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Sport Psychology Research Methods: Qualitative vs Quantitative

Qualitative and Quantitative

Qualitative and quantitative research methods are two commonly used psychological research approaches with very different procedures and objectives. It is important for researchers to understand the differences between these two modes of research in order to determine which approach is best suited to adequately address the research question. The greatest distinctions between these two fundamentally different research techniques are the genesis of theory and the role that theory plays in the mechanics of research. In the quantitative technique, the research effort begins with a theory: a statement that tries to explain observed phenomena. The theory is then operationalized (that is, stated in terms that can be statistically tested) through hypothesis. Data is gathered, statistical tests are completed, and the results are interpreted. The results either support the hypothesis or they do not. (Downey & Ireland, 1979)

Quantitative research is experimental and objective whereas qualitative research is explorative and is not in numerical form. Quantitative research is used to identify evidence of cause and effect relationships and is used to collect data from a larger population than qualitative research (Downey & Ireland, 1979). Aliaga and Gunderson (2000), explain that qualitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically based methods’. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize results from a larger sample population.

Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than qualitative data collection methods. Data collection methods used in qualitative research includes focus groups, triads, dyads, interviews and observation (Creswell, 2013). Qualitative data is descriptive, which is more difficult to analyze then quantitative data which is categorized, ranked, or in units of measurement. One benefit of qualitative research is the ability to observe, collect, and reach data that other methods cannot obtain. It also provides researchers with flexibility in conveying a story without the constraints of formal academic structure (Creswell, 2013). However, Berkwits and Inui (1998) explain that qualitative research is suspect in its usefulness to provide a generalize foundations for clinical decisions and policies.

Qualitative methods derive from a variety of psychological research disciplines and traditions (Crabtree & Miller, 2012). Different in many ways from quantitative research; yet qualitative research does have a quantitative connection. Qualitative research, also recognized as preliminary exploratory research, is used to capture communicative information not conveyed in quantitative data about beliefs, feelings, values, and motivations that trigger behaviors. They are used to learn directly from the participant what is important to them, to provide the context necessary to understand quantitative findings, and to identify variables important for future clinical studies (Crabtree & Miller, 2012). Qualitative research provides insights into the problem and helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.

Examining Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is primarily used in investigative research to explore a phenomenon. Creswell (2013) explains that qualitative methods should be used to study complex subjects and topics. Some subjects in which qualitative analysis is the methodology of choice include but are not limited to education, biology, behavior, health care, psychology, human resources, as well as societal issues such as cultural and racial issues, social norms and stigmas. The use of qualitative research is appropriate when the researcher wants to answer questions or solve a problem by collecting data to generate a theory or hypothesis.  Qualitative research uses context and a non-judgmental approach to attempt to understand the phenomena in question from the subject’s point of view and is used to capture expressive information not conveyed in quantitative data about beliefs, values, feelings, and motivations that underlie behaviors (Berkwits & Inui, 1998). Qualitative research is a form of inquiry that analyzes information observed in natural settings.

Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota. There are four philosophical assumptions of qualitative methodology recognized in psychological research: ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology.

Qualitative research comes from a variety of psychological research disciplines and traditions (Crabtree & Miller, 2012). It is a unique research approach because it allows research access to information that goes beyond quantitative measure. However, the main weakness of the qualitative approach is that it is difficult to provide generalizable foundation for scientific decisions and procedures behaviors (Berkwits & Inui, 1998). It is important to mention that some qualitative approaches use technical methods (such as statistical content analysis) to determine the significance of findings, while others rely on researchers thoughtful reflection (Crabtree & Miller, 2012).

Examining Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is experimental and objective. The objective of quantitative research is essentially to collect numerical data to explain a particular phenomenon (Hoe and Hoare, 2012). By using measurable data researchers are able to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. The quantitative approach involves a systematic empirical investigation of a phenomenon using numerical data. It is used to identify evidence of cause and effect relationships, as well as collect data from a larger population than qualitative research (Downey & Ireland, 1979).

When conducting a quantitative study researchers use statistical tests to analyze research data. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations. For researchers using the quantitative technique, data is primary and context is secondary. This means that researchers gather data that can be counted, but the context in which the data is observed is not very important to the process. The data is analyzed and rational conclusions are drawn from the interpretation of the resulting numbers (Downey & Ireland, 1979).

Researches elect to use quantitative research when their research problem and questions are best suited to being answered using quantitative methods. Quantitative research is designed to quantify a research problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into useable statistics. There are four main types of research questions best suited for quantitative research. The first type of question is a question demanding a qualitative answer (Hoe and Hoare, 2012). For example, how many I/O psychology students are currently enrolled at Capella. The second type of questions is when numerical can only be studies using quantitative methods (Hoe and Hoare, 2012). For example, is the number of I/O psychology students enrolled at Capella rising or falling? The third type of question concerns understanding the state of a phenomenon, such as the contributing factors (Hoe and Hoare, 2012). For example, what factors predict the recruitment of I/O psychology students to attend online universities? The final type of question best suited for quantitative methods is the testing of hypotheses?

There are three quantitative research approaches: (1) experimental, (2) quasi-experimental, and (3) non-experimental. Variables are the foundation of quantitative research. Variables are something that takes on different values or categories. The experimental approach is used to study the cause and effect relationship of variables, specifically the independent and dependent variables. This approach involves the use of true random assignments of variables for analysis. The defining characteristic of the experimental approach involves the manipulation of the independent variable. The quasi-experimental approach is similar to the experimental approach however the main difference is that it does not include the use of randomly assigned variables. The final quantitative research approach, non-experimental, is a comparative approach that differs from experimental because there is no manipulation of the independent variable or random assignment of variables (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013). Sources of references: Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2013). The nature and tools of research. Practical research: Planning and design , 1-26.

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BOOK SERIES

Qualitative research in sport and physical activity, about the series.

From ethnography and narrative inquiry to participatory action research and digital methods, feminist and poststructural theory to new materialism and onto-epistemologies, serious conversations about the practices, politics and philosophies of qualitative inquiry have never been stronger or more abundant in the field of sport, exercise and health. At the same time, the growth of new critical methodologies has opened up interdisciplinary space for sustained engagement with provocative questions over evidence, knowledge, and research practices. The Qualitative Research in Sport and Physical Activity series is the first of its kind within the field that has as its mandate the necessary advancement of qualitative methodologies and their intersection with theory and practice. Books in the series will develop new and innovative methodologies, serve as ‘how-to’ guides for conducting research, and present empirical research findings. It will serve the growing number of students and academics who promote and utilize qualitative inquiry in university courses, research, and applied practice.

• Series Titles

8 Series Titles

Sport, Physical Activity, and Anti-Colonial Autoethnography Stories and Ways of Being

1st Edition

Participatory research in sport and physical activity.

Trauma-Informed Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health Qualitative Methods

Motherhood and Sport Collective Stories of Identity and Difference

Creative Nonfiction in Sport and Exercise Research

Physical Culture, Ethnography and the Body Theory, Method and Praxis

Digital Qualitative Research in Sport and Physical Activity

Sport, Politics and the Charity Industry Running for Water

Sport, Physical Activity, and Anti-Colonial Autoethnography: Stories and Ways of Being

By Jason Laurendeau October 09, 2024

This book offers a brief history of how autoethnography has been employed in studies of sport and physical (in)activity to date and makes an explicit call for anti-colonial approaches – challenging scholars of physical culture to interrogate and write against the colonial assumptions at work in so ...

Edited By Kyle A. Rich, Robyn Smith, Audrey R. Giles July 03, 2024

This is the first book to focus on participatory research in the context of sport and physical activity. It explores the transformative potential of participatory research methods and provides an introduction to the practicalities of doing participatory research in sport and physical activity. The ...

Trauma-Informed Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health: Qualitative Methods

Edited By Jenny McMahon, Kerry R. McGannon June 10, 2024

This is the first book to examine trauma research in the context of sport, exercise, and health. It outlines evidence-based, trauma-informed research practices, which qualitative researchers can use when conducting trauma research to prevent causing further harm to participants while maintaining a ...

Motherhood and Sport: Collective Stories of Identity and Difference

Edited By Lucy Spowart, Kerry R. McGannon May 27, 2024

Although sport participation decreases on average for women once they become mothers, female athletes from the recreational, to the competitive, to the elite level have demonstrated that motherhood does not signal the end of sport engagement and athletic identities, or career and leadership roles. ...

Edited By Francesca Cavallerio January 29, 2024

Academics around the world recognise the effectiveness of storytelling as a way to engage audiences in conversations, raising awareness of issues, and encouraging change. Stories are now seen as the best medium to convey information to diverse audiences. This book explores a novel approach to ...

Physical Culture, Ethnography and the Body: Theory, Method and Praxis

Edited By Michael D. Giardina, Michele K. Donnelly June 10, 2019

The corporeal turn toward critical, empirically grounded studies of the body is transforming the way we research physical culture, most evidently in the study of sport. This book brings together original insights on contemporary physical culture from key figures working in a variety of disciplines, ...

Edited By Andrea Bundon October 24, 2017

Twitter, Facebook, online forums, blogs and websites – scholars are increasingly turning to digital sources to study sport and physical activity. These platforms have generated new digital content ripe for analysis and are making it possible to investigate communities that were previously ...

Sport, Politics and the Charity Industry: Running for Water

By Kyle Bunds September 04, 2017

Sport is commonly used by charities and philanthropic organisations as a way of acquiring donors and fundraisers. In this ground-breaking study, Kyle Bunds examines the nexus of sport, politics and the charity industry through an investigation of water development agencies that raise funds in the ...

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International Society of Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise

Welcome to the International Society of Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise ( QRSE ). Founded in 2020, QRSE is a professional organization devoted to promoting, advancing and connecting qualitative research in the sport and exercise sciences. Given that we already have excellent sport and exercise societies the question becomes, ‘ Why another society’?  

In 2009 the journal Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health (QRSEH) was established. Not long after the International Conference on Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise became a biennial event. The Routledge book series Qualitative Research in Sport and Physical Activity was also established. Since establishing the journal, conference, and book series numerous scholars across the world have asked if a society dedicated to qualitative research in sport and exercise was going to be established. The simple answer for some time was ‘No’. However, as time progressed and dialogues unfolded with hundreds of sport and exercise scholars at conferences, meetings, and over social media, it became clear there was a real need for a new society that complements others but which is distinctly qualitative and connects researchers from different disciplines.

QRSE was therefore established to provide both an international home solely dedicated to qualitative research and a forum that brings together researchers from different disciplines. It is open to all methods, methodologies, traditions, epistemologies, ontologies, and empirical work that fall under the umbrella of qualitative research. QRSE is also multidisciplinary by bringing together researchers interested in qualitative research from the disciplines of sport and exercise psychology, sociology of sport, sport coaching, sport pedagogy, leisure studies, sport management, sport policy, sport and exercise medicine, and others. 

MISSION STATEMENT

We strive to:

Promote qualitative research in the sport and exercise sciences

Advance excellence in qualitative research and teaching 

Provide a forum for networking, knowledge sharing, collaboration, lobbying, and fostering supportive relationships and communities 

FOUNDING MEMBERS

Brett Smith & Toni Williams

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• v.36(2); Apr-Jun 2001

Qualitative Inquiry in Athletic Training: Principles, Possibilities, and Promises

William A. Pitney, EdD, ATC/L, contributed to conception and design and drafting, critical revision, and final approval of the article. Jenny Parker, EdD, contributed to conception and design and critical revision and final approval of the article.

To discuss the principles of qualitative research and provide insights into how such methods can benefit the profession of athletic training.

Background:

The growth of a profession is influenced by the type of research performed by its members. Although qualitative research methods can serve to answer many clinical and professional questions that help athletic trainers navigate their socioprofessional contexts, an informal review of the Journal of Athletic Training reveals a paucity of such methods.

Description:

We provide an overview of the characteristics of qualitative research and common data collection and analysis techniques. Practical examples related to athletic training are also offered.

Applications:

Athletic trainers interact with other professionals, patients, athletes, and administrators and function in a larger society. Consequently, they are likely to face critical influences and phenomena that affect the meaning they give to their experiences. Qualitative research facilitates a depth of understanding related to our contexts that traditional research may not provide. Furthermore, qualitative research complements traditional ways of thinking about research itself and promotes a greater understanding related to specific phenomena. As the profession of athletic training continues to grow, qualitative research methods will assume a more prominent role. Thus, it will be necessary for consumers of athletic training research to understand the functional aspects of the qualitative paradigm.

In a recent publication, Knight and Ingersoll 1 suggested that the growth of the athletic training profession depends in part on the scholarly activity performed by its members. Research, as one form of scholarly activity, plays an essential role in revealing cause and effect, making associations among concepts, making comparisons, gaining insights, guiding decision making, and developing a sound knowledge base. As Weissinger et al 2 stated, one potential influencing factor involved with the development of a body of knowledge in a profession is an expansion of the methods used to collect and analyze data.

An informal appraisal of the past athletic training research in the Journal of Athletic Training reveals that quantitative research methods are currently a widely used form of inquiry. This is certainly not surprising given the scientific nature of the profession and the research questions that have been asked and answered within this paradigm. Although quantitative research has surely contributed to the advancement of knowledge and subsequent health care delivery in athletic training, we must recognize that both researchers and clinicians ask many questions that warrant the use of alternative methods. The purpose of our article, therefore, is to offer a first step in facilitating an understanding of qualitative inquiry within the field of athletic training. This article is divided into 3 main sections. In the first section, we will explain the primary characteristics of qualitative research. The second section focuses on common data collection and data analysis procedures. Finally, in the third section, we will discuss the future directions of qualitative research in athletic training. Throughout this article we will provide practical examples and possibilities, including how qualitative research can inform athletic trainers.

PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

The quantitative research paradigm takes a positivistic stance. That is, this paradigm assumes that a single objective reality exists, 3 which is ascertainable by our senses and logical extensions of our senses 4 (eg, microscopes, electrocardiograms, electromyograms). We can, therefore, measure and observe components of this single reality and test hypotheses about how one component affects another. The qualitative research paradigm, on the other hand, is based on the postmodern philosophical idea that multiple realities exist. Consequently, rather than our world being one objective and measurable entity, it is a subjective phenomenon that needs to be interpreted. 3 The qualitative paradigm recognizes that the meaning people give to situations and phenomena is crucial for understanding a particular context. 5 However, qualitative and quantitative methods are more than just different ways of researching the same items. Rather, they answer different types of questions, have different strengths, and use different techniques. 6

Qualitative researchers are especially concerned with how people develop meaning out of their lived experiences. 7 Moreover, qualitative research is based on the idea that meaning is socially constructed. That is, meaning is created based on personal interactions with others and our environment and the perceptions we give to our lived experiences. Therefore, qualitative researchers rely on a combination of textual data from interviews, conversations, and field notes rather than attempting to reduce meaning to numbers for comparative purposes.

Qualitative research can also be known as naturalistic inquiry, interpretive research, phenomenologic research, ethnography, and even descriptive research. Although qualitative inquiry can be performed in a variety of ways, common tenets are shared in this paradigm. Patton 8 discussed these common tenets as themes of qualitative inquiry. At a fundamental level, Patton 8 stated, qualitative inquiry is based on naturalistic inquiry, a holistic perspective, a focus on processes, inductive analysis, qualitative data, personal insights, case orientation, empathetic neutrality, and flexibility of design.

Qualitative researchers prefer natural or real-world settings. They do not attempt to control variables, manipulate procedures, create research or comparison groups, or isolate a particular phenomenon. Rather, qualitative researchers immerse themselves in a naturally occurring setting to observe and understand it. Thus, qualitative research tends to take a holistic perspective to inquiry. As such, the entire phenomenon under investigation is understood as a complete system rather than isolated events.

Qualitative research is most appropriate for answering questions relative to processes, site-specific phenomena, contexts, programs, or situations in which little is already known. As an example, “by what processes and in what ways have athletic trainers improved health care delivery in a rural school district?” is a question that is best answered using qualitative methods. “What is the economic impact of athletic trainers working in a rural school district?” is best answered using quantitative methods because economic factors are best measured with numbers. 9 An additional example is “in what way does approved clinical instructor status improve the educational delivery to student athletic trainers during their clinical education?” Such a question warrants qualitative methods because the approved clinical instructor programs will be new in the near future and little is known about the influence such programs will have on student learning.

Additionally, qualitative research is flexible and dynamic in that a researcher can choose which data to collect and how during the research process. In fact, qualitative research has metaphorically been compared with jazz music 10 because of the improvisation and flexibility needed to appropriately adapt the methods as findings unfold. Therefore, once researchers initiate a qualitative study and collect data, they need to be prepared to change their procedures and tactics as the process evolves and new insights are gained.

Qualitative research is inductive as opposed to deductive. The researcher begins with specific data and moves toward building general patterns. 8 That is, whereas an experimental design requires that a hypothesis be stated before the study in an attempt to either prove or disprove it, a qualitative study allows various dimensions to unfold or emerge, thus permitting hypotheses to become a product of the research. Moreover, qualitative inquiry is interpretive in that a researcher gathers a large amount of data with the intent of theorizing about the problem or phenomenon under investigation. Qualitative methods are a fundamental research strategy for many of the social sciences, including sociology and anthropology. Although qualitative research is derived from various epistemologic, philosophical, and methodologic traditions, 8 at its foundation are phenomenology and symbolic interactionism. 3

Phenomenology focuses on an individual's experience, how people create their view of the world around them, and how they interact with their environment. 11 Researchers using a phenomenologic approach seek both a rich description of a context and a depth of understanding and meaning related to specific phenomena but from the participants' perspectives. 12 In athletic training, for example, such an approach could be used to address a phenomenon related to rehabilitation noncompliance, practitioner burnout, or nontraditional student experiences in an athletic training education program. As a more specific example, practitioner burnout could be investigated qualitatively to identify stress-coping strategies. Thus, practitioners could share their perspectives and describe how they attempted to cope with stress in a specific context. Such a qualitative investigation may uncover contextual issues that facilitated the burnout process.

Symbolic interactionism is a reaction to psychology's focus on intrinsic factors (eg, motivation or stress) and sociology's emphasis on extrinsic factors (eg, social class and structure) causing a specific behavior. 13 According to Blumer, 13 the symbolic interactionist framework suggested that (1) human beings act toward objects based on the meaning that the items have for them, (2) meaning is a product of social interaction in our society, and (3) the attribution of meaning to objects through symbols is a continuous interpretive process. An example of using a symbolic interactionist's framework in athletic training is examining the professional socialization process of various contexts (eg, intercollegiate athletics, high school, or professional ranks). Additionally, such questions as how medical decisions are made in a clinical context or how athletic trainers in various subcultures develop professionally over time are potential research topics that could be addressed from the symbolic interactionist perspective. At its foundation, however, qualitative inquiry is interpretive, relies on inductive analysis, and is concerned with the meaning created by participants. The Table identifies the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research.

Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Attributes

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

As with any research project involving human participants, a qualitative researcher must receive approval from an institutional review board. The review board ensures that the data collection and data analysis procedures protect the participants' anonymity. This is accomplished by giving any participants, institutions, or programs a pseudonym before any portion of the report is published. Qualitative researchers collect data in many ways, including interviews, observations, document analysis, artifacts (eg, photographs, videotapes, and tools), and surveys. Interviews and observations, however, are 2 of the most commonly used methods of gathering data in qualitative research. The following section will explain the observation and interview process and then describe how the textual data are analyzed.

OBSERVATION

Qualitative researchers often immerse themselves in a particular context and observe participants. Observation involves recording interactions among subjects, various events, a participant's behavior, and even a description of the context by taking field notes. 11 , 14 Such observations allow the qualitative researcher not only to recognize the essence of a context but also to identify particular behavior patterns and meanings.

Observation can be participatory or nonparticipatory. With participant observation, a qualitative researcher becomes involved in the actual activity being studied. For example, an athletic training researcher interested in understanding the contextual influences and dynamics of patient interaction within the professional ranks might volunteer with a professional team during practices. During this time, the researcher could not only provide health care services (ie, participate in the setting) but also observe the natural setting to further understand the dynamics involved. Nonparticipatory involvement means that the researcher does not participate in the activity while obtaining data. Rather, he or she watches a phenomenon in its natural setting.

Interviews are conducted when a researcher needs to understand factors that cannot be observed. 8 For example, for a study conducted to gain insight into and understanding of why particular athletes play through pain, interviews would be necessary because the athlete's thoughts, feelings, and perceptions cannot be observed.

Interviews are also conducted when information about past events needs to be obtained. For example, a researcher investigating the professional socialization of intercollegiate athletic trainers may attempt to learn about the initial experiences and challenges they faced when first entering their work environment. Obviously, these experiences and challenges are not observable, so participants would need to be asked to reflect on these past events.

An interview can take many forms, including an unstructured, semistructured, or structured format. 3 , 12 Generally, however, a semistructured format is most commonly used 12 and directed by an interview guide. That is, based on the research question, an interview guide is designed to formulate a list of questions related to specific phenomena. A less structured interview guide is often preferred because it assumes that interviewees will explain, characterize, and define their contexts in unique ways. 3 Regardless of the type of interview conducted, the conversation is recorded (with the participant's permission) and transcribed. The data are then considered textual and the written words can be analyzed.

DATA ANALYSIS

Qualitative data analysis is interpretive in nature. Harris 15 reviewed the literature regarding interpretive research and identified 3 levels of interpretation that are necessary for drawing appropriate conclusions. First, the project must be grounded in the collective understandings of the culture created among the participants. Second, the project must include the researcher's insights. Third, the project must be well linked to other research. Harris 15 added that combining interpretations at each of these 3 levels into an integrated whole is paramount in qualitative research. The researcher interviews and observes participants (or specific behaviors if watching videotapes of social interactions) and then examines the data for meaning. We must make clear, however, that with qualitative research, the data analysis is a continuous and ongoing activity that occurs simultaneously with data collection. From the moment the first interview is conducted or the first observation is made, the researcher obtains a deeper understanding of the phenomenon being studied and may, accordingly, make modifications and adjustments to the data collection techniques.

Qualitative researchers have a preference for grounded theory, that is, developing theory based on the data obtained in a study. 16 According to Strauss and Corbin, 17 textual data are initially analyzed by creating concepts and categories. The researcher reads a sentence or paragraph and then gives this incident a name or label that represents it. These conceptual statements are then reviewed and grouped into categories according to their similarities. This is similar to Lincoln and Guba's 18 process of identifying units of data, such as sentences, paragraphs, or comments, that can provide information about a particular concept in and of itself. These “units of data” are then categorized according to their similarities with other units. The following is a useful sequence based on the literature 3 , 4 , 6 , 12 that helps a reader to understand how qualitative data are analyzed. Qualitative data analysis involves (1) identifying meaningful concepts (meaning condensation), (2) grouping similar concepts together (meaning categorization), (3) labeling groups of concepts (defining the categories), (4) developing theory, (5) negatively testing the theory, and (6) comparing the theory with the relevant literature.

Initially, the transcripts and observation notes are read and a participant's meaningful statements are identified, rephrased, and abridged. For example, if a student athletic trainer hypothetically suggested in an interview that he or she “spends a great deal of time each day having student-athletes tell them about their frustrations,” this could be labeled as “listening.” Therefore, meaning is condensed, and larger portions of text are reduced and made more succinct. 12 Essentially, the concepts identified are then considered to be units of data.

Once various concepts are identified and condensed, they are compared with one another. At this time, the like concepts are grouped together into categories. The various categories, or groups of concepts, are then given labels that describe the categories. For example, using the hypothetical situation above, if a researcher had several different concepts from interviews with student athletic trainers, such as “listening,” “giving advice,” and “empathizing,” these could be categorized as “student athletic trainers' social support schemes.” The researcher then examines the categories and interprets their relationship, subsequently creating a tentative theory. As Thomas and Nelson 19 stated, the researcher attempts to “merge” categories into a holistic portrayal of the phenomenon under investigation.

The generated theory, however, must then be negatively analyzed. This means that the generated theory is tested for its plausibility. For example, after conducting 3 interviews and observing student athletic trainers for 4 weeks, a researcher identified and documented a particular sequence of social support schemes displayed by the participants. It would be necessary for this researcher to investigate the experiences of other student athletic trainers in the same or similar contexts to determine whether the theory or explanatory concepts are applicable. Moreover, a negative case analysis involves being skeptical about findings and searching for alternative explanations that link the various categories. Once the theory is developed, it is then compared with the related literature.

Although the data analysis can be done by hand using concepts printed on note cards, many computerized data analysis programs are currently available to qualitative researchers. Examples include the NUD*IST (Non-numerical, Unstructured Data require ways of Indexing, Searching and Theorizing) program, produced by QSR International (Melbourne, Australia), and The Ethnograph, produced by Qualis Research Associates (Amherst, MA). These programs offer qualitative researchers a structured database to organize concepts and categories and quickly find units of data in the transcripts.

Qualitative research is based on human interest and actively seeks to fully understand human behavior by becoming close to those being studied to expose factors that may not be identified with instruments or surveys. 8 Moreover, qualitative research tends to humanize data, problems, and issues, 20 presupposing that a phenomenon cannot be understood without empathy and introspection. 8 The researcher, however, is the primary data collection and data analysis instrument and is capable of extreme sensitivity and flexibility with regard to thoughtfully examining and organizing the data. Quantitative research, alternatively, attempts to be objective through blind experiments and collecting data with instruments that do not rely on human sensitivity. 8 A qualitative researcher's intimate involvement with participants and data often prompts the questions of researcher bias and how the reader of a qualitative research study can trust the interpretation of data.

Although quantitative research would be concerned with aspects of validity and reliability of data collection and analysis, these terms are not typically used in qualitative research. Rather, qualitative researchers are concerned with the “trustworthiness” or “authenticity” of the study. Trustworthiness of a qualitative study can be established in many ways, including triangulation, 4 , 6 , 11 peer reviews, and member checks. 3

Triangulation refers to a researcher's cross-checking information from multiple perspectives. This can entail using different investigators, different methods (ie, observations and interviews), or even different data sources. 8 Using the previous example, if a researcher was gathering data related to student athletic trainer's social support schemes, it would be wise to interview not only student athletic trainers but also student athletes, supervising staff, and clinical educators. Thus, there are multiple sources from which to collect data and subsequently triangulate the findings to ensure that the findings are accurate and make sense in a given context.

Peer review requires that a highly skilled external researcher examine the transcripts, concepts, and categories generated from the study. The examination is performed to ensure that the study was performed in a logical manner and that the insights and discoveries uncovered in the investigation are credible. A member check refers to the qualitative researcher's sharing the initial results of the study with a few participants and asking them to examine the findings relative to their own experiences to ensure that the findings are plausible from the participants' perspectives.

Although quantitative studies concern themselves with sample size, this is not the case with qualitative research. Because a goal of quantitative studies is to attempt to generalize, large sample sizes are desirable. Qualitative research seeks to gain insight and understanding about particular phenomena, cases, processes, or programs. As such, qualitative research may be conducted with one participant or multiple participants, depending on the context or phenomenon under investigation.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND POSSIBILITIES IN ATHLETIC TRAINING

Many professions have affirmed the value and impact that qualitative inquiry can have on professional practice. In fact, many journals have committed to publishing qualitative research projects. Examples relative to athletic training include Qualitative Health Research, Social Science and Medicine, The Gerontologist, Family Medicine, Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, Advanced Nursing Science, 21 Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Sociology of Sport Journal, International Review of Sport Sociology, and the British Medical Journal. Although athletic training is largely a scientific field of study, we must recognize the potential promise qualitative research offers to help us further understand our professional roles in a social context.

The delivery of patient care is itself a social act that results in many interactions, which create shared meanings. 15 Athletic trainers associate with other professionals, patients, athletes, and administrators and, therefore, function in a larger society. Moreover, we cannot divorce ourselves from our context and the influences that affect us as health care providers. Consequently, we are likely to face critical influences and phenomena that affect the meaning we create. Qualitative research can facilitate a better understanding of phenomena and allow athletic trainers to better navigate their socioprofessional environments.

Arguments about whether quantitative or qualitative research has more merit have raged for many years 19 and have produced many debates and propositions. An either-or relationship, however, should not exist between qualitative and quantitative methods because, as we have discussed in this article, they answer different types of questions that facilitate an understanding of our professional roles and responsibilities. In many instances, a study can use both quantitative and qualitative methods in a mixed-methods approach. As an example, Hughes et al 22 used a mixed-methods approach to study the appeal of designer drinks among young people. These authors conducted group interviews (focus groups) to explore attitudes related to drinking and then used the qualitative results to inform the development of the questionnaire for the quantitative portion of the study. Furthermore, when a quantitative study uncovers a nuance or unexpected finding related to the human condition, a qualitative analysis could be integrated to gain a better understanding of the situation. The idea of combining methods, however, is not without debate. The multimethod approach is often contended because of the broad theoretical differences. 23

When both the quantitative and qualitative paradigms are understood, valued, and sometimes integrated, the breadth and depth of knowledge in athletic training can expand and positively influence the lives of patients, clinicians, educators, and student athletic trainers. We have written this article to provide an initial step toward a better understanding of the basic principles of qualitative research for the readership of the Journal of Athletic Training. For a more comprehensive understanding of the qualitative research paradigm, we direct those interested to investigate the references and suggested readings listed below.

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Qualitative Research in Sport Management

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Good qualitative research can help sport management researchers and industry professionals solve difficult problems and better understand their organisations, stakeholders and performance. Now in a fully revised and extended new edition, this book is a user-friendly introduction to qualitative methods in sport management. Covering the full research process from research planning to reporting results, this edition includes expanded coverage of cutting-edge areas including digital and social media research, critical realism, and social network analysis.

The book examines the reflective and interrogative processes required for developing effective qualitative research questions and includes a deeper discussion of ontology and epistemology in the light of today’s rapidly changing society. It takes the reader step-by-step through essential and emerging qualitative methods, from actor network theory and ethnography to computer-assisted data analysis and sampling typologies. Every chapter includes examples of real qualitative research, including shorter "research briefs" and extended case studies, reflecting the exciting qualitative research that is currently occurring in sport business and management, and highlighting the links between research and sport management practice.  

This is essential reading for courses in sport management, sport business, sport policy, sport marketing, sport media, and communications. It provides students, researchers, and practitioners with the knowledge and skills to undertake qualitative research while deepening their understanding of how the social world can be perceived and interpreted through a particular theoretical lens.

Useful online materials include recommended readings and PowerPoint slides.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part 1 | 56  pages, the context of sport management research, chapter 21 | 24  pages, the nature and usefulness of qualitative research for sport management, chapter 2 | 30  pages, research paradigms and methodology in qualitative sport management research, part 2 | 72  pages, planning the sport management 
research process, chapter 583 | 12  pages, sampling in qualitative research, chapter 4 | 24  pages, establishing reliability and validity in qualitative inquiry, chapter 5 | 18  pages, reflexivity in sport management research, chapter 6 | 16  pages, research ethics for qualitative sport management research, part 3 | 40  pages, foundations of sport management research, chapter 1307 | 38  pages, methods of data collection for sport management research, part 4 | 30  pages, analysing the sport management data, chapter 1708 | 28  pages, modes of analysis in sport management research, part 5 | 252  pages, paradigms used in sport management research, chapter 2009 | 36  pages, action research and sport management research, chapter 10 | 8  pages, deconstruction in sport management research, chapter 11 | 22  pages, case study in sport management research, chapter 12 | 18  pages, discourse and critical discourse analysis in sport management research, chapter 13 | 14  pages, ethnomethodology and sport management research, chapter 14 | 20  pages, ethnography and sport management research, chapter 15 | 24  pages, emerging ethnographies and sport management research, chapter 16 | 14  pages, gender theories and sport management research, chapter 17 | 22  pages, grounded theory and sport management research, chapter 18 | 16  pages, narrative inquiry in sport management research, chapter 19 | 18  pages, phenomenology and sport management research, chapter 20 | 38  pages, new directions for sport management research, part 6 | 28  pages, digital tools for qualitative research, chapter 45221 | 26  pages, social media research methods in sport management, part 7 | 38  pages, writing the sport management research report, chapter 48022 | 36  pages, research preparation and the sport management 
research report.

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Navigating sexual minority identity in sport: a qualitative exploration of sexual minority student-athletes in China

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Public Sports and Art Teaching, Hefei University, Hefei, China.
• 2 Department of Sport Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia.
• 3 Department of Sport Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia. [email protected].
• 4 Department of Marxism, West Anhui University, Luan, China.
• 5 Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia.
• 6 Department of Counsellor Education and Counselling Psychology, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia.
• PMID: 39182051
• PMCID: PMC11344944
• DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-19824-9

Background: Sexual minority student-athletes (SMSAs) face discrimination and identity conflicts in intercollegiate sport, impacting their participation and mental health. This study explores the perceptions of Chinese SMSAs regarding their sexual minority identities, aiming to fill the current gap in research related to non-Western countries.

Methods: A qualitative methodology was adopted, utilising the Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach with self-categorization theory as the theoretical framework. Participants were recruited through purposive and snowball sampling, and data were collected via semi-structured interviews, documents, and field notes. Sixteen former and current Chinese SMSAs participated in this study.

Results: The study reveals four themes: hidden truths, prioritisation of athlete identity, self-stereotyping, and attempt. The results revealed that while SMSAs were common in intercollegiate sport, their identities were often concealed and not openly discussed. The predominant focus on athlete identity in sport overshadowed their sexual minority identities. Additionally, SMSAs developed self-stereotypes that influenced their thoughts and behaviours. The non-heterosexual team atmosphere in women's teams led to the development of intimate relationships among teammates.

Conclusions: The findings from this study could be incorporated into existing sport policies to ensure the safe participation of SMSAs in Chinese intercollegiate sports. This research offers valuable insights for the development and implementation of inclusive policies. Future research in China could investigate the attitudes of coaches and heterosexual student-athletes toward sexual minority identities to inform targeted interventions.

Keywords: Identity conflicts; Interpretive phenomenological analysis; Mental health; Self-categorization theory; Team interaction.

© 2024. The Author(s).

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no competing interests.

Data Analysis Procedure. Adapted from…

Data Analysis Procedure. Adapted from Smith et al. (74)

• Gallup. A STUDY OF NCAA, STUDENT-ATHLETES. : Undergraduate Experiences and Post-College Outcomes. 2020.
• Graupensperger S, Panza MJ, Budziszewski R, Evans MB. Growing into us: trajectories of Social Identification with College Sport teams Predict Subjective Well-Being. Appl Psychol Health Well Being. 2020;12(3):787–807. 10.1111/aphw.12207 - DOI - PMC - PubMed
• Gohn LA, Albin GR. Understanding college student subpopulations: a guide for student affairs professionals. NASPA Student Affairs Administrators In HIgher Education; 2006.
• American Psychological Association. APA Task Force on Psychological Practice with Sexual Minority Persons. Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Sexual Minority Persons. American Psychologist. 2021. - PubMed
• Team DC. 2023 Scholarship Recipients-Team DC awarded the following seven student-athletes with scholarships in 2023: Team DC; 2023 [cited 2023 July, 22]. https://teamdc.org/scholarships/
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Gender in Sports: Challenges, Impacts and Pathways to Equity

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Gender bias in sports is a longstanding issue that affects athletes and women in leadership positions across all levels of competition. Despite significant progress in gender equity initiatives, disparities persist in media coverage, funding, sponsorship, coaching opportunities, and leadership roles. The bias not only impacts the visibility and financial support for women but also influences their psychological well-being, career longevity, and overall experience in sports. This Research Topic aims to address the critical problem of gender bias in sports. It seeks to provide a platform for analyzing the effects of gender bias on athletes, leadership positions, and sports organizations. It aims to explore the role of media and cultural perceptions in perpetuating gender disparities, as well as evaluate and highlight effective policies and initiatives that have successfully promoted gender equity. By gathering diverse perspectives and evidence-based research, this collection strives to identify practical strategies for overcoming gender bias and promoting inclusivity within sports environments. The ultimate goal is to foster dialogue, inform policy-making, and inspire actionable solutions that will contribute to reducing gender disparities and advancing equity in sports at all levels. This Research Topic invites contributions that explore various aspects of gender bias in sports, including but not limited to: • Disparities in media representation and coverage • Inequities in funding, sponsorships, and resource allocation • Gender differences in coaching opportunities and leadership roles • Psychological impacts of gender bias on athletes • Economic analysis of gender disparities in professional sports, the Olympic Games, and the Paralympic Games • Intersectional perspectives on gender bias We welcome all types of manuscripts and papers focusing on underrepresented groups, innovative solutions, and practical applications are particularly encouraged.

Keywords : Gender bias, sports equity, professional sports, amateur sports, collegiate sports, economic impact, intersectionality, media representation, psychological effects, policy initiatives, pay gap, leadership

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Navigating sexual minority identity in sport: a qualitative exploration of sexual minority student-athletes in China

• Meng Xiang 1 , 2 ,
• Kim Geok Soh 2 ,
• Yingying Xu 3 ,
• Seyedali Ahrari 4 &
• Noor Syamilah Zakaria 5  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2304 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Sexual minority student-athletes (SMSAs) face discrimination and identity conflicts in intercollegiate sport, impacting their participation and mental health. This study explores the perceptions of Chinese SMSAs regarding their sexual minority identities, aiming to fill the current gap in research related to non-Western countries.

A qualitative methodology was adopted, utilising the Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach with self-categorization theory as the theoretical framework. Participants were recruited through purposive and snowball sampling, and data were collected via semi-structured interviews, documents, and field notes. Sixteen former and current Chinese SMSAs participated in this study.

The study reveals four themes: hidden truths, prioritisation of athlete identity, self-stereotyping, and attempt. The results revealed that while SMSAs were common in intercollegiate sport, their identities were often concealed and not openly discussed. The predominant focus on athlete identity in sport overshadowed their sexual minority identities. Additionally, SMSAs developed self-stereotypes that influenced their thoughts and behaviours. The non-heterosexual team atmosphere in women’s teams led to the development of intimate relationships among teammates.

Conclusions

The findings from this study could be incorporated into existing sport policies to ensure the safe participation of SMSAs in Chinese intercollegiate sports. This research offers valuable insights for the development and implementation of inclusive policies. Future research in China could investigate the attitudes of coaches and heterosexual student-athletes toward sexual minority identities to inform targeted interventions.

Peer Review reports

Collegiate sport serves as a conduit for hope, competition, learning, success, and enhanced well-being for students [ 1 , 2 ]. Within this context, situated at the intersection of student-athlete and sexual minority identities [ 3 ], sexual minority student-athletes (SMSAs) experience more challenges than their heterosexual counterparts. Sexual minority constitutes a group of individuals whose sexual and affectual orientation, romantic attraction, or sexual characteristics differ from that of heterosexuals. Sexual minority persons are inclusive of lesbian, gay, bi+, and asexual-identified individuals [ 4 ].

In an effort to enhance the support of SMSAs in sport, Team DC, the association of sexual minorities sport club, awarded seven SMSAs the 2023 Team DC College Scholarship [ 5 ]. Besides the Team DC scholarship, there are the Rambler Scholarship, US Lacrosse SMSAs Inclusion Scholarship, NCAA Women’s Athletics Scholarship and Ryan O’Callaghan Foundation [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. These scholarships were set up to make sport a more welcoming and safer environment for SMSAs. In particular, the Sexual Minority Scholarship echoes the International Olympic Committee’s framework of equity, inclusion, and non-discrimination, which states that everyone has the right to participate in sport without discrimination and in a manner that respects their health, safety and dignity [ 9 , 10 ].

Despite efforts by educational and sport organisations to foster inclusivity, research shows that the sport environment remains hostile to sexual minority individuals [ 11 , 12 ]. In intercollegiate sport, empirical evidence points to persistent negative attitudes [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ], which are expressed through marginalisation, exclusion, use of homophobic language, discrimination, and harassment [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. SMSAs frequently confront the difficult choice of disclosing their identity, often opting for concealment. Denison et al. found that SMSAs who disclose their identity to their teams may face increased discrimination [ 21 ]. Pariera et al. also observed deep-rooted fears among SMSAs of being marginalised by their teams upon revealing their sexual orientation [ 22 ]. Consequently, the hostile environment led to lower participation rates among sexual minority youth compared to their heterosexual counterparts [ 23 ].

In China, there is a lack of clear public policies related to the sexual minority population [ 24 ]. Despite homosexuality being removed from the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders-3 in 2001 [ 25 ]. China’s stance towards sexual minority issues remains ambiguous. Many scholars describe this attitude as “no approval, no disapproval, and no promotion” [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Due to the lack of legal protection, sexual minorities frequently encounter discrimination. A Chinese national survey revealed that only 5.1% of sexual minority individuals felt comfortable being open about their gender and sexual identity in China [ 30 ]. This discrimination is particularly severe among Chinese sexual minority youth, who are at higher risk of bullying in school and college [ 31 , 32 ]. These youths face childhood victimisation [ 33 , 34 , 35 ], which heightens their risk of mental and behavioural health issues [ 36 , 37 , 38 ], including non-medical use of prescription drugs [ 39 ], depression [ 40 , 41 ], and suicide [ 42 ].

While sports participation is crucial for the well-being of sexual minority individuals, research on the sports participation of sexual minority youth in China is limited. The literature highlights a significant gap in understanding the status and circumstances of SMSAs in China. Most existing studies focus on Western populations [ 43 , 44 , 45 ], overlooking the unique sociocultural interactions affecting SMSAs in non-Western contexts, making it challenging for China to apply these findings. Furthermore, the lack of reliable research on the interactions between sexual minorities and institutions in Chinese higher education hampers a comprehensive understanding of SMSAs’ situations. This research gap impedes the development of effective interventions to foster inclusivity. Persistent discrimination and inadequate protective policies underscore the urgent need for academic, policy, and practical advancements to support sexual minorities in China [ 46 ]. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore SMSAs’ perceptions of their sexual minority identity in Chinese sports, providing insights to guide the creation of supportive educational and organisational strategies.

Homonegativity and discrimination in sport

Homonegativity refers to any prejudicial attitude or discriminatory behaviour directed towards an individual because of their homosexual orientation [ 47 ]. Compared to the more common term “homophobia,” [ 48 ] “homonegativity” more accurately describes negative attitudes towards homosexuality [ 49 ] because the fear is not irrational but is learned from parents, peers, teachers, coaches, and the daily interaction environment [ 50 ]. Sport context is an integral part of society, and an extensive body of research has consistently demonstrated the presence of homonegativity in sport [ 12 , 21 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 ].

Homonegativity can manifest in forms such as verbal harassment, physical violence, or discriminatory behaviours. The “Out on the Fields” survey, conducted in 2015, represents the first large-scale international study focusing on homophobia in sports [ 60 ]. Participants were from six countries: Canada, Australia, Ireland, the United States, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. It revealed extensive discrimination in sport, with a high percentage of gay men and lesbians experiencing verbal slander, bullying, threats, and physical assault. The OUTSPORT project, completed in 2019 and funded by the European Union, is the first comprehensive EU-wide study on homophobia and transphobia in sport. The project collected data from over 5500 sexual minority individuals across all 28 EU member countries [ 61 ]. The results revealed that a significant portion of participants faced adverse experiences in sport contexts related to their sexual orientation and gender identity, including verbal abuse, structural discrimination, physical boundary crossing, and violence. An overwhelming majority of respondents (92.9%) view homophobia and transphobia in sport as current issues. Additionally, 20% of respondents reported avoiding participation in sport due to concerns about their sexual orientation or gender identity, while 16% of active participants experienced at least one related negative incident in the past year. Notably, male student-athletes exhibited higher levels of homophobic attitudes compared to their female counterparts and non-physical education students [ 15 , 16 , 62 ]. Conversely, female athletes reported experiencing less fear of exclusion and a more inclusive team environment [ 22 , 63 , 64 ], highlighting significant gender disparities in homonegativity in sport.

Group and individual identity

The distinct team interaction inherent in sport may enhance or support expressions of homonegativity and discrimination, as Social Identity Theory posits that negative beliefs about certain groups may develop group identity [ 65 , 66 , 67 ]. This phenomenon is particularly noticeable in intercollegiate sport, where a strong emphasis on physical attributes and abilities often results in prejudices against those who deviate from established norms [ 16 ]. Such discrimination and mistreatment of SMSAs frequently stem from their teammates and coaches. Many SMSAs choose to conceal their sexual orientation due to fear of ostracism [ 60 ], with team members often identified as the primary perpetrators of discrimination [ 61 ].

Therefore, navigating sexual identity within intercollegiate sport is challenging for SMSAs, as their minority status becomes a focal point, impacting their overall experience [ 68 , 69 ]. They encounter a unique psychological and emotional burden, striving to reconcile societal norms and expectations with their true selves. This constant negotiation and management of their identity across different contexts further complicates their experiences, frequently leading to difficulties in maintaining authenticity [ 19 ]. Therefore, SMSAs in intercollegiate sport face intricate challenges in balancing their authentic identity with societal norms, significantly impacting their experience and sense of self.

Theoretical framework

Self-categorisation theory (SCT), an extension of Social Identity Theory, provides a valuable perspective for examining the perceptions of SMSAs in China, focusing on intragroup processes and individual navigation of personal and social identities [ 70 , 71 ]. Key principles of SCT, including self-categorisation, salience, depersonalisation, and individuality [ 67 ], are instrumental in understanding how SMSAs navigate their sexual identities within the confines of sport norms. Applying SCT, this study could explore the complex interplay of intragroup relations and identity processes among SMSAs in the Chinese sport context, underscoring how contextual factors distinctly shape their identity.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to explore SMSAs’ perceptions of their sexual minority identity within the Chinese sports context and understand how this identity influences their participation in sports. By illuminating the specific challenges and issues related to sexual minority identity in Chinese intercollegiate sports, this study provides a deeper understanding of the experiences of sexual minorities in this field.

Research design

This study was conducted with the interpretivist paradigm, which emphasises understanding the subjective experiences and meanings that individuals assign to their world. It posits that reality is not objective but is constructed through individual perceptions and social interactions [ 72 ]. Given the aim of exploring the perceptions of sexual minority identity in sport from SMSAs’ perspectives, a qualitative research approach is appropriate. In line with the purpose of the study, the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was adopted in this study, an approach aimed at understanding people’s lived experiences and how they make sense of these experiences in the context of their personal and social worlds [ 73 ]. IPA research encompasses phenomenology, hermeneutics, and idiography and emphasises the personal significance of self-reflection among individuals with a shared experience in a specific context [ 74 ]. Additionally, IPA is particularly suitable for research focusing on identity and self-awareness [ 75 ]. The features and focus of IPA are consistent with the purpose of this study. Therefore, IPA was considered a suitable approach to explore the SMSAs’ perceptions of their sexual minority identity within the sport context in China.

Researcher characteristics and reflexivity

During the data collection phase of this study, the first researcher was a Ph.D. candidate and had obtained her Ph.D. by the time of this manuscript’s submission. Her doctoral committee continuously supervised the research. The first researcher’s doctoral committee members are proficient in qualitative research. The first researcher and the second coder have received systematic qualitative training, are skilled in qualitative analysis software (NVivo), and have published empirical studies using the IPA approach. Although none of the research team members were SMSAs, the first researcher and the second coder maintained long-term contact with SMSAs through their involvement in sport teams. The first researcher was a former student-athlete and is currently working as a coach. Given her background, she has had extensive time to interact with and understand SMSAs within student teams.

Participants and procedures

Purposive and snowball sampling methods were employed to recruit a homogeneous sample for this study, as recommended by Smith and Nizza [ 73 ]. Following approval from Universiti Putra Malaysia’s Human Research Review Committee, the researcher initially reached out to SMSAs within her network, subsequently expanding outreach through social media to reach a broader pool of potential participants. The participants were selected based on specific inclusion criteria (Table  1 ), ensuring relevance to the study’s focus. Of the 22 individuals contacted, 16 agreed to participate, while six individuals declined participation due to concerns regarding potential exposure. The sample included a diverse representation of sexual minority subgroups: one asexual man, four bisexual women, three gay men, and eight lesbians. Given the relatively low prevalence of asexual individuals [ 76 , 77 ], we only had one participant from this subgroup. Strict confidentiality measures were enforced, with participants assigned pseudonyms and their college affiliations omitted for anonymity. The demographic details of the participants are outlined in Table  2 .

In phenomenological research, the focus is on rich individual experiences rather than data saturation [ 78 ]. Similarly, IPA research aims to explore participants’ personal and social worlds through detailed, in-depth analysis [ 79 ]. Smith and Nizza [ 73 ] also highlighted that in IPA research, sample size is less crucial because of the emphasis on detailed analysis in small, homogeneous samples. Therefore, the richness of data and the depth of insight into each participant’s experience are more important than the number of participants or reaching data saturation. This study utilised IPA’s in-depth analytical approach with sixteen participants to provide detailed data. This methodological approach allows for a comprehensive exploration of individual experiences, aligning with the study’s objectives.

Data collection

Data for this study were collected through semi-structured interviews (Appendix A), allowing participants to choose the mode, time, and location, including face-to-face or online sessions on Chinese social networks. Each interview’s length is detailed in Table  2 , with an average duration of 63 min. Before each interview, participants signed informed consent forms following a detailed briefing on the study’s purpose and procedures. Given the sensitive nature of the research, the interviews were conducted solely between the researcher and the participant to ensure a safe and comfortable environment, fostering open and honest communication.

The methods of data collection exhibited some qualitative differences. In face-to-face interviews, participants were often cautious and hesitant to share personal experiences. Conversely, online interviews proved more effective, as participants felt more relaxed, leading to quicker rapport and greater openness. This difference likely stems from the reduced perceived risk of exposure in an online setting. Due to the clear objectives of the study and the structured interview guide, there were no differences between the data from current SMSAs and former SMSAs.

Notably, one participant provided data through written essays instead of a semi-structured interview due to concerns about exposure and discomfort. After discussing the matter, the participant agreed to respond to interview questions in written form. The first researcher sent the interview questions to the participant, who then provided written responses. Follow-up questions were asked based on these initial responses, resulting in four sets of essay responses. This approach, which aligns with the conventions of phenomenological research [ 80 ], allowed the participant to express their experiences comfortably. The essay data were analysed alongside the semi-structured interview data, with common themes identified across all responses.

Documents and field notes supplemented the data collection. Documents included photographs, videos, and diaries. With participant consent, these documents were analysed for relevance to the research purpose. Field notes captured contextual information during both face-to-face and online interviews, including keywords and participants’ pauses and intonations, with immediate elaboration post-interview to avoid biases [ 81 , 82 ]. These detailed notes contextualised data analysis [ 74 ] and contributed to the research’s credibility.

Data analysis

The data analysis in this study followed a seven-step process aligned with IPA research guidelines and contemporary IPA terminology. The data analysis procedure is depicted in Fig.  1 . The IPA analysis is iterative and inductive [ 83 ], involving the organisation of data into a structured format for easy tracking through various stages – from initial exploratory notes on transcripts to the development of empirical statements, theme clustering, and final group theme structure. The theoretical framework was incorporated at the final stage of empirical theme development.

To enhance the study’s validity, the first author invited another Ph.D. candidate to participate in the data analysis process. After the interview recordings were translated into transcripts using audio software, the first researcher listened to the recordings repeatedly to correct the transcripts. The second coder reviewed the recordings to ensure the transcriptions were accurate and verbatim. The first author employed NVivo software (released in March 2020) for coding, and the second coder utilised manual coding. All data were analysed in Chinese to maintain linguistic integrity and then translated into English for theme presentation.

Data Analysis Procedure. Adapted from Smith et al. ( 74 )

The procedures of this study adhered to the COREQ Checklist [ 84 ] (Appendix B) and the IPA Quality Evaluation Guide [ 85 ] to ensure rigour. The research met the good quality requirements for IPA studies as outlined by Smith [ 85 ] (Table  3 ). Throughout the research, emphasis was placed on internal validity, external validity, and reliability to maintain the study’s rigour and quality. The methods employed to address these aspects are summarised in Table  4 .

This study explored SMSAs’ perceptions of sexual minority identity within intercollegiate sport in China. From the perspective of SCT, the results uncovered four key themes from SMSA’s team-based interactive experiences. The research themes, along with their corresponding sub-themes and occurrences, are presented in Table  5 .

Hidden truths

The hidden truths refer to facts, scenarios, or knowledge that are not commonly known or readily available. In this study, the existence of SMSAs in intercollegiate sport was undeniable, yet it remained concealed due to the prevailing lack of transparency.

SMSAs are common in sport

This research uncovered the extensive existence of SMSAs in Chinese sport. Almost all participants acknowledged the ubiquity of sexual minorities in sport, with 12 out of the 16 participants specifically highlighting the presence of SMSAs in collegiate sport:

I think everyone is generally aware of sexual minorities; all people are aware of them to a greater or lesser extent. It is generally agreed that the existence of sexual minorities is a common phenomenon in modern society, and even more so in Sport, as anyone involved in sport knows that (Adam).

Participants frequently described the presence of SMSAs in intercollegiate sport, using terms like “widespread”, “common”, “normal”, and “quite many”. Several participants also provided specific details about the number of SMSAs in their respective teams. Jackie remarked, “At that time, half of my teammates were lesbians” (Jackie). Similarly, Zoe noted the significant presence of SMSAs in her team, “I think it (the number of SMSAs) was almost half of the team at that time. But I don’t know about the senior players; almost half of our junior players were SMSAs” (Zoe).

Silent identity

Participants noted the prevalence of SMSAs in sport but also emphasised the difficulty of openly discussing sexual minority identity in this context. They described the sport environment as reserved and lacking open conversations about SMSAs and their experiences.

The reticent nature of sport teams regarding sexual minority identity was evident in their attitudes. William observed, “I feel like most of my teammates just don’t take a stand. They don’t want to make a statement about SMSAs. Nor did they say they supported it or didn’t support it” (William). Similarly, Mia considered sexual minority identity as a personal issue, inappropriate for open discussion.

No one wants to ask or discuss this openly…we live in a very conservative environment all the time, and none of this content is something that teammates should be concerned about, and people would feel offended if you don’t handle it well (Mia).

Some SMSAs viewed avoiding discussions on sexual minorities in sport as respectful to teammates, aiming for a comfortable, stress-free environment. Joy said, “We came here to play, right? I don’t think any of the other players want to feel phased by who you are” (Joy). Mia echoed this sentiment:

…in team training, the game is the game, and I rarely bring other emotions into it…. In the company of most of our teammates, we don’t interact with each other in that way. It’s probably a default rule that respect is distance, I guess (Mia).

Charlotte, involved in volleyball and basketball, recounted a teammate’s public derogation due to her sexual minority identity, an incident not openly addressed by the team. She perceived sexual identity as a “taboo” topic. The narratives revealed a cautious approach among SMSAs towards expressing their sexual minority identity in sport. They felt compelled to carefully manage their sexual orientation, minimising its disclosure. This hesitancy likely stemmed from the existing reticence and limited acceptance of SMSAs in sport, fostering a sense of invisibility and concern over potential negative consequences.

Prioritisation of athlete identity

The theme of prioritisation of athlete identity suggests that for SMSAs, their identity as an athlete may play a more prominent or influential role in shaping their self-conception compared to their sexual minority identity.

Be an athlete

Several participants believed their primary role as student-athletes was to engage in sport, and they valued this aspect of their identity significantly. Joy expressed this sentiment, “I love volleyball very much … I don’t care much about relationships; I just love volleyball, and I think we are all here to do this, and nothing else matters. You don’t need to stress about it (sexual minority identity)” (Joy).

Emma echoed a similar perspective, noting, “I think my teammates are very professional; our program requires a high technical standard, and we spend most of our time training; other than that, things don’t seem that important” (Emma). When queried about the importance of sexual minority identity, she responded, “Yes, at least not concerning sport performance, or maybe it will have a bad effect” (Emma). Additionally, some participants felt that in the context of sport, sexual minority identity might be sidelined. Adam commented:

“We don’t share it (sexual minority identity) unless someone asks. We’re a team first, and then we’re individuals, and for me, I’m important personally, but in the team, we all probably need to sacrifice some of ourselves to make the team more united and stronger” (Adam).

Participants’ views as both student-athletes and sexual minorities highlighted contrasts in the intercollegiate sport environment. Their student-athlete identity was key in shaping self-perception and fostering a sense of community, while their sexual minority identity was often marginalised in aspects of interpersonal relations, team support, and self-identity development.

Sport performance first norms

In team sport, leaders are crucial in creating inclusive spaces for SMSAs and setting behavioural and attitudinal standards, including those towards SMSAs. In this study, some participants believed that coaches’ criteria for acceptance of sexual minority individuals or intra-team romantic relationships were based on athletic performance.

Some coaches firmly believe that team relationships negatively impact team performance and, therefore, strictly prohibit romantic relationships between teammates. Joy recalled,

She couldn’t accept that… she thinks being an athlete like that is ridiculous. It would make a mess; her team would be in a mess. She said you two are dating and that playing will affect your emotions, which means she meant to say there is no way I can treat another girl as a normal teammate… (Joy).

In contrast, some coaches adopt a more tolerant attitude. Jackie’s coach believes that if the team’s overall performance is not affected, issues such as sexual orientation or team relationships can be ignored. Jackie stated, “My coach is male and old, but he should know what’s going on, especially since our captain has dated several teammates and the coach pretends not to know. He would only care if we were winning games” (Jackie).

Whether it instructs prohibition or an indifferent attitude, both narratives reflect that the team’s norms for inclusivity are based on sport performance. These norms also influence how SMSAs assess their own sexual minority identity within the team, as Adam said:

As of now, I have someone in the team that I have a crush on and haven’t dated. Maybe if he and I argued over training or a game, it would affect the performance of the team and the relationship between teammates…. I don’t think I could let that happen (Adam).

The participants’ narratives emphasise how the “Sports Performance First” norms influence the attitudes and behaviours of coaches and SMSAs within the team. These norms not only shape the team culture but also profoundly affect how SMSAs navigate their identities and relationships in the team environment.

However, the excessive focus on sport performance highlights the athletic identity of student-athletes while neglecting their other identities, especially those of sexual minorities. This singular focus leads to the neglect of the personal needs and diverse identities of athletes. Although these measures may seem to ensure the overall performance of the team, they overlook the psychological health and holistic development needs of the individuals.

Self-stereotyping

Self-stereotyping denotes the tendency of SMSAs to describe themselves using stereotypical attributes in the sport context. These descriptions frequently align with stereotypical perceptions prevalent in the external environment. SMSAs tend to be perceived as having specific physical traits or behavioural tendencies.

Specific physical traits

Sophia provided an illustrative example of self-stereotyping through her personal experience. She commented:

In the beginning, I would think that if you are an SMSA, you must fit some characteristics. For example, at that time, I saw some lesbians in my team who had short hair or wore baggy t-shirts; I was a bit frustrated by my long hair and feminine appearance…and I felt that I might not quite fit those criteria. So, then I cut my hair and even wore a wrapping bra to the training ground (Sophia). Sophia’s narrative underscores how the pressure to conform to certain physical traits led her to change her appearance to fit the stereotypical image of an SMSA within the sport context.

Behavioural tendencies

In addition to physical traits, SMSAs also feel compelled to conform to certain behavioural tendencies that are stereotypically associated with SMSAs. Zoe explained, “Because of who I am (T), I felt I should have to perform stronger, so I put up with much training…. I felt I should be there to protect the other players; if I were vulnerable, I would look down on myself” (Zoe). This indicates a sense of obligation among some female SMSAs to embody strength, aligning with the stereotypical image of female SMSAs in sport. Conversely, male SMSAs in men’s teams often faced stereotypes of being fragile, weak, or exhibiting feminine traits. Royal noted that behaviours of some male SMSAs, like engaging in non-sport-related banter, led to gossip and negative perceptions within men’s sport. To avoid these stereotypes, Royal aimed to mimic the mannerisms of heterosexual athletes, as he explained:

I try to avoid being close to the team’s prominent male SMSAs and try to stay out of related conversations; I don’t want to be a standard gay; I want to have the same college life as the rest of the team (heterosexuality) (Royal).

Stereotypes in sport often forced SMSAs into roles incongruent with their authentic identities, significantly impacting their self-expression and identity. The pressure to conform to societal norms in sport settings created internal conflicts for SMSAs, challenging their ability to maintain their true sense of self.

This theme addresses situations where student-athletes engage in intra-team intimacy or mimic being SMSAs in sport. This attempt has two key elements: prolonged contact leading to intimacy and influence from sexual minority teammates.

Prolonged contact leading to intimacy

Participants noted that extensive training and competition schedules in sport fostered close bonds among team members. Lucas shared, “When we were preparing for the tournament, we trained together every morning and evening…the game spanned for almost a month, and after that, we felt as close as family to our teammates” (Lucas). Similarly, Ruby pointed out, “Back then, we were training every afternoon until late at night; it was quite hard (the training was very strenuous) … it lasted for six months” (Ruby). These prolonged interactions sometimes led to the development of more profound attractions among student-athletes.

“I think we had many moments of trust and intimacy together on the field that built up some heartfelt feelings. These feelings made me feel emotions beyond that of a teammate…. Then I realised that gender might not be so important because it’s hard to build that kind of relationship in a typical romance” (Savannah).

Influence from sexual minority teammates

Participants also described how interactions with sexual minority teammates led them to explore their own sexual identities, as illustrated by Ava’s recounting of her initial same-gender relationship experience:

That time we went out to a tournament, and I found that four of my teammates, three of them were lesbians…we didn’t have games at night, so they had been talking to their girlfriends every night on the phone, and I just felt as if that was not too bad. Probably influenced by them, I got a girlfriend at that tournament as well…. Even though we broke up when we returned, I could accept girls (Ava).

Mia described a similar experience:

There were some lesbians in my team, and then it just seemed natural that I got close to one of them…. Well, I was thinking about whether that relationship would affect the team. But then I found out that there were other couples on the team. So, I feel like I wasn’t doing anything wrong (Mia).

The phenomenon highlights the significant role of peer influence in team settings. When individuals are around many teammates in same-gender relationships, it fosters an environment that normalises such relationships. Notably, this influence is not coercive but stems from observing and interacting with teammates who are comfortable with their sexual orientations. This environment helps individuals feel accepted and more confident in exploring their identities and relationships.

This study explored the perceptions of SMSAs regarding their sexual identity within intercollegiate sport in China. Its importance lies in its contribution to understanding the complex realities of SMSAs in China, an area that has lacked depth in the literature. By reaffirming the necessity of examining these athletes’ experiences, this study reveals the intricate conflict between adhering to team norms and expressing personal characteristics within the context of the Chinese social and cultural background.

The results show that SMSAs are a recognised reality in Chinese intercollegiate sport, consistent with findings from Western countries. While precise figures of sexual minorities in sport may vary across countries, it is acknowledged that they are present at all competitive levels, from school and college sport to the professional sphere [ 22 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 ]. Although no national census on sexual minorities in China or in sports environments exists, related research indicates that many college and university students self-identify as sexual minorities. For instance, an online survey conducted across 26 colleges and universities in 10 Chinese provinces found that over 8% of students identify as sexual minorities [ 36 ]. Additionally, another national survey revealed that nearly a quarter of college students identify as non-heterosexual [ 92 ]. Recognising and addressing the unique challenges faced by sexual minority youth, who make up a notable percentage of the student population, is essential for sport and educational institutions.

Despite the apparent prevalence of SMSAs, the study confirms that their identities often remain hidden in the context of Chinese intercollegiate sport. This can be attributed to two main reasons: First is the concern about discrimination if exposed. Chinese sexual minorities frequently report experiencing abuse or discrimination in families, schools, and workplaces [ 93 ]. Additionally, conversion therapies and discriminatory counselling practices persist in mental health services [ 94 ], creating an environment where discrimination is a significant concern, thereby reducing the likelihood of SMSAs coming out in the sports environment. The second reason is the constraint of traditional Chinese culture. The dominant Confucian culture in China emphasises harmony, internalised homonegativity, and conformity [ 95 , 96 ], often at the expense of individual expression and identity development. This cultural backdrop influences how sexual minorities perceive their own identities [ 97 ] and creates an ideological constraint that leads to social rejection and resistance towards sexual minorities [ 98 ], thereby reducing the visibility of sexual orientation-related topics in the Chinese sport context.

Moreover, SMSAs in China often prioritise their athlete identity over their sexual minority identity, influenced by the attitudes of team leaders. This tendency is reinforced by coaches who primarily focus on the biological sex of athletes and lack training or understanding related to sexual minority issues [ 99 ]. Consequently, the Chinese coaches’ lack of knowledge about sex and sexual orientation exacerbates the silence surrounding sexual minority identities in the Chinese collegiate sport environment and intensifies the identity conflict for SMSAs. Emphasising athletic performance is central in sport but should not overshadow the holistic development of student-athletes. McCavanagh and Cadaret [ 100 ] noted that student-athletes might face challenges in reconciling various aspects of their identity in a heteronormative sport context. The suppression of sexual minority identity can lead to isolation from potential support systems that nurture positive sexual and gender identities. Prioritising athletic success over broader student development in sport departments limits growth opportunities for all students, including SMSAs. Chavez et al. [ 101 ] emphasised that student development requires recognising and valuing diversity, suggesting that a singular focus on athletic prowess can diminish the benefits of diversity among student-athletes. Embracing diversity is not only a personal journey but also one that can enhance the collective experience within sport settings.

In addition, self-stereotyping within SCT involves aligning one’s self-concept with the characteristics of valued social categories [ 102 ]. Latrofa [ 103 ] suggests that members of low-status groups, like SMSAs in sport, may self-stereotype to align more closely with their group, reflecting recognition of lower status and self-perception through peers. This study revealed SMSAs shape their self-identity based on the attitudes prevalent in their sport environment, with influences from peers and coaches being internalised as personal attitudes [ 104 ]. Such self-stereotyping supports maintaining a favourable social identity and adhering to group norms but can reinforce negative stereotypes and prejudices within sport.

Internalising stereotypes may lead SMSAs to develop prejudices against themselves and others, perpetuating discrimination. It can also hinder individual development, impacting self-esteem and confidence. For example, aligning with negative stereotypes could cause SMSAs to doubt their worth and capabilities, affecting emotional well-being and satisfaction. Liu and Song’s [ 105 ] survey of Chinese college students illustrated the direct impact of gender self-stereotypes on life satisfaction, highlighting the significant effects of self-stereotyping on individual well-being.

Furthermore, in the context of traditional and reserved Chinese culture, intercollegiate sport offers a relatively free and open space for sexual minority women. The results of this study suggest that the visibility of sexual minority women in teams and the long time spent together allow these athletes to explore and establish intimate relationships. These results are similar to findings in Spanish studies [ 103 ], which highlighted the protective and liberating role of sports teams in the sexual exploration of female sexual minority athletes. Research by Organista and Kossakowski on Polish female footballers [ 106 ] and Xiong and Guo [ 96 ] on Chinese women’s basketball teams also revealed a climate of non-heteronormativity in women’s sport. These climates provide a sanctuary from heterosexual pressures, allowing sexual minority athletes to engage in sport free from traditional constraints. Such environments help female sexual minority athletes navigate and subvert heteronormative norms by cultivating supportive subcultural networks within their teams.

This study addresses the lack of in-depth research on the experiences of SMSAs in Chinese intercollegiate sport. It fills the gap by exploring the complex realities of SMSAs, focusing on their identity conflicts and the influence of the Chinese social and cultural background. Specifically, this study provides valuable insights that align with SCT [ 71 ]. This study addresses a notable gap in the existing literature regarding sexual minority sport participation, as rarely have these perceptions been explored. Drawing from the lens of SCT, the results of this study revealed several valuable insights into how their sexual minority identity impacts their participation in sport. These findings not only enhance our understanding of how SCT applies to the sport experiences of sexual minority individuals but also contribute to the advancement of SCT in research on sexual minority sport participation. The themes uncovered in this study closely align with central SCT concepts such as identity salience, self-stereotyping, and depersonalisation, illuminating the ways SMSAs comprehend and express their sexual minority identity within the intercollegiate sport context. SCT, with its focus on both intragroup and intergroup relations within the multifaceted construct of the self, offers valuable insights into the complexities of SMSAs’ self-perceptions and the intricacies involved in developing and manifesting their identities in the realm of sport.

Based on the results, more effort needs to be put into understanding sexual minority identities in intercollegiate sport. By examining the perspectives and experiences of SMSAs, we can gain insights into the interactions and influences of sexual minority individuals in the sport context. The interplay between an individual’s self-perception and situational dynamics results in a self-identity that mirrors the collective. In addition, the prevalent pressures and normative prejudices inherent in the sport system significantly influence their self-identity. Therefore, valuing SMSAs’ understanding of their self-identity shows respect for each person’s differences and rights. We hope the findings will be incorporated into existing sport policies to promote inclusivity and ensure safe participation for sexual minority students. To encourage and support the full development of SMSAs, college athletics and related institutions should prioritise understanding and respecting their perceptions of their sexual minority identity. By doing so, institutions can create a more inclusive and supportive environment that acknowledges and addresses the unique challenges faced by SMSAs.

Nevertheless, caution should be exercised when generalizing the findings, especially for subgroups with low representation, such as asexual individuals. While the study provides valuable insights into SMSAs’ perceptions of their sexual minority identity within the Chinese sport context, the limited number of asexual participants means their unique perspectives may not be fully captured. Therefore, these findings may not fully represent all sexual minority subgroups.

Future research could focus on exploring the perceptions and experiences among various sexual minority subgroups within sport participation in China. Additionally, considering the cultural diversity across China’s vast geographic regions, it would be valuable to examine how SMSAs perceive their minority identity in different cultural contexts. Given the scarcity of related studies in China, it is also important to survey other stakeholders in the sport environment, such as coaches and heterosexual student-athletes, to gain a broader understanding of perceptions of sexual minority identities. These insights can inform the development of targeted interventions aimed at ensuring the safe and inclusive participation of SMSAs in intercollegiate sport.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical considerations but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Conceptualisation, MX.; methodology, MX; data collection, MX and YX.; data analysis, MX and YX; data curation, MX; writing—original draft preparation, MX; writing—review and editing, KS, SA, and NZ; supervision, KS, SA, and NZ. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Xiang, M., Soh, K.G., Xu, Y. et al. Navigating sexual minority identity in sport: a qualitative exploration of sexual minority student-athletes in China. BMC Public Health 24 , 2304 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19824-9

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19824-9

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Annals of family medicine: new research reveals major disconnect between patient expectations and experiences in long covid care.

PROVIDENCE, R.I. , Aug. 28, 2024 /PRNewswire/ -- As post-COVID-19 Conditions or "Long COVID" continues to challenge millions of Americans, a new study published in Annals of Family Medicine reveals that patients frequently face barriers and frustrations when seeking care. The study, titled " Challenges in Receiving Long COVID Care: A Qualitative Interview Study Among Primary Care Patients About Their Expectations and Experiences ," shows a major disconnect between the expectations of long-COVID patients and the realities of the U.S. health care system.

Between 2022 and 2023, researchers conducted 20 interviews with primary care patients from a long COVID triage clinic at the University of Utah , analyzing 19 of these interviews. Participants averaged 54 years old, and 53% were female. Most participants were first infected with COVID-19 in 2020 (32%) or 2021 (47%). In this qualitative study, authors sampled exclusively primary care patients in the U.S., offering unique insights into the challenges these patients face.

Key Findings:

Patient Expectations: Participants described two main categories of expectations: those for their practitioners and those for treatment. Patients expected their primary care practitioners to be knowledgeable about post-COVID Conditions and attentive to their individual conditions. For treatment expectations, patients expected to engage in collaborative processes with their practitioner.

Patient Experiences: The study revealed two types of patient experiences. Positive interactions with practitioners occurred when providers were honest and validating, while negative experiences were marked by patients feeling dismissed or discouraged. Additionally, patients described significant challenges in navigating the fragmented U.S. health care system, particularly in coordinating care, treatment, testing, and payment.

"While many systemic barriers are largely out of providers' control, validation and continuous support from PCPs, alongside coordinated care and communication among the care team, might improve care quality for patients with long COVID," the authors write.

Despite facing numerous barriers and frustrations, patients expressed a strong desire to collaborate with their health care providers to improve treatment outcomes. Primary care practitioners and other health care professionals can better align patients' experiences with their expectations by listening to their concerns, validating their symptoms, and advocating for their needs. These actions are essential for delivering patient-centered, effective care and ultimately improving health outcomes for long-COVID patients.

Article Cited:

Challenges in Receiving Long COVID Care: A Qualitative Interview Study Among Primary Care Patients About Their Expectations and Experiences Elena Gardner , MPH, Alex Lockrey , Kirsten L. Stoesser , MD, Jennifer P. Leiser , MD, Jeanette Brown , MD, PhD, Bernadette Kiraly , MD, Dominik J. Ose , DrPH

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Nirmatrelvir/Ritonavir Regimen for Mild/Moderately Severe COVID-19: A Rapid Review With Meta-Analysis and Trial Sequential Analysis George N. Okoli , MD, PhD, Nicole Askin , MLIS, Rasheda Rabbani , PhD

Post-COVID Conditions in US Primary Care: A PRIME Registry Comparison of Patients With COVID-19, Influenza-Like Illness, and Wellness Visits Esther E. Velásquez, ScD, Neil S. Kamdar, MA, David H. Rehkopf , ScD, Sharon Saydah , PhD, MHS, Lara Bull-Otterson , PhD, MPH, Shiying Hao , PhD, Ayin Vala, MS, Isabella Chu , MPH, Andrew W. Bazemore , MD, MPH, Robert L. Phillips , MD, MSPH, Tegan Boehmer , PhD, MPH

The Disproportionate Impact of Primary Care Disruption and Telehealth Utilization During COVID-19 Zachary J. Morgan , MS, Andrew W. Bazemore , MD, MPH, Lars E. Peterson , MD, PhD, Robert L. Phillips, Jr , MD, MSPH, Mingliang Dai , PhD

Annals of Family Medicine is a peer-reviewed, indexed research journal that provides a cross-disciplinary forum for new, evidence-based information affecting the primary care disciplines. Launched in May 2003 , Annals of Family Medicine is sponsored by seven family medical organizations, including the American Academy of Family Physicians, the American Board of Family Medicine, the Society of Teachers of Family Medicine, the Association of Departments of Family Medicine, the Association of Family Medicine Residency Directors, the North American Primary Care Research Group, and the College of Family Physicians of Canada . Annals of Family Medicine is published online six times each year and contains original research from the clinical, biomedical, social, and health services areas, as well as contributions on methodology and theory, selected reviews, essays, and editorials. Complete editorial content and interactive discussion groups for each published article can be accessed for free on the journal's website, www.AnnFamMed.org .

View original content to download multimedia: https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/annals-of-family-medicine-new-research-reveals-major-disconnect-between-patient-expectations-and-experiences-in-long-covid-care-302232929.html

SOURCE Annals of Family Medicine