic value is the enjoyment a person gets from doing a task. Intrinsic value is considered a counterpart to intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2009 ) and interest in person-object theory (Krapp, 1999 ). However, enjoyment and interest should not be viewed as synonyms, making differentiations necessary (Ainley & Hidi, 2014 ; Reeve, 1989 ). Utility value is derived from the meaning of a task in achieving current and future goals (Wigfield et al., 2006 ). Accomplishing the task is only a means to an end; therefore, utility value can be considered a form of extrinsic motivation. Utility value is derived from the meaning of a task in achieving current and future goals (Wigfield et al., 2006 ) in social, educational, professional, or everyday contexts (Gaspard et al., 2015 ).

Opportunity costs arise because the time invested in a task is no longer available for other valued activities. Especially in the case of learning, conflicts with other interests threaten learners’ self-regulation, and opportunity costs can be high (Grund & Fries, 2012 ). Effort costs address the perceived effort in pursuing a task and whether it is worthwhile to finish the task at hand (Eccles, 2005 ). Emotional costs include the perceived affective consequences of participating in an academic activity, such as fear of failure or other negative emotional states (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ; Wigfield et al., 2017 ).

Central constructs of the situated expectancy-value framework (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ) can be placed within the basic motivational model (see Fig. 2 ). Expectation of success, a person’s subjective estimate of the chances of obtaining a particular outcome, can be represented as a directed link between self and outcome. The expectation of achieving a future outcome with a certain probability is formed in the self and is directed on the desired outcome of the prospective action. This view of expectancy of success is consistent with Skinner’s ( 1996 ) classification of agent-ends relations as individuals’ beliefs about how well they will do on an upcoming task.

Integrating situated expectancy-value theory into the basic motivational model

Figure 2 further shows that the three task values are linked to different processes in the action model. The attainment value of a task is related to the personal significance of the outcome (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ). The higher the relative personal importance of the outcome, the higher the attainment value. More recent analyses show that the attainment value can be divided and measured as the importance of achievement and personal importance related to one’s identity (Gaspard et al., 2015 , 2018 , 2020 ). The self, however, is not the valued object but the importance of accomplishing a task to an individual’s identity (Perez et al., 2014 ). In classifying this construct, we chose to focus more on the importance of the outcome and less on the reference to the self. At this point, however, a different mode of presentation is also conceivable. The intrinsic value of the task is linked to the positive aspects of the action. The more pleasurable the action, the higher the intrinsic value. Eccles and Wigfield ( 2020 ) conceptualized the intrinsic value as the anticipated enjoyment of doing a particular task as well as the experienced enjoyment when performing the task. The utility value of a task is linked to the consequences. The more positive the anticipated consequences of an action, the higher the perceived usefulness. As a form of extrinsic motivation, the utility value does not result from performing the task, but from the anticipated consequences of an action to fulfill an individual’s present or future plans (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ).

The three types of costs also become relevant at different stages in the action process (see Fig. 2 ). Opportunity costs occur when a decision has been made in favor of a certain action. Alternative courses of action are ruled out as soon as a person is committed to a goal (Locke et al., 1988 ). Opportunity costs are consequently linked to the goal of the action. The person’s time and skills, which from now on are put into the pursuit of intentions, are no longer available for other activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ). Effort costs are tied to the action itself and are based on the anticipated effort of conducting the task. Effort costs rise with the duration and intensity of an action so that the person needs to anticipate whether the desired action is worth the effort required (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ). Finally, emotional costs such as anticipated fear of failure or negative emotional states are connected to the anticipated consequences of an action. These costs arise when the action does not go as desired and are therefore considered as the “perceptions of the negative emotional or psychological consequences in pursuing a task” (Rosenzweig et al., 2019 , p. 622).

Eccles’ expectancy-value framework has often been used to investigate and understand gender differences in motivational beliefs, performance, and career choices, especially in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (Lesperance et al., 2022 ; Parker et al., 2020 ; Wan et al., 2021 ). In contrast, there has been less meta-analytic research as to whether constructs of the expectancy-value model can predict academic achievement. To not preempt other theoretical conceptions, we only report here findings with a clear relation to the Eccles model.

Generally, expectations of success compared to achievement values are stronger predictors of subsequent performance (cf. Wigfield et al., 2017 ). A meta-analysis by Pinquart and Ebeling ( 2020 ) found a moderate association of expectancies for success with both current ( r = .34) and future academic achievement ( r = .41). Conversely, however, past academic performance could also predict expectancies for success ( r = .35). Credé and Phillips ( 2011 ) reported small relationships for a combination of the three task values with GPA ( r = .12) and grades ( r = .17). The relations in meta-analyses were somewhat higher when individual task values were examined. Camacho-Morles et al. ( 2021 ) found an association of r = .27 between activity-related enjoyment represented in the intrinsic value and academic performance. Barroso et al. ( 2021 ) reported a meta-analytic relationship of r = − .28 between math anxiety, as a form of emotional costs, and mathematics achievement.

Social Cognitive Theory

Within the frame of social cognitive theory, Bandura ( 1977 , 1986 , 1997 ) extended the expectancy concept from achievement motivation theory (Atkinson, 1957 ). Expectancy of success, the subjective probability of attaining a particular outcome, was differentiated by means of two beliefs (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006 ; Usher, 2016 ). Competence beliefs take effect when learners consider means and processes to accomplish certain tasks (Skinner, 1996 ). Control beliefs signify the perceived extent to which the chosen means and processes lead to the desired outcomes (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006 ).

For competence beliefs, Bandura ( 1977 ) coined the term self-efficacy to express expectations about one’s capabilities to organize and execute courses of action to produce specific outcomes (Bandura, 1997 ; Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006 ). The belief in self-efficacy is regarded as an essential condition to initiate actions leading to academic success (Klassen & Usher, 2010 ). For control beliefs, Bandura ( 1977 ) used the term outcome expectations to express the perceived relations between possible actions and anticipated outcomes. While expectancy of success sometimes involves competence beliefs, sometimes control beliefs, and sometimes both (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006 ), Bandura’s construct of self-efficacy has contributed to a necessary differentiation in the course of action and can be viewed as a central variable in research on motivation in education (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2016 ).

Social cognitive theory is much broader than self-efficacy and outcome expectations and assumes a system of interacting personal, behavioral, and environmental factors (Schunk & diBenedetto, 2021 ). The idea that human agency is neither completely autonomous nor completely mechanical, but is subject to reciprocal determinism, plays a decisive role (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016 ). Thus, personal factors such as perceived self-efficacy enable individuals to initiate and sustain behaviors that translate to effects on the environment. Thoughtful reflection on those actions and their impact feeds back to the person and can, in turn, influence their sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1989 ).

Figure 3 shows how the key components of social cognitive theory fit into the action model. The upper part of Fig. 3 is devoted to expectations. Self-efficacy expectations arise when the self has the necessary capabilities to organize and execute courses of action. Outcome expectations, in contrast, refer to the assessment of whether the anticipated action will lead to the desired outcome. The presentation of the two expectations is consistent with Skinner’s ( 1996 ) view in which self-efficacy expectations are referred to as agent-means relations and outcome expectations are referred to as means-ends relations. The lower part of Fig. 3 depicts the model of reciprocal interactions consisting of personal, behavioral, and environmental processes (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020 ). Personal processes, as described by Schunk and DiBenedetto ( 2020 ) in a publication on motivation and social cognitive theory, are primarily associated with the self and the goal. The self contains information on self-efficacy, values, expectations, attribution patterns and enables social comparison processes. The goal contains standards for self-evaluations of the action’s progress. Behavioral processes such as activity selection, effort, persistence, regulation, and achievement are closely related to action and outcome of the action model. Environmental processes such as acting of social models, providing instructions, or setting standards for action stem, on the one hand, from the situation, where they set the stage for action. Environmental processes are, on the other hand, located in the consequences, where feedback, opportunities for self-evaluation, and rewards indicate an action’s success or failure (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020 ). The listing of the individual components that make up the three interacting processes in reciprocal determinism is not always done in the same way. For example, Schunk and DiBenedetto ( 2021 ) referred to self-efficacy, cognitions, and emotions as personal factors; classroom attendance and task completion as behavioral factors; and classroom, teachers, peers, and classroom climate as environmental factors. However, this does not affect the representation of the three main classes of reciprocal determinism in the basic motivational model and opens up space for the classification of different components.

Integrating social cognitive theory into the basic motivational model

Several meta-analyses have shown that self-efficacy is moderately positively related to academic achievement (Multon et al., 1991 ; Robbins et al., 2004 ). Credé and Phillips ( 2011 ) examined several constructs of social cognitive theory based on the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990 ). Control beliefs showed small positive correlations with college GPA ( r = .12) and current semester grades ( r = .14). However, of all the constructs measured, self-efficacy showed the strongest associations with GPA ( r =. 18) and grades ( r = .30). Further meta-analyses with university students supported the significant but moderate relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement with correlation coefficients of r = .31 (Richardson et al., 2012 ) and r = .33 (Honicke & Broadbent, 2016 ). Sitzmann and Ely ( 2011 ) reported meta-analytic correlations of r = .18 for pre-training self-efficacy and r = .29 for self-efficacy with learning.

To further clarify the direction of the relationship, Sitzmann and Yeo ( 2013 ) conducted an insightful meta-analysis. They were able to show that self-efficacy expectations are more likely to be a product of past performance ( r = .40) than a driver of future performance ( r = .23). Talsma et al. ( 2018 ) supported these findings with a meta-analytic cross-lagged panel study. They found that prior performance exerted a stronger effect on self-efficacy (β = .21) than existing self-efficacy on subsequent performance (β = .07).

Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory by Deci and Ryan ( 1985 , 2000 ) is macro-theory for understanding human motivation, personality, and well-being. The theory has its roots in early explorations of the concept of intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1971 , 1975 ; Ryan & Deci, 2019 ). Self-determination is regarded as the basis for explaining intrinsically motivated behavior where the action is experienced as autonomous and does not rely on controls and reinforcers (Deci & Ryan, 1985 ). Self-determination theory provides a counterweight to expectancy-value theory and social cognitive theory, where the external incentives such as expected or real rewards to motivate behavior are still visible.

The overarching framework of self-determination theory encompasses six mini-theories: basic psychological needs theory, cognitive evaluation theory, organismic integration theory, causality orientations theory, goal contents theory, and relationship motivation theory (Ryan & Deci, 2017 ). Each mini-theory explains specific motivational phenomena that have been tested empirically (Reeve, 2012 ; Ryan & Deci, 2017 ; Vansteenkiste et al., 2010 ; see also Ryan et al., in press ). In the following explanations, we focus on the first three sub-theories with the highest popularity.

Basic psychological needs theory argues that humans are intrinsically motivated and experience well-being when their three innate basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied (Conesa et al., 2022 ; Deci & Ryan, 1985 , 2000 ; Ryan & Deci, 2000a , 2000b , 2017 , 2020 ; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020 ). Autonomy refers to a sense of ownership and the need for behavior to emanate from the self. Competence concerns a person’s need to succeed, grow, and feel effective in their goal pursuits (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ; White, 1959 ). Finally, relatedness refers to establishing close emotional connections to others and a sense of belonging to significant others such as parents, teachers, or peers.

Cognitive evaluation theory describes how the social environment affects intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985 , 2000 ; Ryan & Deci, 2000b , 2017 , 2020 ). The mini-theory states that cognitive evaluation of external rewards impacts learners’ perception of their intrinsically motivated behavior. Rewards perceived as controlling weaken intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards providing informational feedback can strengthen acting on one’s own initiative (Deci et al., 1999 ).

Organismic integration theory focuses on the development of extrinsic motivation toward more autonomous or self-determined motivation through the process of internalization (Ryan & Deci, 2017 ). The mini-theory proposes a self-determination continuum that ranges from intrinsic motivation to amotivation, with several types of extrinsic motivation in between (Deci & Ryan, 1985 , 2000 ; Ryan & Deci, 2000a , 2000b , 2017 , 2020 ). The results from the meta-analysis by Howard et al. ( 2017 ) largely supported the continuum-like structure of self-determination theory. Intrinsically motivated individuals engage in activities because they are fun or interesting, whereas extrinsic motivation concerns all other reasons for engaging in activities. Four types of extrinsic motivation are distinguished, and two of these types are assumed to be higher in quality than the other two (Deci & Ryan, 2008 ; Ryan & Deci, 2000b ).

Integrated and identified regulations are considered high-quality autonomous, extrinsic motivation types characterized by volitional engagement in activities. Integrated regulation is the most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation. People with integrated regulation recognize and identify with the activity’s value and find it congruent with their core values and interests (e.g., attending school because it is part of who you are; see Ryan & Deci, 2020 ). In identified regulation, people identify with or personally endorse the value of the activity (e.g., doing schoolwork to learn something from it) and, therefore, experience high degrees of volition.

The other two types of extrinsic motivation are forms of controlled motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2008 ; Ryan & Deci, 2000a , 2000b ). Introjected regulation concerns partially internalized extrinsic motivation; people’s behavior is regulated by an internal pressure to feel pride or self-esteem or to avoid feelings of anxiety, shame, or guilt. Extrinsic regulation refers to behavior regulated by externally imposed rewards and punishments, such as demands from parents or teachers.

The action model in Fig. 4 shows how core concepts of the self-determination theory fit into the course of action. The three basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and social relatedness are an integral part of the self (Connell & Wellborn, 1991 ). Ryan and Deci ( 2019 ) regarded the self as responsible for assimilating and aligning a person’s internal needs, drives, and emotions to the external determinants of the sociocultural situation. Intrinsic motivation is part of the action when the activity itself is experienced as exciting, interesting, or intrinsically satisfying. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is tied to an action’s consequences, as externally motivated learners seek pleasant consequences and try to avoid unpleasant ones.

Integrating self-determination theory into the basic motivational model

Forms of extrinsic motivation of the organismic integration theory can be distinguished according to the extent to which the action is integrated into the self. The more internalized the motivation, the more it becomes part of a learner’s identity (Ryan & Deci, 2020 ). In external regulation, there is no involvement of the self, as the person’s actions are entirely determined by the incentives of the situation and the action’s consequences (see Fig. 4 ). In introjected regulation, there is already some ego involvement: The self becomes involved with the consequences of one’s action to experience approval from oneself or others (Ryan & Deci, 2000a ). In identified regulation, the individual starts to value an activity consciously, and the self connects with the action. In integrated regulation, a congruence is established between the self and the self-initiated action (Ryan & Deci, 2000a ). Values and needs of the self are in balance with the autonomous and unconflicted action (see Fig. 4 ). As seen in Fig. 4 , identified and integrated regulation share overlap. In line with this presentation, the meta-analysis by Howard et al. ( 2017 ) showed that integrated regulation was hard to distinguish from intrinsic and identified regulation and called for a revision of the theory by either excluding integrated regulation or finding new ways to operationalize and conceptualize the hypothetical construct.

In line with basic psychological needs theory, the Bureau et al. ( 2022 ) meta-analysis confirmed that the satisfaction of basic psychological needs is positively associated with autonomous forms of motivation. Relative weight analysis showed that the need for competence most strongly predicted intrinsic and identified motivation, followed by the needs for autonomy and social relatedness.

Several meta-analyses investigated the association between the different motivation types and academic achievement, and some of these meta-analyses only reported the association between intrinsic motivation and school performance. For example, Cerasoli et al. ( 2014 ) reported a meta-analytic correlation between intrinsic motivation and school performance of ρ = .26, whereas Richardson et al. ( 2012 ) reported a small positive correlation of r = .17 with the GPA at college or university.

Taylor et al. ( 2014 ) and Howard et al. ( 2021 ) investigated the meta-analytic correlations of the different types of motivation with school performance. Concerning the autonomous motivation types, Taylor et al. ( 2014 ) reported positive associations of intrinsic motivation ( d = .27) and identified regulation ( d = .35) with school achievement. Howard et al. ( 2021 ) also found that both identified and intrinsic motivation were equally positively associated with school performance. However, higher associations were found for self-reported (intrinsic ρ = .32, identified ρ = .29) than for objective performance measures (intrinsic ρ = .13, identified ρ = .11).

Concerning the controlled motivation types, Taylor et al. ( 2014 ) reported weak but significant negative associations with academic achievement for introjected ( d = − .12) and external regulation ( d = − .22). In contrast, Howard et al. ( 2021 ) found that introjected and external regulation were not significantly related to self-reported (introjected ρ = .07, external ρ = − .02) or objective school performance (introjected ρ = − .01, external ρ = − .03).

Interest Theory

Interest stems from the Latin word “interesse” and etymologically indicates that there is something in between. Interest connects two entities that would otherwise be separated from each other. Dewey ( 1913 ) viewed interest as an engagement and absorption of the self with an objective subject matter. In today’s person-object theory (Krapp, 2002 ), interest is similarly understood as a relational concept that builds a connection between a person and an object. Objects of interest can be very diverse and may include tangible things, people, topics, abstract ideas, tasks, events but also activities such as sports (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ). A prerequisite for interest to arise is an object in the real world and a person who has at least rudimentary but often considerable knowledge about this object (Alexander et al., 1994 ; Renninger & Wozniak, 1985 ; Rotgans & Schmidt, 2017 ). Interest is a unique motivational concept (Hidi, 2006 ) that establishes a link between the objective appearance and the subjective representation of an object and triggers actions with the object of interest.

Being in a state of interest is accompanied by certain intrinsic qualities (Krapp, 2002 ). Interest-driven activities need no external incentives or rewards to be initiated and sustained. Interest is a form of intrinsic motivation that is characterized by the three components of affect, knowledge, and value (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ) and can thereby be distinguished from related constructs such as curiosity (Berlyne, 1960 ; Donnellan et al., 2022 ; Peterson & Hidi, 2019 ) or flow experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ). The affective component of interest is typically associated with a state of pleasant tension, an optimal level of arousal, and positive feelings in the engagement with the object of interest. The cognitive component shows itself in the epistemic tendency to want to learn about the object of interest (Hidi, 1990 ). The value component becomes evident in the object’s connection to the self through the attribution of personal significance (Schiefele, 1991 ).

The most important distinction in interest theory is between long-lasting individual interest and short-term situational interest (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ; Rotgans & Schmidt, 2018 ). Individual interest describes a motivational disposition toward a particular domain. It resembles a temporally stable personality trait and is an important goal of education concerning developing subject-specific and vocational interests for life-long learning (Hoff et al., 2018 ). Situational interest arises from the stimulus conditions of the environment, without any individual interest of the person having to be simultaneously present. Situational interest provides favorable motivation for learning and leads to increased short-term attention and enhanced information processing (Hidi, 2006 ). This interested turn of the person to certain topics, tasks, or activities is due to favorable characteristics of environmental stimuli such as novelty, importance, or attractiveness and is considered to be well-studied in research on text comprehension (Schraw et al., 2001 ). The change and maintenance of short-term situational interest to long-term individual interest are explicitly described in the four-phase model of interest development (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ).

It is important to note that both individual and situational interest can be associated with a psychological state of interest (Ainley, 2017 ; Hidi, 2006 ) that arises when individuals interact with the object of interest. This state can be promoted both by the individual interest that a person brings to the situation and situational interest due to salient environmental cues (Knogler, 2017 ). In this state of interest, the two basic components of interest complement and merge with each other (Krapp, 2002 ; Renninger et al., 1992 ).

Figure 5 shows the classification of the three central constructs of interest theory in the action model. Situational interest is triggered by environmental stimuli (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ) and is thus associated with the situation. This fleeting and malleable psychological state needs support from others or through instructional design to not disappear right away (Renninger & Hidi, 2019 , 2022a ). Individual interest is a relatively enduring disposition of the person to re-engage particular content over time (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ) and is thus a fixed characteristic of the self. This psychological predisposition is independent of the concrete content and represented as stored knowledge and stored value with relations to the self (Renninger & Hidi, 2022b ). “The self … may also provide an explanation of why interest, once triggered, is then maintained and continues to develop” (Hidi et al., 2019 , p. 28). The state of interest arises in interaction with the object of interest (Knogler, 2017 ) and is connected with the action in the model. This state of interest can be differentiated from a less-developed situational interest. While state of interest refers to an action-related, current experience (Knogler, 2017 ), less-developed situational interest marks the initial phase of a well-developed individual interest (Renninger & Hidi, 2022a ).

Integrating interest theory into the basic motivational model

Individual interest in content or subject matter is a stable predictor of academic achievement. Schiefele et al. ( 1992 ) determined a mean correlation coefficient of r = .31 between interest and academic achievement for studies in K-12 classes. In a more recent large-scale study, Lee and Stankov ( 2018 ) examined the relationship between mathematics interest and mathematics achievement in standardized tests. They found mean within-country correlations of r = .16 and r = .15 for data from PISA 2003 and PISA 2012, respectively. The effect of individual interest on academic achievement remained significant even when researchers controlled for students’ gender, nonverbal intelligence, or socio-economic status (M. Jansen et al., 2016 ). The strongest associations were found in the domains of mathematics and science (M. Jansen et al., 2016 ; Schiefele et al., 1992 ), which seem to be particularly suitable for initiating interventive measures (e.g., Crouch et al., 2018 ; Renninger et al., 2023 ). No meta-analyses are yet known for situational interest. However, Sundararajan and Adesope ( 2020 ) have analyzed how seductive details (i.e., interesting but irrelevant information) can affect learning outcomes. They found an average negative effect of g = − .33 for the relation between seductive details and recall or transfer of presented information.

Achievement Goal Theory

Anyone working as a teacher may have noticed that some students are very interested in learning something new, while others are motivated by obtaining good grades and avoiding poor ones (Eison, 1981 ; Eison et al., 1986 ). This fundamental distinction between individuals concentrating on the process of learning and individuals focusing on the external reasons for learning, can also be found in achievement goal theory (Elliot & Thrash, 2001 ). The theoretical framework has evolved steadily over four decades and is nowadays a key approach in motivation research (Elliot, 2005 ; Elliot & Hulleman, 2017 ; Urdan & Kaplan, 2020 ).

Achievement goals can be characterized by the intention to engage in competence-related behaviors (Elliot & Hulleman, 2017 ). In an attempt to further develop achievement motivation theory, Nicholls ( 1984 ); Nicholls & Dweck, 1979 ) called attention to two types of achievement behavior. Task-oriented individuals pursue the goal of developing high abilities. Ego-oriented learners care deeply about proving high abilities to themselves or others and avoid demonstrating low abilities. Later, the terms mastery goal and performance goal have been established to signify this basic distinction between the two achievement goals (Ames & Archer, 1988 ; Dweck, 1986 ; Elliot & Hulleman, 2017 ).

A first differentiation of the achievement goal theory has been made by including an approach and an avoidance component (Elliot, 1999 ). Research findings made clear that performance-approach goals were mainly associated with adaptive outcomes, whereas performance-avoidance goals were often associated with maladaptive outcomes (Harackiewicz et al., 2002 ). Originally, approach and avoidance components were assumed only for performance goals (Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996 ). Later, researchers also addressed mastery avoidance goals, which concerns an individual’s striving to avoid mastering tasks worse than before or avoiding a decline in skills or knowledge (Elliot & McGregor, 2001 ; Van Yperen et al., 2009 ).

A second differentiation became necessary because competence-related behavior can be oriented toward very different standards (Elliot et al., 2011 ). Competencies may be reflected in whether certain tasks are fulfilled, performance is improved, or is better than the performance of others. The 3 × 2 achievement goal model by Elliot et al. ( 2011 ) incorporates the different aims of attaining competencies by differentiating between task-based, self-based, and other-based goals. Task-based goals are oriented toward the absolute demands of a task where the action’s outcome signals the attainment of an absolute standard. Self-based goals are a bit more complicated and require reference back to past performance anchored in the “Me-self” (Elliot et al., 2011 ). Competencies in terms of self-based goals refer to meeting or exceeding intrapersonal evaluation standards. Individuals with other-based goals, however, strive to meet interpersonal evaluation standards and to perform tasks better than others in a normative sense. The full 3 × 2 achievement goal model results from completely crossing absolute, intrapersonal, and interpersonal evaluation standards with approach and avoidance tendencies (Elliot et al., 2011 ).

Furthermore, the empirical distinction of performance goals into normative and appearance goals has gained a lot of popularity (Hulleman et al., 2010 ; Senko & Dawson, 2017 ; Urdan & Mestas, 2006 ). However, performance goals in the sense of seeking normative comparisons express the achievement goal concept of attaining competence much better than demonstrating ability to others (Elliot & Hulleman, 2017 ; Senko, 2019 ; Urdan & Kaplan, 2020 ). Therefore, we omit the distinction between normative and appearance goals in the model representation and report their effects only in the meta-analytic part.

Figure 6 illustrates how the 3 × 2 achievement goal model (Elliot et al., 2011 ) can be placed within the basic motivational model. The arrows in the illustration point to the cognitively represented aim of the action in a particular goal state. In task-based goals, the focus is on striving for a desired outcome or avoiding not to attain a desired outcome (see Fig. 6 ). The conceptualization of task-based goals is consistent with the original idea of mastery goals of understanding the content and doing well (Ames & Archer, 1988 ). To represent mastery goals, however, a second arrow would be appropriate from the goal to the action and not just to the outcome of learning. Through the action and the continuous comparison of the current and intended outcome of the action, the individual can master the task, develop new competencies or enhance existing ones (Dweck, 1999 ; Grant & Dweck, 2003 ). We have chosen to present the 3 × 2 achievement goal model (Elliot et al., 2011 ) with task-based goals oriented to the standard of task accomplishment and with a clear focus on the outcome (cf. Senko & Tropiano, 2016 ). Also belonging to mastery goals are the newly added self-based goals (Elliot et al., 2011 ). In self-based goals, the focus is on being better or avoiding being worse than in the past or as it corresponds to one’s own potential. For this purpose, the agent’s view goes back to the abilities and skills of the self (see Fig. 6 ) before the person tries to expand their competencies or avoid the loss of competencies in the action process. Self-based goals use one’s own intraindividual trajectory as the standard for evaluation. Goal setting starts with a look at one’s past, but more important seems to be a look on one’s future potential (Elliot et al., 2015 ). In other-based goals, the course of action is dominated by the anticipated consequences (see Fig. 6 ). The aim of attaining competence is based on an interpersonal standard of being better than others or not being worse than others. This conceptualization of other-based goals coincides with the normative notion of performance goals (Dweck, 1986 ; Senko et al., 2011 ).

Integrating the 3 × 2 achievement goal framework into the basic motivational model

Several meta-analyses have accumulated evidence on the empirical relationships of achievement goals with academic achievement (Baranik et al., 2010 ; Burnette et al., 2013 ; Huang, 2012 ; Hulleman et al., 2010 ; Murayama & Elliot, 2012 ; Richardson et al., 2012 ; Van Yperen et al., 2014 ; Wirthwein et al., 2013 ). The small but significant effects are remarkably consistent across different meta-analyses (for an overview, Scherrer et al., 2020 ). Mastery approach goals correlate between r = .10 (Baranik et al., 2010 ; Huang, 2012 ; Richardson et al., 2012 ) and r = .14 (Burnette et al., 2013 ; Van Yperen et al., 2014 ) with grades and test performance. Mastery avoidance goals show small negative relationships to academic achievement with correlations ranging from r = − .07 (Van Yperen et al., 2014 ) to r = − .12 (Hulleman et al., 2010 ). The correlation coefficients of performance approach goals to academic achievement are consistently positive, ranging from r = .06 (Hulleman et al., 2010 ) to r = .16 (Burnette et al., 2013 ). However, Hulleman et al. ( 2010 ) caveated that normative performance goals ( r = .14) were associated with significantly better performance outcomes than appearance performance goals ( r = − .14). Negative associations were also found between performance avoidance goals and academic achievement with values ranging from r = − .12 (Murayama & Elliot, 2012 ; Wirthwein et al., 2013 ) to r = -.22 (Burnette et al., 2013 ).

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory addresses the issue of how individuals make causal ascriptions about events in the environment (Graham & Taylor, 2016 ). Persons act like intuitive scientists searching for the perceived causes of success and failure (Stiensmeier-Pelster & Heckhausen, 2018 ). In the attribution process, the person tries to determine the cause of an outcome. Causal inferences are drawn based on the covariation of an observed effect with its possible causes (Kelley, 1973 ). The attributional process starts when the outcome of an event is considered important, unexpected, or negative (Graham, 2020 ), which is often accompanied by happiness in case of success or sadness and frustration in case of failure (Weiner, 1986 ).

The causes are then located in a three-dimensional space. The first fundamental dimension of the attribution theory is called the locus of causality (deCharms, 1968 ; Rotter, 1966 ; Weiner, 1986 ). It can be traced back to the pioneering ideas of Heider ( 1958 ), who found that people identify either the situation or dispositional characteristics of the person as the main reasons for people’s behavior. Individuals differentiate between external causes such as task characteristics or luck and internal causes such as ability or effort. The second causal dimension of attribution theory is entitled stability over time. Weiner ( 1971 ) distinguished between stable causes of outcomes such as ability or task characteristics and unstable causes such as effort or luck. Complete crossing of the locus and stability dimensions yielded a 2 × 2 classification scheme for the perceived causes of achievement outcomes. An outcome can be attributed either internally to the person or externally to circumstances. Furthermore, the cause of the outcome can be perceived as stable or variable over time. Finally, Weiner ( 1979 ) introduced a third causal dimension, controllability, as there was still considerable variability within the cells of the suggested classification scheme. For example, mood and effort are both internal and unstable causes, but effort is more subject to volitional control than mood. By combining two levels of locus with two levels of stability and two levels of control, Weiner ( 1979 ) extended the classification scheme to its current state of eight separable causes of success and failure.

The action model in Fig. 7 depicts the basic idea of attribution theory as stated by Heider ( 1958 ) and Weiner ( 1986 ). Attributions occur at the end of an action process. These causal ascriptions are elicited when the outcome is particularly important, unexpected, or negative (Weiner, 1985 ). Depending on the outcome, the person responds with positive affect in case of success or negative affect in case of failure. This front part of Fig. 7 coincides with current illustrations of the attributional theory of motivation (cf. Graham, 2020 ). Representing causal ascriptions and classifying reasons for success or failure on causal dimensions can only be done in a simplified manner in the basic motivational model. The action outcome is further attributed to dispositions of the self, such as perceived ability or effort, or the characteristics of the situation, such as task difficulty or chance (Stiensmeier-Pelster & Heckhausen, 2018 ). After ascribing the outcome to different causal dimensions, other emotions and future achievement strivings emerge as psychological and behavioral consequences of the attribution process (Weiner, 1986 ).

Integrating attribution theory into the basic motivational model

The three causal dimensions are linked to particular psychological and academic outcomes (Graham, 2020 ). Using meta-analytic structural equation modeling, Brun et al. ( 2021 ) found direct relationships between controllability and performance as well as mediated relationships of locus of causality, perceived competence, and performance. While the latter was most evident in the case of success, in the case of failure, the mediated relationship between the stability dimension, expectancy of success, and performance turned out to be significant. Further meta-analytic research showed that school children attribute success more to internal causes and failure more to external causes (Whitley Jr. & Frieze, 1985 ). This egotistic bias manifests in relating success to ability ( g = .56) and effort ( g = .29), and failure to task difficulty ( g = .45) but not to luck ( g = − .03). Fittingly, Fong et al. ( 2017 ) reported that greater internality and controllability of causal ascriptions are associated with better academic achievement among college students ( r = .14). In addition, Gordeeva et al. ( 2020 ) found that an optimistic attribution style, in which positive events are attributed to stable, internal, and global causes, is weakly related to academic performance ( r = .11). In contrast, a meta-analysis by Richardson et al. ( 2012 ) with university students did not reveal any relationships between academic performance and a pessimistic attribution style ( r =. 01).

The integrative model presented in this paper aims to provide a better overview of the most prominent motivation theories in education. The basic motivational model relies on the general model of motivation by Heckhausen and Heckhausen ( 2018 ) in its sequence of events and adopts considerations from Locke ( 1997 ) and Hattie et al. ( 2020 ) on the integration of motivation theories. The basic model allows for the classification of central motivation constructs into the course of action, highlighting in particular the differences between and within the six most popular motivation theories of our time. It makes us aware of the fact that the major theories cannot be easily merged into one another. Expectancy-value theory, social cognitive theory, self-determination theory, interest theory, achievement goal theory, and attribution theory have all shaped our understanding of why, when, and how individuals learn (Anderman, 2020 ). In the basic motivational model, learning outcomes represent a typical indicator of goal-directed behavior. Associated recent meta-analyses demonstrate the empirical relationship between the motivational constructs of the six central theories and academic achievement. They provide evidence for the explanatory value of each theory for students’ learning.

Particular features of the basic motivational model include parsimony (Hattie et al., 2020 ) and the role of situation, self, and goal as cornerstones of a modern conception for building motivation theories (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ; Graham, 2020 ; Liem & Senko, 2022 ; Ryan & Deci, 2020 ; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2021 ; Urdan & Kaplan, 2020 ). Occam’s razor ensures to give preference to a model with fewer parameters over a more complex one. A theory with few variables in a clear, logical relationship to each other can be easily tested and can lead more quickly to unambiguous findings than a more expansive one. A basic motivational model should therefore be deliberately kept simple and specify only the decisive factors. This is what we have been trying to achieve. A closer look at current research on motivation in education shows that often only a particular set of constructs from much broader psychological theories is empirically investigated: self-efficacy expectations from social cognitive theory (Schunk & diBenedetto, 2020 ), expectancy and value beliefs from situated expectancy-value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ), or causal ascriptions from attribution theory (Graham, 2020 ). Therefore, for reasons of parsimony, it seems advisable not to try to represent the entire wealth of motivation theories in an integrative model, but only their most important constructs (cf. Anderman, 2020 ; Hattie et al., 2020 ).

While achievement motivation theory posits an interplay of incentives of the situation and motives of the person as the basis for all motivated behavior (Atkinson, 1957 ), social-cognitive and sociocultural theories have significantly altered views on motivation (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ; Graham & Weiner, 1996 ; Liem & Elliot, 2018 ; Roeser & Peck, 2009 ; Wigfield et al., 2015 ). We attempted to account for these changing views in our basic motivational model. First, rather than viewing the situation as limited to its potential incentives, we recognized the social, cultural, historical, and environmental context represented in the situation as having a significant impact on the opportunities for motivated action (Nolen, 2020 ). Second, by differentiating the person into self and goal, we could more accurately describe the process of motivated behavior. We mapped the person’s needs, motives, and wishes to the self-system (Roeser & Peck, 2009 ). Driven by its needs, motives, aspirations, and desires, the “I-self”, the consciously experiencing subject, takes influence on the selection of goals and decision-making (Dweck et al., 2003 ; Sui & Humphreys, 2015 ). The self offers the underlying reason for behavior, whereas the goal contains the concrete aim to guide behavior (cf. Elliot et al., 2011 ; Sommet & Elliot, 2017 ).

Affective factors can be active in all phases of the motivation process and take influence on the course of action. At the beginning of the action process, there is typically an awareness of contextual cues or situational stimuli that can trigger emotions such as situational interest, curiosity, or surprise (Gendolla, 1997 ; Hidi & Renninger, 2019 ). Anchored in the self are emotional dispositions of the person such as hope for success, fear of failure, or individual interest. These activating emotions, aroused by situational incentives, are energizers of the action process (Atkinson, 1957 ; Pekrun et al., 2023 ; Renninger & Bachrach, 2015 ). Having goals and being oriented toward them, is also accompanied by emotional states (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002 ). Mastery approach goals are typically associated with the presence of positive emotions and performance avoidance goals with the presence of negative emotions, whereas performance approach goals show weak relations to both positive and negative emotions (Huang, 2011 ; Korn et al., 2019 ). Research within the frame of the 3 × 2 achievement goal model could confirm these findings (Lüftenegger et al., 2016 ; Thomas, 2022 ). Positive emotions such as enjoyment and the state of interest (Hidi & Baird, 1986 ; Krapp et al., 1992 ) or negative emotions such as boredom and anger are expressed in accomplishing the action (Pekrun et al., 2023 ). Other emotions are attached to the outcome of the action: Positive outcomes are related to feelings of happiness, and negative outcomes go along with feelings of frustration and sadness (Graham, 2020 ). As consequences of the action, emotions such as pride, relief, or gratitude are prevalent in the case of success, whereas emotions such as guilt, shame, or disappointment emerge in the case of failure (Pekrun et al., 2023 ; Weiner, 1986 ). Overall, each phase of the action process is accompanied by certain affective states, which makes us aware of the close relationship between motivation and emotion.

While we have limited ourselves in this contribution to the six most common theoretical approaches (cf. Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016 ), there are considerations of how other theories of motivation in education fit into the basic motivational model. These theories have not been researched by the same amount of scientists as the theories presented. Nevertheless, constructs such as grit, flow, and social motivation also offer suitable explanations for understanding the reasons behind human action. Grit theory (Duckworth et al., 2007 ) holds two trait-like constructs responsible for high motivation during task engagement. Meta-analytic results show that grit ( r = .19) is a consistent predictor of academic achievement with its dimension perseverance of effort ( r = .21) being more strongly related to academic achievement than the dimension consistency of interest ( r = .08; Lam & Zhou, 2022 ). In the integrative model, these two personality traits would be associated with the self and constantly impact goal pursuit (Duckworth et al., 2007 ). Flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 , 2000 ) focuses on experiencing an optimal state of simultaneous absorption, concentration, and enjoyment (Tse et al., 2022 ). As a form of intrinsic motivation (Rheinberg, 2020 ), flow experience would be assigned to the action of the integrative model. Social goals (Wentzel et al., 2018 ) are not located on an intrapersonal level but on an interpersonal level. Two basic motivational models arranged in parallel could be used to map, for example, motivation in teacher-student relationships (Wentzel, 2016 ). This would provide a simple way to represent the reciprocal interactions between the goals and actions of teachers and students.

The integrative model also facilitates an understanding of the interrelationships between different motivational constructs. Howard et al. ( 2021 ) examined in a meta-analysis the relations of different types of motivation from self-determination theory with achievement goals and self-efficacy. Intrinsic and identified motivation showed high correlations with mastery-approach goals, moderate correlations with self-efficacy, and low correlations with performance-approach goals. In contrast, introjected and external motivation showed a reserve pattern and lowly correlated with mastery-approach goals and self-efficacy but moderately with performance-approach goals. To explain these correlative patterns, it can be deduced from the integrative motivation model that intrinsic motivation, identified motivation, mastery-approach goals, and self-efficacy share a common focus on action. In contrast, introjected motivation, extrinsic motivation, and performance-approach goals share a common focus on the consequences of the action. While such post-hoc explanations are of modest scientific value, it may be possible in the future to derive and empirically test predictions about the relationships among motivational constructs based on the integrative model.

A future application of the integrative model is to combine it with neuroscientific research on motivation (Kim, 2013 ; Kim et al., 2017 ). Kim ( 2013 ) proposed a tentative neuroscientific model of motivation processes, in which—similar to the action model—motivation is viewed as a series of dynamic processes. An added value of neuroscientific research is that it can help determine if seemingly overlapping constructs from different theories are unique or similar by examining the patterns of neural activity that are triggered (Kim, 2013 ; Kim et al., 2017 ). It additionally allows for the investigation of unconscious aspects of motivation. Neuroscientific studies can further help identify the mechanism of motivational processes relating to the generation, maintenance, and regulation of motivation. The integrative model can help in identifying overlapping constructs and investigating the mechanisms of motivational processes.

Another application of the integrative model is in using a person-oriented approach to study motivation (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Wormington, 2019 ; Ratelle et al., 2007 ; Wormington & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2017 ). The person-oriented approach takes advantage of the fact that many motivational variables are often highly correlated with each other. Therefore, rather than singling out one motivational variable and analyzing its influences, it seems useful to create groups or profiles of students based on several different motivational variables. Thereby, it is recommended to use an integrative framework to relate the different motivational constructs: “A person-oriented approach can be particularly useful with an integrative theoretical perspective because it allows researchers to model the relations among motivation constructs across theoretical frameworks that may be conceptually related to one another” (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Wormington, 2019 , p. 748).

In the context of the integrative model, we have presented meta-analytic results on the relationship between motivation and academic achievement. Small to medium correlations emerged for the different types of motivation with students’ learning outcomes. Through its sequence of action stages, the integrative model suggests a causal order in which motivation is crucial for achieving academic outcomes. However, findings on the expectancy component show that the other direction may be considered equally probable, and academic achievement influences learners’ motivation (Pinquart & Ebeling, 2020 ; Sitzmann & Yeo, 2013 ). Therefore, the basic motivational model should also be understood as suggesting that prior academic achievement, cognitively represented in the self, helps shape motivation for new learning tasks.

Theories of motivation in education have increasingly expanded and differentiated over time (Schunk et al., 2014 ). Six major theories of motivation have been established (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016 ), which we have considered against the background of an integrative action model. The framework model is intended to contribute to a deeper understanding of the major theories of academic motivation and to show the focus of each theoretical conception. In this way, difficulties of understanding with which novices try to open up the field of academic motivation theories should be overcome to a certain extent. From the placement of the theories in the basic motivational model, it becomes clear that the various approaches to motivation cannot simply be merged into one another. Nonetheless, opportunities arise from the integrative model to reflect on the meta-analytic findings regarding the interrelations of motivational theories and constructs (Howard et al., 2021 ; Huang, 2016 ) and to speculate about the underlying mechanims of the connection. Similarly, possibilities arise to debate the changing understanding of motivational constructs or to situate new theories and constructs in the course of action to clarify their meaning.

Motivation in education is a very lively field of research with a variety of approaches and ideas to develop further beyond the basic theories. This includes a stronger inclusion of situational, social, and cultural characteristics in the explanatory context (Nolen, 2020 ), the use of findings from neuroscience to objectify assumptions about motivational processes (Hidi et al., 2019 ), the interaction of motivation and emotion in learning and performance (Pekrun & Marsh, 2022 ), the analysis of motivational profiles based on a person-centered approach (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Wormington, 2019 ), or the development of motivation interventions originating in sound theoretical approaches (Lazowski & Hulleman, 2016 ). To ensure that these developments in an increasingly broad field of research do not diverge, it is important to obtain a common understanding of the basic models and conceptions of motivation research. We hope to have made such a contribution by placing key theories and constructs of motivation within an integrative framework model.

Achtziger, A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2018). Motivation and volition in the course of action. In J. Heckhausen & H. Heckhausen (Eds.), Motivation and action (pp. 272–295). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_12

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Ainley, M. (2017). Interest: Knowns, unknowns, and basic processes. In P. A. O'Keefe & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), The science of interest (pp. 3–24). Springer International Publishing AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55509-6_1

Ainley, M., & Hidi, S. (2014). Interest and enjoyment. In R. Pekrun & L. Linnenbrink-Garcia (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 205–227). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Google Scholar  

Alexander, P. A., Kulikowich, J. M., & Jetton, T. L. (1994). The role of subject-matter knowledge and interest in the processing of linear and nonlinear texts. Review of Educational Research, 64 (2), 201–252. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170694

Article   Google Scholar  

Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students’ learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80 (3), 260–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.3.260

Anderman, E. M. (2020). Achievement motivation theory: Balancing precision and utility. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61 , 101864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101864

Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64 , 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043445

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84 (2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory . Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Bandura, A. (1988). Self-regulation of motivation and action through goal systems. In V. Hamilton, G. H. Bower, & N. H. Frijda (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation (pp. 37–61). Springer . https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2792-6_2

Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44 (9), 1175–1184. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.9.1175

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control . W H Freeman/Times Books/ Henry Holt & Co..

Baranik, L. E., Stanley, L. J., Bynum, B. H., & Lance, C. E. (2010). Examining the construct validity of mastery-avoidance achievement goals: A meta-analysis. Human Performance, 23 (3), 265–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2010.488463

Bargh, J. A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2023). The unconscious sources of motivation and goals. In M. Bong, J. Reeve, & S. Kim (Eds.), Motivation science (pp. 175–182). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0030

Barroso, C., Ganley, C. M., McGraw, A. L., Geer, E. A., Hart, S. A., & Daucourt, M. C. (2021). A meta-analysis of the relation between math anxiety and math achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 147 (2), 134–168. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000307

Baumeister, R. F. (2010). The self. In R. F. Baumeister & E. J. Finkel (Eds.), Advanced social psychology: The state of the science (pp. 139–175). Oxford University Press.

Beckmann, J., & Heckhausen, H. (2018). Situational determinants of behavior. In J. Heckhausen & H. Heckhausen (Eds.), Motivation and action (pp. 113–162). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_4

Berlyne, D. E. (1960). Conflict, arousal, and curiosity . McGraw-Hill Book Company. https://doi.org/10.1037/11164-000

Bong, M., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2003). Academic self-concept and self-efficacy: How different are they really? Educational Psychology Review, 15 (1), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021302408382

Brun, L., Pansu, P., & Dompnier, B. (2021). The role of causal attributions in determining behavioral consequences: A meta-analysis from an intrapersonal attributional perspective in achievement contexts. Psychological Bulletin, 147 (7), 701–718. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000331

Bureau, J. S., Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Guay, F. (2022). Pathways to student motivation: A meta-analysis of antecedents of autonomous and controlled motivations. Review of Educational Research, 92 (1), 46–72. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211042426

Burnette, J. L., O’Boyle, E. H., VanEpps, E. M., Pollack, J. M., & Finkel, E. J. (2013). Mind-sets matter: A meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 139 (3), 655–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029531

Camacho-Morles, J., Slemp, G. R., Pekrun, R., Loderer, K., Hou, H., & Oades, L. G. (2021). Activity achievement emotions and academic performance: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 33 (3), 1051–1095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09585-3

Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford, M. T. (2014). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140 (4), 980–1008. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035661

Christoff, K., Cosmelli, D., Legrand, D., & Thompson, E. (2011). Specifying the self for cognitive neuroscience. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15 (3), 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.001

Conesa, P. J., Onandia-Hinchado, I., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Moreno, M. Á. (2022). Basic psychological needs in the classroom: A literature review in elementary and middle school students. Learning and Motivation, 79 , 101819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101819

Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes and development: The Minnesota symposium on child psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 43–78). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Credé, M., & Phillips, L. A. (2011). A meta-analytic review of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. Learning and Individual Differences, 21 (4), 337–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.03.002

Crouch, C. H., Wisittanawat, P., Cai, M., & Renninger, K. A. (2018). Life science students’ attitudes, interest, and performance in introductory physics for life sciences (IPLS): An exploratory study. Physical Review . Physics Education Research, 14 (1), 010111. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.14.010111

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow . Harper and Row.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Beyond boredom and anxiety . Jossey-Bass.

De Brabander, C. J., & Martens, R. L. (2014). Towards a unified theory of task-specific motivation. Educational Research Review, 11 , 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2013.11.001

deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation: The internal affective determinants of behavior . Academic Press.

Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18 (1), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030644

Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation . Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-4446-9

Book   Google Scholar  

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125 (6), 627–668. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior . In Perspectives in social psychology . Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11 (4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49 (3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801

Dewey, J. (1913). Interest and effort in education . .

Donnellan, E., Aslan, S., Fastrich, G. M., & Murayama, K. (2022). How are curiosity and interest different? Naïve Bayes classification of people’s beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 34 (1), 73–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09622-9

Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92 (6), 1087–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087

Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41 (10), 1040–1048. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040

Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development . Psychology Press.

Dweck, C. S., Dixon, M. L., & Gross, J. J. (2023). What is motivation, where does it come from, and how does it work? In M. Bong, J. Reeve, & S. Kim (Eds.), Motivation science (pp. 5–9). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0001

Dweck, C. S., Higgins, E. T., & Grant-Pillow, & H. (2003). Self-systems give unique meaning to self variables. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 239–252). The Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. (2009). Who am I and what am I going to do with my life? Personal and collective identities as motivators of action. Educational Psychologist, 44 (2), 78–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520902832368

Eccles, J., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motivation (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Publications.

Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy-value theory to situated expectancy-value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61 , 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., & Schiefele, U. (1998). Motivation to succeed. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 1017–1095). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Eison, J. A. (1981). A new instrument for assessing students’ orientations towards grades and learning. Psychological Reports, 48 , 919–924. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1981.48.3.919

Eison, J. A., Pollio, H. R., & Milton, O. (1986). Educational and personal characteristics of four different types of learning- and grade-oriented students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11 (1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-476X(86)90012-3

Elliot, A., Murayama, K., Kobeisy, A., & Lichtenfeld, S. (2015). Potential-based achievement goals. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 85 (2), 192–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12051

Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34 (3), 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3403_3

Elliot, A. J. (2005). A conceptual history of the achievement goal construct. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 52–72). Guilford Publications.

Elliot, A. J., & Covington, M. V. (2001). Approach and avoidance motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 13 (2), 73–92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009009018235

Elliot, A. J., & Fryer, J. W. (2008). The goal construct in psychology. In J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (pp. 235–250). The Guilford Press.

Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70 (3), 461–475. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.461

Elliot, A. J., & Hulleman, C. S. (2017). Achievement goals. In A. J. Elliot, C. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application (pp. 43–60). The Guilford Press.

Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80 (3), 501–519. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.501

Elliot, A. J., Murayama, K., & Pekrun, R. (2011). A 3 × 2 achievement goal model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103 (3), 632–648. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023952

Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2001). Achievement goals and the hierarchical model of achievement motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 13 (2), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009057102306

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., & Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41 , 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Fong, C. J. (2022). Academic motivation in a pandemic context: A conceptual review of prominent theories and an integrative model. Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2022.2026891

Fong, C. J., Davis, C. W., Kim, Y., Kim, Y. W., Marriott, L., & Kim, S. (2017). Psychosocial factors and community college student success: A meta-analytic investigation. Review of Educational Research, 87 (2), 388–424. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316653479

Ford, M. (1992). Motivating humans: Goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs . SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483325361

Gaspard, H., Dicke, A.-L., Flunger, B., Schreier, B., Häfner, I., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2015). More value through greater differentiation: Gender differences in value beliefs about math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107 (3), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000003

Gaspard, H., Jiang, Y., Piesch, H., Nagengast, B., Jia, N., Lee, J., & Bong, M. (2020). Assessing students' values and costs in three countries: Gender and age differences within countries and structural differences across countries. Learning and Individual Differences, 79 , 101836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101836

Gaspard, H., Wigfield, A., Jiang, Y., Nagengast, B., Trautwein, U., & Marsh, H. W. (2018). Dimensional comparisons: How academic track students’ achievements are related to their expectancy and value beliefs across multiple domains. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 52 , 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.10.003

Gendolla, G. H. E. (1997). Surprise in the context of achievement: The role of outcome valence and importance. Motivation and Emotion, 21 (2), 165–193. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024486617134

Gollwitzer, P. M., Heckhausen, H., & Steller, B. (1990). Deliberative and implemental mind-sets: Cognitive tuning toward congruous thoughts and information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 (6), 1119–1127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.6.1119

Gordeeva, T., Sheldon, K., & Sychev, O. (2020). Linking academic performance to optimistic attributional style: Attributions following positive events matter most. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 35 (1), 21–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-019-00414-y

Graham, S. (2020). An attributional theory of motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61 , 101861. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.cedpsych.2020.101861

Graham, S., & Taylor, A. Z. (2016). Attribution theory and motivation in school. In K. R. Wentzel & D. B. Miele (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (2nd ed., pp. 11–33). Routledge.

Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (1996). Theories and principles of motivation. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 63–84). Macmillan Library Reference Usa; Prentice Hall International.

Grant, H., & Dweck, C. S. (2003). Clarifying achievement goals and their impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85 (3), 541–553. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.541

Grund, A., & Fries, S. (2012). Motivational interference in study–leisure conflicts: How opportunity costs affect the self-regulation of university students. Educational Psychology, 32 (5), 589–612. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2012.674005

Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002). Revision of achievement goal theory: Necessary and illuminating. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94 (3), 638–645. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.3.638

Harter, S. (1988). The construction and conservation of the self: James and Cooley revisited. In D. K. Lapsley & F. C. Power (Eds.), Self, ego, and identity: Integrative approaches (pp. 43–70). Springer.

Harter, S. (2015). The construction of the self: Developmental and sociocultural foundations . Guilford Press.

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement . Routledge.

Hattie, J., Hodis, F. A., & Kang, S. H. K. (2020). Theories of motivation: Integration and ways forward. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61 , 101865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101865

Heckhausen, H. (1977). Achievement motivation and its constructs: A cognitive model. Motivation and Emotion, 1 (4), 283–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992538

Heckhausen, H. (1991). Motivation and action . Springer Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-75961-1

Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11 (2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992338

Heckhausen, J., & Heckhausen, H. (2018). Motivation and action: Introduction and overview. In J. Heckhausen & H. Heckhausen (Eds.), Motivation and action (pp. 1–14). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_1

Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations . John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1037/10628-004

Hidi, S. (1990). Interest and its contribution as a mental resource for learning. Review of Educational Research, 60 (4), 549–571. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170506

Hidi, S. (2006). Interest: A unique motivational variable. Educational Research Review, 1 (2), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2006.09.001

Hidi, S., & Baird, W. (1986). Interestingness—a neglected variable in discourse processing. Cognitive Science, 10 (2), 179–194. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1002_3

Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41 (2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4

Hidi, S. E., & Renninger, K. A. (2019). Interest development and its relation to curiosity: Needed neuroscientific research. Educational Psychology Review, 31 (4), 833–852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09491-3

Hidi, S. E., Renninger, K. A., & Northoff, G. (2019). The educational benefits of self-related information processing. In K. A. Renninger & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning (pp. 15–35). Cambridge University Press.

Hoff, K. A., Briley, D. A., Wee, C. J. M., & Rounds, J. (2018). Normative changes in interests from adolescence to adulthood: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 144 (4), 426–451. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000140

Honicke, T., & Broadbent, J. (2016). The influence of academic self-efficacy on academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 17 , 63–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002

Howard, J. L., Bureau, J., Guay, F., Chong, J. X. Y., & Ryan, R. M. (2021). Student motivation and associated outcomes: A meta-analysis from self-determination theory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16 (6), 1300–1323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620966789

Howard, J. L., Gagné, M., & Bureau, J. S. (2017). Testing a continuum structure of self-determined motivation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 143 (12), 1346–1377. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000125

Huang, C. (2011). Achievement goals and achievement emotions: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 23 (3), 359–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9155-x

Huang, C. (2012). Discriminant and criterion-related validity of achievement goals in predicting academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104 (1), 48–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026223

Huang, C. (2016). Achievement goals and self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 19 , 119–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.07.002

Hulleman, C. S., Schrager, S. M., Bodmann, S. M., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2010). A meta-analytic review of achievement goal measures: Different labels for the same constructs or different constructs with similar labels? Psychological Bulletin, 136 (3), 422–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018947

Hyland, M. E. (1988). Motivational control theory: An integrative framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55 (4), 642–651. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.55.4.642

James, W. (1999). The self. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), The self in social psychology (pp. 69–77). Psychology Press (Reprinted from Psychology , by W. James, 1892, Fawcett).

Jansen, M., Lüdtke, O., & Schroeders, U. (2016). Evidence for a positive relationship between interest and achievement: Examining between-person and within-person variation in five domains. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 46 , 116–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.05.004

Jansen, T., Meyer, J., Wigfield, A., & Möller, J. (2022). Which student and instructional variables are most strongly related to academic motivation in K-12 education? A systematic review of meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 148 (1-2), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/BUL0000354

Jiang, Y., Rosenzweig, E. Q., & Gaspard, H. (2018). An expectancy-value-cost approach in predicting adolescent students’ academic motivation and achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54 , 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.005

Kelley, H. H. (1973). The processes of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28 (2), 107–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034225

Kim, S.-I. (2013). Neuroscientific model of motivational process. Frontiers in Psychology, 4 , 98. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00098

Kim, S.-I., Reeve, J., & Bong, M. (2017). Introduction to motivational neuroscience. In S.-I. Kim, J. Reeve, & M. Bong (Eds.), Recent developments in neuroscience research on human motivation (Vol. 19, pp. 1–19). . https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320160000019022

King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2014). Culture’s consequences on student motivation: Capturing cross-cultural universality and variability through personal investment theory. Educational Psychologist, 49 (3), 175–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.926813

Klassen, R. M., & Usher, E. L. (2010). Self-efficacy in educational settings: Recent research and emerging directions. In T. C. Urdan & S. A. Karabenick (Eds.), The decade ahead: Theoretical perspectives on motivation and achievement (Vol. 16A, pp. 1–33). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-7423(2010)000016A004

Knogler, M. (2017). Situational interest: A proposal to enhance conceptual clarity. In P. A. O'Keefe & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), The science of interest (pp. 109–124). Springer International Publishing AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55509-6_6

Koenka, A. C. (2020). Academic motivation theories revisited: An interactive dialog between motivation scholars on recent contributions, underexplored issues, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61 , 101831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101831

Korn, R. M., Elliot, A. J., & Daumiller, M. (2019). Back to the roots: The 2 × 2 standpoints and standards achievement goal model. Learning and Individual Differences, 72 , 92–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.04.009

Krapp, A. (1999). Interest, motivation and learning: An educational-psychological perspective. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 14 (1), 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173109

Krapp, A. (2002). Structural and dynamic aspects of interest development: Theoretical considerations from an ontogenetic perspective. Learning and Instruction, 12 (4), 383–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(01)00011-1

Krapp, A., Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (1992). Interest, learning, and development. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 3–25). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Lam, K. K. L., & Zhou, M. (2022). Grit and academic achievement: A comparative cross-cultural meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 114 (3), 597–621. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000699

Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation interventions in education: A meta-analytic review. Review of Educational Research, 86 (2), 602–640. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315617832

Lee, J., & Stankov, L. (2018). Non-cognitive predictors of academic achievement: Evidence from TIMSS and PISA. Learning and Individual Differences, 65 , 50–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.05.009

Lesperance, K., Hofer, S., Retelsdorf, J., & Holzberger, D. (2022). Reducing gender differences in student motivational-affective factors: A meta-analysis of school-based interventions. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 92 (4), 1502–1536. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12512

Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers . Harpers.

Liem, G. A. D., & Elliot, A. J. (2018). Sociocultural influences on achievement goal adoption and regulation. In G. A. D. Liem & D. M. McInerny (Eds.), Big Theories Revisited 2 (pp. 41–68). Information Age Publishing.

Liem, G. A. D., & Senko, C. (2022). Goal complexes: A new approach to studying the coordination, consequences, and social contexts of pursuing multiple goals. Educational Psychology Review, 34 , 2167–2195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-022-09701-5

Linnenbrink, E. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (2002). Achievement goal theory and affect: An asymmetrical bidirectional model. Educational Psychologist, 37 (2), 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3702_2

Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., & Patall, E. A. (2016). Motivation. In L. Corno & E. M. Anderman (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (3rd ed., pp. 91–103). Routledge.

Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., & Wormington, S. V. (2019). An integrative perspective for studying motivation in relation to engagement and learning. In K. A. Renninger & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning (pp. 739–758). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.031

Locke, E. (1997). The motivation to work: What we know. In M. Maehr & P. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 10, pp. 375–412). JAI Press.

Locke, E. A., Latham, G. P., & Erez, M. (1988). The determinants of goal commitment. The Academy of Management Review, 13 (1), 23–39. https://doi.org/10.2307/258352

Lüftenegger, M., Klug, J., Harrer, K., Langer, M., Spiel, C., & Schober, B. (2016). Students’ achievement goals, learning-related emotions and academic achievement. Frontiers in Psychology, 7 , 603. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00603

McAllister, H. A. (1996). Self-serving bias in the classroom: Who shows it? Who knows it? Journal of Educational Psychology, 88 (1), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.123

McCombs, B. L. (1991). Overview: Where have we been and where are we going in understanding human motivation? Journal of Experimental Education, 60 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.1991.10806576

McCombs, B. L., & Marzano, R. J. (1990). Putting the self in self-regulated learning: The self as agent in integrating will and skill. Educational Psychologist, 25 (1), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_5

Miller, D. T., & Ross, M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction? Psychological Bulletin, 82 (2), 213–225. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076486

Mitchell, T. R., & Albright, D. W. (1972). Expectancy theory predictions of the satisfaction, effort, performance, and retention of naval aviation officers. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 8 (1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(72)90033-5

Muenks, K., Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2018). I can do this! The development and calibration of children’s expectations for success and competence beliefs. Developmental Review, 48 , 24–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.04.001

Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38 , 30–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.38.1.30

Murayama, K., & Elliot, A. J. (2012). The competition–performance relation: A meta-analytic review and test of the opposing processes model of competition and performance. Psychological Bulletin, 138 (6), 1035–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028324

Murphy, P. K., & Alexander, P. A. (2000). A motivated exploration of motivation terminology. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25 (1), 3–53. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1019

Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality . Oxford University Press.

Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91 (3), 328–346. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328

Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education . Harvard University Press.

Nicholls, J. G., & Dweck, C. S. (1979). A definition of achievement motivation . Unpublished manuscript,. University of Illinois.

Nolen, S. B. (2020). A situative turn in the conversation on motivation theories. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61 , 101866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101866

Nolen, S. B., Horn, I. S., & Ward, C. J. (2015). Situating motivation. Educational Psychologist, 50 (3), 234–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2015.1075399

Northoff, G. (2016). Is the self a higher-order or fundamental function of the brain? The “basis model of self-specificity” and its encoding by the brain’s spontaneous activity. Cognitive Neuroscience, 7 (1–4), 203–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/17588928.2015.1111868

Osborne, J. W., & Jones, B. D. (2011). Identification with academics and motivation to achieve in school: How the structure of the self influences academic outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 23 (1), 131–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9151-1

Parker, P. D., Van Zanden, B., Marsh, H. W., Owen, K., Duineveld, J. J., & Noetel, M. (2020). The intersection of gender, social class, and cultural context: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 32 (1), 197–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09493-1

Pekrun, R., & Marsh, H. W. (2022). Research on situated motivation and emotion: Progress and open problems. Learning and Instruction, 81 , 101664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101664

Pekrun, R., Marsh, H. W., Elliot, A. J., Stockinger, K., Perry, R. P., Vogl, E., Goetz, T., van Tilburg, W. A. P., Lüdtke, O., & Vispoel, W. P. (2023). A three-dimensional taxonomy of achievement emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 124 (1), 145–178. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000448

Perez, T., Cromley, J. G., & Kaplan, A. (2014). The role of identity development, values, and costs in college STEM retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106 (1), 315–329. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034027

Peterson, E. G., & Hidi, S. (2019). Curiosity and interest: Current perspectives. Educational Psychology Review, 31 (4), 781–788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09513-0

Pinquart, M., & Ebeling, M. (2020). Students’ expected and actual academic achievement – A meta-analysis. International Journal of Educational Research, 100 , 101524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.101524

Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) [Database record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t09161-000

Ratelle, C. F., Guay, F., Vallerand, R. J., Larose, S., & Senécal, C. (2007). Autonomous, controlled, and amotivated types of academic motivation: A person-oriented analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99 (4), 734–746. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.734

Reeve, J. (1989). The interest-enjoyment distinction in intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 13 (2), 83–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992956

Reeve, J. (2012). A self-determination theory perspective on student engagement. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 149–172). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_7

Renninger, K. A., & Bachrach, J. E. (2015). Studying triggers for interest and engagement using observational methods. Educational Psychologist, 50 (1), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.999920

Renninger, K. A., Gantt, A. L., & Lipman, A. L. (2023). Comprehension of mathematical argumentation: What is the role of interest? ZDM-Mathematics Education, 55 , 371–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-022-01445-4

Renninger, K. A., Hidi, S., & Krapp A. (Eds.). (1992). The role of interest in learning and development . Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Renninger, K. A., & Hidi, S. E. (2019). Interest development and learning. In K. A. Renninger & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning (pp. 265–290). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.013

Renninger, K. A., & Hidi, S. E. (2022a). Interest: A unique affective and cognitive motivational variable that develops. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), Advances in motivation science (Vol. 9 , pp. 179–239). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adms.2021.12.004

Renninger, K. A., & Hidi, S. E. (2022b). Interest development, self-related information processing, and practice. Theory into Practice, 61 (1), 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2021.1932159

Renninger, K. A., & Wozniak, R. H. (1985). Effect of interest on attentional shift, recognition, and recall in young children. Developmental Psychology, 21 (4), 624–632. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.21.4.624

Rheinberg, F. (2020). Intrinsic motivation and flow. Motivation . Science, 6 (3), 199–200. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000165

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138 (2), 353–387. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026838

Robbins, S. B., Lauver, K., Le, H., Davis, D., Langley, R., & Carlstrom, A. (2004). Do psychosocial and study skill factors predict college outcomes? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130 , 261–288. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.2.261

Roeser, R. W., & Peck, S. C. (2009). An education in awareness: Self, motivation, and self-regulated learning in contemplative perspective. Educational Psychologist, 44 (2), 119–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520902832376

Rosenzweig, E. Q., Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2019). Expectancy-value theory and its relevance for student motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning (pp. 617–644). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.026

Rotgans, J. I., & Schmidt, H. G. (2017). The role of interest in learning: Knowledge acquisition at the intersection of situational and individual interest. In P. A. O'Keefe & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), The science of interest (pp. 69–93). Springer International Publishing AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55509-6_4

Rotgans, J. I., & Schmidt, H. G. (2018). How individual interest influences situational interest and how both are related to knowledge acquisition: A microanalytical investigation. The Journal of Educational Research, 111 (5), 530–540. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2017.1310710

Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80 (1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092976

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25 (1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55 (1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). Promoting self-determined school engagement: Motivation, learning, and well-being. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 171–195). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness . The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2019). Brick by brick: The origins, development, and future of self-determination theory. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), Advances in motivation science (pp. 111–156). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adms.2019.01.001

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61 , 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860

Ryan, R. M., Duineveld, J. J., Di Domenico, S. I., Ryan, W. S., Stewards, B. A., & Bradshaw, E. L. (in press). We know this much is (meta-analytically) true: A meta-review of meta-analytic findings evaluating self-determination theory. Psychological Bulletin .

Scherrer, V., Preckel, F., Schmidt, I., & Elliot, A. J. (2020). Development of achievement goals and their relation to academic interest and achievement in adolescence: A review of the literature and two longitudinal studies. Developmental Psychology, 56 (4), 795–814. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000898

Schiefele, U. (1991). Interest, learning, and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26 (3-4), 299–323. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_5

Schiefele, U., Krapp, A., & Winteler, A. (1992). Interest as a predictor of academic achievement: A meta-analysis of research. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 183–212). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Schnettler, T., Bobe, J., Scheunemann, A., Fries, S., & Grunschel, C. (2020). Is it still worth it? Applying expectancy-value theory to investigate the intraindividual motivational process of forming intentions to drop out from university. Motivation and Emotion, 44 , 491–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-020-09822-w

Schraw, G., Flowerday, T., & Lehman, S. (2001). Increasing situational interest in the classroom. Educational Psychology Review, 13 (3), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016619705184

Schunk, D. H. (2000). Coming to terms with motivation constructs. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25 , 116–119. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1018

Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedetto, M. K. (2016). Self-efficacy theory in education. In K. R. Wentzel & D. B. Miele (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (2nd ed., pp. 34–53). Routledge.

Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedetto, M. K. (2020). Motivation and social cognitive theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 60 , 101832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101832

Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedetto, M. K. (2021). Self-efficacy and human motivation. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), Advances in motivation science (pp. 153–179). Elsevier Academic Press.

Schunk, D. H., Meece, J. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (2014). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (4th ed.). Pearson.

Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2006). Competence and control beliefs: Distinguishing the means and ends. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 349–367). Lawrence Erlbaum.

Senko, C. (2019). When do mastery and performance goals facilitate academic achievement? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59 , 101795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101795

Senko, C., & Dawson, B. (2017). Performance-approach goal effects depend on how they are defined: Meta-analytic evidence from multiple educational outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109 (4), 574–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000160

Senko, C., Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2011). Achievement goal theory at the crossroads: Old controversies, current challenges, and new directions. Educational Psychologist, 46 (1), 26–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.538646

Senko, C., & Tropiano, K. L. (2016). Comparing three models of achievement goals: Goal orientations, goal standards, and goal complexes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108 (8), 1178–1192. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000114

Sitzmann, T., & Ely, K. (2011). A meta-analysis of self-regulated learning in work-related training and educational attainment: What we know and where we need to go. Psychological Bulletin, 137 (3), 421–442. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022777

Sitzmann, T., & Yeo, G. (2013). A meta-analytic investigation of the within-person self-efficacy domain: Is self-efficacy a product of past performance or a driver of future performance? Personnel Psychology, 66 (3), 531–568. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12035

Skinner, E. A. (1996). A guide to constructs of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71 (3), 549–570. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.549

Sommet, N., & Elliot, A. J. (2017). Achievement goals, reasons for goal pursuit, and achievement goal complexes as predictors of beneficial outcomes: Is the influence of goals reducible to reasons? Journal of Educational Psychology, 109 (8), 1141–1162. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000199

Stiensmeier-Pelster, J., & Heckhausen, H. (2018). Causal attribution of behavior and achievement. In J. Heckhausen & H. Heckhausen (Eds.), Motivation and action (pp. 623–678). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_15

Sui, J., & Humphreys, G. W. (2015). The integrative self: How self-reference integrates perception and memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19 (12), 719–728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.08.015

Sundararajan, N., & Adesope, O. (2020). Keep it coherent: A meta-analysis of the seductive details effect. Educational Psychology Review, 32 (3), 707–734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09522-4

Talsma, K., Schüz, B., Schwarzer, R., & Norris, K. (2018). I believe, therefore I achieve (and vice versa): A meta-analytic cross-lagged panel analysis of self-efficacy and academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 61 , 136–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.11.015

Taylor, G., Jungert, T., Mageau, G. A., Schattke, K., Dedic, H., Rosenfield, S., & Koestner, R. (2014). A self-determination theory approach to predicting school achievement over time: The unique role of intrinsic motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39 (4), 342–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.08.002

Thomas, C. L. (2022). Predicting test anxiety using the 3 × 2 achievement goal model. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 10 (2), 232–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2020.1816237

Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men . Century/Random House UK.

Trautwein, U., Marsh, H. W., Nagengast, B., Lüdtke, O., Nagy, G., & Jonkmann, K. (2012). Probing for the multiplicative term in modern expectancy–value theory: A latent interaction modeling study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104 (3), 763–777. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027470

Tse, D. C. K., Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2022). Flow experiences across adulthood: Preliminary findings on the continuity hypothesis. Journal of Happiness Studies, 23 , 2517–2540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-022-00514-5

Urdan, T., & Kaplan, A. (2020). The origins, evolution, and future directions of achievement goal theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61 , 101862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101862

Urdan, T., & Mestas, M. (2006). The goals behind performance goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98 (2), 354–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.2.354

Urhahne, D. (2008). Sieben Arten der Lernmotivation: Ein Überblick über zentrale Forschungskonzepte [Seven kinds of learning motivation. An overview of central concepts of research]. Psychologische Rundschau, 59 (3), 150–166. https://doi.org/10.1026/0033-3042.59.3.150

Usher, E. L. (2016). Personal capability beliefs. In L. Corno & E. M. Anderman (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (3rd ed., pp. 146–159). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Usher, E. L. (2018). Acknowledging the whiteness of motivation research: Seeking cultural relevance. Educational Psychologist, 53 (2), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2018.1442220

Van Yperen, N. W., Blaga, M., & Postmes, T. (2014). A meta-analysis of self-reported achievement goals and nonself-report performance across three achievement domains (work, sports, and education). PLoS ONE, 9 (4), e93594. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093594

Van Yperen, N. W., Elliot, A. J., & Anseel, F. (2009). The influence of mastery-avoidance goals on performance improvement. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39 (6), 932–943. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.590

Vansteenkiste, M., Niemiec, C. P., & Soenens, B. (2010). The development of the five mini-theories of self-determination theory: An historical overview, emerging trends, and future directions. In T. C. Urdan, S. A. Karabenick, & S. A. (Eds.), The decade ahead: Theoretical perspectives on motivation and achievement (Vol. 16A, pp. 105–165). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-7423(2010)000016A007

Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., & Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. Motivation and Emotion, 44 , 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1

Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation . Wiley.

Wan, S., Lauermann, F., Bailey, D. H., & Eccles, J. S. (2021). When do students begin to think that one has to be either a “math person” or a “language person”? A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 147 (9), 867–889. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000340

Weiner, B. (1971). Perceiving the causes of success and failure . General Learning Press.

Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71 (1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.71.1.3

Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92 (4), 548–573.

Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion . Springer-Verlag.

Weiner, B. (1990). History of motivational research in education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82 (4), 616–622. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.616

Wentzel, K. R. (2016). Teacher-student relationships. In K. R. Wentzel & D. B. Miele (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (2nd ed., pp. 211–230). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Wentzel, K. R., Muenks, K., McNeish, D., & Russell, S. (2018). Emotional support, social goals, and classroom behavior: A multilevel, multisite study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110 (5), 611–627. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000239

Wentzel, K. R., & Skinner, E. (2022). The other half of the story: The role of social relationships and social contexts in the development of academic motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 34 (4), 1865–1876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-022-09713-1

White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66 (5), 297–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040934

Whitley, B. E., Jr., & Frieze, I. H. (1985). Children’s causal attributions for success and failure in achievement settings: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77 (5), 608–616. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.77.5.608

Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (1992). The development of achievement task values: A theoretical analysis. Developmental Review, 12 (3), 265–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(92)90011-P

Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25 (1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015

Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Fredricks, J. A., Simpkins, S., Roeser, R. W., & Schiefele, U. (2015). Development of achievement motivation and engagement. In M. E. Lamb & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Socioemotional processes (pp. 657–700). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy316

Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Schiefele, U., Roeser, R. W., & Davis-Kean, P. (2006). Development of achievement motivation. In N. Eisenberg, W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 933–1002). John Wiley & Sons, Inc..

Wigfield, A., Rosenzweig, E. Q., & Eccles, J. S. (2017). Achievement values: Interactions, interventions, and future directions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application (pp. 116–134). The Guilford Press.

Wigfield, A., Tonks, S., & Klauda, S. L. (2016). Expectancy-value theory. In K. R. Wentzel & D. B. Miele (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (2nd ed., pp. 55–74). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Wirthwein, L., Sparfeldt, J. R., Pinquart, M., Wegerer, J., & Steinmayr, R. (2013). Achievement goals and academic achievement: A closer look at moderating factors. Educational Research Review, 10 , 66–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2013.07.001

Wormington, S. V., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2017). A new look at multiple goal pursuit: The promise of a person-centered approach. Educational Psychology Review, 29 (3), 407–445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9358-2

Download references

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University of Passau, Innstr. 25, 94030, Passau, Germany

Detlef Urhahne

Open Universiteit, Heerlen, the Netherlands

Lisette Wijnia

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Detlef Urhahne .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Urhahne, D., Wijnia, L. Theories of Motivation in Education: an Integrative Framework. Educ Psychol Rev 35 , 45 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09767-9

Download citation

Accepted : 16 March 2023

Published : 30 March 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09767-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Motivation to learn
• Action model
• Academic achievement
• Meta-analysis
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research