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Choosing a course.
What are they called.
Usually, MA (Master of Arts) or MSc (Master of Science), although there are others: Mmus (Master of Music), MOrth (Master of Orthodontics), or LLM (Master of Laws).
A taught master’s degree will include some research but the emphasis will be on learning by teaching.
The content, structure, and assessment of taught master’s courses with the same names can vary from one university to the next – please check course descriptions carefully. The teaching can be through lectures, classes, or supervised group work, and assessments can include examinations, essays, dissertations, or team activities.
Full-time courses are normally one year, or two years part-time, although some master's degrees can be longer.
Usually in September.
Fees depend on course subject and university ranking.
Study this type of course if… you like learning through classes and seminars.
Find a course
Usually known as MRes programmes or sometimes MSc by Research, MA by Research, or Master of Philosphy (MPhil), depending on your chosen subject.
You’ll be trained in research methods and expected to do a substantial research project – a large piece of work that requires skill in setting objectives, fact finding, analysis, and interpretation. Your work should add something special to the body of thought and knowledge of your specialist subject.
A master's by research is good preparation for a PhD. In fact, you may not get funding for a PhD if you don’t have one. Also, an MRes is favoured by some employers who want researchers but not necessarily PhD students.
Most universities want a good first degree (grade 2:1 or higher), often in a relevant area.
Full-time programmes usually last 18 months, but they can be to up to three years full-time. You can also study for longer part-time.
Because there are fewer teaching costs, fees for master's by research are usually lower than for a taught master's. Expect to pay around an average of £4,000 per year for a full-time course and about half that for a part-time course. Laboratory-based courses will be more expensive. Fees for international students are normally in excess of £13,000.
Assessment is by academic judgement of your research and an oral exam.
Study this type of course if… you enjoy independent study.
Usually an undergraduate degree.
This varies – some certificates can be completed in months if you study full-time. Diplomas may take a year part-time, particularly if they are part of professional development or accreditation by an industrial body.
This depends on the course. Many certificates and diplomas are studied through distance or online learning and can start any time of year.
The fees depend on the nature of the course. Some certificates and diplomas may not have yearly or termly fees, but charge fees for each module of study instead.
Often by essay or research project.
Study this type of course if… you enjoy study but don’t want to do a master’s degree right now.
What does phd stand for.
PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy.
A PhD – also known as a doctorate – is more demanding than a master's by research (MRes), but otherwise the demands are the same. You’ll create a lengthy, in-depth, unique, and important piece of research that draws upon all your abilities in setting objectives, fact finding, analysis, and interpretation. The end result will be a thesis of around 100,000 words, worthy of inclusion in an academic journal.
Intellectual credibility at a high level and the potential to have a research-based career.
A good undergraduate degree in a relevant area. A good master’s degree is often a requirement too.
Full-time courses usually last three years. A part-time PhD lasts six years.
Universities have a variety of start dates for PhDs, e.g. October, January, and May. Other start dates may be possible and you should discuss this with your potential supervisor.
Assessment is by academic judgment of your research and by an oral exam.
A Master's in Business Administration (MBA) is designed to give you first-rate skills and knowledge of business management practice. MBAs are divided into:
The reputation of the business school’s staff and their links with industry will be a key factor in choosing an MBA.
Your current career, future plans, and business experience may affect whether full-time, part-time, or distance learning would suit you best.
Full-time courses are usually one to two years. A part-time MBA can last two to five years.
Universities have a variety of start dates for MBAs, e.g. October, February, and May.
Fees vary hugely depending upon the course provider, from around £12,500 (UK/EU students), or £14,000 (non-EU students) for a part-time, three-year course, to over £60,000 for two years’ study at a high ranking business school.
Assessment methods can include:
Study this type of course if… you enjoy business management theory and practice, and a challenge.
Professional courses help you with your career. They can be divided into two main groups:
Engineering is a good example of the latter . In the UK, the name 'engineer' is not protected by law so anyone can call themselves an engineer, professional engineer, or even registered engineer. But they will be in unskilled or semi-skilled trades – firms will not employ you as a skilled engineer unless you are qualified and probably a member of a recognised and respected professional body such as Institute of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE). Titles which show professional accreditation are protected by law, e.g. it is illegal to use IMechE as part of your job title unless you are a member of that institute – and IMechE won’t admit you unless you are qualified.
Some professions take a harder line than others. For example, usually you need to be a qualified journalist to be a newspaper reporter, but it's still possible to work as a magazine journalist with plenty of experience but without professional qualifications.
In some industries, it is common for people to start their career with experience only, but then to qualify later – PR is one such profession.
Entry requirements, course descriptions, duration, fees, and assessment methods will vary. Some professional postgraduate qualifications are at master’s level, whereas others can be taken as certificates or diplomas. For example, you can take a Certificate in Flood and Coastal Risk Management, a Certificate in the Food and Grocery Industry, or a Diploma in Career Guidance.
You may also find our subject area guides useful.
Professional legal vocational training involves the first stages of qualifying as a solicitor or as a barrister, and the study of specific areas of law, as well as skills and procedures such as drafting, revising legal documentation, and spoken advocacy on behalf of a client.
The Graduate Diploma in Law (GDL) is a one-year diploma specifically for non-law students and provides the foundation for study of the barrister’s training course (Bar Professional Training Course or BPTC) and the solicitor’s training course (Legal Practice Course or LPC, or the Diploma in Professional Legal Practice/DPLP in Scotland). If you have an undergraduate degree in law, you can study for an LPC or a BPTC without taking a GDL.
GDL course fees range from £6,000 to £10,000. Start dates are normally in September. Applications for the GDL are via Central Applications Board . The process starts in November and closes in February.
Stage one covers:
For stage two , you study up to three electives. These can include:
You need to apply via the Central Applications Board .
To become a solicitor in Scotland, you need to complete the following three stages:
Academic fees are around £6,300 plus materials costs of £400. DPLP students can apply through Student Awards Agency for Scotland for a tuition fee loan up to a maximum of £3,400. Some universities also make a number of educational grants available to law students.
Apply direct to the university. Currently the following run the DPLP:
An LLM offers advanced studies in very specific areas of law and is for law undergraduates who are looking for further academic study, or for lawyers wanting to increase their knowledge. It is also taken by smaller numbers of recent graduates who study it as well as an LPC. It does not guarantee a boost to your prospects of securing a training contract.
It can be studied full-time over two years, or part-time. Course fees are between £5,000 and £10,000.
There a number of ways in which you can train to be a teacher at postgraduate level. Not all of these options involve staying on at university. In order to understand more, you’ll need to become familiar with the jargon…
In Scotland and Northern Ireland , all ITT happens in universities or colleges. That’s mostly true in Wales , however there are some school-based places via the Graduate Teacher Programme
In England , the situation is different. Broadly, the ITT can take two forms: university or college-based, which means studying for a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE). The other routes are school-based, which means that you are employed by a school and trained simultaneously.
To teach in state maintained schools, you’ll need QTS. That isn’t the case with academies and independent schools although, in practice, most teachers in those establishments are fully qualified.
For further information about entry requirements and training, please see our teacher training section .
You might also like to read, why study postgraduate, sponsored articles ucas media service, five reasons to sign up to the ucas newsletter, how to find a job, student finance for postgraduate loans.
Research vs taught postgraduate programmes.
gradireland editorial team
26 Jan 2023, 12:27
One of the key differences between postgraduate programmes is whether you choose to do a taught course, or study for a degree by research.
Before deciding which postgraduate route to take, ask yourself whether a taught or research course would suit you. You will need to think about what motivates you most and what subject area you are most interested in.
Taught postgraduate programmes usually result in a Master of Science (MSc) or Master of Arts (MA). Sometimes you can take a limited part of a masters degree course, which can be credited as a postgraduate diploma.
Taught masters are usually 12 months full-time (or 24 months part-time) in duration and are similar to bachelors degrees in that they are delivered and assessed through a series of taught modules and may include independent research in the specialised subject area. Taught masters may include continuous assessment, examinations and the final assessment for a masters degree is often based on the submission of a dissertation, usually of between 10,000–20,000 words.
Entry requirements and application deadlines for taught masters vary from college to college, but it is strongly recommended that you aim for a 2.1 degree (although a 2.2 may be acceptable) and research your postgraduate study opportunities early in your final year to ensure you do not miss any important deadlines.
If you prefer the idea of intensive research and a more independent approach to working towards your masters degree without the constraints of attending timetabled lectures, then you may prefer to study for a research degree, usually known as a Masters of Philosophy (MPhil).
The research MPhil takes 18–36 months full-time and 36–48 months part-time and is achieved through the critical investigation and evaluation of an approved topic. You will also need to demonstrate an understanding of research methods appropriate to the chosen field.
The starting point is a research proposal and you will work under supervision (usually by a senior academic) and carry out extensive research, using detailed research methods. You will analyse your results and publish findings. Research degrees are usually assessed entirely by a piece of individual research and an oral examination (a 'viva').
Again, you should aim for a 2.1 degree (a 2.2 may be acceptable, depending on the college). Closing dates vary from early in academic year to right through the summer months, depending on funding. Regularly check the various institution websites for research masters on offer and if you have a research proposal make contact with a suitable department in the college where you would like to carry out your research.
If you are interested in a masters by research, explore what aspects of your undergraduate studies you enjoyed the most and which areas you would have loved to study further. You should also ask yourself whether you would like to be involved in extensive research working on your own initiative under supervision for at least 18 months. Another incentive for completing an MPhil is the possibility of furthering your research studies and completing a Doctorate of Philosophy (PhD).
While taught masters largely follow a structured timetable and a series of lectures, tutorials and seminars with your peers, research students will be self motivated to assert themselves to carry out their investigations, analyse their results and meet regularly with their supervisor.
gradireland editorial advice
This describes editorially independent and impartial content, which has been written and edited by the gradireland content team. Any external contributors featuring in the article are in line with our non-advertorial policy, by which we mean that we do not promote one organisation over another.
The decision of whether or not to pursue a Masters or PhD (or both) after you complete your undergraduate studies is not necessarily a straightforward one. Both are postgraduate degrees but are different in terms of the academic experience and the career paths taken afterwards.
In short, a Masters degree involves a year of study, primarily through taught lectures and a final dissertation research project, whilst a PhD (also referred to as a doctorate degree) is a three-year commitment of independent research on a specific subject.
There’s more to it than that, however – read on for more information.
A Masters degree is the next level of education after the completion of an undergraduate degree, commonly known as a Bachelors.
These degree levels are often referred to in terms of cycles so that a Bachelor’s is a first-cycle degree, a Masters is a second-cycle and finally, a PhD is the third-cycle of higher education (and the highest).
Masters degrees demand an intense period of study, usually centred around a core series of lectures and taught modules, coupled with coursework assignments and exams, followed by the completion of a contained research project usually taking students 3-4 months to complete.
These types of degrees are attractive to recent graduates who want to delve deeper into their specific field of study, gaining some research experience and more specialised knowledge beyond what an undergraduate degree can offer.
Equally, some pursue a Masters degree program in a subject that is only tangentially related to their Bachelors degree, helping them gain a broader depth of knowledge.
These degrees also serve as a significant stepping stone for those already in employment who want to progress their current career development and earn a higher salary. They can also be an excellent method for helping in changing careers completely by learning new skills and subject knowledge.
A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is the highest academic degree that can be awarded and is the third and final cycle in the progression of higher education.
A doctoral degree is earned on the basis of producing a significant, independent and novel body of work (a Thesis) that contributes new knowledge to a particular research topic.
These are research degrees that are a significant investment of a candidate’s time, resources and energy and are all but a pre-requisite for anyone considering a career in academia, such as eventually becoming a professor.
There are some exceptions to this, such as those with a medical background who may earn an MD (Doctor of Medicine), which is the equivalent of a PhD.
Doctoral degrees can also have a significant positive impact on career development outside of academia, especially in fields such as engineering, business and finance that have a high demand for highly qualified and capable people.
A graduate student engaged in PhD study is commonly known as a PhD student, PhD candidate or doctoral student.
There are several reasons one might consider doing a Masters degree rather than a PhD in their graduate education. These include:
You may continue on into a doctoral program after a Masters or you may even dive straight in after completing your undergraduate studies. So, what are the advantages of completing this third-cycle?
On paper, the answer should be clear: A doctorate degree is the highest degree you can earn, so has more impact than a Masters, which in turn has more impact than a Bachelors.
The reality is that the size of the impact (if any) really depends on the subject area and the career path you choose (if the measure of impact is how it positively improves your career prospects, that is).
For someone with aspirations of becoming a professor, a PhD will be of greater value than a Masters alone.
Equally, it’s also possible that someone with a PhD entering a different field or one that doesn’t require a PhD may find that their degree has no bearing on their career or in some cases may even be seen as a ‘negative’ with a concern of the person being ‘over-qualified’ for a position. There are many scenarios in which professional experience would be more valuable to an employer than a doctorate degree.
Check out the links below to our interviews with Prof. Debby Cotton and Dr Nikolay Nikolov to read their experiences of when a going through a PhD program has had a clear benefit (Prof. Cotton) and when it hasn’t been helpful (Dr Nikolov).
This really depends on the university, department and sometimes even the project and supervisor.
From a purely application process perspective, some institutions may formally require you to hold a Masters degree relevant to the subject of the PhD project before you can enter their doctoral program.
In another scenario, most universities are unlikely to accept candidates that were awarded below a 2:1 (in the UK) in their undergraduate degree but may consider someone who has ‘made up’ for this with a high-grade Masters.
Lastly, some universities now offer PhD programmes that incorporate an additional year of study in which you would complete a Masters degree before carrying directly on into a PhD project. As you’d expect, even if a university doesn’t formally require you to hold one, a Masters degree can help separate you from other applicants in being accepted on the project.
Check out our detailed guide to doing a PhD without a Master’s .
Even if you don’t need to have one, it could still be beneficial to begin your postgraduate study by doing a Masters first before you embark on your doctorate journey.
As mentioned previously it’ll help you stand out from applicants that don’t have one, but beyond that, it’ll give you a taster of what research life could be like, especially if you stay at the same university and department for your PhD.
The one-year commitment (in the UK at least) of carrying out a Masters first, and in particular your research project, will help you better understand if this is truly something you want to commit the next three or more years to.
You’ll learn some of the skills of independent research, from performing detailed literature searches to more complex, analytical writing.
At the end of it, you should be in a stronger position to consider your options and decide about whether to continue into a PhD at graduate school.
Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.
In the UK, a full-time Masters degrees take students one calendar year to complete: The programme of study usually starts in September, the final research project the following April and final project viva around August. Part-time degrees are usually double the time.
In the UK, most PhD projects take 3-4 years to complete , as reflected by the majority of funded projects offering stipends to cover living expenses of about 3.5 years.
For many reasons, projects may end up taking longer to complete, however. This might be because of difficulties in collecting enough data, or if the project is being done part-time.
As you’d expect, as a PhD takes three times as long to complete as a Masters degree, it will cost you more to do as far as university fees are concerned.
Another thing to consider is that many PhD projects come with some level of funding equivalent to a low salary, which may cover the cost of tuition fees and living expenses, whilst it is usually more difficult to obtain funding for Masters study.
Conversely, a Masters graduate may progress into a higher (versus PhD funding) salary sooner whilst a PhD student will endure three years of a comparatively low income.
If you’re considering continue further graduate study after your undergraduate degree, the question of doing a Masters vs a PhD is likely to come up. They are both considered an advanced degree, each with their own advantages.
There are benefits to doing either of these graduate programs or even both of them; your decision here can be easier if you have an idea of the career you want to follow or if you know you have a love for research!
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Written by Ben Taylor
Masters degrees can be either postgraduate taught programmes (PGT) or postgraduate research programmes (PGR). Taught Masters are typically 12 months long full-time and are delivered through a series of modules comprised with regular coursework and assessments. Research Masters are also usually 12 months long however the course is predominantly comprised of independent research supported by a supervisor.
There’s a big contrast between these two kinds of Masters, and one type may be more suitable for your goals than the other. This page will explain the key differences between taught Masters and research Masters, and hopefully help you decide which kind of postgraduate programme is right for you.
The difference between postgraduate taught degrees and postgraduate research degrees largely comes down to the level of independence you have during your studies.
Research Masters require students to undertake extensive research training, while postgraduate taught Masters involve a mixture of lectures, seminars and coursework.
The majority of Masters-level programmes are taught courses. They include popular degrees like the Master of Arts (MA) and Master of Science (MSc) , as well as shorter Postgraduate Certificate (PGCert) and Postgraduate Diploma (PGDip) courses.
You can study these courses to acquire more advanced skills and training for a profession, or as a preparation for postgraduate research at PhD level.
Postgraduate research programmes are also available at Masters level. These include the Master of Research (MRes) and Master of Philosophy (MPhil) . Some Masters qualifications, such as the Master of Letters (MLitt) , can actually be taught or research degrees.
A Masters by coursework is usually professional and vocational in nature, involving a series of set modules, while a Masters by research entails the completion of a significant, independent research project. This terminology is more common in Australia .
Taught Masters do involve a substantial piece of research in its own right: the dissertation . This will be your chance to undertake an extended individual project, pursuing your own specific academic interests in a way that forms a significant part of your postgraduate course.
Your choice of PGT degree or PGR degree should depend on your career goals, academic interests and the way in which you prefer to study:
Most PhD programmes ask that applicants have any kind of Masters in an appropriate subject. So, even if you study a taught Masters degree, you’ll be eligible to take a PhD if you satisfy the various entry requirements.
Of course, if you already know that you want to study at PhD level, then it’s worth considering a research Masters if there’s one available in your subject. An MRes would be ideal preparation for PhD study, allowing you to undertake more extensive research and receive specific training in appropriate methods. Another option would be to register for an MPhil and then upgrade to a PhD .
In some cases, you can expect a research Masters to be cheaper than its taught equivalent. This is normally the case in the Humanities, where an MRes could cost less than an MA. Similarly, the yearly tuition fees for a PhD are often cheaper than a taught Masters.
Things are different in the Sciences, however: an MRes in a scientific subject usually has the same fees as an MSc degree. Both kinds of Masters typically involve extensive laboratory work.
The table below shows a summary of this data, reflecting the tendency for some research programmes to be cheaper than their taught counterparts.
Type | E.g. | UK | International |
---|---|---|---|
Classroom | (Arts / Social Sciences) | £8,740 | £17,109 |
Laboratory | (Science / Engineering) | £10,306 | £20,167 |
Research | / | £4,000+ | £10,000+ |
* Based on the 2021-22 Reddin Survey of UK postgraduate fees , published by the Complete University Guide , as well as additional research and calculation by FindAMasters. Figures given are broad averages only and will not necessarily reflect fees for specific courses.
Essentially, the funding situation for taught and research Masters is the same. Check out our guide to Masters funding for more information on financing your course.
It’s worth noting that the UK government’s postgraduate loans are available for all Masters (including the MPhil). Standalone MPhils are not eligible for the PhD loans , but these loans are available for MPhils that are intended to become a PhD.
Ready to find your perfect Masters – taught or research? We've got thousands of courses listed on FindAMasters.
Exploring higher education options? Learn exactly what an integrated Masters degree is and how it can help fast-track you in your chosen field with our guide.
Some professional Masters degrees are designed to prepare students to work in specific jobs, such as Social Work, Engineering and Architecture qualifications.
This guide covers the extra costs associated with studying GEM and an overview of where to find alternative financial support.
This guide covers how funding for Graduate Entry Medicine tuition fees and cost of living support works across the UK and for International students.
The Juris Doctor is a graduate-entry degree in Law. It is the main way of qualifying as a lawyer in the USA, and is also available in a number of other countries. This guide covers entry requirements, career options and more!
Graduate Entry Medicine (GEM) is an alternative route into the medical profession for university graduates. This guide will cover everything you need to know, including entry requirements, applications and funding.
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Published on November 27, 2020 by Lauren Thomas . Revised on May 10, 2024.
The two most common types of graduate degrees are master’s and doctoral degrees:
A master’s is also the necessary first step to a PhD. In the US, the master’s is built into PhD programs, while in most other countries, a separate master’s degree is required before applying for PhDs.
Master’s are far more common than PhDs. In the US, 24 million people have master’s or professional degrees, whereas only 4.5 million have doctorates.
Master’s vs phd at a glance, which is right for you, length of time required, career prospects, costs and salaries, application process, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about master's and phd degrees.
The table below shows the key differences between the two.
Master’s | PhD | |
---|---|---|
Career prospects | Usually intended for a career outside of academia. | Prepares for a research career, ideally as a university professor. |
Length of time | 1–2 years | 5–7 in the US (master’s degree included); 3–5 outside the US (after a separate master’s degree) |
Structure | Mostly coursework, often with a semester-long or capstone project at the end. | 2 years of coursework (in the US), followed by 3–5 years of preparing a dissertation, which should make a significant original contribution to current knowledge. |
Cost | Varies by country, university and program; usually higher upfront cost with limited financial aid available. | Tuition fees are usually waived and a living stipend provided in exchange for being a teaching or research assistant. |
Graduate salaries | Wage premium (compared to earnings with a high school education) is 23% on average. | Wage premium is 26% on average. |
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A PhD is right for you if:
A master’s degree is the better choice if any of the following apply:
The length of time required to complete a PhD or master’s degree varies. Unsurprisingly, PhDs take much longer, usually between 3–7 years. Master’s degrees are usually only 1–2 years.
Master’s degrees are usually 2 years, although 1-year master’s degrees also exist, mainly in the UK.
Most of the degree consists of classes and coursework, although many master’s programs include an intensive, semester-long master’s thesis or capstone project in which students bring together all they’ve learned to produce an original piece of work.
In the US, a PhD usually takes between 5 and 7 years to complete. The first 2 years are spent on coursework. Students, even those who choose to leave without finishing the program, usually receive a master’s degree at this point.
The next 3–5 years are spent preparing a dissertation —a lengthy piece of writing based on independent research, which aims to make a significant original contribution to one’s field.
Master’s degrees tend to prepare you for a career outside of academia, while PhDs are designed to lead to a career in research.
There are two types of master’s degrees: terminal and research-intensive. The career prospects are different for each.
Terminal master’s degrees are intended to prepare students for careers outside of academia. Some degrees, known as professional degrees, specifically prepare students for particular professions; these include the Master of Public Policy (MPP), Master of Business Administration (MBA), Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT), Master of Fine Arts (MFA), and Master of Public Health (MPH) degrees.
Other master’s degrees, usually Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Sciences (MS or MSc) degrees, do not necessarily lead to a specific career, but are intended to be a final degree. Examples include an MS in Communications or MS in Data Analytics.
In research-intensive master’s programs, students take coursework intended to prepare them for writing an original piece of research known as the master’s thesis . Such programs are usually intended to prepare for further study in a doctoral program.
As research degrees, PhDs are usually intended to lead to an academic career. A PhD can be thought of like an apprenticeship, where students learn from professional researchers (academics) how to produce their own research.
Most students aspire to become a university professor upon the completion of their degree. However, careers in academia are highly competitive, and the skills learned in a doctoral program often lend themselves well to other types of careers.
Some graduates who find they prefer teaching to producing research go on to be teachers at liberal arts colleges or even secondary schools. Others work in research-intensive careers in the government, private sector, or at think tanks.
Below are a few examples of specific fields and non-academic careers that are common destinations of graduates of those fields.
Many government jobs, including economists at a country’s central bank, are research-intensive and require a PhD. Think tanks also hire economists to carry out independent research.
In the private sector, economic consulting and technology firms frequently hire PhDs to solve real-world problems that require complex mathematical modeling.
Graduate students from the humanities are sometimes hired by museums, who can make use of their research and writing skills to curate exhibits and run public outreach.
Humanities PhDs are often well-suited to research and grant-writing roles at nonprofits. Since so much of research is funded by grants, PhD students often gain a lot of experience applying for them, which is a useful skill in the nonprofit sector.
There are a wide range of non-academic research jobs for lab scientists with doctorates in subjects like chemistry, biology, ecology and physics.
Many PhD graduates are hired by pharmaceutical companies that need to perform research to create and test their products. Government agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), also hire lab scientists to work on research projects.
Job prospects after graduation vary widely based on the field. In fields like management, computer science, statistics, and economics, there’s little underemployment—even graduates from less well-known programs can easily find jobs that pay well and use the skills they’ve gained from the PhD.
However, in other fields, particularly in the humanities, many PhD graduates have difficulty in the job market. Unfortunately, there are far more PhD graduates than assistant professor roles, so many instead take on part-time and low-paid roles as adjunct instructors. Even non-academic careers can sometimes be difficult for PhDs to move into, as they may be seen as “overqualified” or as lacking in relevant professional experience.
Because career options post-PhD vary so much, you should take the time to figure out what the career prospects are in your field. Doctoral programs often have detailed “placement” records online in which they list the career outcomes of their graduates immediately upon leaving the program. If you can’t find these records, contact the program and ask for them—placement information should play an important role in your choice of PhD program.
Although PhDs take far longer to complete, students often receive a living stipend in exchange for being a teaching or research assistant. Master’s degrees are shorter but less likely to be funded.
Both master’s degrees and PhDs lead to increased salaries upon graduation. While PhDs usually earn a bit more than those with a master’s degree, in some fields, the wages are identical, meaning that no financial benefit is gained from going on to a PhD.
The upfront cost of a master’s degree is usually higher than a doctoral degree due to the lower amount of financial aid available. However, increased salaries also arrive faster than with a doctoral degree, because people graduate much earlier from a master’s program.
Some master’s students do receive stipends for their degrees, usually as compensation for being a teaching or research assistant. In addition, many people complete master’s degrees part time while working full-time, which allows them to fund their living costs as well as tuition.
The cost varies significantly by school and program. Public schools are usually cheaper than private ones. Some master’s degrees, such as MBAs, are notoriously expensive, but also result in much higher wages afterwards that make up for the high cost.
The master’s wage premium , or the extra amount that someone with a master’s degree makes than someone with just a high school diploma, is 23% on average. Many universities provide detailed statistics on the career and salary outcomes of their students. If they do not have this online, you should feel free to contact an administrator of the program and ask.
PhDs, particularly outside the humanities, are usually (though not always) funded, meaning that tuition fees are fully waived and students receive a small living stipend. During the last 3–5 years of a PhD, after finishing their coursework (and sometimes before), students are usually expected to work as graduate instructors or research assistants in exchange for the stipend.
Sometimes students can apply for a fellowship (such as the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Program in the United States) that relieves them of any obligations to be a teaching or research assistant. Doctoral programs in the US tend to be better funded than in the rest of the world.
Sometimes, PhD degrees can be completed part-time, but this is rare. Students are usually expected to devote at least 40 hours a week to their research and work as teaching or research assistants.
The main cost of doctoral programs comes in the form of opportunity cost—all the years that students could be working a regular, full-time job, which usually pays much better than a graduate school stipend.
The average wage premium for PhDs is 26%, which is not much higher than the master’s degree premium.
In the US, the application process is similar for master’s and PhD programs. Both will generally ask for:
Applications for both types of programs also often require a standardized test. PhDs usually require the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), which tries to measure verbal reasoning, quantitative, critical thinking , and analytical writing skills. Many master’s programs require this test as well.
Master’s degrees programs will often ask you to respond to specific essay prompts that may ask you to reflect upon not just your academic background, but also your personal character and future career ambitions.
Northwestern University’s Kellogg Business School requires Master’s of Business Administration (MBA) applicants write two essays, one about a recent time they demonstrated leadership and the second about their personal values.
Who you should ask for your letters of recommendation varies by program. If you are applying to a research-intensive master’s program, then you should choose former professors or research supervisors. For other programs, particularly business school, current work supervisors may be a better choice.
Some professional master’s programs require a specific test. For example, to apply to law school, you must take the Law School Admissions Test, or LSAT. For business school, you must take either the GRE or the Graduate Management Admissions Test (GMAT).
When applying for a PhD, your resume should focus more on your research background—you should especially emphasize any publications you’ve authored or presentations that you’ve given.
Similarly, your statement of purpose should discuss research that you’ve participated in, whether as an assistant or the lead author. You should detail what exactly you did in projects you’ve contributed to, whether that’s conducting a literature review, coding regressions, or writing an entire article.
Your letters of recommendations should be from former professors or supervisors who can speak to your abilities and potential as a researcher. A good rule of thumb is to avoid asking for recommendations from anyone who does not themselves have a PhD.
If you want to know more about college essays , academic writing , and AI tools , make sure to check out some of our other language articles with explanations, examples, and quizzes.
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Academic writing
A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.
All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.
A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.
A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.
This depends on the country. In the United States, you can generally go directly to a PhD with only a bachelor’s degree, as a master’s program is included as part of the doctoral program.
Elsewhere, you generally need to graduate from a research-intensive master’s degree before continuing to the PhD.
This varies by country. In the United States, PhDs usually take between 5–7 years: 2 years of coursework followed by 3–5 years of independent research work to produce a dissertation.
In the rest of the world, students normally have a master’s degree before beginning the PhD, so they proceed directly to the research stage and complete a PhD in 3–5 years.
A master’s degree usually has a higher upfront cost, but it also allows you to start earning a higher salary more quickly. The exact cost depends on the country and the school: private universities usually cost more than public ones, and European degrees usually cost less than North American ones. There are limited possibilities for financial aid.
PhDs often waive tuition fees and offer a living stipend in exchange for a teaching or research assistantship. However, they take many years to complete, during which time you earn very little.
In the US, the graduate school application process is similar whether you’re applying for a master’s or a PhD . Both require letters of recommendation , a statement of purpose or personal statement , a resume or CV , and transcripts. Programs in the US and Canada usually also require a certain type of standardized test—often the GRE.
Outside the US, PhD programs usually also require applicants to write a research proposal , because students are expected to begin dissertation research in the first year of their PhD.
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Postgraduate studies offer a wide range of opportunities for students looking to further their education and career prospects.
Choosing the right postgraduate programme can be overwhelming, especially when faced with the choice between taught and research-based master’s degrees.
While both options lead to a master’s degree, they differ significantly in their approach, content and outcome.
Taught master’s programs are structured, classroom-based courses that provide students with in-depth knowledge and practical skills in a specific subject. Research-based master’s programs, on the other hand, focus on cutting-edge research in a particular field and are designed to equip students with advanced research skills and expertise.
In this article, we explore the differences between taught vs research masters programmes, to help you decide the best path to pursue based on your interests and career goals.
Postgraduate students can choose between two main types of master’s programmes: a taught master’s and a research master’s. The differences between these two types of programmes can be seen in their:
Structure | Fixed and structured timetable | No set timetable |
Curriculum | Modules and seminars | Independent research |
Balance of Courses and Research | 2/3 taught courses, 1/3 research project | Majority of effort in a research project |
Assessment | Final project or exam | Dissertation based on research conducted |
Focus | Broader understanding of specific field | Deeper insight into a particular research area |
Examples | Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MSc), Postgraduate Diploma (PGDip), Postgraduate Certificate (PGCert) | Master of Research (MRes), Master of Philosophy (MPhil) |
Taught master’s, also known as coursework or postgraduate taught degrees, typically have a fixed and structured timetable.
These programmes include a structured curriculum with modules and seminars that aim to provide students with a broader understanding of a specific field.
The proportion of taught courses and research projects in a taught master’s programme is normally 2/3 taught courses to 1/3 research project. Examples of taught master’s degrees are Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MSc), Postgraduate Diploma (PGDip), and Postgraduate Certificate (PGCert).
On the other hand, research degrees, also known as masters by research, focus on independent research in a particular area of study under the guidance of a supervisor.
These programmes have no set timetable and research is the primary focus.
The proportion of research projects and taught courses in a research master’s programme is reversed from a taught master’s with the majority of the effort being in research projects. Examples of research master’s degrees are Master of Research (MRes) and Master of Philosophy (MPhil).
The assessment methods also differ between the two types of programmes. Taught master’s programmes generally require a final project or exam, while research master’s programmes culminate in the submission of a dissertation that is solely assessed based on the quality of the research conducted.
Choosing between a taught or research Masters ultimately depends on individual preferences and goals.
A taught postgraduate course generally focuses on providing a structured programme based on pre-existing knowledge and skills, leading to a diploma or MSc certification.
On the other hand, a research postgraduate programme, such as an MRes, emphasises research skills and independent study, leading to a research-based qualification.
If one prefers to study in a traditional classroom setting and wants to acquire further knowledge in a specific area, a taught course may be more suitable.
If you are more interested in becoming an expert in a particular field and honing their research skills, then a research Masters may be more appropriate.
It’s important to consider your career goals and choose the programme that best aligns with those aspirations.
Apart from the popularly known MBA (Master of Business Administration), there are several other types of masters degree available.
Some of the common ones include MSc (Master of Science), MRes (Master of Research), MPhil (Master of Philosophy), and various other taught or research masters.
Master of Science | MSc | Scientific fields & some social sciences | Varies | Predominant | MSc Immunology and Immunotherapy, MSc Environmental Science | Students seeking knowledge and skills in a specific field |
Master of Research | MRes | Research in various subject areas | Extensive | Lesser | MRes Cancer Sciences, MRes Ancient History | Students considering a career in academia or research-based roles |
Master of Philosophy | MPhil | Research, often a step towards a PhD | Exclusive | None | MPhil in Archaeology, MPhil in Mathematics | Students focused on research, often leading to a PhD |
Other taught or research masters | Varies | Wide range of subject areas & industries | Varies | Varies | MA Ancient History, MSc Political Science, MSc Marketing | Students looking to gain specialized knowledge or skills in various fields |
MSc programs are popular among students looking to advance their knowledge in a scientific field, such as engineering, medicine, or environmental science. For example, the MSc Immunology and Immunotherapy program at the University of Birmingham focuses on subjects like cancer genomics and immunology, providing a balance of taught elements and research opportunities.
MRes programs, on the other hand, focus on research, preparing students for a career in academia or research-based roles in industry.
For instance, the MRes Cancer Sciences program at the University of Birmingham allows students to spend about six to seven months working on a research project after completing their taught modules, providing extensive hands-on experience.
MPhil programs, like the MRes, are often seen as a stepping stone towards a PhD and are mainly research-based. They may involve rotations between different projects, with the final project often leading to a PhD topic.
MPhil programs sometimes stand alone as qualifications, but they usually involve no teaching elements, consisting solely of independent research projects.
Other taught or research masters cover a wide range of subject areas and may focus on specific industries or have a broader perspective. For instance, there are masters programs in ancient history, archaeology, political science, marketing, and communications, among others.
Postgraduate studies are a great way to gain specialized knowledge and develop professional skills , making a taught or research master’s degree a valuable qualification for various career paths.
When considering a postgraduate program, it is important to research the course details and seek advice from current or former students to ensure it aligns with your future goals and interests.
There is typically a difference in tuition fees between taught and research masters programs. Taught masters programs, such as MSc degrees, are structured around coursework and are usually completed within one to two years.
They often require more resources, such as faculty time and classroom space, which can drive up the cost. In comparison, research masters programs, like MRes degrees, focus on independent research and usually have less contact time with professors, which can result in lower tuition fees.
However, there are exceptions, and tuition fees can vary from program to program.
Taught masters degrees may be more affordable than research masters due to their structure and the prevalence of such programs.
It is essential to research and compare the costs and benefits of each type of program and consider how it aligns with one’s personal and professional objectives.
Postgraduate students have a choice between two main types of master’s programs: taught and research-based. Taught programs are structured, classroom-based courses, while research-based programs focus on independent research.
The decision to choose between a taught or research master’s program ultimately depends on individual preferences, goals, and career aspirations.
It is important to carefully research and compare the costs and benefits of each type of program and consider how it aligns with one’s personal and professional objectives.
Key takeaways include:
Postgraduate studies offer a valuable opportunity for students to gain specialized knowledge and develop professional skills, making a taught or research master’s degree a valuable qualification for various career paths.
Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.
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If you are considering enrolling on a master's programme of study, you may be overwhelmed by the wide range of courses on offer.
Choosing the best type of masters programme for your needs will help you to rise above your competitors in a competitive industry.
However, it is just as essential to choose a course of study that plays to your learning style and prepares you for PhD study , should this be on the horizon. Here, we shall concentrate on the two main types of masters programmes: research degrees and taught degrees .
Research masters degrees involve learning through research.
Research degrees are viewed as valuable preparation if you wish to undertake PhD studies, with many funding bodies only awarding money to PhD students who have completed research programmes.
If you are considering undertaking a research master’s, it is essential for you to be able to work independently as you will receive less tutor support than that provided on a taught degree.
You will, however, be granted support from a supervisor, who will help you to develop your research proposal.
The majority of your days will be spent collecting and analysing data and the aim of your efforts will be to have your work accepted for publication in a leading research journal.
Assessment on research programes is through a professional judgement of your research work and an oral exam relating to your chosen research topic.
Full-time master’s by research programmes usually last for 18 months.
However, courses lasting as long as 36 months are not uncommon. Part-time study is an option.
At the end of your course, you will be granted a Master of Philosphy (MPhil), Master of Research (MRes), Master of Arts (MA by Research), or Master of Science (MSc by Research) qualification, depending on your subject of study.
This course will suit you if you are:
Taught master’s degrees are not dissimilar to undergraduate degrees. They involve a series of taught modules, delivered through lectures, seminars and practical work.
Upon completion of these modules, you will be assessed on the knowledge and skills you have learned.
Assessment is through examinations, coursework, dissertations and group projects.
Full-time taught master’s programmes usually last for one-year. Part-time study is an option.
At the end of your course, you will be granted a Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MSc), or Master of Business Administration (MBA) qualification, depending on your subject of study. This course will suit you if you:
For more tips and advice on applying for a postgraduate course, please see:
Breadcrumbs List.
Masters degrees at the University of Auckland are generally offered as either research or taught (coursework) masters. Find out more about the benefits of both for international students.
A masters degree is a degree programme demonstrably in advance of undergraduate level, that provides training in scholarship and research.
This allows you to build on your previous study by increasing your knowledge in a specific subject area, enhancing your career prospects and understanding. It offers transferrable skills, researched alongside leading academic staff, rigorous intellectual analysis and problem solving.
Masters degrees usually consist of full time study of either:
Our masters programmes are generally 180 points (18 months of full-time study) or 240 points (two years of full-time study). If you have already completed a year of postgraduate study, e.g. a postgraduate diploma, you may be admitted directly to a 120 point version (one year of full-time study).
Eligibility for the different options depends on the prior study you have completed. Some programmes will only include some of these options.
A masters degree can be structured as either a research or a taught programme and will have a points value assigned to it.
Taught masters.
Taught (or coursework) masters degrees will give you advanced specialist training in your chosen field. They are usually completed by coursework only, although some can include a dissertation.
Taught masters programmes are becoming increasingly popular with international students at the University of Auckland. With a focus on applied learning and preparation for work, these programmes can produce well-rounded graduates with a broad range of technical and soft skills.
We offer taught masters degrees across various disciplines.
As New Zealand’s premier research-led university, we also offer research masters for international students.
A research masters degree provides you with the opportunity to develop advanced research skills and present findings in a documented scholarly form such as a thesis. Your research should make an independent contribution to learning or offer a critical perspective on existing scholarship or methodology.
The University of Auckland has earned a great reputation for delivering academic and research excellence within a supportive learning environment. We give you the opportunity to learn from and collaborate with outstanding academic staff from New Zealand and around the world.
The University has built a broad academic community of researchers, scholars and students who are ready to support you as you challenge current beliefs, form and test new ideas, and embark on an enriching and fulfilling career. We look forward to welcoming you as a member of our community.
For questions about academia specific to the United Kingdom. /r/AskAcademia is a helpful resource for finding out more about academic life, pathways into and within academia, and other general questions, it is very often centred around US based academia and therefore not always relevant outside of the US. This subreddit will therefore function as a counterpart to /r/AskAcademia, one that is specific to UK based professional academic life. WE SUPPORT THE USE OF OLD REDDIT - Please see sidebar.
I have an opportunity to do a taught or a research masters. Both are at top universities (Edinburgh and Bristol) and these are two of the top unis in the UK in my field.
I am interested in academia, but I also have interest in other jobs too (which I think is a good idea since academia is so competitive). For this reason I am leaning towards taught, as what I want to do next I haven't had any modules on in undergrad (there was one optional recorded lecture in one module on the topic) and so I feel learning the fundamentals through taught courses will help if I want to go into work and even in academia could give me a wider base of knowledge. How much of an advantage would it be to apply for PhDs with a research masters vs a taught one? Is it worth risking struggling to find work because instead of a broad base of knowledge of animal welfare I have done instead a very specialised project on one aspect of it?
Thank you for your advice.
Contact: Harriet Laird
STARKVILLE, Miss.—The future is bright for those interested in cutting-edge jobs in computing technologies, and Mississippi State is offering three new degree paths this fall to get students on their way to professional success.
MSU’s new Bachelor of Applied Science in Cybersecurity, Bachelor of Science in Artificial Intelligence and Master of Applied Data Science offer students hands-on training in occupations growing much faster for the next 12 years than the average for all jobs.
Currently, the university has existing programs that include a Bachelor of Cybersecurity, Bachelor of Data Science and a Master of Cybersecurity and Operations.
“As a comprehensive public research university, we want to ensure all our programs teach innovative and current best practices and prepare our students to be career ready when they graduate,” said MSU’s David Shaw, provost and executive vice president. “Every day, we’re looking at the whole picture—analyzing employers’ needs and workforce demands to offer top-notch academic programs.”
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projects about 377,500 openings through 2032, on average, in computer and information technology occupations. While many openings are due to employment growth, an aging and retiring workforce also is a contributor. The bureau reports the median annual wage at $104,420 as of 2023, significantly higher than the median annual wage of $48,060 for all occupations.
Also this fall, MSU is introducing three additional applied science bachelor’s degrees—business office technology, healthcare administration and public management. Applied science bachelor’s degree programs are ideal for those who have completed or are finishing a two-year college or military Associate of Applied Science degree.
Offering online, in-person and hybrid learning options, these degrees add flexibility for working adults and transfer students who have A.A.S. technical degrees in a variety of fields. Students in most of these programs will have the opportunity to gain credentials of value while earning their degree.
A graduate degree for teachers is a new addition as well. The Master of Arts in Teaching Elementary Level Alternate Route is specifically designed to address the state’s challenge of recruiting and retaining quality teachers. More than 100 public school districts have critical teacher shortages.
New Degree Programs: A Closer Look
—The B.A.S. in Cybersecurity is designed to equip students with the knowledge, skills and expertise to become cybersecurity analysts. This program ensures graduates are well-versed in cybersecurity theoretical aspects and possess hands-on skills required in defending organizations against cyber threats.
—Students pursuing the B.S. in Artificial Intelligence gain core theoretical knowledge and skills training to design and develop artificial intelligence systems. Data analytics, machine learning, robotics and more are the foundation of a degree preparing graduates for careers such as AI researcher and data scientist in technology and healthcare and many other industries.
—MSU is offering the Master of Applied Data Science focused toward working adults who may have a variety of bachelor’s degrees. While students learn foundational data science concepts, they also gain practical skills using real world datasets in many application domains. Careers for data scientists are innumerable—from agriculture and athletics to finance and healthcare.
—The B.A.S. in Business Office Technology prepares those holding business/technology A.A.S. degrees for work as office managers, administrative supervisors, IT administrators and more. It is delivered in both online and face-to-face formats, accommodating the preferences and schedules of a diverse population interested in pursuing a BOT degree.
—Those with health-related A.A.S. degrees can pursue MSU’s B.A.S. in Healthcare Administration at MSU-Meridian, where students are prepared to become managers in such settings as hospitals, private practices, pharmaceutical agencies, insurance companies and more. The curriculum includes study and skills training in such subjects as healthcare finance, law and management.
—MSU’s new B.A.S. in Public Management is specifically to advance the education and career options of professionals with existing A.A.S. degrees in public safety areas such as fire science, law enforcement or emergency medical/management services. Jobs for graduates include city or emergency manager, criminal justice administrator, fire management officer and others.
—A new graduate-level licensure program, the M.A. in Teaching Elementary Level Alternate Route prepares students for highly competent instruction in kindergarten through sixth grade. The MSU-Meridian coursework includes planning and managing learning, assessment and serving children with special needs. A one-year residency includes diagnosing reading problems and more.
Mississippi State University is taking care of what matters. Learn more at www.msstate.edu .
Tuesday, June 4, 2024 - 1:30 pm
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This report examines key changes in the economic status of the American middle class from 1970 to 2023 and its demographic attributes in 2022. The historical analysis is based on U.S. Census Bureau data from the Annual Social and Economic Supplements (ASEC) of the Current Population Survey (CPS). The demographic analysis is based on data from the American Community Survey (ACS). The data is sourced from IPUMS CPS and IPUMS USA , respectively.
The CPS, a survey of about 60,000 households, is the U.S. government’s official source for monthly estimates of unemployment . The CPS ASEC, conducted in March each year, is the official source of U.S. government estimates of income and poverty . Our analysis of CPS data starts with the 1971 CPS ASEC, which records the incomes of households in 1970. It is also the first year for which data on race and ethnicity is available. The latest available CPS ASEC file is for 2023, which reports on household incomes in 2022.
The public-use version of the ACS is a 1% sample of the U.S. population, or more than 3 million people. This allows for a detailed study of the demographic characteristics of the middle class, including its status in U.S. metropolitan areas. But ACS data is available only from 2005 onward and is less suitable for long-term historical analyses. The latest available ACS data is for 2022.
Middle-income households are defined as those with an income that is two-thirds to double that of the U.S. median household income, after incomes have been adjusted for household size. Lower-income households have incomes less than two-thirds of the median, and upper-income households have incomes that are more than double the median. When using American Community Survey (ACS) data, incomes are also adjusted for cost of living in the areas in which households are located.
Estimates of household income are scaled to reflect a household size of three and expressed in 2023 dollars. In the Current Population Survey (CPS), household income refers to the calendar year prior to the survey year. Thus, the income data in the report refers to the 1970-2022 period, and the share of Americans in each income tier from the CPS refers to the 1971-2023 period.
The demographic attributes of Americans living in lower-, middle- or upper-income tiers are derived from ACS data. Except as noted, estimates pertain to the U.S. household population, excluding people living in group quarters.
The terms middle class and middle income are used interchangeably in this report.
White, Black, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander include people who identified with a single major racial group and who are not Hispanic. Multiracial includes people who identified with more than one major racial group and are not Hispanic. Hispanics are of any race.
U.S. born refers to individuals who are U.S. citizens at birth, including people born in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico or other U.S. territories, as well as those born elsewhere to at least one parent who is a U.S. citizen. The terms foreign born and immigrant are used interchangeably in this report. They refer to people who are not U.S. citizens at birth.
Occupations describe the broad kinds of work people do on their job. For example, health care occupations include doctors, nurses, pharmacists and others who are directly engaged in the provision of health care. Industries describe the broad type of products companies produce. Each industry encompasses a variety of occupations. For example, the health care and social assistance industry provides services that are produced by a combination of doctors, managers, technology and administrative staff, food preparation workers, and workers in other occupations.
The share of Americans who are in the middle class is smaller than it used to be. In 1971, 61% of Americans lived in middle-class households. By 2023, the share had fallen to 51%, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of government data.
As a result, Americans are more apart than before financially. From 1971 to 2023, the share of Americans who live in lower-income households increased from 27% to 30%, and the share in upper-income households increased from 11% to 19%.
Notably, the increase in the share who are upper income was greater than the increase in the share who are lower income. In that sense, these changes are also a sign of economic progress overall.
But the middle class has fallen behind on two key counts. The growth in income for the middle class since 1970 has not kept pace with the growth in income for the upper-income tier. And the share of total U.S. household income held by the middle class has plunged.
Moreover, many groups still lag in their presence in the middle- and upper-income tiers. For instance, American Indians or Alaska Natives, Black and Hispanic Americans, and people who are not married are more likely than average to be in the lower-income tier. Several metro areas in the U.S. Southwest also have high shares of residents who are in the lower-income tier, after adjusting for differences in cost of living across areas.
Our report focuses on the current state of the American middle class. First, we examine changes in the financial well-being of the middle class and other income tiers since 1970. This is based on data from the Annual Social and Economic Supplements (ASEC) of the Current Population Survey (CPS), conducted from 1971 to 2023.
Then, we report on the attributes of people who were more or less likely to be middle class in 2022. Our focus is on their race and ethnicity , age , gender, marital and veteran status , place of birth , ancestry , education , occupation , industry , and metropolitan area of residence . These estimates are derived from American Community Survey (ACS) data and differ slightly from the CPS-based estimates. In part, that is because incomes can be adjusted for the local area cost of living only with the ACS data. (Refer to the methodology for details on these two data sources.)
This analysis and an accompanying report on the Asian American middle class are part of a series on the status of America’s racial and ethnic groups in the U.S. middle class and other income tiers. Forthcoming analyses will focus on White, Black, Hispanic, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander and multiracial Americans, including subgroups within these populations. These reports are, in part, updates of previous work by the Center . But they offer much greater detail on the demographic attributes of the American middle class.
Following are some key facts about the state of the American middle class:
In our analysis, “middle-income” Americans are those living in households with an annual income that is two-thirds to double the national median household income. The income it takes to be middle income varies by household size, with smaller households requiring less to support the same lifestyle as larger households. It also varies by the local cost of living, with households in a more expensive area, such as Honolulu, needing a higher income than those in a less expensive area, such as Wichita, Kansas.
We don’t always know the area in which a household is located. In our two data sources – the Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement (CPS ASEC) and the American Community Survey (ACS) – only the latter provides that information, specifically the metropolitan area of a household. Thus, we aren’t able to adjust for the local cost of living when using the CPS to track changes in the status of the middle class over time. But we do adjust for the metropolitan area cost of living when using the ACS to determine the demographic attributes of the middle class in 2022.
In the 2023 CPS ASEC data , which reports income for 2022, middle-income households with three people have incomes ranging from about $61,000 to $183,000 annually. “Lower-income” households have incomes less than $61,000, and “upper-income” households have incomes greater than $183,000.
In the 2022 ACS data , middle-income households with three people have incomes ranging from about $62,000 to $187,000 annually, with incomes also adjusted for the local area cost of living. (Incomes are expressed in 2023 dollars.)
The boundaries of the income tiers also vary across years as the national median income changes.
The terms “middle income” and “middle class” are used interchangeably in this report for the sake of exposition. But being middle class can refer to more than just income , be it education level, type of profession, economic security, home ownership or social and political values. Class also could simply be a matter of self-identification .
Households in all income tiers had much higher incomes in 2022 than in 1970, after adjusting for inflation. But the gains for middle- and lower-income households were less than the gains for upper-income households .
The median income of middle-class households increased from about $66,400 in 1970 to $106,100 in 2022, or 60%. Over this period, the median income of upper-income households increased 78%, from about $144,100 to $256,900. (Incomes are scaled to a three-person household and expressed in 2023 dollars.)
The median income of lower-income households grew more slowly than that of other households, increasing from about $22,800 in 1970 to $35,300 in 2022, or 55%.
Consequently, there is now a larger gap between the incomes of upper-income households and other households. In 2022, the median income of upper-income households was 7.3 times that of lower-income households, up from 6.3 in 1970. It was 2.4 times the median income of middle-income households in 2022, up from 2.2 in 1970.
The share of total U.S. household income held by the middle class has fallen almost without fail in each decade since 1970 . In that year, middle-income households accounted for 62% of the aggregate income of all U.S. households, about the same as the share of people who lived in middle-class households.
By 2022, the middle-class share in overall household income had fallen to 43%, less than the share of the population in middle-class households (51%). Not only do a smaller share of people live in the middle class today, the incomes of middle-class households have also not risen as quickly as the incomes of upper-income households.
Over the same period, the share of total U.S. household income held by upper-income households increased from 29% in 1970 to 48% in 2022. In part, this is because of the increase in the share of people who are in the upper-income tier.
The share of overall income held by lower-income households edged down from 10% in 1970 to 8% in 2022. This happened even though the share of people living in lower-income households increased over this period.
The share of people in the U.S. middle class varied from 46% to 55% across racial and ethnic groups in 2022. Black and Hispanic Americans, Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders, and American Indians or Alaska Natives were more likely than others to be in lower-income households .
In 2022, 39% to 47% of Americans in these four groups lived in lower-income households. In contrast, only 24% of White and Asian Americans and 31% of multiracial Americans were in the lower-income tier.
At the other end of the economic spectrum, 27% of Asian and 21% of White Americans lived in upper-income households in 2022, compared with about 10% or less of Black and Hispanic Americans, Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders, and American Indians or Alaska Natives.
Not surprisingly, lower-income status is correlated with the likelihood of living in poverty. According to the Census Bureau , the poverty rate among Black (17.1%) and Hispanic (16.9%) Americans and American Indians or Alaska Natives (25%) was greater than the rate among White and Asian Americans (8.6% for each). (The Census Bureau did not report the poverty rate for Native Hawaiians or Pacific Islanders.)
Children and adults 65 and older were more likely to live in lower-income households in 2022. Adults in the peak of their working years – ages 30 to 64 – were more likely to be upper income. In 2022, 38% of children (including teens) and 35% of adults 65 and older were lower income, compared with 26% of adults ages 30 to 44 and 23% of adults 45 to 64.
The share of people living in upper-income households ranged from 13% among children and young adults (up to age 29) to 24% among those 45 to 64. In each age group, about half or a little more were middle class in 2022.
Men were slightly more likely than women to live in middle-income households in 2022 , 53% vs. 51%. Their share in upper-income households (18%) was also somewhat greater than the share of women (16%) in upper-income households.
Marriage appears to boost the economic status of Americans. Among those who were married in 2022, eight-in-ten lived either in middle-income households (56%) or upper-income households (24%). In contrast, only about six-in-ten of those who were separated, divorced, widowed or never married were either middle class or upper income, while 37% lived in lower-income households.
Veterans were more likely than nonveterans to be middle income in 2022, 57% vs. 53%. Conversely, a higher share of nonveterans (29%) than veterans (24%) lived in lower-income households.
Immigrants – about 14% of the U.S. population in 2022 – were less likely than the U.S. born to be in the middle class and more likely to live in lower-income households. In 2022, more than a third of immigrants (36%) lived in lower-income households, compared with 29% of the U.S. born. Immigrants also trailed the U.S. born in the shares who were in the middle class, 48% vs. 53%.
There are large gaps in the economic status of American residents by their region of birth. Among people born in Asia, Europe or Oceania, 25% lived in upper-income households in 2022. People from these regions represented 7% of the U.S. population.
By comparison, only 14% of people born in Africa or South America and 6% of those born in Central America and the Caribbean were in the upper-income tier in 2022. Together they accounted for 8% of the U.S. population.
The likelihood of being in the middle class or the upper-income tier varies considerably with the ancestry of Americans. In 2022, Americans reporting South Asian ancestry were about as likely to be upper income (38%) as they were to be middle income (42%). Only 20% of Americans of South Asian origin lived in lower-income households. South Asians accounted for about 2% of the U.S. population of known origin groups in 2022.
At least with respect to the share who were lower income, this was about matched by those with Soviet, Eastern European, other Asian or Western European origins. These groups represented the majority (54%) of the population of Americans whose ancestry was known in 2022.
On the other hand, only 7% of Americans with Central and South American or other Hispanic ancestry were in the upper-income tier, and 44% were lower income. The economic statuses of Americans with Caribbean, sub-Saharan African or North American ancestry were not very different from this.
Education matters for moving into the middle class and beyond, and so do jobs. Among Americans ages 25 and older in 2022, 52% of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher level of education lived in middle-class households and another 35% lived in upper-income households.
In sharp contrast, 42% of Americans who did not graduate from high school were in the middle class, and only 5% were in the upper-income tier. Further, only 12% of college graduates were lower income, compared with 54% of those who did not complete high school.
Not surprisingly, having a job is strongly linked to movement from the lower-income tier to the middle- and upper-income tiers. Among employed American workers ages 16 and older, 58% were in the middle-income tier in 2022 and 23% were in the upper-income tier. Only 19% of employed workers were lower income, compared with 49% of unemployed Americans.
In some occupations, about nine-in-ten U.S. workers are either in the middle class or in the upper-income tier, but in some other occupations almost four-in-ten workers are lower income. More than a third (36% to 39%) of workers in computer, science and engineering, management, and business and finance occupations lived in upper-income households in 2022. About half or more were in the middle class.
But many workers – about one-third or more – in construction, transportation, food preparation and serving, and personal care and other services were in the lower-income tier in 2022.
About six-in-ten workers or more in education; protective and building maintenance services; office and administrative support; the armed forces; and maintenance, repair and production were in the middle class.
Depending on the industrial sector, anywhere from half to two-thirds of U.S. workers were in the middle class, and the share who are upper income or lower income varied greatly.
About a third of workers in the finance, insurance and real estate, information, and professional services sectors were in the upper-income tier in 2022. Nearly nine-in-ten workers (87%) in public administration – largely filling legislative functions and providing federal, state or local government services – were either in the middle class or the upper-income tier.
But nearly four-in-ten workers (38%) in accommodation and food services were lower income in 2022, along with three-in-ten workers in the retail trade and other services sectors.
The share of Americans who are in the middle class or in the upper- or lower-income tier differs across U.S. metropolitan areas. But a pattern emerges when it comes to which metro areas have the highest shares of people living in lower-, middle- or upper-income households. (We first adjust household incomes for differences in the cost of living across areas.)
The 10 metropolitan areas with the greatest shares of middle-income residents are small to midsize in population and are located mostly in the northern half of the U.S. About six-in-ten residents in these metro areas were in the middle class.
Several of these areas are in the so-called Rust Belt , namely, Wausau and Oshkosh-Neenah, both in Wisconsin; Grand Rapids-Wyoming, Michigan; and Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Two others – Dover and Olympia-Tumwater – include state capitals (Delaware and Washington, respectively).
In four of these areas – Bismarck, North Dakota, Ogden-Clearfield, Utah, Lancaster and Wausau – the share of residents in the upper-income tier ranged from 18% to 20%, about on par with the share nationally.
The 10 U.S. metropolitan areas with the highest shares of residents in the upper-income tier are mostly large, coastal communities. Topping the list is San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, California, a technology-driven economy, in which 40% of the population lived in upper-income households in 2022. Other tech-focused areas on this list include San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward; Seattle-Tacoma-Bellevue; and Raleigh, North Carolina.
Bridgeport-Stamford-Norwalk, Connecticut, is a financial hub. Several areas, including Washington, D.C.-Arlington-Alexandria and Boston-Cambridge-Newton, are home to major universities, leading research facilities and the government sector.
Notably, many of these metro areas also have sizable lower-income populations. For instance, about a quarter of the populations in Bridgeport-Stamford-Norwalk; Trenton, New Jersey; Boston-Cambridge-Newton; and Santa Cruz-Watsonville, California, were in the lower-income tier in 2022.
Most of the 10 U.S. metropolitan areas with the highest shares of residents in the lower-income tier are in the Southwest, either on the southern border of Texas or in California’s Central Valley. The shares of people living in lower-income residents were largely similar across these areas, ranging from about 45% to 50%.
About 40% to 50% of residents in these metro areas were in the middle class, and only about one-in-ten or fewer lived in upper-income households.
Compared with the nation overall, the lower-income metro areas in Texas and California have disproportionately large Hispanic populations. The two metro areas in Louisiana – Monroe and Shreveport-Bossier City – have disproportionately large Black populations.
Note: For details on how this analysis was conducted, refer to the methodology .
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COMMENTS
In PhD by taught courses with Research means a scholar is supposed to study core courses + nearly 4 more courses additionally during the 1st year of PhD. Then remaining part of research is similar ...
💡 Taught Masters vs Research Masters: There are many types of Master's degrees, ... 🤔 Is a Research Master's the same as a PhD? No, a Research Master's degree is not the same as a PhD. Although for both degrees you will need to complete a dissertation based on an independent research project, there are notable differences: ...
4 mins. It can be a little tricky figuring out which postgraduate degree is for you. That's why we've done the work for you to clarify the differences between a coursework degree and a research degree, and where each could take your career. Tl;dr: The main difference between these two styles is coursework has classes and research has a thesis.
Compare the structure and content of both types of programs. Taught master's programs typically involve a mix of lectures, seminars, and coursework, while research master's programs focus on a more significant research project. Assess which learning approach aligns better with your preferred style of study. 4.
The average student-faculty ratio is 14:1. Public research schools have a substantially greater student-to-faculty ratio than teaching institutions because of the bigger student body and comparable class demand. Public schools usually have a student-faculty ratio of 19:1, while private institutions practice 8:1.
Postgraduate taught courses are usually one year in length (and a minimum of two years if taken part-time). Comprising a number of modules, they are assessed by a combination of coursework, examination and dissertation and lead to the award of a Masters qualification. Postgraduate research courses involve the completion of original academic ...
PhD by thesis. This is the most common means of getting a Doctorate. Over the three or four years of research at university, your PhD supervisor will support you as you aim to produce a thesis based on your research proposal. A thesis is typically 60,000-90,000 words in length - although this can vary between institutions.
1. Learning style. Taught Master's: emphasises structured learning with a focus on coursework and assessments. Research Master's: requires a greater level of independent study and research, culminating in a research project. You'll develop your research skills by designing, completing and producing this project. 2.
PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. This is one of the highest level academic degrees that can be awarded. PhD is an abbreviation of the Latin term (Ph)ilosophiae (D)octor. Traditionally the term 'philosophy' does not refer to the subject but its original Greek meaning which roughly translates to 'lover of wisdom'.
3. Learning Style Preferences. If you thrive in a structured classroom environment, complete taught programmes (MSc/MA) may be a good fit. If you prefer a balance of research training with structured support and teaching, MRes might offer the right combination. 4.
Given the heavy research focus, MRes and MPhil courses tend to contain fewer taught classes, but you will usually receive training in research techniques. As a result of the research focus, an MRes or an MPhil may help prepare a student for a doctoral programme (PGR) or a career that requires specific research skills and techniques.
Taught Masters will have regular seminars, classes, lectures, lab sessions, and workshops to attend to and assignments to complete. Contrastingly, research Masters is a singular study, with limited taught classes, instead becoming Q&A sessions between the appointed supervisor and student. Taught Masters will have a set number of terms to ...
Postgraduate taught courses are those that do not meet the requirements to be a research course. Postgraduates include those on graduate conversion courses and all on postgraduate initial teacher training courses such as Postgraduate or Professional Graduate Certificates in Education (PGCEs).
Because there are fewer teaching costs, fees for master's by research are usually lower than for a taught master's. Expect to pay around an average of £4,000 per year for a full-time course and about half that for a part-time course. ... The average annual tuition fees for a PhD are between £3,000 - £6,000 for students from the UK and EU ...
Research vs taught postgraduate programmes gradireland editorial team 26 Jan 2023, 12:27 One of the key differences between postgraduate programmes is whether you choose to do a taught course, or study for a degree by research. ... (PhD). While taught masters largely follow a structured timetable and a series of lectures, tutorials and seminars ...
In short, a Masters degree involves a year of study, primarily through taught lectures and a final dissertation research project, whilst a PhD (also referred to as a doctorate degree) is a three-year commitment of independent research on a specific subject. There's more to it than that, however - read on for more information.
Masters degrees can be either postgraduate taught programmes (PGT) or postgraduate research programmes (PGR). Taught Masters are typically 12 months long full-time and are delivered through a series of modules comprised with regular coursework and assessments. Research Masters are also usually 12 months long however the course is predominantly ...
The two most common types of graduate degrees are master's and doctoral degrees: A master's is a 1-2 year degree that can prepare you for a multitude of careers. A PhD, or doctoral degree, takes 3-7 years to complete (depending on the country) and prepares you for a career in academic research. A master's is also the necessary first ...
Research-based master's programs, on the other hand, focus on cutting-edge research in a particular field and are designed to equip students with advanced research skills and expertise. In this article, we explore the differences between taught vs research masters programmes, to help you decide the best path to pursue based on your interests ...
Postgraduate taught (PGT) are students undertaking a master's degree where the vast majority of credits come from more traditional teacher-led activities. A PGT may still have some research, e.g. in the form of a dissertation over the summer, but the majority of the credits come from more traditional courses.
They involve a series of taught modules, delivered through lectures, seminars and practical work. Upon completion of these modules, you will be assessed on the knowledge and skills you have learned. Assessment is through examinations, coursework, dissertations and group projects. Full-time taught master's programmes usually last for one-year.
A masters degree can be structured as either a research or a taught programme and will have a points value assigned to it. Research masters include a thesis or research portfolio of at least 90 points. Taught masters are comprised of mainly taught courses, but can include a dissertation or research project of less than 90 points.
And MRes will still have taught components. I think it's something like at least 50% of an MRes will be research, whereas my MSc was maybe 1/3 research and 2/3 taught. But as someone else said, you won't necessarily need to do an Masters first. Of course of you want the taught part, go ahead. But you could also audit courses during your PhD and ...
That's not entirely correct. I'm on an MRes that's only a year long. The taught MSc is also a year long. The difference was that I took 1/3 of the taught modules, and the 2/3 of my course was my research and thesis. So the differences between research and taught Masters will depend on the course and university.
Application requirements for bachelor's degrees. To apply for a bachelor's degree program, you may be expcted to provide: Past grades or GPA: Some programs may require you to have earned a certain minimum GPA in high school—like 2.5 or 3.0—though not all do. A program's application should state what kind of grade requirements they have.
More than 4.2 million full- and part-time teachers worked at public, private and charter schools during the 2020-21 school year, the most recent year with available data. That year, about 3.5 million teachers (83%) taught at traditional public schools. Another 466,000 (11%) worked in private schools, and 251,000 (6%) taught at public charters.
A graduate degree for teachers is a new addition as well. The Master of Arts in Teaching Elementary Level Alternate Route is specifically designed to address the state's challenge of recruiting and retaining quality teachers. More than 100 public school districts have critical teacher shortages. New Degree Programs: A Closer Look
The median income of middle-class households increased from about $66,400 in 1970 to $106,100 in 2022, or 60%. Over this period, the median income of upper-income households increased 78%, from about $144,100 to $256,900. (Incomes are scaled to a three-person household and expressed in 2023 dollars.)