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The Role of Socratic Questioning in Thinking, Teaching, and Learning

The Institute for Learning and Teaching

College of business, teaching tips, the socratic method: fostering critical thinking.

"Do not take what I say as if I were merely playing, for you see the subject of our discussion—and on what subject should even a man of slight intelligence be more serious? —namely, what kind of life should one live . . ." Socrates

By Peter Conor

This teaching tip explores how the Socratic Method can be used to promote critical thinking in classroom discussions. It is based on the article, The Socratic Method: What it is and How to Use it in the Classroom, published in the newsletter, Speaking of Teaching, a publication of the Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL).

The article summarizes a talk given by Political Science professor Rob Reich, on May 22, 2003, as part of the center’s Award Winning Teachers on Teaching lecture series. Reich, the recipient of the 2001 Walter J. Gores Award for Teaching Excellence, describes four essential components of the Socratic method and urges his audience to “creatively reclaim [the method] as a relevant framework” to be used in the classroom.

What is the Socratic Method?

Developed by the Greek philosopher, Socrates, the Socratic Method is a dialogue between teacher and students, instigated by the continual probing questions of the teacher, in a concerted effort to explore the underlying beliefs that shape the students views and opinions. Though often misunderstood, most Western pedagogical tradition, from Plato on, is based on this dialectical method of questioning.

An extreme version of this technique is employed by the infamous professor, Dr. Kingsfield, portrayed by John Houseman in the 1973 movie, “The Paper Chase.” In order to get at the heart of ethical dilemmas and the principles of moral character, Dr. Kingsfield terrorizes and humiliates his law students by painfully grilling them on the details and implications of legal cases.

In his lecture, Reich describes a kinder, gentler Socratic Method, pointing out the following:

• Socratic inquiry is not “teaching” per se. It does not include PowerPoint driven lectures, detailed lesson plans or rote memorization. The teacher is neither “the sage on the stage” nor “the guide on the side.” The students are not passive recipients of knowledge.
• The Socratic Method involves a shared dialogue between teacher and students. The teacher leads by posing thought-provoking questions. Students actively engage by asking questions of their own. The discussion goes back and forth.
• The Socratic Method says Reich, “is better used to demonstrate complexity, difficulty, and uncertainty than to elicit facts about the world.” The aim of the questioning is to probe the underlying beliefs upon which each participant’s statements, arguments and assumptions are built.
• The classroom environment is characterized by “productive discomfort,” not intimidation. The Socratic professor does not have all the answers and is not merely “testing” the students. The questioning proceeds open-ended with no pre-determined goal.
• The focus is not on the participants’ statements but on the value system that underpins their beliefs, actions, and decisions. For this reason, any successful challenge to this system comes with high stakes—one might have to examine and change one’s life, but, Socrates is famous for saying, “the unexamined life is not worth living.”
• “The Socratic professor,” Reich states, “is not the opponent in an argument, nor someone who always plays devil’s advocate, saying essentially: ‘If you affirm it, I deny it. If you deny it, I affirm it.’ This happens sometimes, but not as a matter of pedagogical principle.”

Professor Reich also provides ten tips for fostering critical thinking in the classroom. While no longer available on Stanford’s website, the full article can be found on the web archive:  The Socratic Method: What it is and How to Use it in the classroom

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The Socratic Method: A Foundation for Critical Thinking

Table of Contents

Have you ever found yourself in a debate where the questions seemed to lead you to the answer? This is the essence of the Socratic Method , an age-old technique that is still relevant in today’s world, fostering critical thinking and self-discovery. The Socratic Method is not about teaching in the traditional sense but about guiding oneself or others to find answers through introspection and dialogue.

What is the Socratic Method?

The Socratic Method is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions. Named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates , it is a pedagogical approach that empowers the learner to express knowledgeable opinions on a topic and then challenges them to further justify their positions.

The dialectical method: dialogue and refutation

The dialectical method, a core component of the Socratic Method, involves two or more people holding different points of view about a topic, who agree to use reasoned arguments to resolve their differences. This method can be broken down into several key elements:

• Questioning: The process starts with a series of questions designed to clarify thoughts, definitions, and implications of the subject matter.
• Answering: The participants provide answers based on their current understanding or belief system.
• Refutation: Through further questioning, inconsistencies or contradictions in the answers are brought to light, compelling the participants to reevaluate their positions.

The maieutic method: assisting in giving birth to ideas

The maieutic method is another aspect of the Socratic Method, which focuses on the midwifery of ideas. Socrates likened himself to a midwife, assisting in the birth of knowledge or truth within the student. This process involves:

• Guided Discovery: The facilitator guides the participants through a series of questions that lead them to discover answers on their own.
• Self-reflection: Participants are encouraged to introspect and critically examine their own beliefs and values.
• Intellectual Rebirth: The ultimate goal is for participants to reach new insights, developing a more refined understanding of the topic.

Applications of the Socratic Method in modern education

In contemporary education, the Socratic Method is employed in various forms, such as:

• Socratic Seminars : A collaborative, intellectual dialogue facilitated with open-ended questions about a text.
• Legal Education : Law schools often use a modified version of the method to teach students to think like a lawyer by analyzing cases.
• Critical Thinking Exercises : Teachers in many disciplines use elements of the Socratic Method to develop critical thinking skills in their students.

Challenges and misconceptions about the Socratic Method

While the Socratic Method is a powerful educational tool, it is not without its challenges or misconceptions:

• Intimidation : Some students may find the process intimidating and may be reluctant to participate.
• Misunderstanding : It is often mistakenly thought that the Socratic Method is only about asking questions, rather than guiding the learner to deeper understanding and insight.
• Time-consuming: The method requires time for reflection and discussion, which can be difficult to accommodate in a standard classroom schedule.

Enhancing critical thinking skills through the Socratic Method

The Socratic Method is not only about acquiring knowledge—it’s about enhancing one’s critical thinking abilities. Through this method, individuals learn to:

• Analyze concepts : Breaking down complex ideas into simpler parts for better understanding.
• Challenge assumptions : Questioning the validity of commonly held beliefs or opinions.
• Develop reasoning : Forming logical connections between ideas and arguments.
• Embrace uncertainty : Being comfortable with not having all the answers and remaining open to new perspectives.

The Socratic Method has stood the test of time, evolving from ancient philosophical dialogues to a modern educational strategy that encourages deep thinking and self-reflection. It is a testament to the enduring power of asking the right questions and the pursuit of truth through reasoned discussion. As we embrace this method in various aspects of learning and conversation, we unlock the potential for intellectual growth and a deeper understanding of the world around us.

Have you ever experienced a moment of clarity through questioning? How do you think the Socratic Method could be applied in today’s educational system to enhance critical thinking skills? Let’s discuss and further uncover the transformative power of this timeless method.

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Ancient & Medieval

1 Definition, Scope and Importance of Philosophy

• Definition of Philosophy
• Philosophy and Philosophizing
• Philosophy and Wisdom
• Scope of Philosophy
• Importance of Philosophy

2 Disciplines within Philosophy and their Complementarity

• Metaphysics or Philosophy of Being
• Epistemology or Philosophy of Knowledge
• Ethics or Moral Philosophy
• Philosophical Anthropology or Philosophy of Human
• Aesthetics or Philosophy of Art
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Science
• Complementarity

3 Methods in Philosophy

• Western Methods
• Indian Methods

4 Notional Clarifications

• Agnosticism
• A Priori and A Posteriori
• Deconstruction
• Existentialism
• Hermeneutics

5 Overview of Western Philosophies

• Ancient Western Philosophy
• Medieval Western Philosophy
• Modern Western Philosophy
• Contemporary Western Philosophy

6 Greek Philosophy (Ionian and Pythagorean Philosophers)

• Anaximander

7 Eleatic and Atomistic Philosophers

• Zeno of Elea
• Democritus & Leucippus

8 The Sophists

• The Lesser Sophists
• Socratic Problem
• Socratic Method
• Epistemology
• Socratic Ethics
• Socratic Schools
• Theory of Knowledge
• Philosophy of Human
• Philosophy of God
• Philosophy of Morals and Politics
• The Nature of Love
• Philosophy of Art

11 Aristotle

• Aristotle’s Philosophy: Logic
• Philosophy of the World
• First Philosophy
• Art and Literature

12 Hellenism

• Epicureanism

13 Neoplatonism

• The Life and Writings of Plotinus
• The Philosophy of Plotinus
• Neoplatonism after Plotinus

14 Early Medieval Philosophers

• Marcianus Aristides
• Flavius Justinus (Justin)
• Athenagoras
• Theophilus of Antioch
• Minucius Felix
• Clement of Alexandria
• End of the Early Medieval Philosophy

15 Augustine

• Portrait of the Philosopher
• Augustinian Conversion
• Augustine: A Personal Thinker
• Relation between Faith and Reason
• Philosophy of History
• Life and Works
• Faith and Reason
• Philosophy of Knowledge
• The Problem of Evil
• Moral Philosophy

17 Dun Scotus and William of Ockham

• John Duns Scotus
• William of Ockham

18 Jewish and Islamic Philosophers

• Individual Islamic Philosophers
• Jewish Philosophers

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The Socratic Method: Engaging Students in Critical Thinking and Dialogue

Most educators would agree that effectively engaging students in critical thinking and dialogue is a fundamental yet challenging aspect of quality teaching.

The Socratic method provides a structured approach to questioning that fosters critical thinking skills, analytical abilities, and confident participation among students of all ages.

In this article, we will explore the origin, core components, and practical classroom applications of the Socratic method to equip teachers with strategies to meaningfully engage students in rich dialogue and self-directed inquiry.

Introduction to the Socratic Method

The Socratic method is a form of philosophical inquiry and debate developed by the Greek philosopher Socrates in the 5th century BCE. At its core, the method uses probing questions to expose contradictions, test hypotheses, and stimulate critical thinking .

Origin and Definition

The Socratic method is named after its creator, Socrates, who lived in ancient Athens. He would engage fellow philosophers and citizens in thoughtful dialogue to encourage them to reflect critically on commonly held beliefs.

The Socratic method can be defined as a cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals with opposing viewpoints. The purpose is to stimulate critical thinking and draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions.

Core Components of the Socratic Method

The key elements of the Socratic method include:

• Asking open-ended questions that do not suggest an answer
• Identifying contradictions in thinking
• Considering alternate perspectives
• Testing hypotheses and challenging assumptions

The method aims to clarify concepts, distinguish ideas, and eliminate egocentric tendencies through reasoned discourse.

Understanding the Socratic Method Definition

The Socratic method is more than just asking questions. Its definition focuses on cooperative critical inquiry that analyzes knowledge and questions beliefs, assumptions, and viewpoints held by participants. This process of intellectual exchange illuminates ideas and enables discovery of new insights.

In essence, the Socratic method uses inquiry, debate, and open discussion to stimulate analytical thinking and bring ideas to the forefront of conscious awareness.

What is the Socratic Method of critical thinking?

The Socratic method is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions.

It is named after the Greek philosopher Socrates and is introduced by him in Plato's Theaetetus as midwifery (maieutics) because it brings ideas to light.

Key aspects of the Socratic method

• It centers on asking open-ended questions and answering them – each answer giving rise to further questions.
• It is intended to challenge ideas, reveal underlying assumptions, and lead to new conclusions.
• It focuses on seeking clarity, evidence, and critical assessment.
• It aims to stimulate analytical thinking skills.
• It establishes context and tests viewpoints for consistency.
• It can foster dialectic learning through discourse.

The Socratic method encourages critical thinking, invokes thoughtful reflection, and aims to reveal irrational or illogical thinking in order to make way for more reasoned and robust ideas. Through this process of continual inquiry, participants can identify inconsistencies in their own beliefs or knowledge.

Ultimately, the Socratic method employs systematic questioning to develop critical awareness, analyze problems, uncover potential solutions, and empower individuals to reason their way to knowledge.

How does the Socratic style of dialogue promote learning?

The Socratic method of teaching is based on Socrates' style of questioning his students to draw out their existing knowledge and challenge their assumptions. This method promotes active learning and critical thinking in several key ways:

Fosters Student Participation

• The Socratic method relies on a back-and-forth dialogue between teacher and students.
• By posing thoughtful questions, the teacher prompts students to articulate their ideas, analyze concepts, and make connections.
• This participatory style boosts student engagement and motivation to learn.

Develops Critical Thinking Skills

• Students learn to carefully evaluate their beliefs and form reasoned arguments to build or defend a viewpoint.
• As students analyze others' logic and provide counterexamples, this strengthens their higher-order thinking abilities.
• The exploratory questioning teaches students to identify gaps in their knowledge.

Promotes Deeper Understanding

• Challenging students' assumptions pushes them to think more deeply about what they know and how they know it.
• Articulating their mental models out loud enables students to refine their knowledge.
• The dialogue format helps students gain nuanced perspectives on complex topics.

In summary, the Socratic questioning approach promotes an inquisitive, collaborative environment ideal for developing critical thought and gaining multilayered understanding. By tackling ideas together through dialogue, students and teachers embark on a shared journey of insight.

What is the primary purpose of the Socratic Method?

The primary purpose of the Socratic method is to engage students in critical thinking and dialogue. By asking a series of probing questions, the Socratic method aims to get students to think more deeply about the topic at hand, question their own assumptions, evaluate the strength of arguments, and arrive at reasoned conclusions.

Some key objectives and benefits of using the Socratic method include:

Teaching students to think critically rather than passively accept arguments. The questioning process requires them to examine claims more closely.

Identifying inconsistencies in thinking. By going through the questioning process, flaws in logic or reasoning often become exposed.

Drawing out ideas and perspectives. Asking the right questions prompts students to articulate their thoughts and brings differing viewpoints to light.

Instilling intellectual humility. Students learn that the purpose is not to "win" arguments but to cooperatively seek truth through examination of ideas.

Developing communication skills. Responding to questions requires students to improve how they articulate thoughts.

Encouraging active learning. The dialogue format requires all students to participate rather than sitting passively.

The Socratic method develops critical thinking skills that serve students well both inside and outside the classroom. It teaches them to carefully evaluate arguments and claims as responsible citizens and thinkers.

What is the point of Socratic dialogue?

The goal of Socratic dialogue in the classroom is to engage students in critical thinking and ethical reasoning on complex topics. The teacher takes on the role of facilitator, using a series of probing questions to guide students towards examining issues from multiple perspectives and evaluating their own beliefs.

Some key benefits of Socratic dialogue include:

Promotes critical thinking skills: By responding to thought-provoking questions, students learn how to think logically, question assumptions, and construct reasoned arguments.

Encourages moral reasoning: Wrestling with ethical dilemmas in a collaborative setting helps students develop stronger capacities for moral judgment.

Fosters deeper understanding: Challenging students' initial opinions leads to self-reflection and a more nuanced grasp of complex subjects.

Teaches listening and communication abilities: Dialogic participation calls for patience, empathy and tolerance of different viewpoints from peers.

Creates an engaging classroom dynamic: The teacher takes on a guiding role, while students drive the discovery process through discussion.

The goal is not to arrive at definitive answers, but to achieve broader understanding on issues through collaborative inquiry. Students sharpen their thinking and communication abilities while gaining appreciation of multiple perspectives on meaningful topics.

The Three Steps of the Socratic Method

The Socratic method is a technique for stimulating critical thinking and analysis through a series of systematic questions. It involves three key steps:

Elenchus: The Art of Questioning

The first step in the Socratic method is elenchus, which refers to the back-and-forth questioning between teacher and students. The teacher poses thoughtful, probing questions to clarify beliefs, challenge assumptions, and reveal logical contradictions. Sample elenchus questions include:

• What evidence supports this claim?
• How does this relate to our earlier conclusion?
• What ambiguities need to be addressed?

Elenchus enables students to carefully reflect on the strength of an argument, rather than accepting it at face value.

Inductive Reasoning

The second step involves inductive reasoning to move from specific examples to broader generalizations. Through elenchus questioning, students analyze individual cases and phenomena. The teacher then guides them to make connections and identify patterns leading to tentative hypotheses.

For instance, by examining multiple legal cases, students induce core principles of justice. Or by analyzing poetic devices across poems, they generalize structures of metaphor and syntax.

Hypothesis Formation

In the final step, students form new hypotheses and conclusions based on the questioning and analysis. These hypotheses explain the examples covered in the dialogue and can be tested further through additional questioning.

The end goal is for students to construct knowledge by critically examining evidence, distilling insights from examples, and forming defensible conclusions. The Socratic method develops transferable skills in analysis, evaluation, and creative problem solving.

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Importance of the socratic method in education.

The Socratic method is a discussion-based teaching approach that promotes critical thinking, analytical reasoning, and thoughtful dialogue. By systematically questioning ideas, principles, and assumptions, students learn to carefully scrutinize beliefs, uncover assumptions, and build rational arguments. This develops essential skills for higher education and beyond.

Engaging Students in Critical Thinking

The Socratic method actively engages students in the learning process through inquiry, debate, and group discussion. Instead of passively receiving information, students are prompted to think critically about what they know and challenge their own assumptions. This promotes active learning and higher-order thinking skills like analysis, evaluation, and synthesis. Through dialogue and questioning, students also improve communication abilities.

Fostering Analytical Skills in 6-8 Middle School

Middle school is an ideal time to develop analytical habits of mind through the Socratic method. Open-ended Socratic questioning teaches students to carefully evaluate concepts from multiple perspectives, identify logical fallacies, and construct well-reasoned arguments. This builds essential skills for detecting bias, assessing credibility, and making sound judgments.

Preparing 9-12 High School Students for Higher Education

In high school, the Socratic method helps students develop the advanced reasoning skills needed for college-level critical analysis. By formulating logical arguments, justifying claims, and considering counterarguments, students build proficiency in skills like inference, deduction, inductive reasoning, and logical problem solving. This level of analytical sophistication prepares them to excel in higher education across disciplines.

The Role of the Socratic Method in Philosophy Education

As a foundational pedagogy in philosophy, the Socratic method builds skills in conceptual analysis, ethical reasoning, and epistemology. By examining the logical soundness of belief systems, students learn to construct philosophically rigorous arguments and critically analyze schools of thought. This develops conceptual clarity, intellectual humility, rational skepticism, and an understanding of complex philosophical ideas that is essential to the discipline.

Practical Application of the Socratic Method in Classrooms

Socratic method steps for teachers.

Here are the key steps for teachers to implement the Socratic method:

• Pose an open-ended question or present a scenario that requires critical thinking
• Call on students and ask them to share their initial thoughts and analysis
• Ask probing follow-up questions to get students to evaluate their assumptions and logic
• Let students debate each other, playing devil's advocate when needed
• Draw out any contradictions in thinking; challenge students to resolve inconsistencies
• Synthesize key learning and insights that emerged from the dialogue

Following this process engages students in critical dialogue while uncovering deeper meaning.

Questioning Techniques to Engage Critical Thinking

Types of questions to spark rich discussion:

• Clarification questions to better understand students' positions
• Probing questions that push students to examine their underlying premises
• Hypotheticals scenarios to check the consistency of arguments
• Devil's advocate questions to encourage debate between positions
• Linking questions to find connections between ideas

Managing the Dialogue for Effective Learning

Strategies to facilitate respectful exchanges:

• Set ground rules for dialogue and reiterate the goals of mutual understanding
• Ensure balanced participation so all voices are heard
• Guide discussion and pose follow-up questions to move the analysis forward
• Correct misunderstandings and summarize key insights
• Wrap up each session by synthesizing critical takeaways

Encouraging Participation from Every Student

Getting all students engaged:

• Think-pair-share activities to promote idea exchange
• Assign roles like "devil's advocate" or "discussion leader"
• Solicit alternative perspectives, including dissenting ones
• Scaffold questions from basic clarifications to deeper analysis
• Praise thoughtful contributions regardless of "right" answers
• Follow up privately with shy students to include them

Following these practical tips will lead to vibrant intellectual dialogue that unlocks students' critical thinking potential.

Applying the Socratic Method Beyond Philosophy

The Socratic method, developed by the Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals that aims to stimulate critical thinking and draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions. Initially devised as a philosophical teaching technique, the method has since been adapted for use in various other fields beyond philosophy.

Socratic Method in Law School

The Socratic method is widely used in American law schools to train students to think like lawyers. By engaging students in a series of questions that reveal the strengths and weaknesses of their arguments, professors encourage the development of critical analysis skills crucial for legal practice. Students learn to swiftly evaluate scenarios, weigh multiple perspectives, and articulate reasoned defenses of their positions. This aims to prepare them to argue cases in courtrooms after graduation.

Law professors modify the technique by focusing the dialogue on legal principles and precedents rather than abstract ideas. Questions probe the rationales behind existing laws and judicial rulings, pressing students to justify established doctrine. This forces them to think within the structures of the legal system while still questioning assumptions. The method equips students with the capacity for the critical yet grounded analysis required of legal professionals.

Interdisciplinary Teaching Strategies

While devised as a philosophical approach, the questioning nature of the Socratic method aligns with constructivist learning theories that emphasize active student participation over passive absorption of information. Educators across disciplines have adapted the technique to engage students, facilitate comprehension through teaching dialogues, and promote the higher-order thinking skills required for success in the 21st century.

In subjects like English literature, Socratic questioning guides students in interpreting themes and literary devices in texts. Scientific fields use the method to lead students toward conceptual understanding by scaffolding principled questioning. Mathematics and programming instructors employ technique to foster logical reasoning skills. Across disciplines, the approach centers critical analysis, evaluation of ideas, and thoughtful dialogue.

When applied broadly, the Socratic method equips students with transferable critical and creative thinking abilities. Questioning techniques teach structured evaluation of claims, evidence, differing viewpoints, and underlying assumptions. This builds the intellectual values that form the foundation of lifelong learning across academic and professional careers. The method can elevate classroom discourse beyond rote fact delivery toward the development of analytical thought and communication excellence.

Benefits for Students' Development

Promotes critical thinking and problem-solving.

The Socratic method requires students to evaluate arguments, identify logical fallacies, and reconsider beliefs. By repeatedly probing the reasoning behind ideas, it pushes students to think critically rather than accept claims at face value. This builds essential problem-solving skills that students can apply to academic work and real-world issues.

Develops Communication Abilities and Confidence

Through dialogue and debate, the Socratic method offers opportunities for students to improve public speaking, listening, and reasoning abilities. Having to clearly articulate and defend ideas builds confidence and communication skills. Students learn to craft persuasive arguments, integrate different viewpoints, and identify weaknesses in thinking.

Deepens Understanding and Facilitates Lifelong Learning

Questioning and explaining concepts cements students' comprehension of material, versus just passively receiving information. By articulating their knowledge, identifying gaps, and resolving misconceptions through discussion, students gain clearer and deeper mastery of content. This self-reflection promotes metacognition and skills for self-directed learning beyond school.

Challenges and Responses in Socratic Teaching

Classroom management during socratic dialogues.

The free-flowing nature of Socratic dialogues can present classroom management challenges. Here are some tips:

Set clear expectations and ground rules for respectful discussion from the start. Reinforce these regularly.

Use methods like talking sticks or balls to designate speakers. This prevents multiple students from speaking at once.

Have students sit in a circle or horseshoe shape. This encourages active listening and participation.

Give specific positive feedback when students demonstrate good dialogue habits. This reinforces productive behaviors.

If chaos ensues, pause the dialogue. Regain student attention, then reflect on what went wrong before restarting.

Assessment Techniques for Critical Thinking Skills

Assessing critical thinking development requires going beyond traditional tests. Recommended methods include:

Student self-assessments - Have students rate their understanding before and after Socratic lessons using short surveys. Compare results over time.

Dialogue observations - Take notes on student reasoning exhibited during dialogues. Are they asking probing questions? Justifying positions logically? Identify growth areas.

Reflective writing - Assign regular journaling on lesson topics. Analyze skills like reasoning, questioning assumptions, considering multiple perspectives.

Debate analyses - Have students debate controversial issues in small groups. Evaluate their argumentation techniques against a rubric.

Concept maps - Ask students to create visual maps of lesson concepts, linking ideas. Assess organization, connections made, insights demonstrated.

No single approach can fully capture critical thinking progress. Using a combination of complementary techniques helps provide a comprehensive picture of each student's development in this complex skill domain.

Conclusion: Embracing the Socratic Method for Educational Excellence

The Socratic method is a powerful teaching technique that focuses on asking questions to stimulate critical thinking and dialogue. By embracing this method, teachers can reap immense benefits in developing students' higher-order abilities.

Here are some key advantages of using the Socratic method:

Promotes critical thinking: The method's reliance on probing questions forces students to thoroughly analyze concepts, evaluate perspectives, and articulate reasoned judgments. This builds critical analysis skills.

Develops communication abilities: By having to explain their rationale through dialogue, students learn how to present thoughts logically, make persuasive arguments, and articulate ideas effectively.

Encourages intellectual humility: The non-confrontational question-based format requires open-mindedness in considering different viewpoints. This creates an intellectually humble learning culture.

Energizes classroom engagement: The stimulating back-and-forth conversation makes learning interactive and engaging, keeping students intellectually invested.

Allows customized learning: Teachers can tailor questions to each student's level, helping scaffold understanding and achieve personalized breakthroughs.

Adopting the Socratic method takes practice - both for teachers learning how to artfully form questions and guide discussion, as well as for students adjusting to this intellectually demanding format. But the long-term dividends make it profoundly worthwhile, as seen in students developing into discerning thinkers and skilled communicators. By embracing this method, schools can nurture the foundational higher-order abilities that are vital for future success.

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Socratic Method 

By Jaafar Bouhlal   Updated on March 03, 2023

Introduction

Historical Significance

Process of Inquiry

Critical Thinking

Legal Practice

Limitations

Contemporary Relevance

The Socratic Method is a method of questioning developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. It involves a series of questions designed to clarify and refine one's thinking, with the goal of arriving at a deeper understanding of a concept or idea. The method is often used to promote critical thinking, challenge assumptions and preconceptions, and encourage individuals to question their own beliefs and values.

The Socratic Method involves a dialogue between two or more individuals, with one person asking questions and the other responding. The questions are designed to probe the respondent's understanding of the topic, to identify inconsistencies or weaknesses in their argument, and to encourage them to think more deeply about the subject at hand.

The Socratic Method is still used today in many fields, including philosophy, education, law, and ethics. It is particularly effective in promoting active learning and critical thinking skills, and can help individuals to develop a deeper understanding of complex issues. However, the method also has its limitations, including the potential for it to be used as a tool for manipulation or to reinforce existing biases. It requires a skilled practitioner who is able to ask the right questions and guide the conversation effectively.

The Socratic Method is a method of inquiry that was developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. It involves asking a series of questions to encourage critical thinking and to arrive at a deeper understanding of a concept or idea. The historical significance of the Socratic Method lies in its origins in ancient Greece, and its influence on Western philosophy and education.

Socrates, who lived in Athens during the 5th century BCE, is credited with developing the Socratic Method. He used this method to challenge assumptions and encourage critical thinking in his students, who included some of the most famous philosophers in history, such as Plato and Xenophon.

The Socratic Method became an important part of Western philosophy, particularly in the fields of ethics and epistemology. It has been used by many philosophers throughout history, including Plato and Aristotle, and continues to be an important method of inquiry and teaching.

In addition to its influence on philosophy, the Socratic Method has also had an impact on education. It is often used in classrooms to encourage critical thinking and to help students develop a deeper understanding of complex ideas. It has been particularly effective in promoting active learning and in helping students to engage in meaningful discussions.

The Socratic Method is a process of inquiry that involves a series of questions to explore a concept or idea. The goal of the method is to arrive at a deeper understanding of the concept or idea and to challenge assumptions and preconceptions that may be held by the individual being questioned.

The process of inquiry begins with a question or a statement about a particular concept or idea. The Socratic Method then involves asking a series of questions to explore the concept or idea further. The questions are designed to clarify the individual's thinking and to challenge their assumptions and preconceptions.

Through this process of questioning, the individual being questioned is encouraged to examine their own beliefs and assumptions, to consider different perspectives, and to engage in critical thinking. The method is intended to promote intellectual humility and to help individuals to recognize the limitations of their own knowledge.

The Socratic Method is a flexible approach to inquiry that can be used in a variety of contexts. It can be used to explore complex philosophical questions or to facilitate discussions about practical issues in fields such as education, law, and business.

Critical thinking is the ability to analyze information, make reasoned judgments, and evaluate evidence. The Socratic Method is a teaching and inquiry technique that is designed to promote critical thinking by encouraging individuals to question their own beliefs and assumptions.

Through a series of carefully crafted questions, the Socratic Method challenges individuals to think deeply about complex issues and to consider alternative perspectives. The method encourages individuals to analyze and evaluate evidence, to identify biases and assumptions, and to question the validity of arguments and claims.

By engaging in this process of critical thinking, individuals can develop a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of complex issues. They are better equipped to identify and evaluate arguments, to recognize logical fallacies, and to separate fact from fiction.

The Socratic Method is particularly effective in promoting critical thinking because it encourages individuals to question their own beliefs and assumptions. This approach helps to prevent individuals from becoming complacent and accepting information at face value. Instead, they are encouraged to actively engage with the material, to evaluate evidence, and to develop their own informed opinions.

The Socratic Method is a teaching and inquiry technique that has been used in education for centuries. It is often used to promote active learning and critical thinking skills in students. The method is particularly effective in encouraging students to think deeply about a concept or idea and to engage in meaningful discussions.

In the Socratic Method, the teacher or facilitator poses a series of questions to the students to encourage critical thinking and inquiry. The questions are designed to help students clarify their thinking, to challenge their assumptions and beliefs, and to explore different perspectives on a particular topic.

This approach to teaching encourages students to become active participants in the learning process. It promotes independent thinking and fosters a deeper understanding of the material being studied. By engaging in this process of inquiry and discussion, students are better able to internalize and apply the concepts they are learning.

The Socratic Method is particularly effective in encouraging students to engage in meaningful discussions. The method encourages students to listen carefully to the ideas and perspectives of others, to consider alternative viewpoints, and to challenge their own assumptions and beliefs. This approach to learning promotes empathy, understanding, and respect for diverse perspectives.

The Socratic Method is a technique used in legal practice, particularly in law schools, to teach students how to think critically and to develop strong arguments. The method involves asking a series of questions to test the validity of a legal argument and to help lawyers to identify weaknesses in their opponent's case.

In law schools, professors often use the Socratic Method to engage students in discussions about legal cases and to challenge their understanding of legal concepts. By asking questions and encouraging discussion, the professor helps students to develop critical thinking skills and to analyze legal arguments from multiple perspectives.

In legal practice, the Socratic Method can be used during the preparation of a case to help lawyers to identify weaknesses in their opponent's arguments. By asking a series of questions, lawyers can test the strength of their own arguments and identify potential holes in their opponent's case. This approach can help lawyers to develop stronger arguments and to anticipate potential objections from their opponent.

The Socratic Method is also useful in legal practice during cross-examination. During cross-examination, lawyers use a series of questions to challenge the testimony of a witness and to test the strength of their opponent's case. The method can be particularly effective in exposing inconsistencies or contradictions in a witness's testimony.

The Socratic Method is a powerful tool used in ethics to explore complex moral issues and to develop a deeper understanding of ethical principles. It involves asking a series of questions to help individuals clarify their thinking and to challenge their assumptions and preconceptions about ethical issues.

In ethics, the Socratic Method is used to promote critical thinking and to encourage individuals to consider multiple perspectives on a given ethical issue. The method is particularly useful in exploring complex moral issues that do not have clear-cut answers. By engaging in a process of inquiry and discussion, individuals can develop a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of ethical principles.

The Socratic Method can also be used to explore ethical dilemmas and to help individuals make more informed decisions. By asking a series of questions, individuals can identify the values and principles that are important to them and can explore the potential consequences of their actions.

The Socratic Method is a powerful tool for critical thinking, but it has some limitations that should be considered. One of the limitations of the Socratic Method is the potential for it to be used as a tool for manipulation. If a skilled practitioner of the Socratic Method uses it to push a particular agenda or to reinforce existing biases, it can become a tool for manipulation rather than a tool for critical thinking.

Another limitation of the Socratic Method is that it requires a skilled practitioner who is able to ask the right questions and guide the conversation effectively. In order for the method to be effective, the practitioner must have a deep understanding of the subject matter being discussed and must be able to ask questions that encourage critical thinking and meaningful discussion.

Additionally, the Socratic Method can sometimes be time-consuming and may not be appropriate for all situations. In some cases, a more direct approach may be more appropriate or necessary.

Furthermore, the Socratic Method may not be effective for individuals who have difficulty engaging in deep introspection or who struggle with abstract thinking. It may also be less effective in situations where emotions or personal biases are strong factors.

Despite being developed over two thousand years ago, the Socratic Method remains highly relevant in contemporary society. In many fields, including philosophy, education, and law, the Socratic Method is still seen as an effective tool for promoting critical thinking and facilitating meaningful discussions.

In philosophy, the Socratic Method continues to be used as a tool for exploring complex issues and for challenging assumptions and preconceptions. It is particularly effective in areas of philosophy such as ethics and political theory, where it can help individuals to develop a deeper understanding of complex issues and to engage in meaningful debates about important topics.

In education, the Socratic Method is often used to promote active learning and critical thinking skills. It can help students to develop a deeper understanding of complex concepts and to engage in meaningful discussions with their peers and instructors.

In law, the Socratic Method is still used in many law schools to teach students how to think critically and to develop strong arguments. It is particularly effective in helping students to identify weaknesses in legal arguments and to think creatively about legal solutions to complex problems.

In addition, the Socratic Method is increasingly being used in other fields such as business, journalism, and even medicine, where it can help individuals to develop critical thinking skills and to engage in meaningful discussions about complex issues.

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Socratic Method: What Is It and How Can You Use It?

This article defines the Socratic method, a technique for establishing knowledge derived from the approach of ancient Greek philosopher Socrates.

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T he Socratic method is a form of cooperative dialogue whereby participants make assertions about a particular topic, investigate those assertions with questions designed to uncover presuppositions and stimulate critical thinking, and finally come to mutual agreement and understanding about the topic under discussion (though such mutual agreement is not guaranteed or required).

In more formal educational settings, the Socratic method is harnessed by teachers to ‘draw out’ knowledge from students. The teacher does not directly impart knowledge, but asks probing, thought-provoking questions to kickstart a dialogue between teacher and student, allowing students to formulate and justify answers for themselves.

As Stanford University comment in an issue of their Speaking of Teaching newsletter:

The Socratic method uses questions to examine the values, principles, and beliefs of students. Through questioning, the participants strive first to identify and then to defend their moral intuitions about the world which undergird their ways of life. Socratic inquiry deals not with producing a recitation of facts... but demands rather that the participants account for themselves, their thoughts, actions, and beliefs... Socratic inquiry aims to reveal the motivations and assumptions upon which students lead their lives.

Proponents of the Socratic method argue that, by coming to answers themselves, students better remember both the answer and the logical reasoning that led them there than they would if someone had simply announced a conclusion up front. Furthermore, people are generally more accepting of views they’ve come to based on their own rational workings.

The Death of Socrates, a painting by Jacques-Louis David depicting ancient Greek philosopher Socrates — from whom the Socratic method derives its name — about to drink hemlock in his jail cell, having been sentenced to death by the Athenian authorities.

The great philosopher Bertrand Russell once commented, “As usual in philosophy, the first difficulty is to see that the problem is difficult.” Being an inquisitive dialogue, the Socratic method is particularly effective here, revealing hidden subtleties and complexities in subjects that may otherwise appear obvious or simple, such as whether the world around us is ‘real’ .

Apply the Socratic method to such a subject, and participants quickly discover how difficult it is to establish a solid answer. This is a good outcome, Russell thinks, for informed skepticism has replaced uninformed conviction — or, as he puts it, “the net result is to substitute articulate hesitation for inarticulate certainty.”

As such, the Socratic method is at its most effective when applied to topics about which people hold deep convictions, such as questions on ethics , value, politics , and how to live.

After just a little probing on the foundations of our convictions on such topics, we learn that what may have appeared simple is in fact a very complicated issue mired in difficulty, uncertainty, and nuance — and that our initial convictions might be less justified than we first thought.

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Why is it called the Socratic method?

T he Socratic method derives its name from the conversational technique of ancient Greek philosopher Socrates , as presented in his student Plato’s dialogues written between 399 BCE and 347 BCE . The son of a midwife, Socrates draws parallels between his method and midwifery. In Plato’s dialogue Theaetetus , Socrates states:

The only difference [between my trade and that of midwives] is… my concern is not with the body but with the soul that is experiencing birth pangs. And the highest achievement of my art is the power to try by every test to decide whether the offspring of a young person’s thought is a false phantom or is something imbued with life and truth.

Socrates’s approach of sometimes relentless inquiry differed to the teachers in ancient Athens at the time, known as the Sophists, who went for the more conventional ‘sage on a stage’ educational method, trying to persuade people round to their viewpoints on things through impressive presentation and rhetoric.

This distinction in approach made Socrates somewhat of a celebrity of contrarian thought. While the Sophists tried to demonstrate their knowledge, Socrates did his best to demonstrate his (and everybody else’s) ignorance. His guiding principle was that we know nothing — and so, as W. K. C. Guthrie argues in The Greek Philosophers , the Socratic method was for Socrates as much a device for establishing ignorance as it was establishing knowledge.

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Indeed, Plato presents Socrates approaching various influential thinkers from ancient Athenian society and discussing many different subjects with them, including justice, knowledge , beauty, and what it means to live a good life.

Typically the interlocutor in discussion with Socrates begins by making a confident, seemingly self-evident assertion about a particular topic. Socrates then asks them questions about said topic, wrapping them in a tangled web of contradictions and false presuppositions, before concluding that the assertion that began the discussion is hopelessly misguided.

Given this consistent outcome of most if not all of Plato’s dialogues , some have questioned whether Socrates himself actually provides an effective template for the Socratic method as we know it today, in that while the illusion of cooperative dialogue is present, the conversations are largely dominated by Socrates picking apart the views of others.

Was Socrates’s method successful?

T he purpose of Socrates’s questioning was usually to jolt people out of their presuppositions and assumptions, and most of Plato’s dialogues end with Socrates kindly declaring the ignorance or even stupidity of those he spoke to. The only knowledge available to us, Socrates assures us, is knowing that we know nothing .

Socrates’s apparent victories in the name of reason and logic, while hugely entertaining and intellectually stimulating for the reader today, led to many important people in ancient Athens getting rather annoyed. Alas, Socrates was sentenced to death for corrupting the minds of the youth — but went on annoying his accusers til the very end with a wondrous exposition on piety and death, as recorded in a collection of Plato’s dialogues, The Trial and Death of Socrates .

Following Socrates’s death, Plato continued to write dialogues featuring Socrates as the protagonist in honor of his great teacher. This has led to lively discussion around how much of the Socrates featured in Plato’s dialogues represents Socrates, and how much he represents Plato. Regardless, Plato’s dialogues — written over 2,000 years ago — are wondrous, and we are lucky to have them.

How can you use the Socratic method today?

T hough things ended rather morbidly for Socrates, his method of questioning has evolved and lived on as a brilliant way to draw people out of ignorance, encourage critical thinking, and cooperate in the pursuit of knowledge. Socrates is a martyr not just for philosophy, but for educational dialogue and productive, stimulating exchanges of different perspectives around interesting subjects of all kinds.

Any time you ask questions to get people to think differently about things, any time you participate in healthy, productive debate or problem solving, any time you examine principles and presuppositions and come to an answer for yourself, you channel the same principles Socrates championed all those years ago.

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People tend to assent to uncomfortable conclusions more when they’ve done the reasoning and come to the answer themselves. This and a host of other benefits is why the Socratic method is still modelled by many educational institutions today: students are not told ‘what’ to think, but shown ‘how’ to think by being supplied with thoughtful questions rather than straight answers.

So, next time you’re locked in an argument with someone, or looking to inform an audience about a subject you’re experienced in, remember Socrates and the brilliant tradition of respecting different viewpoints, digging out presuppositions, and working together to find an answer.

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Socratic Questioning in Psychology: Examples and Techniques

Condemned to death in 399 BC and leaving no written works, we rely extensively on the writings of his pupil, philosophical heavyweight Plato (Honderich, 2005).

Perhaps Socrates’ most significant legacy is his contribution to the art of conversation, known as Socratic questioning. Rather than the teacher filling the mind of the student, both are responsible for pushing the dialogue forward and uncovering truths (Raphael & Monk, 2003).

And yet, what could a 2500-year old approach to inquiry add to the toolkit of the teacher, psychotherapist, and coach?

Well, it turns out, quite a lot.

In this article, we explore the definition of Socratic questioning and how we apply it in education, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, and coaching. We then identify techniques, examples of good questions, and exercises that promote better, more productive dialogue.

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This Article Contains

Socratic questioning defined, what is socratic questioning in cbt and therapy, how to do socratic questioning, 15 examples of socratic questioning, using socratic questioning in coaching, applications in the classroom: 2 examples, 3 helpful techniques, 4 exercises and worksheets for your sessions, 5 best books on the topic, a take-home message, frequently asked questions.

Many of us fail to recognize questioning as a skill. And yet, whether in education or therapy, vague, purposeless questions have a rather aimless quality, wasting time and failing to elicit useful information (Neenan, 2008).

The Socratic method, often described as the cornerstone of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) , solves this inadequacy by asking a series of focused, open-ended questions that encourage reflection (Clark & Egan, 2015). By surfacing knowledge that was previously outside of our awareness, the technique produces insightful perspectives and helps identify positive actions.

“I know you won’t believe me, but the highest form of human excellence is to question oneself and others.”

Socratic questioning involves a disciplined and thoughtful dialogue between two or more people. It is widely used in teaching and counseling to expose and unravel deeply held values and beliefs that frame and support what we think and say.

By using a series of focused yet open questions, we can unpack our beliefs and those of others.

In education, we can remove, albeit temporarily, the idea of the ‘sage on the stage.’ Instead, the teacher plays dumb, acting as though ignorant of the subject. The student, rather than remaining passive, actively helps push the dialogue forward.

Rather than teaching in the conventional sense, there is no lesson plan and often no pre-defined goal; the dialogue can take its path, remaining open ended between teacher and student.

The Socratic method is used in coaching, with, or without, a clear goal in mind, to probe our deepest thoughts. A predetermined goal is useful when there are time pressures but can leave the client feeling that the coach has their own agenda or nothing to learn from the discussion (Neenan, 2008).

In guided discovery , the absence of a clear goal leads to questions such as “ can you be made to feel inferior by someone else’s laughter?”  asked with genuine curiosity. Here, the coach gently encourages the client to look at the bigger picture and see other options for tackling an issue.

Ultimately, both approaches have the goal of changing minds. One is coach led, and the other is client led; the coach or therapist may need to move on a continuum between the two.

Indeed, in CBT, where the focus is on modifying thinking to facilitate emotional and behavioral change, the technique is recognized as helping clients define problems, identify the impact of their beliefs and thoughts, and examine the meaning of events (Beck & Dozois, 2011).

The use of the Socratic method by CBT therapists helps clients become aware of and modify processes that perpetuate their difficulties. The subsequent shift in perspective and the accompanying reevaluation of information and thoughts can be hugely beneficial.

It replaces the didactic, or teaching-based, approach and promotes the value of reflective questioning. Indeed, several controlled trials have demonstrated its effectiveness in dealing with a wide variety of psychological disorders.

While there is no universally accepted definition of the Socratic method in CBT, it can be seen as an umbrella term for using questioning to “ clarify meaning, elicit emotion and consequences, as well as to gradually create insight or explore alternative action ” (James, Morse, & Howarth, 2010).

It is important to note that the approach, when used in CBT, must remain non-confrontational and instead guide discovery, in an open, interested manner, leading to enlightenment and insight (Clark & Egan, 2015).

You will find that Socratic questions usually have the following attributes (modified from Neenan, 2008):

Above all else, it is essential to remember that Socratic questioning should be confusion-free.

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A fruitful dialogue using Socratic questioning is a shared one, between teachers and students or therapists and clients.

Each participant must actively participate and take responsibility for moving the discussion forward.

The best environment, according to professor Rob Reich, is one of ‘productive discomfort,’ but in the absence of fear and panic (Reis, 2003).

There should be no opponents and no one playing ‘devil’s advocate’ or testing the other.

Instead, it is best to remain open minded and prepared to both listen and learn.

Some guidance is suggested to perform Socratic questioning effectively.

For a student or client, it is useful to understand what is expected.

To be the ideal companion for Socratic questioning, you need to be genuinely curious, willing to take the time and energy to unpack beliefs, and able to logically and dispassionately review contradictions and inconsistencies.

When used effectively, Socratic questioning is a compelling technique for exploring issues, ideas, emotions, and thoughts. It allows misconceptions to be addressed and analyzed at a deeper level than routine questioning.

You will need to use several types of questions to engage and elicit a detailed understanding.

Students and clients should be encouraged to use the technique on themselves to extend and reinforce the effect of Socratic questioning and promote more profound levels of understanding.

Coaching is “ the art of facilitating the performance, learning, and development of another” (Downey, 2003). To reach a deeper understanding of a client’s goals, core values , and impediments to change, a coach must elicit information that is relevant, insightful, and ultimately valuable.

And yet, not all questions are equally useful in coaching.

Vague or aimless questions are costly in terms of time and will erode the client’s confidence in the coaching process (Neenan, 2008).

Asking open-ended questions helps clients reflect and generate knowledge of which they may have previously been unaware. Such insights result in clients reaching new or more balanced perspectives and identifying actions to overcome difficulties.

Coaches should avoid becoming ‘stuck’ entirely in the Socratic mode. Complete reliance on Socratic questions will lead to robotic and predictable sessions. Indeed, at times, the therapist may require closed questions to push a point and offer some direction (Neenan, 2008).

The student is asked to account for themselves, rather than recite facts, including their motivations and bias upon which their views are based.

Discussion is less about facts or what others think about the facts, and more about what the student concludes about them. The underlying beliefs of each participant in the conversation are under review rather than abstract propositions.

And according to science, it works very well. Research has confirmed that Socratic questioning provides students with positive support in enhancing critical thinking skills (Chew, Lin, & Chen, 2019).

1. Socratic circles

Socratic circles can be particularly useful for gaining an in-depth understanding of a specific text or examine the questioning technique itself and the abilities of the group using it:

• Students are asked to read a chosen text or passage.
• Guidance is given to analyze it and take notes.
• Students are arranged in two circles – an inner one and an outer one.
• The inner circle is told to read and discuss the text with one another for the next 10 minutes.
• Meanwhile, the outer circle is told to remain silent and observe the inner circle’s discussion.
• Once completed, the outer circle is given a further 10 minutes to evaluate the inner circle’s dialogue and provide feedback.
• The inner circle listens and takes notes.
• Later the roles of the inner and outer circles are reversed.

Observing the Socratic method can provide a valuable opportunity to learn about the process of questioning.

2. Socratic seminars

Socratic seminars are the true embodiment of Socrates’ belief in the power of good questioning.

• The teacher uses Socratic questions to engage discussion around a targeted learning goal, often a text that invites authentic inquiry.
• Guidelines are provided to the students to agree to fair participation, including example questions and behaviors for thinking, interacting, and listening within the group.
• Learning is promoted by encouraging critical analysis and reasoning to find deep answers to questions.
• The teacher may define some initial open-ended questions but does not adopt the role of a leader.
• Once over, a review of the techniques and the group’s effectiveness at using them should be performed and learnings fed into future seminars.

It takes time to learn and use the Socratic method effectively and should be considered a necessary part of the group’s overall journey.

1. The five Ws

At times we all need pointers regarding the questions to ask. The misleadingly named  five Ws – who, what, when, where, why, and how – are widely used for basic information gathering, from journalism to policing.

The five Ws (and an H) provide a useful set of open questions, inviting the listener to answer and elaborate on the facts.

2. Socratic method steps

Simply stated, Socratic questioning follows the steps below.

• Understand the belief. Ask the person to state clearly their belief/argument.
• Sum up the person’s argument. Play back what they said to clarify your understanding of their position.
• Upon what assumption is this belief based?
• What evidence is there to support this argument?
• Challenge their assumptions. If contradictions, inconsistencies, exceptions, or counterexamples are identified, then ask the person to either disregard the belief or restate it more precisely.
• Repeat the process again, if required. Until both parties accept the restated belief, the process is repeated.

The order may not always proceed as above. However, the steps provide an insight into how the questioning could proceed. Repeat the process to drill down into the core of an issue, thought, or belief.

3. Best friend role-play

Ask the client to talk to you as though they were discussing similar experiences to a friend (or someone else they care about.)

People are often better at arguing against their negative thinking when they are talking to someone they care about.

For example, “ Your best friend tells you that they are upset by a difficult conversation or situation they find themselves in. What would you tell them? Talk to me as though I am that person .”

1. Socratic question types

The Socratic method relies on a variety of question types to provide the most complete and correct information for exploring issues, ideas, emotions, and thoughts.

Use a mixture of the following question types for the most successful engagement.

2. Cognitive restructuring

Ask readers to consider and record answers to several Socratic questions to help challenge their irrational thoughts.

3. Life coaching questions

Refer to the 100 Most Powerful Life Coaching Questions on our blog for in-depth examples of open-ended questions for use as a coach.

4. Art of Socratic questioning checklist

While observing others leading Socratic discussions, use this questioning checklist to capture thoughts and provide feedback.

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To learn more about Socratic questioning and good questioning in general, check out these five books available on Amazon:

• The Socratic Method of Psychotherapy – James Overholser ( Amazon )
• The Thinker’s Guide to Socratic Questioning – Richard Paul and Linda Elder ( Amazon )
• Thinking Through Quality Questioning: Deepening Student Engagement – Elizabeth D. Sattes and Jackie A. Walsh ( Amazon )
• Techniques for Coaching and Mentoring – Natalie Lancer, David Clutterbuck, and David Megginson  ( Amazon )
• The Art of Interactive Teaching: Listening, Responding, Questioning – Selma Wassermann ( Amazon )

Socratic questioning provides a potent method for examining ideas logically and determining their validity.

Used successfully, it challenges (possibly incorrect) assumptions and misunderstandings, allowing you to revisit and revise what you think and say.

However, like any tool, it is only as good as the person who uses it.

Socratic questioning requires an absence of ego and a level playing field for all who take part. If you are willing to use logical, open questions without a fixed plan, and are prepared to practice, the technique is an effective way of exploring ideas in depth.

The theory, techniques, and exercises we shared will help you to push the boundaries of understanding, often into uncharted waters, and unravel and explore assumptions and misunderstandings behind our thoughts.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

Socratic questioning is a method of inquiry that seeks to explore complex ideas, concepts, and beliefs by asking questions that challenge assumptions, clarify meaning, and reveal underlying principles.

The five Socratic questions are:

• What do you mean by that?
• How do you know?
• Can you give me an example?
• What are the consequences of that?
• What is the counterargument?

The Socratic method is a form of inquiry that involves asking questions to stimulate critical thinking and expose the contradictions in one’s own beliefs.

The method involves a dialogue between two or more people in which the participants seek to understand each other’s beliefs and uncover the truth through a process of questioning and examination.

• Beck, A. T., & Dozois, D. J. (2011). Cognitive therapy: Current status and future directions. Annual Review of Medicine, 62 , 397–409.
• Chew, S. W., Lin, I. H., & Chen, N. S. (2019). Using Socratic questioning strategy to enhance critical thinking skills of elementary school students. Paper presented at the 2019 IEEE 19th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), Maceió, Brazil.
• Clark, G. I., & Egan, S. J . (2015). The Socratic method in cognitive behavioural therapy: A narrative review. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 39 (6), 863–879.
• Downey, M. (2003). Effective coaching: Lessons from the coach’s coach (2nd ed.). Thomson/ Texere.
• Honderich, T. (2005). The Oxford companion to philosophy. Oxford University Press.
• James, I. A., Morse, R., & Howarth, A. (2010). The science and art of asking questions in cognitive therapy. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 38 (1), 83–93.
• Lancer, N., Clutterbuck, D., & Megginson, D. (2016).  Techniques for coaching and mentoring  (2nd ed.). Routledge.
• Neenan, M. (2008). Using Socratic questioning in coaching. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 27 (4), 249–264.
• Overholser, J. (2018).  The Socratic method of psychotherapy . Columbia University Press.
• Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2016).  The thinker’s guide to the art of Socratic questioning.  The Foundation for Critical Thinking.
• Raphael, F., & Monk, R. (2003). The great philosophers. Routledge.
• Reis, R. (2003). The Socratic method: What it is and how to use it in the classroom. Tomorrow’s Professor Postings. Retrieved June 10, 2020, from https://tomprof.stanford.edu/posting/810
• Walsh, J. A., & Sattes, E. D. (2011). Thinking through quality questioning: Deepening student engagement (1st ed.). Corwin.
• Wasserman, S. (2017). The art of interactive teaching: Listening, responding, questioning (1st ed.). Routledge.

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Socratic Methods in the Classroom

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Since the Renaissance, the Socratic Method has been adapted to teach diverse subjects, including medicine, law, and mathematics. Each discipline selects elements and emphases from the Socratic Method that are appropriate for teaching individuals or groups how to reason judiciously within that subject. By looking at some of the great practitioners of Socratic questioning in the past, Socratic Methods in the Classroom explains how teachers may use questioning, reasoning, and dialogue to encourage critical thinking, problem solving, and independent learning in the secondary classroom. Through a variety of problems, cases, and simulations, teachers will guide students through different variations of the Socratic Method, from question prompts to the case method. Students will learn to reason judiciously, gain an understanding of important issues, and develop the necessary skills to discuss these issues in their communities. Grades 8-12

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter | 2  pages, introduction, chapter chapter 1 | 14  pages, critical thinking, chapter chapter 2 | 16  pages, from socratic method to socratic methods, chapter chapter 3 | 15  pages, maieutic questioning, chapter chapter 4 | 13  pages, the legal adaptation of the socratic method, chapter chapter 5 | 16  pages, socratic role-playing, chapter chapter 6 | 8  pages, writing philosophical dialogues in the classroom, chapter chapter 7 | 7  pages, socratic methods.

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Critical Thinking and the Socratic Method

This chapter starts by answering the question, “What is critical thinking?” As it turns out, not everyone agrees on what critical thinking is. Nevertheless, researchers agree that critical thinking allows many people to reason together for solutions to complex problems. Also, in this chapter, the authors look at how computing capabilities enhance Socratic problem solving. A computer-based Socratic problem-solving system can keep problem solvers on track, document the outcome of a problem-solving session, and share those results with participants and a larger audience. In addition, Socrates DigitalTM can also help problem solvers combine evidence about their quality of reasoning for individual problem-solving steps and the overall confidence level for the solution.

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The use of the Socratic inquiry to facilitate critical thinking in nursing education

Agnes makhene.

1 Department of Nursing Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Critical thinking is a skill that nurse practitioners are required to have. Socratic inquiry can be used to facilitate critical thinking in nursing. Nurse educators seek methods to infuse into teaching content to facilitate students’ critical thinking skills, and one of such methods is the use of Socratic inquiry as a teaching method.

This article aims to explore and describe how Socratic inquiry can be used to facilitate critical thinking in nursing education.

This study took place in a nursing department at a university in Johannesburg.

A qualitative, exploratory, descriptive and contextual design was used. Purposive sampling was used to draw a sample of 15 nurse educators determined by data saturation. Miles, Huberman and Saldaña’s methodology of qualitative data analysis was used. Lincoln and Guba’s strategies for trustworthiness and Dhai and McQuoid-Mason’s principles of ethical consideration were used.

Three main themes emerged: the context necessary for Socratic inquiry, dispositions in Socratic inquiry and strategies to use in Socratic inquiry to facilitate critical thinking skills of students.

Conclusions

Socratic inquiry can be used both in education and practice settings to facilitate the use of critical thinking skills to solve problems.

Introduction

Socratic inquiry refers to the kind of questioning in which the original question is responded to as though it was an answer (Zare & Mukundan 2015 :256). It is a type of questioning that deeply probes or explores the meaning, justification or logical strength of a claim, and position or line of reasoning. This, in turn, forces the the one who first asked questions to reformulate a new question in light of the progress of the discourse. Questions that are asked investigate assumptions, viewpoints, consequences and evidence (Brookfield 2011 :92–99). On the other hand, critical thinking is considered to be a necessary skill that nurse practitioners should have in order to function efficiently in an ever-changing healthcare setting. Patient care has become so diverse and complex to the extent that nurses are facing an ever-increasing demand to make decisions and solve problems which calls on the use of critical thinking. It has become even more important that students are taught to think critically. Critical thinking is a learnt skill, which means it can be facilitated during teaching and learning. The main focus has been on teaching critical thinking as a stand-alone subject and has since been essential to research on how to facilitate it as a skill. However, this topic is not explicitly taught or assessed within current programmes, yet the need is greater than ever, in an era of information explosion, spiralling healthcare costs, and increased understanding about metacognition to produce graduates who are critical thinkers (Huang, Newman & Schwartzstein 2014 :95).

Therefore, the focus of this article is to describe how Socratic inquiry can be used to facilitate critical thinking in students. Facilitation refers to the promotion of critical thinking through the creation of an environment that is conducive to such thinking, using a dynamic interactive process (Theory for Health Promotion in Nursing, University of Johannesburg 2009 ), while critical thinking refers to a purposeful, self-regulatory judgement that results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological or contextual considerations on which the judgement is based (Facione 1990 :2). This article will assist nurse educators to use the Socratic inquiry in teaching and learning to facilitate critical thinking skills of students.

Research design

This study applied a qualitative approach in the form of an exploratory descriptive design (Burns & Grove 2011 :65) that was contextual in nature.

Research methods

Research setting.

This study took place in a nursing department at a university in Johannesburg. The department offers 4-year undergraduate bachelor’s programme, post-basic 3-year bachelor’s degree, post-basic qualifications in nursing, for example, nursing education, community nursing science, advanced midwifery, among others, and master’s and doctoral degrees. The students include both undergraduate and postgraduate students. The department subscribes to the constructivist teaching and learning philosophy, whereby students are learning ‘to be’.

Population sampling strategy

Participants were nurse educators who taught in the nursing department. The researcher approached the prospective participants on a face-to-face basis where the purpose of the study was explained and a request to participate was made. A non-probability purposive sampling method was used to draw the sample of 15 ( N = 15) nurse educators from the lecturer population in the Faculty of Health Sciences. This method was appropriate as the researcher was looking for nurse educators who were willing to bring forth specific, rich and in-depth information related to the use of Socratic inquiry to facilitate critical thinking. The nurse educators were involved in teaching in the 4-year bachelor’s degree nursing programme and had a teaching experience of 5 years and above, which were the inclusion criteria for the sample. The sample size was determined by data saturation. No participants dropped out of the study. The participants gave informed written consent to participate and were made aware of their right to withdraw participation at any stage in the research without consequences.

Data collection method

The researcher conducted 15 unstructured individual interviews at the convenience of each participant, as they were allowed to determine the date and time of interviews. The voice recording of the interviews was done with the consent of the participants. This enabled the researcher to use quotes from verbatim transcription of the interviews to enhance the credibility of the findings. Field notes were taken during and after the interviews to enrich the collected data. Follow-up questions were asked based on the responses of participants for clarification to enhance the depth of the data. Data collection was completed after data saturation was reached with the 15th participant. The interviews lasted for 30–60 min each as determined by the responses. The researcher posed the following central question to which the participant had to respond: ‘how can the Socratic inquiry be used to facilitate the thinking skills of students?’ If a response lacked sufficient detail, depth or clarity, the researcher followed up with a question, encouraging the participants to complete or clarify their response or asked for further examples and evidence. Based on the participant’s response, the researcher paraphrased, probed, clarified, reflected and summarised to gather comprehensive information and understanding of the participants’ responses.

Data analysis

The total number of participants was 15 (14 women and 1 man). Their ages ranged from 35 to 62 years. There were five white, nine African and one mixed race participants. The sample included one professor, two senior lecturers and nine junior lecturers. This heterogeneous sample happened naturally as this was the staff establishment in the department. Miles, Huberman and Saldaña’s ( 2014 :109–112) methodology of qualitative data analysis was used to analyse and draw themes from the data. Chunks of information were extracted from the transcripts, and the perceptions were grouped meaningfully and placed in matrices. Key information from the written chunks of information was identified so as to enable the researcher to easily get back to them in the content, should the need arise. Specific illustrations from written-up field notes were included. The researcher read through the transcripts to get original responses, while concentrating on similar patterns, feelings and thoughts. When data saturation was reached, similar patterns were grouped together to derive meaningful themes and categories. Content–analytical summary tables were used to clarify the researcher’s understanding. Conclusions were checked, confirmed and verified for accuracy. The data analysis protocol, audiotapes and field notes were given to an independent coder to analyse the collected data independent of the researcher to verify the accuracy of data analysis, which further increased the dependability and confirmability of the findings. The independent coder was purposively chosen as she had experience in qualitative design methodology, data analysis using matrices and held a doctoral qualification. A consensus meeting was held after she was done with the analysis. Five follow-up individual interviews were held with participants 4, 6, 8, 10 and 15 to establish the accuracy of the analysed data. This was done as a trustworthiness strategy to establish the dependability and credibility of the findings.

Measures to ensure trustworthiness

Lincoln and Guba’s strategies for trustworthiness as described in Polit and Beck ( 2018 :296–302), namely, credibility, dependability, transferability, confirmability and authenticity, were employed. Credibility was ensured through prolonged engagement where sufficient time was spent with each participant to gain in-depth understanding of how Socratic inquiry can be used to facilitate critical thinking. Member checking was done by taking some of the transcripts back to the participants to verify the accuracy of the collected data and to establish whether emerging interpretations were the accurate representation of what was said during data collection. This further ensured the credibility and dependability of the data. Follow-up interviews were conducted with some of the participants during data analysis to verify the accuracy of the collected data. The researcher ensured that data are consistent and neutral and the findings were subject to change and stability to attain dependability. Transferability of the findings in this study to other contexts was ensured by providing thick description of the context in which the study took place, the participants and research methods used. The value of the data was achieved through confirmability. Authenticity was ensured by voice recording of interviews and verbatim transcription of the data collected.

Ethical considerations

The principles of autonomy, informed consent, beneficence, justice and non-maleficence were observed (Dhai & McQuoid-Mason 2011 :14–15). Participants signed informed consent forms. The ethics committee of the University of Johannesburg gave ethical clearance for the study (Ref 35/05/04). Participants’ confidentiality and privacy were ensured in that their names were not mentioned in any of the data collected and nowhere in the description of the findings, and the interviews took place in each participant’s office.

Findings and discussion

Data analysis led to the emergence of three main themes and subthemes relevant to each. These were a teaching/learning context for Socratic inquiry, attitude necessary during Socratic inquiry and strategies on how to use Socratic inquiry to facilitate critical thinking. The findings and field notes were integrated into relevant existing literature to enhance the richness of data and are discussed as such.

The teaching/learning context for Socratic inquiry

The participants cited that it is important for the educator to create a teaching and learning environment that is conducive by ensuring that students feel psychologically safe, there is mutual respect and they are not intimidated by the questions asked.

‘It is essential that the educators ensure that the students feel “safe” to answer and ask questions without fear of being ridiculed or made to feel stupid.’ (Participant 2, 50 years old, female)

The nurse educator must be culturally aware and treat students with respect.

‘There must be mutual respect between students and the educator and sensitivity to cultural diversity.’ (Participant 5, 40 years old, female)

It emerged from the interviews that the teaching/learning context allows for full participation of each student without discrimination.

‘I think it is important that learning environment is such that there is mutual trust between the nurse educator and the students, and between the students themselves as this gives assurance to the students that they can freely participate in the teaching/learning process, and also trust that their viewpoints will be considered and taken seriously by others without bias or prejudice.’ (Participant 3, 46 years old, male)

The context that facilitates questioning should be one that allows for mutual respect. The educator needs to ensure that the teaching/learning environment is one where there is mutual respect among the students and between the students and the educator. The environment must allow for freedom of expression without prejudice or bias, and principles of democracy where everyone is treated equally should be established by the educator (Paul & Elder 2010 :34–35). Students come from different cultural backgrounds; therefore, the teaching/learning environment must be one where the diversity is acknowledged, and there is cultural tolerance and accommodation. Brookfield ( 2011 :92–96) is of the view that the learning environment should be one that encourages dialogue and the educator must allow for enough wait time during questioning. The educator should create an enabling environment and space for students to reflect when responding to inquiries. The learning environment must be less structured and emotionally supportive in order to prompt the learners to explore what they consider important. The appropriate behaviour of the nurse educator will enhance the perceived psychological safety of the learning environment. The nurse educator must avoid repeatedly interrupting students before they have finished responding; breaking eye contact with the responder; or using an aggressive or condescending tone of voice, facial expressions such as grimacing and/or alienating body language such as turning away from the responder will erode students’ sense of safety and self-worth. Students who do not feel safe or self-confident will not initiate responses to questions or will provide short or purposefully erroneous answers when called upon (Tofade, Elsner & Haines 2013 :155).

The attitude necessary during Socratic inquiry

According to the participants, there are certain attitudinal traits that both educators and students need to display when using the Socratic inquiry method in teaching.

‘The educator need to accept and accommodate each student’s capabilities as some students may feel the educator is out to get them when asking questions.’ (Participants 1, 47 years old, female) ‘The student must also not judge each other in their interaction in class as they engage with the questions asked and answers given and they must also be aware that they may be wrong in their responses and be prepared to adjust their thinking.’ (Participants 7, 53 years old, female) ‘It is important that the nurse educator displays a non-judgmental attitude. This will make the students to understand that they can make mistakes without being judged.’ (Participant 13, 60 years old, female)

Good Socratic inquiry takes in an atmosphere of mutual respect where there is expression of warm acceptance, understanding and non-judgmental attitude that will encourage students to engage in critical thinking. The student must be taught to value objectivity and rationality to resolve problems. They should respect evidence as the test for accuracy and display a willingness to suspend a judgement. They need to realise that their answers may be wrong hence the need to judgment without jumping at conclusions. Tolerance for ambiguity and an exhibition of a healthy scepticism, curiosity, and respect for the use of reason are further attitudinal attributes that are necessary in the engagement in Socratic inquiry. The student should be made aware that it is important avoid egocentric tendencies if their critical thinking skills are to be facilitated through Socratic inquiry (Brookfield 2011 :92–96; Paul & Elder 2010 :34–35). Questioning has both cognitive and affective components. Successful questioners value objectivity and rationality to resolve problems. They respect evidence as the test for accuracy, express willingness to suspend judgements and are tolerant of ambiguity to a point. These are the characteristics an educator should aim for in the facilitation of students’ critical thinking skills. Questioning is characterised by scepticism, curiosity and respect for the use of reasons (Rajput 2009 :62–69). In this strategy, the educator has an obligation to guide the students as they formulate ways to gather information or evidence to answer questions. Depending on the variances in degree of assistance, students determine what data might be relevant, decide how to gather it, represent the collected data and organise it in a useful manner. Socratic inquiry is a method that will move the students towards the consideration of various options and the development of constructive alternatives through the use of their facilitated critical thinking skills in problem-solving.

Strategies on how to use Socratic inquiry to facilitate critical thinking

The use of Socratic inquiry in the facilitation of critical thinking involves specific questions posed to illicit particular information. Questioning must compel thoughtfulness, evaluation and synthesis of facts and concepts. The participants said the nurse educator should ask questions in a manner that will make students think and question their own thinking patterns as well.

‘I normally ask questions with words such as “explain, compare, why, how did you get to that conclusion in order to get the students thinking. What is the best way to solve this problem and why, do you agree or disagree with this statement?” The questions should also be such that they force the students to evaluate assumptions, viewpoints, consequences and evidence.’ (Participant 11, 55 years old, female) ‘I use the Socratic method of questioning which focuses on clarification of what is said. Socratic questioning fosters critical thinking, evaluation, and knowledge application by the students. I find that this method of questioning probes beneath the surface of things and pinpoints problematic areas of their thinking processes. It encourages the student to become their own questioner and to develop habits of critical reflection.’ (Participant 9, 58 years old, female) ‘I also use a lot of thoughtful questioning in my teaching because through questioning I take the students from the known to the unknown as well as stimulate debate and argument which are facilitative of critical thinking. It is important that the questions that we ask are such that they stimulate higher order thinking, for example, evaluation and synthesis. For example, I ask questions like, “what is the problem here, how did you arrive at the solution, why the choice of solution, how can you do it differently next time?”’ (Participant 4, 50 years old, female)

The Socratic inquiry encourages learners to reflect and think independently and critically. It is practised in small groups with the help of a facilitator so that self-confidence in one’s own thinking is enhanced and the search for truth in answer to a particular question is undertaken in a common manner. The method begins by calling on a student at random and asking them about a central argument put forth by one of the other students. The questions can take several forms. Questioning must compel thoughtfulness, evaluation and synthesis of facts and concepts. According to Tofade et al. ( 2013 :155), the educator should use the following guidelines when using Socratic questioning: must develop categories of questions such as exploratory, spontaneous, and focused questions. Exploratory questioning is used to find out how much students know about the issue under discussion. This type of question needs to be planned in advance and is used to introduce a new topic to students, review past discussions of a topic or determine how much students have retained from the previous learning sessions. Spontaneous questioning is best used when students are naturally curious about the topic or when an ongoing discussion slows as well as probing students’ thoughts in an effort to get them to explore their beliefs and assumptions. This type of question prompts students to self-correct, rather than be corrected by an educator, through the reflective process being used to analyse the question being asked. Spontaneous questioning can also be used when an important issue is raised, when students are on the edge of a breakthrough in learning or when discussion requires clarification. Focused questioning aims to bring attention to specific issues on which an educator would like the students to reflect while stimulating the students intellectually by forcing them to critically analyse and evaluate their thoughts and perspectives. It encourages the students to use the metacognitive process to analyse their own thinking processes (Kost, Frederick & Chen 2015 :23–24; Zare & Mukundan 2015 :260).

An educator should begin the inquiry process by posing an open-ended question to students. The students are encouraged to adhere to a subsidiary question until it is answered while avoiding coercion and manipulation. The students must be gently nudge and guided to examine the issues they take for granted, such as assumptions, beliefs, experiences and paradigms. Respond to all answers with a further question in order to develop their fuller thinking and depth of thinking (Billings & Halstead 2012 :274–275). Treat all students’ assertions as in need of development and connecting points to further thoughts and recognise that any thought can exist fully in a network of connected thoughts. Students can be given pre-class assignments that will lead to adequate preparation for class. Ask ‘why’ questions that require explanation of principles and help to determine the amount, direction and quality of the student’s thinking (DeWaelsche 2015 :140–147). Paul and Elder ( 2010 :34–35) are of the opinion that an educator should assist students to form relationships, induce involvement and enhance the learner’s critical thinking through questioning. The questions should be designed to assess various cognitive skills and sub-skills associated with critical thinking. The students’ verbal and non-verbal responses as well as the flow of questioning should be monitored. Stimulate mental alertness and encourage co-operative questioning through questions generated by the students. The educator should pose questions to create an awareness of a point of view in the students’ minds that they may have overlooked, to further create doubt; the objective is that they test their proposition anew. Ensure that the students are clear about what is being said by testing it against their individual experiences and asking clarity seeking questions to establish a reference to experience and to avoid judgment of too general a nature (Hughes & Quinn 2013 :165). Paul and Elder ( 2010 :34–35) argue that the educator should encourage intellectual perseverance in the face of difficulty but, on the other hand, display intellectual humility to accept temporarily that their thinking and dialogue may take a different course. Guide them to adopt justified positions and formulation of own thoughts as an answer to a question. Restrain oneself from providing answers by allowing the students to discover insights on their own and to independently seek information and formulate criteria to clarify issues or arguments for assessment and making judgements. The educator should raise questions that are investigative in nature and of a fundamental nature: questions about the significance of basic elements of a subject; and questions seeking explanations of basic patterns -– what is causality? Encourage the students to express their thoughts clearly to be understood by others, and to grasp the thoughts of others. Insist on precise and shared understanding. The act of directing the thinking of the students should never encroach on the student’s emerging judgement (Tallent & Barnes 2015 :435–441). Torabizadeh, Homayuni and Moattari ( 2018 :174–185) assert that the core of Socratic inquiry is that typically there is more than one ‘correct’ answer, and more often, no clear answer at all. The primary goal of Socratic inquiry in the learning area is not to answer usually unanswerable questions, but to encourage the students whose critical thinking is facilitated to explore different aspects of answers brought forth and their justification. This method encourages the student to move beyond memorising the facts and instead focus on the application of developed critical thinking skills in solving problems at hand. According to Knezic et al. ( 2010 :1104–1111), the Socratic inquiry means that a student is involved in a dialogue, starting with the concrete and remaining in contact with concrete experience. Insights will be gained only when, in all phases of a Socratic dialogue, the link between any statement made and personal experience is explicit. This means that a Socratic dialogue is a process that concerns the whole person. The students should be encouraged to focus on a subsidiary question until it is answered. To achieve this, the students are required to bring great commitment to their work, and to gain self-confidence in the power of reason. This means, on the one hand, not giving up when the task is difficult but, on the other, to be intellectually humble enough to accept, for a time, a different course in the dialogue to return to the subsidiary question. Striving for consensus will require an honest examination of the thoughts of others and the student being honest in their own statements (Torabizaden et al. 2018 :174–185). There are certain types of Socratic questions that should be asked to gather specific responses or information. Socratic questioning or inquiry encourages to question more systematically and deeply. Examples of Socratic questions as adapted from Paul and Elder (2008:np) are described.

Question to seek clarity:

• - What do you mean?
• - How does cyanosis relate to difficulty in breathing?

Questions to probe assumptions

• - You seem to be assuming that a patient who is presenting with dyspnoea is having a respiratory condition….do I understand you correctly?
• - What is your assumption with regard to decreased oxygen saturation and inflammation of the respiratory tract?

Questions probing reasoning and evidence

• - How do you know that decreased SATS result from inadequate respiration?
• - Do you have evidence to support your reasoning?

The study found that it is important to create a conducive environment if one is to use Socratic inquiry to facilitate critical thinking. It was further found that both the nurse educator and student nurses must possess specific attitudinal traits and that there are strategies that need to be employed in order to facilitate critical thinking through Socratic inquiry.

Conclusion and recommendations

The aim of this study was attained. Socratic inquiry can be used as a teaching and learning strategy to facilitate the critical thinking skills of students. The findings were that there is a specific teaching–learning environment that the nurse educator must create; the educator and students need to demonstrate certain attitudinal dispositions in order to be successful in using Socratic inquiry as a teaching strategy to facilitate critical thinking of students. A teaching–learning environment characterised by an open, mutual respect and trusting relationship should be ensured. Therefore, the implication is that the educator needs to take adequate time to construct thought-provoking questions and aim at facilitating a discussion that follows a good questioning exercise. Furthermore, the facilitation of students’ critical thinking skills will be enhanced if a pre-class assignment that leads to adequate student preparation is designed, and further research can be conducted to test if pre-class assignments prepare students for the facilitation of their critical thinking skills. The educator can use questioning spontaneously as an exploratory strategy, or with issue-specific content. The educator’s role is mainly of asking questions and providing support for the students facilitated critical thinking skills. Student-initiated questions are also encouraged as they increase higher order thinking which requires them to analyse information, clarify meaning and draw inferences by examining relations between concepts and justifying their responses which are attributes of critical thinking. Socratic inquiry, if properly used, can show that decisions are usually conscientiously made, and emanate from particular premises, beliefs and conclusions that are the subject of justified argumentation. Students will learn to discover the structure of their thoughts and to develop sensitivity to clarity, accuracy and relevance. It also assists them to arrive at judgements based on their own reasoning, and to note claims, evidence, conclusions, interpretations, implications, concepts and points of view that are considered to be elements of critical thinking. It is further recommended that this teaching methodology should be used both in the classroom and clinical context to facilitate students’ critical thinking skills.

Acknowledgements

Competing interests.

The author declares that she has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced her in writing this article.

How to cite this article: Makhene, A., 2019, ‘The use of the Socratic inquiry to facilitate critical thinking in nursing education’, Health SA Gesondheid 24(0), a1224. https://doi.org/10.4102/hsag.v24i0.1224

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• Corpus ID: 147576694

The Use of Socratic Method as a Teaching/Learning Tool to Develop Students' Critical Thinking: a Review of Literature

• Pezhman Zare , J. Mukundan
• Published 2015
• Education, Philosophy

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Thinking more wisely: using the Socratic method to develop critical thinking skills amongst healthcare students

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, University Road No.1, East District 701, Tainan City, Taiwan (R.O.C.). [email protected].
• 2 School of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, University Road No.1, East District 701, Tainan City, Taiwan (R.O.C.). [email protected].
• 3 Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, University Road No.1, East District 701, Tainan City, Taiwan (R.O.C.).
• 4 School of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, University Road No.1, East District 701, Tainan City, Taiwan (R.O.C.).
• 5 Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Chi Mei Medical Center, Zhonghua Raod No.901, Yongkang District 710, Tainan City, Taiwan (R.O.C.).
• PMID: 36941597
• PMCID: PMC10026783
• DOI: 10.1186/s12909-023-04134-2

Background: In medicine, critical thinking is required for managing and tolerating medical uncertainty, as well as solving professional problems and treating diseases. However, the core of Confucianism, teacher-centered and exam-oriented settings in middle and high school education may pose challenges to developing critical thinking in Han Chinese or Taiwanese students. Students may be adversely affected by these pedagogies since student-centered settings were more effective in stimulating their critical and reflective thinking, as well as a sense of responsibility, in the ever-changing world. Therefore, guiding students with less stable foundations of critical thinking might require a different approach. A review article highlighted the potential utility of the Socratic method as a tool for teaching critical thinking in the healthcare field. The method involves posing a series of questions to students. More importantly, medical students and residents in clinical teaching are familiar with the method. Almost all healthcare students must complete a biochemistry laboratory course as part of their basic science training. Thus, we aimed to train students to develop critical thinking in the biochemistry laboratory course by using learning sheets and teacher guidance based on the Socratic method and questioning.

Method: We recruited second-year students from a medical school, of whom 32 had medical science and biotechnology majors (MSB), 27 had pharmaceutical science majors (PS), and 85 were medical undergraduate (MU) students. An exercise in critical thinking was conducted during a biochemistry laboratory course, which consisted of five different biochemical experiments, along with learning sheets that contained three or four critical thinking questions. Then, the teacher evaluated the students' ability to think critically based on nine intellectual dimensions (clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, fairness, and significance) based on the universal intellectual standards developed by Prof. Linda Elder and Richard Paul. In the following analysis, regression models and multivariate analysis were used to determine how students improved over time, and trajectory analysis were carried out in order to observe the trends in students' critical thinking skills construction.

Results: Clarity and logic dimensions were identified as the key elements to facilitate the development of critical thinking skills through learning sheets and teacher guidance in students across all three different healthcare majors. The results showed that metacognitive monitoring via Socratic questioning learning sheets have demonstrated potential encourage students to develop critical thinking skills in all dimensions. Another unique contribution of current study was present the heterogeneous learning patterns and progress trajectories of clarity and logic dimensions within classes.

Conclusion: Using the Socratic learning model could effectively develop students' critical thinking skills so they can more effectively care for their patients.

Keywords: Biochemistry experiment; Critical thinking; Medical education; Metacognition; Socratic method.

© 2023. The Author(s).

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors have declared that there are no conflicts of interest in relation to the subject of this study.

Socratic method framework and structure…

Socratic method framework and structure of the research hypotheses behind the biochemistry laboratory…

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