research and communication methods

Guide to Communication Research Methodologies: Quantitative, Qualitative and Rhetorical Research

Overview of Communication

Communication research methods, quantitative research, qualitative research, rhetorical research, mixed methodology.

Students interested in earning a graduate degree in communication should have at least some interest in understanding communication theories and/or conducting communication research. As students advance from undergraduate to graduate programs, an interesting change takes place — the student is no longer just a repository for knowledge. Rather, the student is expected to learn while also creating knowledge. This new knowledge is largely generated through the development and completion of research in communication studies. Before exploring the different methodologies used to conduct communication research, it is important to have a foundational understanding of the field of communication.

Defining communication is much harder than it sounds. Indeed, scholars have argued about the topic for years, typically differing on the following topics:

• Breadth : How many behaviors and actions should or should not be considered communication.
• Intentionality : Whether the definition includes an intention to communicate.
• Success : Whether someone was able to effectively communicate a message, or merely attempted to without it being received or understood.

However, most definitions discuss five main components, which include: sender, receiver, context/environment, medium, and message. Broadly speaking, communication research examines these components, asking questions about each of them and seeking to answer those questions.

As students seek to answer their own questions, they follow an approach similar to most other researchers. This approach proceeds in five steps: conceptualize, plan and design, implement a methodology, analyze and interpret, reconceptualize.

• Conceptualize : In the conceptualization process, students develop their area of interest and determine if their specific questions and hypotheses are worth investigating. If the research has already been completed, or there is no practical reason to research the topic, students may need to find a different research topic.
• Plan and Design : During planning and design students will select their methods of evaluation and decide how they plan to define their variables in a measurable way.
• Implement a Methodology : When implementing a methodology, students collect the data and information they require. They may, for example, have decided to conduct a survey study. This is the step when they would use their survey to collect data. If students chose to conduct a rhetorical criticism, this is when they would analyze their text.
• Analyze and Interpret : As students analyze and interpret their data or evidence, they transform the raw findings into meaningful insights. If they chose to conduct interviews, this would be the point in the process where they would evaluate the results of the interviews to find meaning as it relates to the communication phenomena of interest.
• Reconceptualize : During reconceptualization, students ask how their findings speak to a larger body of research — studies related to theirs that have already been completed and research they should execute in the future to continue answering new questions.

This final step is crucial, and speaks to an important tenet of communication research: All research contributes to a better overall understanding of communication and moves the field forward by enabling the development of new theories.

In the field of communication, there are three main research methodologies: quantitative, qualitative, and rhetorical. As communication students progress in their careers, they will likely find themselves using one of these far more often than the others.

Quantitative research seeks to establish knowledge through the use of numbers and measurement. Within the overarching area of quantitative research, there are a variety of different methodologies. The most commonly used methodologies are experiments, surveys, content analysis, and meta-analysis. To better understand these research methods, you can explore the following examples:

Experiments : Experiments are an empirical form of research that enable the researcher to study communication in a controlled environment. For example, a researcher might know that there are typical responses people use when they are interrupted during a conversation. However, it might be unknown as to how frequency of interruption provokes those different responses (e.g., do communicators use different responses when interrupted once every 10 minutes versus once per minute?). An experiment would allow a researcher to create these two environments to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question. As you can imagine, it would be very time consuming — and probably impossible — to view this and measure it in the real world. For that reason, an experiment would be perfect for this research inquiry.

Surveys : Surveys are often used to collect information from large groups of people using scales that have been tested for validity and reliability. A researcher might be curious about how a supervisor sharing personal information with his or her subordinate affects way the subordinate perceives his or her supervisor. The researcher could create a survey where respondents answer questions about a) the information their supervisors self-disclose and b) their perceptions of their supervisors. The data collected about these two variables could offer interesting insights about this communication. As you would guess, an experiment would not work in this case because the researcher needs to assess a real relationship and they need insight into the mind of the respondent.

Content Analysis : Content analysis is used to count the number of occurrences of a phenomenon within a source of media (e.g., books, magazines, commercials, movies, etc.). For example, a researcher might be interested in finding out if people of certain races are underrepresented on television. They might explore this area of research by counting the number of times people of different races appear in prime time television and comparing that to the actual proportions in society.

Meta-Analysis : In this technique, a researcher takes a collection of quantitative studies and analyzes the data as a whole to get a better understanding of a communication phenomenon. For example, a researcher might be curious about how video games affect aggression. This researcher might find that many studies have been done on the topic, sometimes with conflicting results. In their meta-analysis, they could analyze the existing statistics as a whole to get a better understanding of the relationship between the two variables.

Qualitative research is interested in exploring subjects’ perceptions and understandings as they relate to communication. Imagine two researchers who want to understand student perceptions of the basic communication course at a university. The first researcher, a quantitative researcher, might measure absences to understand student perception. The second researcher, a qualitative researcher, might interview students to find out what they like and dislike about a course. The former is based on hard numbers, while the latter is based on human experience and perception.

Qualitative researchers employ a variety of different methodologies. Some of the most popular are interviews, focus groups, and participant observation. To better understand these research methods, you can explore the following examples:

Interviews : This typically consists of a researcher having a discussion with a participant based on questions developed by the researcher. For example, a researcher might be interested in how parents exert power over the lives of their children while the children are away at college. The researcher could spend time having conversations with college students about this topic, transcribe the conversations and then seek to find themes across the different discussions.

Focus Groups : A researcher using this method gathers a group of people with intimate knowledge of a communication phenomenon. For example, if a researcher wanted to understand the experience of couples who are childless by choice, he or she might choose to run a series of focus groups. This format is helpful because it allows participants to build on one another’s experiences, remembering information they may otherwise have forgotten. Focus groups also tend to produce useful information at a higher rate than interviews. That said, some issues are too sensitive for focus groups and lend themselves better to interviews.

Participant Observation : As the name indicates, this method involves the researcher watching participants in their natural environment. In some cases, the participants may not know they are being studied, as the researcher fully immerses his or herself as a member of the environment. To illustrate participant observation, imagine a researcher curious about how humor is used in healthcare. This researcher might immerse his or herself in a long-term care facility to observe how humor is used by healthcare workers interacting with patients.

Rhetorical research (or rhetorical criticism) is a form of textual analysis wherein the researcher systematically analyzes, interprets, and critiques the persuasive power of messages within a text. This takes on many forms, but all of them involve similar steps: selecting a text, choosing a rhetorical method, analyzing the text, and writing the criticism.

To illustrate, a researcher could be interested in how mass media portrays “good degrees” to prospective college students. To understand this communication, a rhetorical researcher could take 30 articles on the topic from the last year and write a rhetorical essay about the criteria used and the core message argued by the media.

Likewise, a researcher could be interested in how women in management roles are portrayed in television. They could select a group of popular shows and analyze that as the text. This might result in a rhetorical essay about the behaviors displayed by these women and what the text says about women in management roles.

As a final example, one might be interested in how persuasion is used by the president during the White House Correspondent’s Dinner. A researcher could select several recent presidents and write a rhetorical essay about their speeches and how they employed persuasion during their delivery.

Taking a mixed methods approach results in a research study that uses two or more techniques discussed above. Often, researchers will pair two methods together in the same study examining the same phenomenon. Other times, researchers will use qualitative methods to develop quantitative research, such as a researcher who uses a focus group to discuss the validity of a survey before it is finalized.

The benefit of mixed methods is that it offers a richer picture of a communication phenomenon by gathering data and information in multiple ways. If we explore some of the earlier examples, we can see how mixed methods might result in a better understanding of the communication being studied.

Example 1 : In surveys, we discussed a researcher interested in understanding how a supervisor sharing personal information with his or her subordinate affects the way the subordinate perceives his or her supervisor. While a survey could give us some insight into this communication, we could also add interviews with subordinates. Exploring their experiences intimately could give us a better understanding of how they navigate self-disclosure in a relationship based on power differences.

Example 2 : In content analysis, we discussed measuring representation of different races during prime time television. While we can count the appearances of members of different races and compare that to the composition of the general population, that doesn’t tell us anything about their portrayal. Adding rhetorical criticism, we could talk about how underrepresented groups are portrayed in either a positive or negative light, supporting or defying commonly held stereotypes.

Example 3 : In interviews, we saw a researcher who explored how power could be exerted by parents over their college-age children who are away at school. After determining the tactics used by parents, this interview study could have a phase two. In this phase, the researcher could develop scales to measure each tactic and then use those scales to understand how the tactics affect other communication constructs. One could argue, for example, that student anxiety would increase as a parent exerts greater power over that student. A researcher could conduct a hierarchical regression to see how each power tactic effects the levels of stress experienced by a student.

As you can see, each methodology has its own merits, and they often work well together. As students advance in their study of communication, it is worthwhile to learn various research methods. This allows them to study their interests in greater depth and breadth. Ultimately, they will be able to assemble stronger research studies and answer their questions about communication more effectively.

Note : For more information about research in the field of communication, check out our Guide to Communication Research and Scholarship .

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Using an engaging how-to approach that draws from scholarship, real life, and popular culture, this textbook, now in its third edition, offers students practical reasons why they should care about research methods and offers a practical guide to actually conducting research themselves. Examining quantitative, qualitative, and critical research methods, this new edition helps undergraduate students better grasp the theoretical and practical uses of method by clearly illustrating practical applications. The book features all the main research traditions within communication including online methods and provides level-appropriate applications of the methods through theoretical and practical examples and exercises, including sample student papers that demonstrate research methods in action. This third edition also includes additional chapters on experimental design and methods of performance, as well as brand new case studies throughout. This textbook is perfect for students and scholars using critical, cultural, interpretive, qualitative, quantitative, and positivist research methods, as well as students of communication studies more generally. It also offers dedicated student resources on the Routledge.com book page and instructor resources at https://routledgetextbooks.com/textbooks/instructor_downloads/. These include links, videos, outlines and activities, recommended readings, test questions, and more.

Table of Contents

Stephen M. Croucher is a Professor and the Head of the School of Communication, Journalism, and Marketing at Massey University, New Zealand. He is also Lead Research Fellow at the National Research University, Higher School of Economics, Russia. He serves on the editorial boards of more than 10 journals and served as the editor of the Review of Communication (2022–2025), Frontiers in Communication (2019–2022), Journal of Intercultural Communication Research (2010–2019), and Speaker & Gavel (2010–2015). He has held and holds various leadership positions in the National Communication Association, the International Communication Association, and the World Communication Association. He serves as President of the World Communication Association from 2019–2023. Daniel Cronn-Mills is a Professor and Distinguished Faculty Scholar at Minnesota State University, Mankato, USA. He has authored and co-authored three books, five book chapters, and a stack of journal articles. He served for more than a decade as the editor of Speaker & Gavel (1997–2010) and has served on the editorial board of 11 scholarly journals. Dan has served in numerous leadership roles from local to national levels including the National Communication Association, the American Forensic Association, and the Communication and Theatre Association of Minnesota.

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"Easy to follow, well-organized, comprehensive, solidly grounded in scholarship and real-life applications, this textbook will stimulate your interest and help you to move from understanding communication research to conducting it." Igor Klyukanov , Professor of Communication, Eastern Washington University, USA

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• Communication Research Methods II: A Sourcebook An updated version of the "bible" of how to do research in communication and media studies.
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Communicating Research Findings

• First Online: 03 January 2022

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Research is a scholarship activity and a collective endeavor, and as such, its finding should be disseminated. Research findings, often called research outputs, can be disseminated in many forms including peer-reviewed journal articles (e.g., original research, case reports, and review articles) and conference presentations (oral and poster presentations). There are many other options, such as book chapters, educational materials, reports of teaching practices, curriculum description, videos, media (newspapers/radio/television), and websites. Irrespective of the approach that is chosen as the mode of communicating, all modes of communication entail some basic organizational aspects of dissemination processes that are common. These are to define research project objectives, map potential target audience(s), relay target messages, define mode of communication/engagement, and create a dissemination plan.

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Davidson, R., Makanjee, C. (2021). Communicating Research Findings. In: Seeram, E., Davidson, R., England, A., McEntee, M.F. (eds) Research for Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79956-4_7

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Measures, scales, indexes, and tests relevant to Communication Studies are available in the various types and formats of publications. Here are a few resources available through the FSU Libraries. 

Data Sources by Topic

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[News Polls] 

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[Polling Agencies]

• Gallup Around for over 80 years with a nonpartisan analysis of global issues. Some contents are freely available on the website. Search the site with poll subject .
• Harris Poll One of the longest running surveys in the U.S. tracking public opinion, motivations and social sentiment since 1963
• KFF Polling From Kaiser Family Foundation, a good source in health policy analysis, polling and health journalism
• Pew Research Center A good source for public opinion polling, demographic research, and media content analysis. Search the site with poll subject
• Quinnipiac / Poll From the Department of Public Affairs within Quinnipiac University
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• Zogby Analytics Since 1984. Search the site with poll subject
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[Collection of Polls from Different Sources]  

• iPoll Databank (database) IPOLL, from the Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, is a full text database of 500,000 questions from national public opinion surveys since 1935 and updated daily. iPOLL includes survey results data from academic, commercial and media survey organizations such as Gallup, Harris Interactive, Pew Research Associates, ABC, CBS, Wall Street Journal and many more. Many data sets are available for download in ASCII or SPSS format.
• PollingReport.com An independent, nonpartisan resource on trends in American public opinion. Shows a report of polls from different sources. E.g., Guns related polls at https://www.pollingreport.com/guns.htm
• ICPSR (Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research) Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research maintains and provides access to a vast archive of social science data for research and instruction. The collection includes CBS News/New York Times Poll Series, National Poll on Healthy Aging, and over 3,000 polls on various topics.
• World Public Opinion An international collaborative project, a source for public opinion around the world on international issues

Fore more sources on polls and public opinions data, click here . 

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Check their Data Center for the US and international data indicators including Gini Index of Income Inequality, Net Migration Count, Percent of the Population Living in Poverty, etc. 2021 World Population Data Sheet is also available.

Population estimates and projections for 227 countries and areas. Includes Population Pyramids.

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Population estimates and projections that have been prepared by the Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. The main results are presented in a series of Excel files displaying key demographic indicators for each UN development group, World Bank income group, geographic region, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) region, subregion and country or area for selected periods or dates within 1950-2100.

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FSU Student Statistics               FSU Office of Institutional Research  https://ir.fsu.edu/students.aspx Statistics on College Students                Almanac of Higher Education  (from The Chronicle of Higher Education)                               https://www.chronicle.com/section/Almanac-of-Higher-Education/141                              Open Doors  (for international students in the U.S. and American students studying abroad)                https://www.iie.org/en/Research-and-Insights/Open-Doors               Tip:               Newspapers or journal articles might be an excellent source to look up the statistics on college                   students.  Depending on your research topic, you might want to explore a Psychology database               such as APA PsycINFO, an Education database such as ERIC, or even a Nursing database such as               CINAHL.                              PsychINFO     https://lib.fsu.edu/get/psycinfo                              ERIC  https://lib.fsu.edu/get/ericcsa                              CINAHL   https://lib.fsu.edu/get/cinahlft               At  Google Scholar , try the following search statement:                           ("college students" OR "university students") "mental health" survey               à This will yield papers, blogs, etc. that are about survey research on mental health issues of               college students.  Please note that I used quotes for a phrase searching, and used parentheses               to group similar concepts together.                                Another example:                          ("college students" OR "university students") ("video game" OR gaming) qualitative               Not always, but highly likely, you may find the questionnaire that was used to conduct the               research at the Appendix or Supporting Material section of a research paper.  

See this Consumer Demographics page. 

    National Center for Health Statistics  (NCHS)  https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/                             E.g., Smoking                MedlinePlus Health Statistics   https://medlineplus.gov/healthstatistics.html                World Health Organization (WHO)’s Global Health Observatory                                   https://www.who.int/data/gho                              E.g., Nigeria’s neonatal mortality rate  For a comprehensive list of data sources on public health, see here . 

Basics of Business Research

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How to communicate your research more effectively

Author: guest contributor.

by Angie Voyles Askham, Content Marketing Intern

"Scientists need to excite the public about their work in part because the public is paying for it, and in part because science has very important things to say about some of the biggest problems society faces."

Stephen S. Hall has been reporting and writing about science for decades. For the past ten years, he's also been helping researchers at New York University improve their writing skills through the school's unique  Science Communication Workshops . In our interview below, he explains why the public deserves good science communication and offers some tips for how researchers can make their writing clear and engaging.

How would you descr ibe your role as a science journalist?

I’ve always made a distinction between "science writer" and a writer who happens to be interested in science. That may sound like wordplay, but I think it captures what we aspire to do. Even as specialists, science journalists wear several hats: we explain, we report, we investigate, we step back and provide historical context to scientific developments to help people understand what’s new, why something is controversial, who drove a major innovation. And like any writer, we look for interesting, provocative, and deeply reported ways to tell these stories.

I know you from the science communication workshop that’s offered to NYU graduate students. One of the most important things that I got out of the workshop, at least initially, was training myself out of the stuffy academic voice that I think a lot researchers fall into when writing academic papers. Why do you think scientists fall into this particular trap, and how do you help them get out of it?

Scientists are trained—and rightly so—to describe their work in neutral, objective terms, qualifying all observations and openly acknowledging experimental limitations. Those qualities play very well in scientific papers and talks, but are terrible for effective communication to the general public. In our Science Communication workshops at NYU, we typically see that scientists tend to communicate in dense, formal and cautious language; they tell their audiences too much; they mimic the scientific literature’s affinity for passive voice; and they slip into jargon and what I call “jargonish,” defensive language. Over ten years of conducting workshops, we’ve learned to attack these problems on two fronts: pattern recognition (training people to recognize bad writing/speaking habits and fixing them) and psychological "deprogramming" (it’s okay to leave some details and qualifications out!). And a key ingredient to successful communication is understanding your audience; there is no such thing as the "general public," but rather a bunch of different potential audiences, with different needs and different levels of expertise. We try to educate scientists to recognize the exact audience they're trying to reach—what they need to know and, just as important, what they don't need to know.

What are some other common mistakes that you see researchers making when they’re trying to communicate about their work, either with each other or with the public?

We see the same tendencies over and over again: vocabulary (not simply jargon, but common expressions—such as gene “expression”—that are second-hand within a field, but not clear to non-experts); abstract, complicated explanations rather than using everyday language; sentences that are too long; and “optics” (paragraphs that are too long and appear monolithic to readers). We’ve found that workshops are the perfect setting to play out the process of using everyday language to explain something without sacrificing scientific accuracy.

Why is it important for researchers to be better communicators?

Scientists need to learn to tell their own stories, first and foremost, because society needs their expertise, their perspective, their evidence-based problem solving skills for the future. But the lay public, especially in an era where every fact seems up for grabs, needs to be reminded of what the scientific method is: using critical thinking and rigorous analysis of facts to reach evidence-based conclusions. Scientists need to excite the public about their work in part because the public is paying for it, and in part because science has very important things to say about some of the biggest problems society faces—climate change, medical care, advanced technologies like artificial intelligence, among many other issues. As climate scientist Michael Mann said in a celebrated 2014 New York Times OpEd, scientists can no longer stay on the sidelines in these important public debates.

As a science journalist, part of your job is to hunt for interesting stories to tell. How can scientists make their work more accessible to people like you—or to other people outside of their specific area of research—so that their stories are told more widely?

The key word in your question is “stories.” Think like a writer. What’s the story behind your discovery? What were the ups and downs on the way to the finding? Where does this fit into a larger history of science narrative? Was there a funny incident or episode in the work (humor is a great way to draw and sustain public interest)? Was there a conflict or competition that makes the work even more interesting? Is there a compelling historical or contemporary figure involved that will help you humanize the science? It's been our-longstanding belief that scientists have a great intuitive feel for good storytelling (we incorporate narrative training in our workshops), but just don’t think about it when it comes to describing their own work. The other key thing is to explain why your research matters.

One of the ways that many researchers try to share their work is through Twitter, but I noticed that on the NYU website it says you’re a Twitter conscientious objector. Why is that? What effect do you think Twitter has had on science communication and journalism in general?

I actually think Twitter can be a great tool for science communication, and many of my colleagues use it deftly. I tend to gravitate toward stories that everyone is not talking about, so Twitter doesn’t help much in that regard. The larger reason I’m a Twitter “refusenik,” as my colleague Dan Fagin sometimes calls me, is that I think the technology has been widely abused to disseminate misinformation, intimidate enemies, and subvert democratic norms; I don’t use it primarily for those reasons.

Are there any other tips that you can offer researchers who want to be better communicators and just aren’t sure where to start?

One first step might be to see if your institution offers any communication training and to take advantage of those programs; if not, think about how you might establish a program. We’ve posted a few of the things we’ve learned at NYU on our website ; we’ve also established a publishing platform for science communicators at NYU called the Cooper Square Review , which is a good way for scientists to get experience publishing their own work and reaching a larger public.

Stephen S. Hall  has been reporting and writing about science for nearly 30 years. In addition to numerous cover stories in the New York Times Magazine, where he also served as a Story Editor and Contributing Writer, his work has appeared in The New Yorker, The Atlantic Monthly, and a number of other outlets. He is also the author of six non-fiction books about contemporary science. In addition to teaching the Science Communication Workshops at NYU, he also teaches for NYU's Science, Health and Environmental Reporting Program (SHERP) and has taught graduate seminars in science writing and explanatory journalism at Columbia University.

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What is Communication Research?

Bryn Farnsworth

Table of Contents

Let’s start things off with a hopefully rather non-controversial assumption: you’re reading this text. Now, don’t worry, the rest of the post won’t continue to list such inanely clear truths, but this statement serves to highlight what’s occurring right now – communication.

It’s a rather one-sided process currently, with me doing the writing and you doing the reading, but the process of sending a message and that message being understood is occurring. There are endless ways of looking further at this – would you still be reading if you were on a different website? What about if you’re tired, or angry? How would whatever else you’ve read today – or ever – affect how you react to this information? This in essence is what communication research is about – how messages are sent, and how they are received.

At its broadest, communication research is concerned with identifying, exploring, and measuring the factors that surround communication, in any form and regarding any topic . Often from a theory-driven perspective, but increasingly with empirically-grounded methods. Want to know how to make political messaging more effective? Increase the appeal of advertising ? Make people adhere to a health campaign? Communication research these answers.

Below, we will discuss and define communication research further, the research that has shaped the field, and where the field is going.

Definition of Communication Research

As a field of study, communication research dates back either 2000 years or 100 years, depending on your level of pedantry. The study of rhetoric was a hot topic in ancient Greece, and shares some commonalities with the modern form, yet clearly much has changed. The field now focuses on gathering empirical data, and builds theories that help understand the complexity of communication on many levels. In a sense it has less interest in the linguistic style of debating philosophers, and more interest in the groups of people that might be listening.

History of Communication Research

One of the most influential books that helped give rise to modern communication research was “ Social Organization: a Study of the Larger Mind ” by Charles Cooley, published in 1909 [1]. Described by one reviewer as “a series of essays on fundamental sociological problems, written in delightful literary style, and with keen and sound psychological insight” and that “Professor Cooley gives, for the first time in sociological literature, strange as it may seem, full and adequate recognition of ‘communication’ as a fundamental fact in the social life” [2].

This book, with a delightful literary style , would set the stage for the work of other academics with an interest in communication, and ultimately the creation of the first academic departments with a clear focus on the field.

In 1952, Bernard Berelson released “ Content Analysis in Communication Research ” – a book that proved pivotal not only to communication researchers of the time, but also had a broader impact [3, 4]. Written in a way that was – according to one reviewer at the time – “unusually lucid for a social science publication”, the book describes the ways in which media and communication are compared, and explores the methods that are used to carry out those comparisons. The book ultimately helped shift the field towards a more quantitative, scientific approach.

In the 1960s and 1970s, social unrest brought about social change, and communication researchers looked more closely at the surrounding language. They explored the systems of thought and discourse that had traditionally been in place, how they were changing, and what that might mean for the future of communication [5]. This occurred alongside the continual expansion of mass communication methods – TV and radio continued their dominance of message-spreading in the western world.

The shift into empirical methodology continued. While theoretical discussions of communication remained (and remain) central to the field, the introduction of data-driven, quantified assessments became an increasingly routine aspect of communication research. The book “ Mass Communication Research Methods ”, released in 1998, helped cement this as standard, defining the experimental methods of the day [6].

These research methods – focus groups , observations, and surveys – have now long been central to the field, yet the next step in empirical quantification is already emerging. Continuing with the steps towards quantification and more thoroughly empirical approaches, new unbiased tools are now being used as a way to incisively measure the processes surrounding communication, to test theories, and to advance understanding further. But what does this look like?

New Methods for Communication Research

Eye tracking has become one of the most widely used technologies within communication research, largely as it “gives communication scholars the opportunity to examine more precisely how much visual attention has been paid to information” [7].

In 2016, researchers from the University of Amsterdam carried out the first retrospective study examining the use of eye tracking technology within communication research [7]. They found that the majority of studies within communication using eye tracking had focused on advertising research , yet public health, language, and computer-mediated communication were also areas that had been looked at. They also conclude that “ that eye tracking has much more potential in communication research”.

One example of this potential being seized upon is found in research by researchers from Ohio State University and the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, who developed eye tracking metrics to assess automatic stereotyping [8]. By using a gaze-contingency task , they were able to show that stereotype-congruent fixations were decreased for those with a higher political knowledge score.

Political Communication Research

The research showed that participants who are categorized as knowledgeable about politics were more capable of “moderating automatic responses” – adding a new layer of understanding to how political communication can impact reported and actual responses. The researchers go on to state that this “implies that the influence of automatic processes on political thinking is conditional” – meaning that our response to political communication may be less automatic than previously thought.

Responsive Media Messages

While these studies have used eye tracking to measure attention, other communication research has used a combination of methods. Researchers from Texas Tech University used facial electromyography (fEMG), electrocardiography (ECG) , and electrodermal activity (EDA) in order to assess affect in response to media messages [9].

They found that fEMG data provided reliable data regarding emotional state, while heart rate data collected from ECG indicated that negative messages received more attention than positive messages. The skin conductance data collected from EDA provided data that, together with a memory test, showed that the arousal level experienced was a greater predictor of memory retention for the media exposure, as compared to the valence experienced.

Increasing Engagement

Other research has also used arousal in order to understand the response to communication (for a review of some of these studies, see [10]). For example, researchers from Indiana University and the University of Wisconsin-Madison investigated responses to the number of edits within media using EDA and ECG [11]. They find that an increase of edits within the media can increase the encoding of the message without causing too much cognitive load , suggesting that media should feature a larger number of edits (where appropriate) to increase engagement.

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[1] Cooley, C. H. (1962). Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind . New York: Schocken (first published 1909).

[2] Ellwood, C. A. (1910). Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind. Charles Horton Cooley. The International Journal of Ethics , 20 : 2 ,  228-230.

[3] Berelson, B. (1952). Content analysis in communication research . Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

[4] Bauer, M. (2000) “Classical Content Analysis: A Review,” in M. Bauer and G. Gaskell (eds.), Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound — A Handbook . London: SAGE. pp. 131—150.

[5] Park, D. W., & Pooley, J. (2008). The history of media and communication research: Contested memories . New York: Peter Lang.

[6] Hansen, A., Cottle, S., Negrine, R. and Newbold, C. (1998). Mass Communication Research Methods . London: Macmillan.

[7] Bol, N., Boerman, S. C., Romano Bergstrom, J. C., & Kruikemeier, S. (2016). An overview of how eye tracking is used in communication research. In M. Antona & C. Stephanidis (Eds.), International conference on universal access in human-computer interaction . Proceedings HCII 2016, Part I, LNCS 9737 ed. (pp. 421–429). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

[8] Coronel, J. C., & Federmeier, K. D. (2016). The Effects of Gender Cues and Political Sophistication on Candidate Evaluation: A Comparison of Self-Report and Eye Movement Measures of Stereotyping. Communication Research , 43(7), 922-944. doi:10.1177/0093650215604024.

[9] Bolls, P.D., Lang, A., & Potter, R.F. (2001). The effects of message valence and listener arousal on attention, memory, and facial muscular responses to radio advertisements. Communication Research , 28, 627-651.

[10] Ravaja, N. (2004). Contributions of psychophysiology to media research: Review and recommendations. Media Psychology , 6, 193-235.

[11] Lang, A., Zhou, S., Schwartz, N., Bolls, P. D., & Potter, R. F. (2000). The effects of edits on arousal, attention, and memory for television messages: When an edit is an edit can an edit be too much? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 44(1), 94-109.

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Communication Strategies and Our Learners

Pauline germaine.

a Cooper University Hospital, Vice Chair of Research and Education, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Camden, NJ

Tara Catanzano

b University of Massachusetts Medical School-Baystate, Springfield, MA

c University of Missouri at Kansas City, Kansas City, MO

Akansha Mohan

d University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC

Kirang Patel

e University of Missouri at Kansas City, Kansas City, MO

David Pryluck

f Geisinger Medical Center, Danville, PA

g Department of Radiology, Virginia Mason Medical Center, Seattle, WA

Communication is vital in healthcare to facilitate the best patient care at all times. During the COVID-19 pandemic, communication has become increasingly crucial, including devising innovative, novel, and effective ways to exchange information in graduate medical education, multidisciplinary teams, and patient care, all which affect our learners. This article will provide a comprehensive review of generational characteristics, including communication preferences. Effective communication strategies and communication challenges with learners (millennial generation) will be discussed in detail.

Introduction

Communication. Trust. Messaging. All are vital in healthcare to facilitate optimal patient care in the best of times. It is arguably currently closer to the most difficult of times, and communication methods have never been more vital, or tested, than in this time of the COVID-19 crisis. Devising innovative and effective ways to exchange information with our learners in graduate medical education, multidisciplinary teams, and patient care is key. Fortunately, the field of radiology has risen to the call in these challenging times, implementing effective strategies, taking into account multigenerational differences, and forever changing ways we disseminate information.

Effective Communication and Strategy

There is more to communication than simply delivering a message. Effective communication is essential. 1 Effective communication must take into consideration the following elements: (1) clear, consistent message, (2) communication delivery strategy, (3) testing to assure understanding, and (4) allowing feedback or raising concerns.

The first element is to provide a clear, consistent message to the stakeholders. Individuals should understand why they are sending a message, what the message means and the intent behind the message. 2 There must be a mechanism to communicate the message to stakeholders such that the intent and meaning behind the message are not lost or distorted. (One may liken this to a game of telephone, where the message at the start of the communication trail is often not that received at the end).

The second element to consider is the mechanism of message delivery to communicate a clear message. Leaders should have a clear vision of their message and embrace simple language using few words for effective communication. 3 For example, during COVID-19, Governor Andrew Cuomo demonstrated effective communication skills with his short, text-like messaging “Stay home. Stop the Spread. Save lives.” 3

Methods and preferences for communication have evolved over generations, as have the content, timing, and desire for bi-directionality of communication. 4 , 5 Different communication vehicles (in person discussion, email, text, and messaging apps) vary depending on generational preferences 6 and departmental or program culture influences communication. 7 The advent of multigenerational workforces has led many departments and programs to change from traditional communication models to a more varied approach to employ several different avenues of communication for the widest reach.

Communication as a Function of Generation

The broad characterizations of generational predilections have been shaped by historical forces beyond personal control. However, in assessing how individuals of different ages in a department or institution are interacting with each other and with other groups, it can be illuminating to consider the underlying context of these sweeping trends ( Table 1 ).

Communication preferences of each generation

The baby boomer generation is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as those born between the years of 1946-1964 ( https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/where-millenials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ ). Classically, “Boomers” are described as favoring either face-to-face or telephone conversations, direct instructions, written communications, formal meetings, and a focus on strong work ethic and responsibility. 6 , 8 , 9 Currently, many departmental leadership positions in healthcare are filled by Boomers. 10 At the senior level, they have the power to determine modes of feedback across the department; in keeping with this, the Boomer preference for annual reviews and quarterly meetings has an impact on department members across generations. This can potentially lead to conflict, as the high stakes nature of these relatively rare feedback sessions may be perceived by younger staff as suboptimal communication. Also contributing to generational clash, Boomers favor respect for authority and chain of command more than subsequent generations. 10 Additionally, as organizational leaders, Boomers are accustomed to serving as mentors and have a strong sense of traditional loyalty toward organizations. 11 While in some instances Boomers may excel in passing down their knowledge in traditional top down fashion, in other situations they may be more successful by adopting a more flexible approach to mentorship.

Generation X is defined by the Pew Research Center as those individuals born between 1965 and 1980 ( https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ ). It comprises a large percentage of early and mid career faculty. While Generation Xers also prize a robust work ethic, they have a stronger focus on technology to include use of email, and also on work-life balance, especially family time and flexible scheduling. 4 , 6 , 9 This can engender communication difficulties, as Generation Xers may have expectations about mode and frequency of communications that differ substantially from Boomers. Generation Xers prefer ongoing, real time feedback over infrequent scheduled formal reviews, and also have a predilection for mutual mentoring and a less hierarchical structure. They have less loyalty to organizations and authority than Boomers. 10

Those in the millennial generation, or Generation Y, were born between 1981 and 1996 ( https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ ) . They constitute the trainee population, as well as early career radiologists. Overall, heavy parental involvement in millennial upbringing is thought to be a formative part of how Gen Yers currently relate to others, with a generational preference that emphasizes a range of choices, quick feedback, ongoing mentoring, collaboration, and personal preference. 12 Gen Yers are said to tend toward open dialogue even with those who may be traditionally seen as superior, to demonstrate strong interest in work-life integration, to prefer multitasking, and to expect continual feedback, ideally via technology. 9 They strive to create value for the team or group, rather than for a single supervisor, and do not have the same sense of traditional loyalty that many Boomers nurture. 11 This generation is well versed in communicating fluidly through technology, particularly through texting and messaging apps on cell phones. Quick, immediate communications such as texts or instant messaging are desired over telephone calls, with the latter viewed by millennials as intrusive, inefficient, and inconvenient. 6 Moreover, the absence of feedback is viewed as negative, which may set Boomers and Gen Yers on an attitudinal collision course. For millennials, no news does not equate to good news. They expect not only frequent feedback but also praise and recognition, and are less independent learners. 10 Typically they also preferon-demand access to many items, including lecture materials, interactive sessions and a plethora of online resources to select at the time of their choosing. 10 These expectations establish the framework within which Boomers and Generation Xers attempt to accomplish teaching, mentoring, and administrative responsibilities.

While Generation Z, the post-millennials born after 1996, have yet to reach radiology workstations, they are matriculating in medical school and beginning to enter our departments ( https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ ). Though it remains to be seen how they will interact in the medical education setting and beyond, early indications are that technology, rapid communication, and connectivity are valued by Gen Z. 12 Interestingly, in part as a reaction to the sometimes alienating nature of technology, this generation does prize face-to-face communication ( https://online.ndm.edu/news/communication/evolution-of-communication/ ). Given this, Gen Zers may serve as a bridge between generations as they arrive in the workforce?

The program director (PD), associate program director, and program coordinator should maintain awareness of the need to be a go-between or interpreter of messages in a multigenerational department. 8 Furthermore, program leaders must understand that their expectations of how communication is received is colored by their own generational experience and may not be interpreted by their trainees in the same manner. 8 Therefore, leaders should also seek feedback from the resident group to determine the most effective methods specific to that resident group.

Communication as a Function of Program Size

Like all organizations, the size of a residency program affects the communication methods used. Smaller programs or those with only 1 or 2 sites of service tend to have more frequent in-person communication than larger programs or those in multiple locations.

In larger programs, it is more difficult for the program director to have enough interaction to know each resident's preferred communication method(s). Of necessity, communications may be brief and more generic. Therefore, it is more important to retain an element of personal connection to maintain relationships. 5 , 10 One helpful strategy is to survey the resident group on preferred communication method and frequency, readily accomplished via a simple survey tool (eg, Google Forms, www.google.com Google Mountain View, CA). Given the ever-changing nature of residency training, annual preference surveys should be administered. Another communication strategy is individual resident level meetings (eg, R1 class) at routinely scheduled intervals; this allows for focused communication with each class, decreases the “noise” of irrelevant topics, and fosters direct, tailored discussion. (Blinded) residency program used this approach during the COVID-19 pandemic to communicate the education and work plan to each resident group. The program culture fostering focused communication with opportunity for discussion and voicing of concerns was quite successful.

Communication with the Office of Graduate Medical Education

Communication between programs, trainees, and Graduate Medical Education (GME) offices is clearly vital, particularly during times of crisis. The complexity of these communications and the sheer size of the institutional resident cohort mandate that a clear, transparent line of communication be established. This includes identification of who will communicate information, the frequency and expected content of the information, and the communication method.

The GME offices should determine, in concert with the training programs, who is the most appropriate and trusted source of information. As an example, during the pandemic, 1 institution determined that a GME taskforce, including the designated institutional officer (DIO), would communicate directly with the residency and fellowship program directors through a combination of group email, personal check-in phone calls, and weekly virtual meetings. The expectation was that the program directors would then communicate appropriate information on to their trainees. This allowed for discussion and feedback in “safe” spaces where residents and program leadership could clarify information and raise concerns. 7 , 13 It was determined that if the need arose for resident deployments to COVID-19 positive patient care areas, the DIO would be responsible for communicating this information as the final authority.

Communications between the Program Coordinator and Residents and Faculty

Program coordinators (PCs) represent apillar of the residency program and serve as an important bridge between the residents, program directors, faculty and administrators. PCs’ organizational and communication skills play key roles in maintaining program and resident credentialing, conducting trainee on-boarding, and updating resident medical licensure, among other tasks. They must employ clear and concise communication to preserve the trust of all stakeholders in the department while keeping residents and faculty on track. PCs may be the first to know when a resident is struggling and being able to provide support and comfort are important PC roles.

The pivotal role PCs play may be accentuated during crises, when communication is all the more important. During the pandemic, PCs function as “command central,” scheduling the web-based meetings, serving as technological support for the less tech-savvy faculty in the department, troubleshooting, coordinating resident and faculty coverage schedules, and collating ever-changing online educational resources (eg, national organization lecture series, subspecialty on-line lectures) to facilitate an optimal curriculum. Ideally, PCs should be a calm and constant presence amid the daily stress and chaos of a crisis.

PCs may be uniquely positioned between Millennial trainees and Gen X and Boomer radiologists. PCs must themselves be well-versed in various communication technologies to effectively communicate and disseminate information across all platforms. Most PCs have been reassigned during the pandemic to remote work at home to enable social distancing. Balancing texting and instant messaging residents, e-mailing GME offices, and maintaining a presence while socially distanced underscores the need for PCs to embrace the motto Semper Gumby–Always Flexible, and Always Available!

Communication From the Trainees'Perspective

Many programs experienced no significant change in the method of communication between trainees, PDs and PCs during the pandemic other than an increase in the frequency of email correspondence, the go-to communication. Some programs typically more likely to use in-person communication quickly pivoted to alternate communication methods. These included web-conferencing platforms for bidirectional discussion, increased use of text messaging, and the new use of messaging applications such as Viber (Rakuten Viber, Luxembourg) and WhatsApp (WhatsApp Messenger Facebook Inc, Menlo Park, CA).

Communication content included updates on infection rates, PPE, and resource allocation. Resident redeployment was 1 area where communication strategies were of particular importance. Residents often preferred that the information be communicated directly by their own program leadership. Given the nature and weight of news of redeployment, texting was considered impersonal and inappropriate during these times, and personal email or phone call was the desired communication vehicle.

Communication Challenges

Communication within multigenerational teams is fraught with challenges, often around issues of miscommunication, message penetrance, or failed communication. This can lead to conflict between parties, particularly if an individual believes that they have clearly communicated their message and the recipient does not. 14 , 15 Sources of failed team communication include use of a single method (eg, email only), rather than varied methods such as text or messaging application. 16 This was commonly experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic where frequent communication from leadership occurred was via email and as a result some individuals remained unaware of critical information, in the authors experience. Frequently encountered communication failures include one-time only message distribution, inability to recognize that a message was not clear to recipients and communication fatigue, leading to loss of message impact.

Lessons From the Pandemic

What lessons have been learned from our communication experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic? It became readily apparent that communication with our learners is different than communication with our faculty, largely based on the generational differences previously discussed. Our learners prefer continuous bidirectional communication, whereas faculty have been satisfied with frequent unidirectional information-only communication. The need for social distancing forced PDs and departments to alter their typical communication pathways, particularly in small programs whose communication had previously been in-person.

For some programs, messaging apps became the preferred method of communication. Text messaging, favored by millennial learners, was also used frequently between faculty and trainees for case readouts and check-in sessions. Still others leveraged web-conferencing platforms for more interpersonal interaction, information sharing, and to meet educational needs. For both the foreseeable future as social distancing continues, and likely beyond, it is likely that a combination of these approaches will continue.

Moreover, the communication and interaction of our trainees with clinical services is likely forevermore changed. Participation in interdisciplinary conferences and interactive case reviews with clinicians via online conferencing platforms has become the norm. Moreover, such processes have increased recognition of radiologists by our clinical colleagues; previously seemingly anonymous attendance by “radiologist” faculty in large multidisciplinary conferences a thing of the past. Names have been matched with faces in these large conferences and relationships have been built. Clinicians are now requesting virtual, interactive case reviews and residents have become integral to these interactions. This lower barrier to entry has the potential to improve accessibility of radiology consultation services, thus highlighting the important roles radiologists play in the healthcare of our patient populations.

Web-conferencing has also opened new communication venues and patient-facing opportunities for radiology as a specialty including radiology learners. Examples include new opportunities for resident-driven “virtual” clinics to review images with patients, to discuss radiation concerns,to prepare patients or caregivers for upcoming examinations and to access patient encounters in interventional radiology for peri- and post-procedural care.

Effective communication remains the cornerstone of patient care, education, and information dissemination in any crisis. The importance of timely and clear communication has never been tested in radiology departments to the extent seen in the current COVID-19 pandemic. Effective communication and the need for multiple methods of communication when working in multigenerational teams in the radiology training environment are crucial. Lessons learned during this crisis will inform future communication, not only with learners, but also with clinical colleagues and patients.

The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Sheryl Jordan for assistance with manuscript preparation.

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Strategies to Improve Medical Communication

• 1 Penn Medical Communication Research Institute, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
• 2 Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
• 3 Associate Editor, JAMA
• Editorial Communicating Medicine—A New JAMA Series Anne R. Cappola, MD, ScM; Kirsten Bibbins-Domingo, PhD, MD, MAS JAMA
• JAMA Insights Delivering Effective Messages in the Patient-Clinician Encounter Joseph N. Cappella, PhD; Richard L. Street Jr, PhD JAMA
• Comment & Response Improving Medical Communication—Reply Anne R. Cappola, MD, ScM; Karthika S. Cohen, MS, MA JAMA
• Comment & Response Improving Medical Communication LaKesha N. Anderson, PhD, CPD; Christy J. W. Ledford, PhD JAMA
• JAMA Insights “Inoculation” to Resist Misinformation Sander van der Linden, PhD; Jon Roozenbeek, PhD JAMA

Accurate and clear medical information helps patients better manage their health, improves treatment adherence, and reduces health care costs, all of which help improve quality of life. 1 Medical communication is the provision of information about disease prevention, diagnosis, and management, including the risks and benefits of treatment and nontreatment. While medical communication has historically referred to verbal or written communication between a clinician and patient, communication through other sources, such as social media channels and video sharing, have expanded the message format and the audience. This article proposes effective medical communication strategies for clinicians and focuses on 3 aspects: the message, messenger, and social context ( Figure ).

• Editorial Communicating Medicine—A New JAMA Series JAMA

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Cappola AR , Cohen KS. Strategies to Improve Medical Communication. JAMA. 2024;331(1):70–71. doi:10.1001/jama.2023.23430

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A Handbook of Media and Communication Research

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Thoroughly revised and updated, this third edition integrates perspectives from the social sciences and the humanities, focusing on methodology as a strategic level of analysis that joins practical applications with theoretical issues.

The Handbook comprises three main elements: historical accounts of the development of key concepts and research traditions; systematic reviews of media organizations, discourses, and users, as well as of the wider social and cultural contexts of communication; and practical guidelines with sample studies, taking readers through the different stages of a research process and reflecting on the social uses and consequences of research.

Updates to this edition include:

• An overview of the interrelations between networked, mass, and interpersonal communication.
• A new chapter on digital methods.
• Three chapters illustrating different varieties of media and communication research, including industry–academic collaboration and participatory action research.
• Presentation and discussion of public issues such as surveillance and the reconfiguration of local and global media institutions.

This book is an invaluable reference work for students and researchers in the fields of media, communication, and cultural studies.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 | 21  pages, introduction, part i | 47  pages, chapter 2 | 29  pages, the humanistic sources of media and communication research, chapter 3 | 16  pages, the social-scientific sources of media and communication research, part ii | 181  pages, systematics, section | 37  pages, media organizations, chapter 4 | 18  pages, the production of entertainment media, chapter 5 | 19  pages, news production, section | 44  pages, media texts, chapter 6 | 24  pages, analysing news discourse, chapter 7 | 20  pages, mediated fiction, media users, chapter 8 | 21  pages, media effects, chapter 9 | 16  pages, media reception, section | 59  pages, media contexts, chapter 10 | 20  pages, communication in contexts, chapter 11 | 19  pages, the cultural contexts of media and communication, chapter 12 | 20  pages, history, communication, and media, part 3 | 181  pages, section | 94  pages, empirical research designs, chapter 13 | 31  pages, quantitative approaches to media and communication research, chapter 14 | 21  pages, the qualitative research process, chapter 15 | 21  pages, digital methods for media and communication research, chapter 16 | 21  pages, the complementarity of qualitative and quantitative methodologies in media and communication research, section | 62  pages, multiple media, multiple methods, chapter 17 | 19  pages, personal media in everyday life, chapter 18 | 20  pages, media industries and audience research, chapter 19 | 23  pages, employing media-rich participatory action research to foster youth voice, section | 23  pages, communicating research, chapter 20 | 23  pages, the social origins and uses of media and communication research.

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• Published: 20 August 2024

Healthcare providers’ communication experience in the pediatric intensive care unit: a phenomenological study

• Jooyoung Cheon 1   na1 ,
• Hyojin Kim 2   na1 &
• Dong Hee Kim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9514-9734 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  956 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Healthcare providers must effectively communicate with other professionals, multidisciplinary teams, and parents of patients in pediatric intensive care units (PICUs) to improve outcomes in children and satisfaction levels of parents. Few studies have focused on healthcare providers’ communication experiences, which are crucial for identifying current problems and suggesting future directions. This phenomenological study was conducted to address this gap.

A qualitative study using online and face-to-face interviews was conducted from January to June 2021 by a trained researcher in PICUs of two tertiary hospitals. Participants were five physicians and four registered nurses who worked in the PICUs and had over five years of clinical experience. The interviews were audio recorded with the participant’s consent and analyzed by the researchers using Colaizzi’s seven-step method.

Healthcare providers’ communication experiences revealed four categories: facing communication difficulties in PICUs, communication relying on individual competencies without established communication methods, positive and negative experiences gained through the communication process, and finding the most effective communication approach.

Conclusions

Without adequate support or a systematic training program, healthcare providers often have to overcome communication challenges on their own. Therefore, support and training programs should be developed to facilitate better communication in the future.

Peer Review reports

Communication among patients, caregivers, and healthcare providers can affect overall satisfaction with hospital care, improving healthcare outcomes, clinical safety, and effectiveness of care [ 1 , 2 ]. Communication is especially important in a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU), a highly sensitive treatment environment for children who are critically ill and involves multiple teams and patients’ family members [ 2 ].

PICU staff must synthesize and use a vast amount of information for patient/parent education so that parents can understand and utilize it. This empowers parents to make important decisions about their child’s care [ 3 ]. High-quality communication is accurate, comprehensive, and timely [ 4 ]. It enhances parents’ information-seeking and decision-making capacity, resulting in greater parental involvement in children’s daily care, greater advocacy for children, and better symptom control [ 5 ].

However, a PICU setting has several communication barriers because the conditions treated here are complex and require considerable coordination among diverse healthcare providers [ 2 , 5 ]. In a PICU, communication takes various forms such as one-on-one dialogues, group meetings, and information exchanges using medical records. Furthermore, it occurs in different contexts, including stable daily rounds or acute stress situations and in separate, designated conference rooms or random locations outside the PICU, such as hallways [ 6 ]. The limited work hours of the PICU staff is another key barrier [ 3 , 7 ].

Despite the growing research on communication in intensive care units (ICUs), the difficulty of communicating in PICU persists. To date, most studies conducted in PICU settings have only emphasized specific communication situations such as handoffs or visits, patient populations, technologies, or clinical situations [ 2 ]. Therefore, attention should be paid on communication throughout the care process to deeply understand the experiences of the parties and ensure effective communication, both between healthcare providers and between providers and caregivers.

To address this gap, our study used a phenomenological method to identify and describe healthcare providers’ communication experiences in PICUs. This study can serve as a resource to provide solutions to the communication challenges experienced in PICUs and help both healthcare providers and caregivers. In addition, it will broadly highlight hospital culture, communication practices, and their impact on patients and families in Korea.

Study design

We applied Colaizzi’s [ 8 ] phenomenological analysis approach to identify the essence of the communication experiences of physicians and nurses in PICUs. The study adhered to the consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ) [ 9 ].

Participants

Participants, identified through purposive sampling [ 10 ], included five physicians and four nurses working in the PICUs of two tertiary hospitals in Seoul, Korea. The inclusion criteria were physicians and registered nurses (1) working in the PICUs and participating in direct patient care, (2) with over five years of clinical experience, and (3) who voluntarily agreed to participate in the study and provided informed consent. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with open-ended questions. Participants were recruited until saturation, when no additional data emerged.

Data collection

A trained researcher (HK) conducted in-depth interviews from January to June 2021 using semi-structured interview guidelines developed based on a literature review and expert opinion (Table  1 ). The participants could choose either online or offline (face-to-face) interviews when they were contacted initially, depending on the COVID-19 pandemic situation. All interviews were conducted based on the participants’ convenient time and location which included a secure, quiet conference room in the hospital where they could talk freely. The interviews were audio recorded with the participant’s consent. The researcher made field notes during and after the interviews to describe the participants’ nonverbal expressions, such as facial expressions, behaviors, postures, loudness, and tone. Emotional expressions of the interviewees, such as crying, were included in the interview transcripts based on when it was recorded in the field notes.

Ethical approval

was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of Sungshin Women’s University (Approval No. SSWUIRB-2021-005). All participants provided informed consent after understanding the study’s purpose, methods (including audio recording), anonymity, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw participation at any time. The collected data (transcripts, field notes, etc.) were coded and stored on a secure computer. The recordings were destroyed after data analysis. Personal information was deleted after the study’s completion. All participants received a small monetary compensation for their participation.

Data analysis

The transcribed data was analyzed using Colaizzi’s [ 8 ] seven-step method: (1) three researchers independently coded the data after repeatedly reading the transcripts to determine the meaning and essence of the participants’ experiences; (2) meaningful statements were collected from the phrases and sentences that were directly relevant to the phenomena of communication experience; (3) meanings of the extracted phrase or sentence were formed and the latent meanings were identified; (4) the meanings were organized into themes formed by grouping similar codes into meaningful sentences, and categories were formulated based on similar themes; (5) the themes were integrated into a full and inclusive description of the phenomenon; (6) the phenomenon’s fundamental structure was identified by condensing it into a short, concise statement and ensuring the validity of the research; and (7) the essence of the phenomenon was validated through participants’ feedback and researchers’ consensus after a final discussion.

Investigator training and preparation

The researchers have worked as nurses in ICUs and pediatric wards, which helped them develop a good understanding of communication with PICU patients’ parents. They have also completed courses in communication and qualitative research methods in graduate school and have adequate experience in conducting qualitative research.

Establishing data rigor

During data collection and analysis, we followed Sandelowski’s [ 11 ] method to establish rigor. For credibility, the researchers explained the research aim to the participants, secured a quiet place to ensure reliability, asked open-ended questions to help participants share their experiences freely, and solicited post-interview feedback to validate the extracted themes. For auditability, the researchers transcribed the interviews on the same day they were conducted to avoid distorting the participants’ perspectives, documented all research procedures, carefully discussed participants’ communication experiences during data analysis, and validated the essence of the phenomenon through consensus-building. For fittingness, researchers included participants with diverse clinical experiences, collected data until saturation was reached, and checked saturation through peer debriefing with others experienced in qualitative research. For confirmability, the researchers conducted interviews from a neutral perspective to prevent preconceptions and experiences from influencing the participants and to accurately capture their communication experiences.

All participants were women (Table  2 ) with an average clinical experience of 8.8 years (5–22 years). The average interview time was 54.7 min (45–70 min).

Analysis of the interview data on physicians’ and nurses’ communication experiences in the PICUs yielded 36 formulated meanings, merged into 13 themes and, ultimately, four categories (Table  3 ).

Category 1: facing communication difficulties in the PICU

Prioritizing children’s health condition.

The health condition of the children admitted to the PICU would often deteriorate within a few hours of admission. As the child’s condition can significantly affect the parents’ emotional state, the participants tended to prioritize restoring the child’s health condition before communicating with the parents. One physician said, “ The state of the parents is entirely dependent on the child’s condition , so the priority is to save the child’s life” (Physician 1). A nurse stated, “ If the child is ill , the life pattern of the entire family changes. If there is any improvement , the mother becomes hopeful , but in case of a deterioration , the mother is saddened…I feel bad” (Nurse 2).

Encounters with parents who had varying levels of knowledge experience and reaction to the child’s condition

Parents who are sensitively attuned to their children’s conditions tend to prefer experienced healthcare providers and question the judgments of less experienced ones. Sometimes, parents react emotionally to their children’s conditions and express anger or denial. This causes healthcare providers to experience considerable mental stress, emotional challenges, and, in severe cases, fear. A nurse stated, “ Mothers of children who have been ill since birth tend to demand certain precautions. They have a series of questions that serve to test whether we comply with them. Some mothers have panic attacks and cry a lot until they get used to the situation” (Nurse 1). Another nurse noted, “ Some parents tend to think that they know more than newbie doctors and sometimes express that they want a smarter doctor to take care of their child. Their attitude toward young nurses seems different as well” (Nurse 3). A physician stated, “ It is difficult to deal with parents who have a bit of a temper. We are scared if they are too angry—we are also humans , and that really scares us” (Physician 4).

Challenges communicating a child’s deteriorating condition

The task of explaining a child’s deteriorating condition or end-of-life situation to the parents deeply upset the participants, who would sometimes remain silent, not knowing what to say. Having years of experience in dealing with end-of-life situations did not make this task any easier. A nurse said, “ Actually, I’ve been through a lot of end-of-life situations but still find them difficult to deal with…I still don’t quite know what to say. I think now I say even less. Just silence…” (Nurse 3). A physician noted, “ Even as healthcare providers, we’re cautious when explaining to the parents that the child’s condition is deteriorating as we find it difficult…” (Physician 4).

Category 2: communication relying on individual competencies without established communication methods

Reliance on individual communication experiences and education.

The participants mainly learned about nursing and treatment during their undergraduate period and did not receive any systematic training on communication. Therefore, their communication with parents mainly depended on their personal capabilities, such as personality, experience, and clinical career, resulting in stark differences in communication skills. They expressed that a more systematic approach to communication training would reduce the impact of individual differences on communication skills. One of the nurses said, “ Actually , nurses and physicians learned how to care for and treat patients , but there was no training in communication. This was largely dependent on the skills , personality , or experience…Seniors tend to explain more , while juniors sometimes avoid the parents as they don’t know how to explain well” (Nurse 3). Another nurse stated, “ Communication is , in a way , an individual’s ability , so I think the problem is that there is a big difference between individuals. Most are doing a good job but there are some who are obviously not doing it right. I think that even a little bit of systematic education is needed in clinical practice” (Nurse 4).

Communication gap among healthcare providers and implicit role division

The participants had “their own rules” for communicating with parents, which entailed implicitly dividing roles depending on a child’s condition. However, this approach sometimes led to miscommunication between the physicians and nurses, revealing a conflicting understanding of the child’s condition. One physician said, “ Because each physician and nurse has their own rule , how they approach communication varies. The disease state is communicated by physicians and the nurses communicate the condition and daily matters of the child” (Physician 1). One nurse noted, “ The professor does not communicate to us his intentions during rounds and simply explains to the parents that it is getting better. When the parents tell us , ‘We heard that it is getting better?’ it makes us look bad” (Nurse 2).

Category 3: positive and negative experiences gained through the communication process

Importance of communicating with parents while providing treatment.

Participants regarded communication as critical for identifying a child’s condition and needs and considered parents as semi-specialists of their children’s conditions. Thus, they readily incorporated parents’ comments and assessments of their children’s conditions when deciding on the treatment course. A nurse said, “ In fact , mothers of children who have been ill for a while are semi-specialists , and there is nothing for us to train” (Nurse 2). Another nurse stated, “ If they can make sounds , they express themselves by crying , so it is difficult to identify their needs. So , we think that it is important to listen to the mothers who usually take care of them” (Nurse 4). A physician explained, “ Communicating with the parents is very important in pediatrics. I don’t think we can treat the child without communicating with their parents. The deeper the parents’ understanding , the better we can decide the direction of the treatment” (Physician 3).

Warm words of gratitude

The participants reported that parents’ warm words of gratitude made them feel appreciated. They recalled instances where parents expressed gratitude toward healthcare providers for their efforts, which, in turn, made the participants feel thankful. One nurse stated, “ Parents’ words of encouragement really make a big difference. In one end-of-life case , the parents of the child told us ‘Thank you for watching my child till the end.’ I know it must have been really difficult for the parents , so I was extremely grateful that they said those words” (Nurse 4). One physician noted, “ Some parents are really mature at the end of their child(ren)’s life; sure , they were extremely saddened by the death , but they called us and thanked us for taking care of the child and expressed gratitude to the medical staff. I still remember those parents” (Physician 5).

Feeling hurt by the communication process with parents

The participants reported feeling deeply hurt when parents criticized them for their care and treatment and did not trust them. Sometimes, despite the medical staff’s best efforts and good intentions, the condition of a patient who is critically ill continues to deteriorate, owing to the nature of the disease. Distrust and criticism from parents challenge the medical staff and, in extreme cases, force healthcare providers to quit their jobs. One of the nurses said, “ When the parents blame and express that they do not trust me , I start questioning myself , ‘Am I not good enough as a medical staff? Am I not qualified for my job? Am I a nurse who can’t even earn trust from the parents?…’ New nurses are hurt by this and some even quit their jobs” (Nurse 3). One of the physicians stated, “ Sometimes , the parents blame the healthcare providers when the child’s condition deteriorates by saying , ‘Are you sure this was the best decision? Maybe it was not necessary to do this…’ Good intentions do not always lead to good results , and it is difficult to predict the result when the condition is critical , and that’s what makes it difficult” (Physician 5).

Exhaustion from repeated questions and requests

The participants reported feeling exhausted by the parents’ repetitive questions and requests. Repeating the same information daily or witnessing parents approaching another doctor for the same information caused healthcare providers to doubt themselves and lose motivation. Cultural characteristics such as heightened requests for healthcare providers or frequent requests to see the child also fatigued the participants. One of the physicians said, “ Culturally , Korean parents request a lot and this makes our job difficult. Korean parents are sensitively attuned to their child(ren) … not allowing them extra services (such as additional time with the child(ren) leaves them with guilt” (Physician 2). Another physician described, “ They say the same thing again and again , even after I explain the same thing over and over again. That really tires us out…” (Physician 3). One nurse noted, “ Even when the nurses explain everything during visits , they (parents) ask the same question to the attending physician or professor when they come and it really makes the nurses lose motivation. Why did they ask me in the first place…I am the one who sees the child the most…” (Nurse 4).

Category 4: finding the most effective communication approach

Revising communication strategy through trial-and-error.

The participants reported that their communication methods changed significantly through trial-and-error and experience. Initially, they would quickly communicate the good news to give parents hope and provide detailed updates on their child’s condition. However, with experience, they began delivering only the facts, rather than explaining all medical procedures to parents. Instead of providing daily updates, they communicated the long-term plan for the child’s condition. One of the physicians said, “ In a PICU , the child is in critical condition and it can always go bad very quickly , so we do not explain all medical acts by the healthcare providers to the parents” (Physician 2). Another physician noted, “ When I was a resident , I focused on explaining the condition of the child , but now I focus on the long-term plan for the child and tell them we need to do this to avoid complications” (Physician 5). One of the nurses said, “ When I was a newbie , I wanted to tell the parents the good news as soon as possible , so I would call them even when I was busy…but now , I simply tell them facts and that’s it” (Nurse 3). Another nurse stated, “ I really wish I could tell them it will all get better soon. But if that doesn’t happen , problems can arise , so I try not to give false hope and try to convey facts as much as possible” (Nurse 4).

Approaching parents first to build trust

The participants emphasized building trust as a key aspect of communication. By approaching the parents proactively to explain their child’s condition, the participants aimed to earn even difficult parents’ trust, reassuring them that they were doing their best. One of the nurses said, “ Gaining their trust is the most important thing in communication. At the start of the visitation , I approached them first and said hello , and then gave them patient information to make them feel more comfortable” (Nurse 3). One of the physicians said, “ Rapport formation , detailed explanations by medical staff , and parents’ understanding are also important. Let the parents know that I am doing my best in caring for the patient…no parent will just complain , no matter how bad they are. There are difficult parents but not impossible parents. This is why I think communication is important” (Physician 3).

Empathizing with parents

The participants emphasized the need to think and communicate from the parent’s perspective. Accordingly, they attempted to comprehend the parents’ thoughts and feelings. Rather than treating the child as a patient, they treated them as if they were their own by referring to them by their names and using familiar expressions. One of the nurses stated, “ Some physicians who have children have a deeper understanding of parents’ minds and understand the discomfort experienced by the children. This makes them able to communicate from the parent’s perspective” (Nurse 3). Another nurse said, “ I think what’s most important is trying to understand the parents’ perspectives. Rather than using the word patient , referring to the patient by their name expresses familiarity and makes me think that I am performing the role of the parent” (Nurse 4). One of the physicians said, “ There are some who only take the words from the professor and focus on treatment only , instead of trying to think , ‘What would I do as a mother?’ I think this is wrong” (Physician 3).

Journey toward a better communication approach

For better communication, the participants suggested the following measures: implementing organizational-level communication training, having dedicated communication personnel for all medical staff, and using various auxiliary tools such as pictures, videos, and applications to improve parents’ understanding of the information. One of the nurses noted, “ As far as I know , if you apply at the hospital , you can receive an education. But I have to invest time when I’m off… It’s an opportunity to learn everything systematically , and if it’s an education that can be tailored to the actual situation , it will naturally help a lot” (Nurse 3). One physician said, “ Images , complications , etc. are difficult to understand even if explained. In foreign countries , such materials are already well-documented with pictures and videos. It would be nice to select only the necessary information for non-medical people and create an instruction manual for educational materials with illustrations” (Physician 2). Another physician stated, “ I think there are more ways to communicate as there is a dedicated professional nurse , which provides an opportunity for having personnel dedicated to communication. I always thought it would be nice for the parents to access applications (PICU diary) to see test results” (Physician 4).

In this study, the communication experience of healthcare providers in PICUs was expressed as a journey to find better ways to communicate when the answer is unknown while receiving positive and negative feedback in difficult situations. From their communication experiences, the following four categories emerged: “facing communication difficulties in the PICU,” “communication relying on individual competencies without established communication methods,” “positive and negative experiences gained through the communication process,” and “finding the most effective communication approach.”

As an integral part of hospital care, the PICU environment is urgent, complicated, unpredictable, and crisis-oriented; therefore, practitioners experience high stress and severe time crunch while stabilizing a child’s condition [ 12 , 13 ]. Given their deep concern about their children’s health, parents are sensitively attuned when their children are sick and receiving treatment; thus, healthcare providers must be more careful when communicating with such parents [ 14 ]. Parents are unprepared for bad news and may not fully understand the complex medical explanations provided by healthcare providers, leading to communication gaps [ 13 , 15 , 16 ]. How healthcare providers deliver bad news is critical because parents want to receive honest and complete information with care, even if it is bad; otherwise, they may feel angry, distrustful, or betrayed [ 13 , 17 ]. This aspect tests even experienced healthcare providers [ 18 , 19 ].

Communication with parents is essential in PICUs to help them understand their children’s health conditions. Simultaneously, parents’ knowledge of their children’s medical history and current symptoms is critical in determining the direction of their care [ 16 ]. Therefore, good communication is essential for parental involvement and family-centered childcare [ 13 , 16 , 20 ]. However, communication with parents is limited to 30 min at the time of hospitalization or twice daily based on hospital policy; given the lack of a systematic method, healthcare providers had to implicitly determine the best way to convey information and educate the parents. Additionally, healthcare providers who did not receive systematic communication training often relied on their past experiences, personal capabilities, and trial-and-error to communicate. This finding was consistent with those of previous studies suggesting that the reasons for lack of communication include limited time for ICU visits, differences in experience and roles of healthcare providers, not communicating plans directly to the PICU team, and a mismatch between theory and practice [ 2 , 12 , 21 ]. High-quality communication between healthcare providers and parents can lead to better patient satisfaction with care outcomes and processes [ 3 ]. Simultaneously, effective communication among healthcare providers can help reduce patient safety risks and improve treatment outcomes [ 22 ].

When the communication process is ambiguous, healthcare providers receive various types of feedback from the parents, which helps them gain new experiences. Parental distrust and heightened requests regarding their child’s treatment or care considerably can make healthcare workers question their role and competence. Conflicts commonly arise in two situations: (1) when parents of children who are acutely ill require more explanations and reassurance and especially (2) when parents of children with chronic illness challenge the expertise of healthcare providers based on their accumulated knowledge and deep involvement in their child’s long-term care [ 20 ]. Despite healthcare providers’ best efforts and intentions, negative experiences with communication can lead to emotional burnout and existential crisis regarding their decision to be healthcare workers [ 21 ]. However, many parents express their gratitude toward healthcare providers in difficult or stressful situations. Such positive feedback can motivate healthcare providers to become more engaged in communication, improve their psychological well-being, and enhance team performance [ 23 ]. In a study of neonatal ICU teams (physicians and nurses) in acute care simulation-training workshops, gratitude expressed by mothers was associated with positive medical team performance through enhanced information sharing [ 24 ]. Communication is an interactive aspect and the main component of human-centered care in the ICU [ 13 , 21 , 25 ]. Effective therapeutic communication programs could significantly help healthcare providers cope with the negative feedback they receive during communication and ensure that parents and families provide positive feedback for their efforts, which will lead to improved patient outcomes through improved quality of care.

Individualized communication, depending on the clinical situation and family characteristics, is a cornerstone of human-centered care in the PICU [ 13 , 21 ]. The study’s participants were experts with more than five years of pediatric experience; however, their communication skills and abilities were at the novice level. Despite making changes through trial-and-error and experience, their communication skills were insufficient compared with other competencies. They relied more on role modeling for existing communication problems and lacked professional training [ 20 , 26 ]. Nonetheless, participants expressed keen interest in finding the best way to communicate by reaching out, building trust, and empathizing with parents [ 21 ].

Healthcare providers receive continuous education for providing specialized care in the ICU using various approaches; however, communication skills training remains insufficient [ 27 ]. Accompanying verbal communication with visual and written tools (i.e., whiteboards, daily checklists, pictures, videos, and applications) may fulfill the need for multiple forms of communication and may improve communication among all parties to foster a better understanding of the children’s condition [ 12 , 16 , 28 ]. Specific training is especially required in dealing with stressful situations in the PICU [ 21 , 29 ]. Many simulation studies of communication with family involvement were conducted using standardized patients or role-plays. In a 3-hour interactive session on pediatric palliative care utilizing communication drills and role-play, students showed improvement in confidence in communicating with families [ 30 ]. After a 3-day pediatric critical care communication course featuring simulation with actors as family members, fellows reported increased confidence in difficult discussions (delivering bad news, having a family conference, eliciting families’ reactions to their child’s end-of-life situation, and discussing the child’s current status and religious issues) [ 31 ]. Moreover, previous studies have reported the effectiveness of simulation training for healthcare providers in the PICU on fundamental communication skills, sharing bad news, determining goals of care, discussing resuscitation preferences, conducting family conferences, forgoing life-sustaining treatment, and navigating conflict with family programs [ 32 , 33 ], as well as the provision of web and videoconference-based training platforms [ 34 ]. Therefore, it is essential for organizations to develop guidelines or education programs to deal with the communication needs of specific situations, which should be conducted continuously.

This study has some limitations. First, the study was conducted at a single site with female healthcare providers in the PICU. Therefore, caution should be exercised in generalizing the study’s findings and applying them to other ICUs in Korea. Second, healthcare providers’ experience of communication in the PICUs of South Korea may differ from those in other countries owing to cultural differences. Lastly, as the study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, the post-pandemic communication experience may be different.

This study provided a phenomenological analysis of the communication experienced in a PICU. A key finding was that healthcare providers still faced communication difficulties and felt that they lacked a support system or training program and were left to deal with these challenges on their own. By revealing these experiences, we provided a discourse to improve the quality of patient care and professional practice in PICUs. Communication problems threaten teamwork among healthcare providers and can adversely affect children’s outcomes, hamper their and their families’ well-being, and generate professional burnout. In the future, various support programs to facilitate communication should be developed; become mandatory for institutions; and include all healthcare workers, in both interprofessional and interpersonal contexts with parents.

Data availability

Due to the nature of this research, participants of this study did not agree for their data to be shared publicly, so supporting data is not available.

Abbreviations

Pediatric intensive care unit

• Intensive care unit

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This work was supported by the Sungshin Women’s University Research Grant [No H20220052].

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Jooyoung Cheon and Hyojin Kim contributed equally to this work.

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College of Nursing Science, Sungshin Women’s University, 55, Dobong-ro 76ga-gil, Gangbuk- gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Jooyoung Cheon & Dong Hee Kim

College of Nursing, Seoul National University, 103, Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea

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Jooyoung Cheon: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Methodology; Validation; Writing - original draft; Writing - review & editing.Hyojin Kim: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Validation; Writing - original draft; Writing - review & editing.Dong Hee Kim: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Funding acquisition; Methodology; Project administration; Resources; Supervision; Validation; Writing - review & editing.A: Jooyoung Cheon, B: Hyojin Kim, C: Dong Hee Kim.

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Cheon, J., Kim, H. & Kim, D.H. Healthcare providers’ communication experience in the pediatric intensive care unit: a phenomenological study. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 956 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11394-1

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'Curious Conversations' podcast: Karen Hult talks about the evolution of political polling

• Travis Williams

19 Aug 2024

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Karen Hult joined Virginia Tech’s “Curious Conversations” to chat about the history and evolution of polling, methods used in modern polling, and how politicians and the average person can interpret poll results. The conversation highlights the importance of probability sampling and inferential statistics in generating accurate poll results as well as the need for critical thinking when reading them.

Hult is professor of political science at Virginia Tech and serves on the faculty of the School of Public and International Affairs ’ Center for Public Administration and Policy . She has expertise in the U.S. presidency, federal and state politics, policy and governance, and federal and state courts. Her research is focused on organization and institutional theories, the U.S. presidency, U.S. national executive branch departments and agencies, policy, U.S. state politics, policy, and governance, and social science methodologies.

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Three takeaways 

Polling has a long history with roots in censuses and surveys dating back to biblical times.

Modern polling relies on probability sampling and inferential statistics to generate accurate results.

When interpreting poll results, people should consider the pollster, the sample size, the confidence levels, and the non-response bias.

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June 2024 Biden-Trump presidential debate: Experts give nine takeaways

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Church Communication for Solo Pastors

Insights | Church Life & Ministry | Aug 14, 2024

Church communication for solo pastors can be difficult and time-consuming. Identify the most important areas and learn how to do them well.

By Mark MacDonald

Most churches have one person in leadership—a busy solo pastor who has to do most, with the help of volunteers. Often, solo pastors wonder if they’re juggling so much they’re not doing anything well. Let’s look at church communication, identify the most important areas, and learn how to do them well.

1. Know your audiences

Effective church communication rises and falls on how well you know your audience. So, church communication for solo pastors must start here. Remember however, you have two audiences: your congregation (internal) and your community (external).

As a solo pastor, you can be tempted to focus only on the people in your pews. Sure, get to know them and their needs, concerns, and goals. But remember God placed you in your community for a reason. There are more people outside of your church than inside it.

Understand, the growth potential for your local church is the community around you. They are the people God wants us to “go and tell.” Overlay their needs, concerns, and goals onto your member’s needs, concerns, and goals to identify common issues. Then concentrate on being a solution to their needs and concerns or a path to their goals.

Note: Churches that only focus internally usually stagnate or decline. Know and love both of your audiences so your communication content will be needed by both. That’ll keep members coming back and be a good reason for those in your community to pay attention.

2. Create some controls and fences

As a solo pastor, you can’t do it all. That’s an understatement. So, limit your church communication. Decide what you should be known for and focus on that beneficial thread as you’re building content. Also, restrict design visual elements so they become familiar to your audience too. This will build trust and confidence in your communication.

Establish a simple church logo. Then the symbol and words will help establish the visual fences to your content. Use no more than two fonts in your logo, and therefore, in your communication materials. And restrict your colors to a primary and a secondary color, again, from your logo, to use throughout your communication materials.

Your logo should also have a secondary tagline that says what you want to be known for. This thread should be three to five words, and it’s something your audience desires. Sure, this church brand building takes time, but it saves time in the long run. It allows you to say (and design) less, so people listen more. Consider limiting yourself to one or two graphic templates where you change out the words and images ( Canva , or similar, is a great resource for establishing a branded look).

3. Promote a trusted communication source  

Your audience needs to quickly identify where to find information about your church ministries. This source needs to be trusted as the best place to find up-to-date information and be in a place your audience wants to find it.

In the past, churches relied on a printed bulletin or calling the church office. These take so much time and money, and the world has moved toward wanting a digital source. Based on the time and budget you have as a solo pastor, identify one source for information and regularly reinforce to your congregation that it’s the place to go for the correct information. Then concentrate on that one tool or channel. That can be a website, your social media page , a weekly email , or your bulletin.

4. Maintain a basic web presence

If you choose to have a bulletin as your trusted source, slowly edit the bulletin information and point to the details that are online. This transitional church communication period where older people want printed material is slowly giving way to the more economical online reliance. Therefore, start working on a web presence.

Facebook is the cheapest and easiest communication tool where most of your audience browses each day. If you don’t have the expertise to build a website, create a free Facebook page for your church and Facebook groups under that page for ministries in your church. Then work on building content that is shareable, entertaining, informational, and needed. Most importantly, craft your “about” description to contain your city’s name, your thread, and relevant keywords that your community would be searching for.

After that, work toward a simple church website that does the same but allows a variety of content. There are many website packages that are perfect for the solo pastor with no developer skills needed.

5. Get a communication volunteer to assist

After the church communication elements are in place and you’ve established the controls and rhythms for what kind of content you produce, be on the lookout for members who would like to help as part of their ministry. Start slowly with them and guide them as you watch response and engagement from your audience.   Church communication for solo pastors can be difficult and time-consuming especially if you want to expand to more social media channels, a full website, and weekly emails.

Start small and do church communication properly with a few tools or channels before you expand too quickly. Build on the success of one as you move toward another. Establish a high standard that your members would be proud of and make sure it’s sustainable before expanding.

For permission to republish this article, contact  Marissa Postell Sullivan .

Mark MacDonald

@markmac1023

Mark MacDonald is communication pastor, speaker, consultant, bestselling author, church branding strategist for BeKnownforSomething.com , empowering thousands of pastors and churches to become known for something relevant (a communication thread). His church branding book, Be Known for Something , is available at BeKnownBook.com .

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Emotional Freedom Technique: Research supports benefits of tapping for mental health

Emotional Freedom Technique (EFT), also known as “tapping,” is a method that some individuals have found helpful in managing their emotions. During EFT, individuals tap certain points on their body – similar to the points used during acupuncture. Tapping was first introduced in the 1990s by Gary Craig, a Stanford graduate and certified master practitioner of neurolinguistic programming.

An article titled “ What Is Tapping for Anxiety? ,” provided by BetterHelp, gives details on the practice.

In November 2022, the Tapping School shared an article titled “ Why tapping should be avoided: Are the rumors true? ” In short, the article debunks the myths surrounding avoiding tapping as a method to help certain behavioral health issues and concerns. Furthermore, the article shares details on what EFT is, what it can help with and how individuals can make EFT tapping work for them.

The Tapping School reports research showing that EFT can help with certain conditions, including:

• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Additionally,  EFT International’s   Free Tapping Manual , a comprehensive guide that introduces EFT, provides even more ways EFT can be helpful, including:

• Improving some types of physical pain
• Fostering better sleep and sleep patterns  
• Diminishing cravings
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• Improving performance

There are apps available to help individuals with EFT, including  The Tapping Solution , which is available to  download  in the App Store and Google Play. Individuals can also research EFT more and/or talk with a counselor or therapist about the method and whether it would be helpful for them to implement into their self-care practices.

More information on EFT/tapping

• All About Tapping  – The Well
• Anxiety and Tapping: Soothing or Distracting?  – PsychCentral 
• EFT Tapping: How It Works, Cost & Effectiveness  – Choosing Therapy
• Emotional Freedom Technique (EFT): Tap to relieve stress and burnout  – National Library of Medicine
• What is EFT Tapping? A Detailed Scientific Guide on Emotional Freedom Technique  – Everyday Health 

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• Services and Information
• Presentations & Trainings
• Student of Concern Reporting Link

Counseling & Psychological Services (CAPS) :

• Therapy Services at CAPS
• Self-help Resources
• Group Therapy
• CAPS YouTube channel
• NAMI On Campus  – a free, virtual support group on campus
• Thriving Campus  – service that provides students a way to search for mental health providers in many areas, locally and across the country
• TAO  – web- and app-based mental health resource, replacing  WellTrack

Questions can be directed to Human Resources at 765-494-2222, toll-free at 877-725-0222 or via email at  [email protected] .

Contact: Human Resources at 765-494-2222, toll-free at 877-725-0222 or via email at  [email protected]

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