journal of essential oil research

Journal of Essential Oil Research

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Essential Oils

• First Online: 08 June 2019

Cite this chapter

• Muhammad Asif Hanif 2 ,
• Shafaq Nisar 2 ,
• Ghufrana Samin Khan 3 ,
• Zahid Mushtaq 4 &
• Muhammad Zubair 5  

3857 Accesses

57 Citations

In this chapter, essential oil (EO) sources, chemistry, extraction methods, analysis, biological activities, applications, risks, and dangers are described in detail. Essential oils (EOs) are highly concentrated materials extracted from leaves, stems, flowers, seeds, roots, fruit rinds, resins, or barks. EOs are frequently used for their therapeutic, odoriferous, and flavor properties, in an extensive selection of products like cosmetics, foods, and medicines. Extraction of EOs is one of the most effort-requiring and time-consuming processes. In this chapter, different methods like maceration, cold pressing, solvent extraction, enfleurage, hydrodistillation, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and supercritical CO 2 extraction, turbo distillation, and steam distillation are discussed. Furthermore, biological activities (antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxicity, etc.) and application of EOs in different fields (agriculture, industry, medicine etc.) are provided in detail.

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Nano and Biomaterials Lab (NBL), Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Muhammad Asif Hanif & Shafaq Nisar

Department of Chemistry, University of Engineering and Technology (Lahore), Faisalabad, Pakistan

Ghufrana Samin Khan

Bioactive Molecules Research Lab (BMRL), Department of Biochemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Zahid Mushtaq

Department of Chemistry, University of Gujrat, Gujrat, Pakistan

Muhammad Zubair

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Sonia Malik

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Hanif, M.A., Nisar, S., Khan, G.S., Mushtaq, Z., Zubair, M. (2019). Essential Oils. In: Malik, S. (eds) Essential Oil Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16546-8_1

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Focus: Plant-based Medicine and Pharmacology

Essential oils and health, j. tyler ramsey.

a Campbell University School of Osteopathic Medicine, Lillington, NC

B. Carrie Shropshire

Tibor r. nagy, kevin d. chambers.

b Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC

Kenneth S. Korach

Essential oils (EOs) have risen in popularity over the past decade. These oils function in society as holistic integrative modalities to traditional medicinal treatments, where many Americans substitute EOs in place of other prescribed medications. EOs are found in a multitude of products including food flavoring, soaps, lotions, shampoos, hair styling products, cologne, laundry detergents, and even insect repellents. EOs are complex substances comprised of hundreds of components that can vary greatly in their composition depending upon the extraction process by the producer or the origin of the plant. Thus, making it difficult to determine which pathways in the body are affected. Here, we review the published research that shows the health benefits of EOs as well as some of their adverse effects. In doing so, we show that EOs, as well as some of their individual components, possess antimicrobial, antiviral, antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties as well as purported psychogenic effects such as relieving stress, treating depression, and aiding with insomnia. Not only do we show the health benefits of using EOs, but we also indicate risks associated with their use such as their endocrine disrupting properties leading to the induction of premature breast growth in young adolescents. Taken together, there are many positive and potentially negative risks to human health associated with EOs, which make it important to bring awareness to all their known effects on the human body.

Introduction

The essential oil (EO) industry developed into a highly active and successful market over the past decade [ 1 ]. Many individuals use essential oil containing commodities regularly, including food flavoring, soaps, lotions, shampoos, hair-styling products, cologne, and laundry detergents [ 2 ]. Many people seems to deem essential oils as safe alternatives to more invasive pharmacological forms of treatment due to the concept that they are more “natural.” However, only a modest amount of research has been conducted on essential oils. This leaves the potential beneficial and/or adverse effects unclear, making it necessary to investigate these oils in order to verify their true effects on human health.

There are many methods by which EO exposure can occur including inhalation, ingestion, massage, and skin applications, [ 3 , 4 ]. EOs are known for many of their health effects such as their antibacterial, antibiotic, and antiviral properties [ 3 , 5 - 9 ]. They are also known for relieving stress and have been used in multiple treatments such as sleep disorders, Alzheimer disease, cardiovascular issues, cancer, and labor pain in pregnancy [ 3 , 5 - 12 ]. Furthermore, they are also known for their insect repellent properties and antioxidant/anti-inflammatory activity [ 11 , 13 - 15 ]. Most essential oils are generally safe. The majority of adverse effects are mild, but there have been cases of serious toxic reactions including abortions and pregnancy abnormalities, neurotoxicity, bronchial hyperactivity, hepatotoxicity, prepubertal gynecomastia, and premature thelarche [ 16 - 19 ].

EOs are complex substances, comprised of multi-component mixtures that contains hundreds of chemicals. The oils are typically extracted by steam distillation of plant material [ 2 , 20 - 22 ]. In an individual oil, up to 400 substances can be identified, or even more when the finest analytical equipment is utilized [ 20 ]. In a publication of Contact Dermatitis , 4350 chemicals were found in 91 EOs [ 23 ]. The composition of an EO can vary considerably between producers as well as between the same producer. Many of the factors that can change an EO chemical composition includes the species, origin, climate, soil conditions, fertilization, and mode of production. Terpenes are the biggest class of chemicals found in essential oils. This group of chemicals are created from 5-carbon isoprene units. Larger, more sophisticated molecules, can be constructed in biosynthesis from terpenes to make linear-chained chemicals with one or more ring structures [ 20 ]. There are several classes of terpenes, however, the most important in essential oils are the monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes [ 20 ]. The distinct smell of an EO is produced from these two groups of chemicals. Modification of a terpene or sesquiterpenes, typically from oxidation or rearranging the skeletal structure of the molecule, yields different terpenoids. The oxidation reactions are most important, which create many subgroups such as alcohols, aldehydes, phenols, ethers, and ketones [ 20 , 24 , 25 ]. Thus, these oils are widely variable in their composition and make it difficult to assess the health effects each time they may be used.

Endocrine Disrupting Activities

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) is an exogenous agent that interferes with the production, release, transport, metabolism, binding, action, or elimination of natural hormones in the body responsible for the maintenance of homeostasis and the regulation of developmental processes [ 26 , 27 ]. An EDC may interfere with hormone action by several mechanisms and can be quite complex. The chemicals may bind to hormone receptors and act directly as an agonist or antagonist, exert indirect agonist or antagonist actions, or may bind to allosteric sites and yield unanticipated effects at very low concentrations [ 28 ]. In addition, these chemicals are known to interfere with hormone synthesis, metabolism, transport, and degradation [ 28 ].

In previous reports, essential oils have been determined to act as an EDC [ 16 - 18 ]. Essential oils have been demonstrated to act as an agonist to the estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and antagonist to the androgen receptor (AR) [ 16 - 18 ]. Additionally, these studies have provided support to a suspected link between abnormal breast growth in adolescents, termed prepubertal gynecomastia and premature thelarche, and regular topical exposure to lavender or tea tree oil hygiene commodities [ 16 - 18 ]. Premature thelarche, the most common pubertal disorder in prepubescent girls, which is defined as isolated breast growth before 8 years of age without any other signs of puberty.

Gynecomastia is suspected to have many etiologies. Selected drugs and environmental exposures such as alcohol, heroin, marijuana, amphetamines, antiulcer medications, antibiotics, cancer agents, cardiovascular drugs, and psychoactive drugs have been identified as possible hormonal mimics for the estrogen and androgen receptors [ 16 - 18 ]. The mechanism by which those drugs disrupt the endocrine system is poorly defined but could also involve altering steroidogenesis, with a resultant change in the balance between testosterone and estradiol (E2) levels, increasing proliferation of breast tissue and leading to the onset of gynecomastia [ 17 , 29 ].

Some EDCs act through nuclear hormonal receptors, while others initiate their effects through different mechanisms [ 30 ]. Previous studies have reported that ERα plays a crucial role in mammary gland development using knockout (KO) mouse models. In both aromatase KO mice that lack endogenous estrogen production and ERα knockout mice that lack functional ERα, impaired mammary gland development was exhibited [ 31 ]. This supports the view that estrogen-dependent, ERα-mediated actions are critical for mammary gland development and could be the reason for these observations seen in the prepubertal children [ 32 - 35 ]. Figure 1 demonstrates the proposed cellular mechanism of action in which these essential oils produce their biological effects on the human body.

Proposed Mechanism for EO and components Agonizing and Antagonizing the ERα and/or AR Receptor mechanisms. Estrogen or androgen hormones can elicit biological responses by interaction with cell membrane-based receptor proteins (GPR30 or R) to instigate intracellular agonist signaling mechanisms. The hormones can stimulate agonist activities by interacting with nuclear forms of the receptor proteins to stimulate DNA binding genomic mechanisms of gene regulation (direct or tethering). Nuclear hormone receptors can also be activated in a ligand independent mechanism by other intracellular signaling mechanisms ( e.g. Growth Factors). EO acting as endocrine disruptors can alter any of these possible cellular mechanisms.

Antimicrobial, Antiviral, and Antibiotic Effects

Essential oils are common natural products that can be used for various medical applications, and in combination with the emergence of antimicrobial resistance, essential oils have been studied as potential antimicrobials agents [ 36 ]. These naturally occurring compounds are linked to having bactericidal, virucidal, and fungicidal activity in clinical trials. It has also been suggested that these plant extracts might not only be used to fight cutaneous infections for example, but also serve a role in the preservation of food due to their antimicrobial activity combined with their antioxidant property [ 36 , 37 ]. Table 1 provides a brief summary of certain common essential oils and the organisms targeted.

Bacterial infections remain a significant cause of mortality in the human population. This has triggered research into the exploration of alternative therapies against bacterial strains as the issue of antibiotic resistance has become more imminent even to the newest antibiotic drugs. The effect of antibacterial activity of essential oils may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal, but is difficult to distinguish these actions therefore activity is commonly measured as the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) or the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) [ 38 , 39 ]. The mechanism of antibacterial action is facilitated by a succession of biochemical reactions within the bacterial cell that are dependent on the type of chemical constituents present in the essential oil. Due to these compounds being lipophilic, essential oils easily penetrate bacterial cell membranes and have been reported to disrupt critical processes of the cell membrane like nutrient processing, synthesis of structural molecules, emission of growth regulators, energy generation, and influences on the cell-cell communication quorum sensing network [ 4 , 39 , 40 ]. The list of specific bacteria targeted by the essential oils is expanding and include, but are not limited to, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus sphaericus, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. epidermidis, S. typhi, Shiguella flexneri, and Yersinia enterocolitica [ 41 - 44 ] . Some of the essential oils commonly used come from garlic, ginger, clove, black pepper, green chile, cinnamon, clove, pimento, thyme, oregano, and rosemary [ 39 ].

Similarly to the effects on bacteria, essential oils have the ability to enter and interrupt the homeostasis of the fungal cell wall and cytoplasmic membranes, specifically the mitochondria [ 37 , 39 , 45 ]. One of the mechanisms suggested involves the penetration of essential oils into the mitochondrial membranes and changing the electron flow through the electron transport system, which in return disrupts the lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid contents of the fungal cells [ 46 ]. Another proposed mechanism is the depolarization of the mitochondrial membranes that decreases the membrane potential, affecting ion channels to reduce the pH and affect the proton pump leading to fungal cell apoptosis and necrosis [ 47 ]. Extracts from plants such as basil, clove, citrus, garlic, fennel, lemongrass, oregano, rosemary, and thyme have demonstrated their significant antifungal activity against a broad range of fungal human pathogens [ 48 ]. Some of the fungal pathogens affected include Candida acutus, C. albicans, C. apicola, C. catenulata, C. inconspicua, C. tropicalis, Rhodotorula rubra, Sacharomyces cerevisae, and Trignopsis variabilis, Aspergillus parasiticus, and Fusarium moniliforme [ 39 , 41 , 49 ].

Since viral infections are still a problem for human health and only a narrow number of drugs are effective, it has prompted researchers to explore new antiviral molecules that can attack these human pathological viruses. Detailed insight on the antiviral action of essential oils still requires more research. Essential oils might interfere with virion envelopment, which is designed for entry into human host cells, synthesis of viral proteins, inhibition of the early gene expression process, glycosylation process of viral proteins, and inhibition of virus replication by hindering cellular DNA polymerase [ 50 - 53 ]. Some of the pathogens targeted include many DNA and RNA viruses, such as herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2), dengue virus type 2, Junin virus, influenza virus adenovirus type 3, poliovirus, rhinovirus, and coxsackievirus B1 [ 39 ]. Activities of essential oils extracted from Australian tea tree oil, eucalyptus oil, thyme oil, and many other medicinal and aromatic plants have been studied for their effect against viruses [ 39 , 45 ].

Insect Repelling Properties

Arthropod borne infectious diseases are found in zoonotic reservoirs such as birds and mammals. They are transmitted to humans via the bite of infected mosquitoes, midges, flies, fleas, and ticks [ 54 ]. Currently, there are few vaccinations available to prevent the transmission of arthropod borne infectious diseases; human transmission prevention relies on arthropod avoidance, insect repellents, and insecticides [ 54 ]. Consequently, development of safe and effective therapies against arthropod borne diseases is of utmost importance.

Insect repellents may be synthetic or organic and discourage insects from contact or biting [ 55 ]. Among the most commonly used repellents are synthetic repellents such as DEET (N,N-diethyl-3- methylbenzamide, formerly N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide), which has recently raised concerns relating to its environmental, human health, and safety risks [ 11 , 56 ]. Thus, consumers are apprehensive of its use as well as the use of other synthetic repellents [ 49 ]. Therefore, plant EOs have been considered as an organic alternative to synthetic repellents such as DEET due to their improved safety and toxicity profiles to humans and the environment [ 11 , 57 , 58 ]. A comprehensive list of plant EOs exhibiting arthropod repellent properties may be found below in Table 2 [ 57 ].

N.I. information not available. Table adapted from Luz Stella Nerio; Repellent activity of essential oils: A review [ 57 ].

The components of EOs that have been shown to give them repellent activity are monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenes, and alcohols [ 11 , 13 , 59 ]. Monoterpene repellent compounds include a-pinene, cineole, eugenol, limonene, terpinolene, citronellol, citronellal, camphor, and thymol [ 57 , 60 - 63 ]. β-caryophyllene is a sesquiterpene with repellent activity [ 57 , 64 ]. Phytol, phenylethyl alcohol, β-citronellol, cinnamyl alcohol, geraniol, and α-pinene are all alcohols with strong repellent activity [ 57 , 65 ]. These constituents have shown repellent activity against mosquitoes, specifically Aedes aegypti and Anopheles gambiae , as well as ticks including Ixodes ricinus [ 57 ]. The combination of EOs from different plants is believed to lead to a synergistic activity, increasing the effectiveness of EOs as insect repellents when compared to individually isolated components [ 11 ]. This synergistic phenomenon has been observed when combining monoterpenes with sesquiterpenes [ 11 , 66 ]. Some EO plant combinations lead to a decrease in activity when compared to their individual use. This emphasizes the importance of examining and researching the minor constituents of EOs and their effect on repellency [ 11 ].

There are a multitude of plant EOs with repellent properties as seen in Table 2 . EOs are highly volatile compounds that exert their activity while in their vapor phase [ 11 , 67 , 68 ]; meaning their activity typically does not last long requiring frequent reapplication for a short protection time [ 11 ]. Scientists are currently developing means to retain the active components on the skin for longer periods of time [ 11 ]. Some current advances increasing repellency duration include cream-based formulations, polymer mixtures, microencapsulated extended release, fixative agents like vanillin, nanoparticle fabrication, and polymeric repellent patches [ 11 , 15 , 69 , 70 ].

Due to the above-mentioned use, the main concern regarding safety and toxicity of plant EOs is skin irritation. Other negative side effects noted have been asthma, contact dermatitis, headache, increased bleeding, eye-irritation, neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, and immunotoxicity [ 11 ]. Citronella use has been banned in Europe and Canada since 2006 due to lack of safety information and the presence of methyl eugenol [ 11 ]. Methyl eugenol has shown carcinogenic traits in animal studies with no data available in human studies [ 11 , 71 ]. The US National Toxicology Program did state that methyl eugenol is “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen” [ 11 ]. Clove oil also contains methyl eugenol and has yet to be evaluated for carcinogenic properties. It is used not only in insect repellents, but in food, cosmetics, and medicines as well [ 11 ].

Plant EOs as insect repellents are of high interest due to their overall improved safety profile when compared to their synthetic counterparts such as DEET. The synergism observed when combining different plant EOs and the experimentation with things such as extended release formulations are extending the repellent activity of plant EOs. More research should be conducted noting plant EOs minor constituents and their contribution to repellency. Research is lacking in the health risks associated with plant EOs as insect repellents. Plant EOs are overall promising alternatives to synthetic compounds demonstrating a need for increased focus in the field of multiomics for their improvement and development.

Anti-Inflammation and Antioxidant Properties

Inflammation is the body’s response to noxious stimuli such as infection or tissue injury; the response depends on biological, chemical, and mechanisms [ 72 - 74 ]. EOs such as chamomile, eucalyptus, rosemary, lavender, millefolia, have been found to mediate the inflammatory response [ 14 ]; they have the ability to influence antioxidant activity, signaling cascades, cytokines, regulatory transcription factors, and the expression of pro-inflammatory genes [ 14 ]. The three main anti-inflammation properties of EOs include inhibition of arachidonic metabolism, cytokine production, and pro-inflammatory gene expression [ 14 ].

Arachidonic acid is released by the cell membrane via phospholipase A 2 as part of the inflammatory response and further metabolized through either the cyclooxygenase (COX) or lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway [ 14 ]. The COX pathway produces prostaglandins (PGs) and thromboxane A 2 while the LOX pathway produces leukotrienes (LTs) [ 14 ]. Inhibiting either pathway leads to a reduction in inflammation via reduction of PGs, thromboxane A 2, and LTs, key inflammatory mediators. Aloe vera, anise star, bergamot, cinnamon leaf, eucalyptus, juniperus berry, lavender , thyme, and ylang-ylang, are all EOs containing limonene, linalyl acetate, β- trans -caryophyllene, 1,8-cineole, p -cymene, thymol, and eugenol which inhibit the LOX pathway [ 14 , 75 ]. EOs of the Salvia and Helichrysum species express 1,8-cineole, α-pinene and β-caryophyllene inhibiting 5-lipoxegenase [ 14 , 76 , 77 ]. Chamomile’s constituents chamazulene and α-bisabolol inhibit 5-lipoxegenase [ 14 , 78 ]. Alpinia murdochii , Alpinia scabra, and Alpinia pahangensis also inhibit 5-lipoxynease via their main components β-pinene, α-pinene, sabinene, γ-selinene, α-selinene, and α-panasinsen [ 14 , 79 ]. A common component of EOs, 1,8-Cineole, inhibits both LTs and PGs affecting both pathways of arachidonic acid metabolism [ 14 , 80 ]. Torreya nucifera contains δ-3-carene and α-pinene, selectively inhibiting the COX-2 pathway and PGE2 production [ 14 , 81 ]. Figure 2 organizes and summarizes EOs and their components effects on arachidonic acid metabolism.

Schematic representation of the inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolism via EOs and their constituents. COX= cyclooxygenase, LOX= lipoxygenase, HPETE= hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Figure adapted from Chapter 7, Pathogenesis and Progression of Multiple Sclerosis: The Role of Arachidonic Acid–Mediated Neuroinflammation [ 118 ].

The innate and adaptive immune response generates cytokines; cytokines play a major role in immune and inflammatory processes of the body [ 82 ]. Significant pro-inflammatory cytokines include interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-6, and IL-8 [ 14 ]. Cytokine signaling via lipopolysaccharide (LPS) found on Gram-negative bacterial cell walls, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) found on Gram-positive cell walls, and peptidoglycan leads to inflammation, tissue destruction, and loss of function [ 14 , 83 , 84 ]. EOs inhibit the (LPS)-induced secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α, including Cheistocalyx operculatus [ 14 , 85 ]. Tea tree oil’s main constituent terpinen-4-ol prevents the production of cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8, IL-10, and PGE2 via LPS [ 14 , 86 ]. Tea tree oil also prevents production of pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-2 while increasing the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and IL-10 [ 14 ]. Taxandria fragrans components 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, and linalool inhibit TNF-α and IL-6 [ 14 , 87 ]. Components of the EO Cinnamomum osmophloeum 1,8-cineole, santoline, spathulenol and caryophyllene oxide decrease production of IL-1β and IL-6 [ 14 ] . Rosmarinus officinalis EOs constituents 1,8-cineole , α-pinene, camphor, and p -cymene inhibit IL-6 production [ 14 , 88 ]. Cinnamomum osmophloeum EO contains cinnamaldehyde which obstructs IL-1β and TNF-α production [ 14 ]. Cordia verbenacea EO reduces TNF-α levels via components such as (-)- trans caryophyllene and α-humelene. IL-1β levels reduce TNF-α levels and are also affected by α-humelene [ 14 , 89 - 91 ]. Cryptomeria japonica oil inhibits IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α with components kaurene, elemol, γ-eudesmol, and sabinene [ 14 , 92 ]. Artemisia fukudo and its constituents α-Thujone, β-thujone, camphor, and caryophyllene inhibits TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 [ 75 ]. Both eugenol from Syzygium aromaticum and citral from Cymbopogon citratus decrease secretion of IL-1β and IL-6 [ 14 ]. Eugenol also prevents secretion of TNF-α and PGE 2 [ 14 ]. Cinnamomum insularimontanum inhibits TNF-α through the action of citral. Myristicin from nutmeg oil inhibits TNF-α release [ 14 ]. Pterodon emarginatus oil contains trans -Caryophyllene, β-elemene, and germacrene reducing IL-1 and TNF-α levels. Thyme containing p -cymene and thymol and oregano containing carvacrol inhibit IL-1β and IL-6 [ 93 ]. All of the above mentioned EOs and EO constituents act as antagonists to pro-inflammatory cytokine activity. A summary of those constituents and their activities may be found in Table 3 .

Table adapted from Linlin Chen: Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs [ 117 ].

Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical produced either enzymatically or non-enzymatically. Enzymatic production of NO via NO synthase is a redox reaction that breaks down L-arginine to L-citrulline and NO; the reaction requires oxygen and NADPH [ 94 ]. Non-enzymatically, NO is produced from nitrite under acidic conditions such as ischemia [ 94 ]. NO modulates the inflammatory response by regulating transcription factors such as NF-κB, AP-1, Jak-STAT, bacterial transcription factors, in addition to monitoring the levels of neutrophils, and eosinophils [ 94 ]. EOs Teucrium brevifolia and Teucrium montbretia directly inhibit NO production thus inhibiting the inflammatory response; spathulenol, δ-cadinene, carvacrol, 4-vinyl guaiacol, and caryophyllene oxide are their constituents [ 14 ]. Fortunella japonica and Citrus sunki, both containing limonene, also inhibit NO production and inflammation [ 14 ]. Origanum ehrenbergii oil with thymol and p- cymene exhibits NO inhibition, along with citrus peel and Distichoselinum tenuifolium, composed of myrcene [ 95 ] . EOs Cryptomeria japonica, Abies koreana, Farfugium japonicum, Illicium anisatum, Juniperus oxycedrus, Cinnamomum insularimontanum, and Juniperus oxycedrus and constituents 1-undecene, 1-nonene, β-caryophyllene, 1,8-cineole were all found to inhibit NO production [ 14 ]. Regulation of NO and inflammation via inhibition of NF-kB transcription has been observed by EOs including Pimpinella, Artemisia fukudo, Cleistocalyx operculatus, Juniperus oxycedrus [ 14 ]. Their constituents include α-thujone, β-thujone, camphor, caryophyllene, anethole, eugenol, α-pinene, and isoeugenol [ 14 ].

Psychological Effects

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is characterized by persistent and excessive worry with associated psychic and somatic symptoms [ 96 ]. GAD is a common condition that can lead to significant personal and social impairment [ 97 ]. Current treatment modalities for GAD include cognitive behavioral therapy, as well as medical therapy primarily with benzodiazepines or antidepressants [ 98 ]. Essential oils represent a potential new treatment category for GAD. Animal models have demonstrated anxiolytic properties in certain essential oils including Lavendula angustifolia , Citrus sinensis, and Citrus aurantium subspecies bergamia [ 99 ]. These properties have been demonstrated to be replicable in human clinical trials [ 100 - 102 ]. The method of administration also appears to play a role in the effectiveness of these products, with the three most common administration routes being inhalation, oral, and topical. Anosmia models have been used in experimental animal studies that show the anxiolytic effects of lavender still occurs even if the olfactory receptors have been disabled [ 103 ]. Studies are beginning to elucidate the mechanism of action of essential oils. Many essential oils exert their central nervous system pharmacological properties through interactions with serotonin receptors, the GABAergic system, and voltage-gated Na + channels [ 104 ]. Inhalation of bergamot ( Citrus bergamia ) oil could regulate the blood pressure and heart rate of healthy volunteers [ 105 ]. Lemon essence has been studied in palliative care patients and was shown to increase heart rate, diastolic blood pressure, and respiratory rate in both conscious and unconscious patients, while lavender oil was found to have opposing effects [ 106 ]. Interestingly, some essential oils have been associated with worsened anxiety symptoms. Specifically, lemon essence was shown to worsen nociceptive and anxiety responses in rats [ 107 ].

One challenge to studying the effects of essential oils has been isolating the active compounds. Harvesting essential oils from their natural reservoirs presents a challenge in ensuring standardization of components as chemical composition can vary based on numerous factors including, geographical location and timing of harvest [ 108 ]. In a study of Satureja oil, varying chemical compositions were isolated from members of the same genus of plant, which led to significant changes in anxiolytic effects [ 109 ]. Another challenge has been the inherent bias present through inhalation methods, as adequate blinding is difficult to achieve due to the recognizable nature of many essential oils. However, oral essential oil products like Silexan have been used in randomized double-blind studies and demonstrated statistically significant anxiolytic activity [ 110 ]. Silexan has even been shown to be as effective in reducing anxiety symptoms as paroxetine and lorazepam, with additional improvement in comorbid depression and impaired sleep [ 111 ].

Depression is an extremely prevalent mental health disorder characterized by decreased mood, loss of interest, hopelessness, and impaired social function [ 112 ]. Traditional antidepressant medication functions through neurotransmitter modulation, but many patients do not experience complete remission of symptoms with monotherapy alone [ 113 ]. There have been many studies researching other natural products as alternative antidepressant therapies, specifically St John’s Wart. St John’s Wart is superior to placebo in improving depression symptoms and not significantly different from antidepressant medication [ 114 ]. Essential oils represent a potential additional treatment modality for depression [ 115 ]. Lavender oil specifically has been shown to ameliorate the depression-like behavior induced by the chronic administration of corticosterone [ 115 ].

Concluding Remarks

EOs have a variety of effects on human health. As it has been demonstrated in many studies, these oils have many psychological effects such as reducing anxiety, treating depression, and even aid with falling asleep. Additionally, they have also been shown to possess antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory properties and used as an alternative to synthetic insect repellents. As there are many proven health benefits to essential oils, there are also adverse effects. It has been shown that certain essential oils and their components contain EDCs which appear to have enhanced breast growth in prepubertal children. Taken together, there has been a great amount of research performed in the essential oil field but considering their multitude of components and the spectrum of possible activities there is still a vast amount unknown about their true effects on human health.

Our research support was provided by the Division of Intramural Research of NIEHS to KSK through 1ZIAES070065.

Author Contributions

JTR, BCS, TRN, and KDC wrote the original manuscript draft. JTR, BCS, TRN, KDC, YL, and KSK edited the manuscript.

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Linking ISSN (ISSN-L): 1041-2905

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Title proper: The Journal of essential oil research.

Other variant title: JEOR

Other variant title: J. essent. oil res

Country: United Kingdom

Medium: Online

CLOCKSS Archive, CLOCKSS Archive, https://clockss.org , No online access, 1989/2024

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The Science Behind Essential Oils

We maintain an active role in the research of essential oils on various levels. Dr. Pappas regularly submits publications to reputable scientific journals like Journal of Essential Oil Research (JEOR) on the chemical properties of unusual essential oils as well as submitting articles relevant to aromatherapy to journals like Aromatherapy Journal (formerly Scentsitivity, published by the National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy). Dr. Pappas has also been involved with essential oil and aromatherapy education at local colleges and universities.

Adulteration Analysis in Essential Oils

Antique Lavender Essential Oil From 1945, its Chemical Composition and Enantiomeric Distribution

First Reporting on the Chemistry and Biological Activity of a Novel Boswellia Chemotype: The Methoxy Alkane Frankincense

Frankincense Oil and Boswellic Acid

Spectroscopic and computational studies on the rearrangement of ionized [1.1.1]propellane and some of its valence isomers: the key role of vibronic coupling

Field Evaluation of Essential Oils for Reducing Attraction by the Japanese Beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Ionized bicyclo[2.2.2]oct-2-ene: a twisted olefinic radical cation showing vibronic coupling

Artemisia arborescens - essential oil of the Pacific Northwest: a high-chamazulene, low-thujone essential oil with potential skin-care applications

Unusual Alkynes Found in the Essential Oil of Artemisia Dracunculus L. var. dracunculus from the Pacific Northwest

The Essential Oil of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. From South Florida: A High Cryptone/Low Cineole Eucalyptus

Vanilla Absolute: A Treasure Lost

Cryptic Oils

Committing Adultery (Adulteration in the Essential Oil Industry)

Ph.D. Dissertation

Radical Cation Photoisomerization of Bicyclo[2.2.2]octa-2,5-diene to Tetracyclo[4.2.0.0]octane and its Thermal Retrogression

Radical Cation Cope Rearrangement of 1,5-Hexadiyne to 1,2,4,5- Hexatetraene

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Essential oils for clinical aromatherapy: A comprehensive review

Affiliations.

• 1 School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, BT9 7BL, UK. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 Department of Pharmaceutics, St. John Institute of Pharmacy and Research, Palghar, 401404, Maharashtra, India.
• 3 Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai, Marathwada Campus, Jalna, 431213, Maharashtra, India.
• 4 Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India.
• 5 Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, L. M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 6 Pharmacy Section, L. M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.
• 7 Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 38614262
• DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2024.118180

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Aromatherapy, a holistic healing practice utilizing the aromatic essences of plant-derived essential oils, has gained significant attention for its therapeutic potential in promoting overall well-being. Use of phytoconstituent based essential oil has played a significant role in the evolving therapeutic avenue of aromatherapy as a complementary system of medicine.

Aim of the study: This comprehensive review article aims to explore the usage of essential oils for aromatherapy, shedding light on their diverse applications, scientific evidence, and safety considerations. Furthermore, the growing interest in using essential oils as complementary therapies in conjunction with conventional medicine is explored, underscoring the significance of collaborative healthcare approaches.

Materials and methods: Literature search was performed from databases like PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Bentham using keywords like Aromatherapy, Aromatic Plants, Essential oils, Phytotherapy, and complementary medicine. The keywords were used to identify literature with therapeutic and mechanistic details of herbal agents with desired action.

Results: The integration of traditional knowledge with modern scientific research has led to a renewed interest in essential oils as valuable tools in contemporary healthcare. Various extraction methods used to obtain essential oils are presented, emphasizing their impact on the oil's chemical composition and therapeutic properties. Additionally, the article scrutinizes the factors influencing the quality and purity of essential oils, elucidating the significance of standardization and certification for safe usage. A comprehensive assessment of the therapeutic effects of essential oils is provided, encompassing their potential as antimicrobial, analgesic, anxiolytic, and anti-inflammatory agents, among others. Clinical trials and preclinical studies are discussed to consolidate the existing evidence on their efficacy in treating diverse health conditions, both physical and psychological. Safety considerations are of paramount importance when employing essential oils, and this review addresses potential adverse effects, contraindications, and best practices to ensure responsible usage.

Conclusions: This comprehensive review provides valuable insights into the exploration of essential oils for aromatherapy, emphasizing their potential as natural and potent remedies for a wide range of ailments. By amalgamating traditional wisdom and modern research, this article aims to encourage further investigation into the therapeutic benefits of essential oils while advocating for their responsible and evidence-based incorporation into healthcare practices.

Keywords: Aromatherapy; Aromatherapy mechanism; Essential oils; Mood disorders; Phytotherapy; Sleep disorders.

Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Journal of Essential Oil Research

Journal Abbreviation: J ESSENT OIL RES Journal ISSN: 1041-2905

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Investigation of yarrow essential oil composition and microencapsulation by complex coacervation technology.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. biomaterial, 2.2. yarrow essential oil, 2.3. shell materials, 2.4. chemicals, 2.5. microencapsulation method, 2.6. freeze-drying, 2.7. optical microscopic investigation, 2.8. sem investigation, 2.9. ft-ir spectroscopy, 2.10. differential scanning calorimetry (dsc), 2.11. visible spectroscopic analyses, 2.11.1. qualitative analyses, 2.11.2. quantitative analyses, 2.12. gc—ms investigation, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. chemical composition of yarrow essential oils, 3.1.1. chemical composition of self-prepared yarrow essential oils, 3.1.2. comparison of yarrow essential oils of different origins, 3.2. macroscopic and microscopic investigation of complex coacervate formation, 3.2.1. macroscopic aspect of coacervates, 3.2.2. microscopic aspect of coacervates, 3.3. macroscopic and microscopic investigation of solid microcapsules, 3.3.1. macroscopic aspect of microcapsules, 3.3.2. microscopic aspect of microcapsules, 3.4. determination of encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity by uv spectroscopy, 3.5. gc—ms investigation of microcapsules, 3.6. ft-ir analysis of microcapsules, 3.7. thermal analysis of microcapsules, 4. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Székely-Szentmiklósi, I.; Rédai, E.M.; Kovács, B.; Gergely, A.-L.; Albert, C.; Szabó, Z.-I.; Székely-Szentmiklósi, B.; Sipos, E. Investigation of Yarrow Essential Oil Composition and Microencapsulation by Complex Coacervation Technology. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 7867. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177867

Székely-Szentmiklósi I, Rédai EM, Kovács B, Gergely A-L, Albert C, Szabó Z-I, Székely-Szentmiklósi B, Sipos E. Investigation of Yarrow Essential Oil Composition and Microencapsulation by Complex Coacervation Technology. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(17):7867. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177867

Székely-Szentmiklósi, István, Emőke Margit Rédai, Béla Kovács, Attila-Levente Gergely, Csilla Albert, Zoltán-István Szabó, Blanka Székely-Szentmiklósi, and Emese Sipos. 2024. "Investigation of Yarrow Essential Oil Composition and Microencapsulation by Complex Coacervation Technology" Applied Sciences 14, no. 17: 7867. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177867

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Lehi, Utah, January 22, 2024

A new study published in the  Journal of Essential Oil Research  (JEOR) analyzed 41 authentic lavender essential oil samples from trusted producers and research partners around the world. Comparing these findings to 12 commercially available samples, it was found that 9 out of 12 (75 percent) of those tested were adulterated, showing signs of potential dilution or addition of another oil as a substitute.

Lavender ( Lavandula angustifolia ) is an aromatic shrub in the mint (Lamiaceae) family. It is native to the Mediterranean but grown throughout the world for many commercial purposes. Thanks to lavender’s pleasant and soothing aroma and its  many health benefits , lavender essential oil is widely used in the aromatherapy, cosmetics, flavor, and fragrance industries. However, with such popularity and widespread demand for lavender essential oil, quality control and adulteration remain a concern.

The standard quality of lavender has been set by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 3515:2002), which provides the profiles for lavender from different cultivation practices and growing regions. To conduct their research, the researchers referenced ISO 3515:2002, and using data from 41 trusted reference standards, they also established additional profile ranges and identified markers in authentic lavender.   

The established authentic lavender profiles were then compared against commercially available lavender samples purchased from various online retailers and grocery stores. While labels on the sampled products declared their product was “pure lavender essential oil,” “100% pure lavender oil,” “true lavender,” or “organic lavender,” 75 percent of the tested samples turned out to be adulterated.

   To test the essential oil samples, the researchers used state-of-the-art equipment along with multiple analytical techniques, such as chiral gas chromatography, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, and isotope ratio mass spectrometry, among others. Other factors considered were cultivation practices, provenance, and variety of lavender.

   Young Living’s Lavender essential oil originates in Southern France, where the company has the only American-owned lavender farm in the country – the  Simiane-la-Rotonde Lavender Farm and Distillery  in Provence. Young Living brought lavender seeds from Provence to St. Maries, Idaho, and planted 200 acres of land at the  St. Maries Lavender Farm and Distillery , which now contribute to the production of its renowned Lavender essential oil and other aromatic plants in the U.S. market. Young Living also harvests lavender at its  Mona Lavender Farm and Distillery  in Utah.

   A global leader in the industry, Young Living takes the authenticity of its essential oils very seriously. It conducts rigorous testing of all its products and publishes test results in a  digital library  available for customers on the Young Living website.

   Quality starts in the field, but it’s proven in the lab. The exciting results of this study reinforce Young Living’s longstanding Seed to Seal® commitment to the highest quality products. Young Living customers seek the products because they know they’re investing in true quality.

   To learn more about Young Living’s Lavender essential oil and farms, visit  www.youngliving.com/us/en/product/lavender-essential-oil .

About Young Living Essential Oils

Young Living Essential Oils , LC, based in Lehi, Utah, is the world leader in essential oils, offering the highest-quality oil-infused products available. Young Living takes its industry leadership seriously, setting the standard with its proprietary Seed to Seal® quality commitment. This guiding principle helps Young Living protect the planet and provide authentic products that its Brand Partners and Customers can feel confident using and sharing with friends and family. Young Living’s products—sourced from corporate-owned farms, partner farms, and other trusted suppliers—not only support a healthy lifestyle, but also provide opportunities for over 6 million global Brand Partners to find a sense of purpose and whole-life wellness by aligning their work with the Young Living values and passions. For more information, visit  YoungLiving.com , follow  @youngliving  on Instagram, or like us on  Facebook .

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Current Science

Journal of essential oil & plant composition, essential oil composition of siparuna lepidota (kunth) a. dc. (siparunaceae) from ecuador, chris packer*.

Corresponding Author

D. Gary Young Research Institute, Lehi, UT 84043, USA.

E-mail: [email protected], Tel: +1 208 5300067

Adrian Abad

Finca Botanica Aromatica, Guayaquil, 090151, EC, Ecuador.

E-mail: [email protected]

Tulio Orellana

Tyler m. wilson, nadia cedeño.

Independent researcher, UT, USA

Eugenio Caruajulca

Orlando pacheco.

Received: 2024-08-01 | Revised: 2024-08-06 | Accepted: 2024-08-19 | Published: 2024-08-23

Pages: 158-162

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i02.56

156 Views | 0 Download

Effect of afforestation of the coastal savannah of Pointe-Noire (Congo-Brazzaville) on the chemical composition of leaves and stem bark essential oils from Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich

Jean bruno bassiloua*.

Pôle d’Excellence Régional en Alimentation et Nutrition, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université Marien Ngouabi, BP 69 Brazzaville, Congo.

Ecole Supérieure de Technologie des Cataractes, BP 389, Brazzaville, Congo. 

E-mail : [email protected], Tel: +242068147556

Anicet Frédéric Binaki

E-mail : [email protected]

Hubert Makomo

E-mail : [email protected]

Thomas Silou

Ecole Supérieure de Technologie des Cataractes, BP 389, Brazzaville Congo. 

E-mail : [email protected]

Rosalie Kama Niamayoua

E-mail : [email protected]

Jean-Claude Chalchat

AVAHEA, 38 rue de Clemensat, 63540 Romagnat, France

E-mail : [email protected]

Received: 2024-05-15 | Revised: 2024-06-06 | Accepted: 2024-06-12 | Published: 2024-06-29

Pages: 151-157

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i02.55

154 Views | 0 Download

Identification of two chemotypes for essential oils and floral waters of Mentha spicata L. from two localities of Senegal

Serigne mbacké diop*.

Laboratoire des Analyses Phytosanitaires, Institut de Technologie Alimentaire, BP 2765 Hann-Dakar, Sénégal.

E-mail :  [email protected] ,  [email protected] , Tel : +221 77 973 81 73

El Hadji Barka Ndiaye

Département des Sciences et Technologies Alimentaires, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et de l’Ingénieur, Université du Sine Saloum El-Hadji Ibrahima Niass, BP 55 Kaolack, Sénégal.

Manon Genva

Chimie Générale et Organique, Département Agro-Bio-Chem, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège 2, Passage des Déportés-5030 Gembloux, (Belgique) Belgium.

Abdoulaye Thiam

Département de chimie, faculté des sciences et techniques, université cheikh anta diop, bp 5005 dakar, sénégal., marie-laure fauconnier, momar talla gueye.

Received: 2024-05-05 | Revised: 2024-05-25 | Accepted: 2024-05-28 | Published: 2024-05-31

Pages: 143-150

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i02.54

166 Views | 0 Download

The essential oil characterization of Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis DC. from the Great Basin of North America

Ambika poudel.

Aromatic Plant Research Center, 230 N 1200 E, Suite 100, Lehi, UT 84043, USA. 

Prabodh Satyal

Independent Researcher, 1432 W. Heartland Dr., Kuna, ID 83634, USA.

William N. Setzer

Corresponding author

Aromatic Plant Research Center, 230 N 1200 E, Suite 100, Lehi, UT 84043, USA.

Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA.

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]; Tel.: +1-256-468-2862

Received: 2024-05-10 | Revised: 2024-05-19 | Accepted: 2024-05-20 | Published: 2024-05-21

Pages: 130-142

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i02.53

273 Views | 0 Download

Comparative analysis of the essential oil composition of wild and cultivated Valeriana jatamansi Jones. from Uttarakhand Himalaya

Balam singh bisht*.

Himalayan Medicinal & Aromatic Plant Research Centre (HIMARC), Berinag, India.

E-mail:  [email protected] , Tel:  +91-9410338181

Gunjan Karki

Rajendra chandra padalia, central institute of medicinal and aromatic plants (csir-cimap),  pantnagar, india..

Received: 2024-04-26 | Revised: 2024-05-13 | Accepted: 2024-05-16 | Published: 2024-05-20

Pages: 124-129

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i02.52

194 Views | 0 Download

Vitex agnus-castus L.: Chemical characterization, enantiomeric distribution, and antibacterial efficacy of the essential oil from north-central Nigeria

Davies-sani rayhana olubukola.

Department of Chemistry, Lagos State University, Ojo, P.M.B 001, LASU, Lagos, Nigeria.

Elesho Adeseye Omololu

Moses sunday owolabi*.

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], Tel: +2348033257445

Akintayo Lanre Ogundajo

Nwosu adaobi favour, aromatic plant research center, 230 n 1200 e, suite 100, lehi, ut 84043, usa. and department of chemistry, university of alabama in huntsville, huntsville, al 35899, usa. e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]; tel.: +1-256-468-2862.

Received: 2024-05-03 | Revised: 2024-05-09 | Accepted: 2024-05-12 | Published: 2024-05-16

Pages: 115-123

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i02.51

231 Views | 0 Download

Phenotypic and biochemical characterization of Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) during developmental stages.

Swamy gowda mudalakoppalu ramegowda.

Department of Botany, Yuvaraja’s College, University of Mysore, Mysuru-570005, Karnataka, India.

Ravi Kumara Rajesha

Department of Sericulture Science, University of Mysore, Mysuru-570006, Karnataka, India.

E-mail: [email protected]

Sowmya Ramaiah*

E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 2024-03-17 | Revised: 2024-04-09 | Accepted: 2024-04-11 | Published: 2024-04-29

Pages: 104-114

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i02.50

304 Views | 0 Download

Chemical composition of essential oils obtained from Picea glehnii (F. Schmidt) Mast. grown in Hokkaido, Japan

Mitsuki takeyama.

Graduate School of Manufacturing Engineering, Kitami Institute of Technology, 165 Koen-Cho, Kitami, Hokkaido 090-8507, Japan.

Yoshihito Kohari

Corresponding author :

School of Earth, Energy and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kitami Institute of Technology, 165 Koen-Cho, Kitami, Hokkaido 090-8507, Japan.

E-mail: [email protected] ,Tel: +81-157-26-9440.

Miki Murata

Received: 2024-03-06 | Revised: 2024-03-16 | Accepted: 2024-03-19 | Published: 2024-03-31

Pages: 99-103

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i02.49

248 Views | 0 Download

Chemical composition, enantiomeric analysis, and bactericidal activities of sesquiterpene-rich essential oil of Acanthospermum hispidum DC. from northwestern Nigeria

Moses sunday owolabi.

E-mail:  [email protected] ,  [email protected]

Tel: +2348033257445

Lanre Akintayo Ogundajo

Aromatic Plant Research Center 230 N 1200E, Suite 100, Lehi, UT 84043, USA.

E-mail:  [email protected],  [email protected]; Tel.: +1-256-468-2862

Received: 2024-02-20 | Revised: 2024-02-28 | Accepted: 2024-03-06 | Published: 2024-03-09

Pages: 91-98

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i01.48

299 Views | 0 Download

Composition of Clinopodium acutifolium essential oil from Peru

Chris packer.

Finca Botanica Aromatica, Guayaquil, 090151, EC, Ecuador.

Received: 2024-01-31 | Revised: 2024-02-16 | Accepted: 2024-02-22 | Published: 2024-02-27

Pages: 86-90

DOI: https://doi.org/10.58985/jeopc.2024.v02i01.47

446 Views | 0 Download

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