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The history of Scotland

Scotland is a country with a fascinating history. We’re passionate about telling the story of Scotland and its people . This handy timeline offers a bird’s-eye view of Scottish history, from the first people to the Age of Enlightenment, and includes famous figures like Robert the Bruce and Mary, Queen of Scots .

Scotland’s beginnings

People first occupied Scotland in the Paleolithic era. Small groups of hunter-gatherers lived off the land, hunting wild animals and foraging for plants. Natural disasters were a serious threat – around 6200BC a 25m-high tsunami devastated coastal communities in the Northern Isles and eastern Scotland.

People first started cultivating and claiming ownership of the land in Scotland in the Neolithic period. They built permanent shelters, made pottery and stone axes, and created tombs to house the remains of their ancestors.

The arrival of metalworking signalled the start of the Bronze Age and a period of technological change. Burial structures, like the one that was uncovered at St Kilda , and ornaments made from exotic materials (such as gold, amber or jet) show that people were displaying their wealth and status, and that social hierarchies were starting to form. At Brodick Castle you can learn about this early period of history in a reconstructed roundhouse.

The Iron Age saw people making better tools and weapons. Communities also built defensive forts of timber, earth and stone to keep enemies at bay. We’ve found evidence of human activity dating back to the Iron Age in the caves beneath Culzean Castle .

Early Scottish history

We’re always uncovering and learning from historical written documents. Scotland’s recorded history began with the arrival of the Romans. Emperor Claudius invaded Britain in AD43 and soon ventured north. Despite the Romans’ best efforts to fortify the border with Hadrian’s Wall in AD122, and central Scotland with the Antonine Wall 20 years later, they were fought back by the Caledonians and the Picts, and eventually retreated from Britain altogether by AD410.

The Early Historic period refers to the era when Scotland’s history first started to be recorded in writing. There are records, written mostly by monks, that tell us that Christianity reached the west of Scotland in AD563, when Columba arrived in Iona .

Around this time the Vikings arrived to trade and settle around Scotland, both on the west coast and in the north at places like Fair Isle .

Where did Scottish people come from?

Early Historic Scotland was a melting pot of different groups – the Britons, the Picts, the Angles, the Gaels (Scots) and the Norse – and you can see this mixture reflected in place-names around the country, from Ben Macdui (Gaelic) to Stornoway (Norse) via Aberdeen (Pictish).

The medieval period saw the gradual expansion of the Scottish kingdom, as kings and queens came and went at a steady pace. The best known early Scottish king, Macbeth, was killed in battle in 1057, and the Kingdom of Alba became a feudal society by the 12th century. The reigns of William I (the Lion), Alexander II and Alexander III saw farming, trade and Christianity flourish.

The battle for independence

Following the death of Alexander III, England’s King Edward I had declared himself the overlord of Scotland and marched his troops north. In 1297, Edward’s army planned to cross the River Forth at Stirling Bridge, but were met by an army of Scots that forced them back. The Battle of Stirling Bridge is where William Wallace, one of Scotland’s most famous figures, earned his fame – he was knighted and appointed Guardian of Scotland the following year.

Robert the Bruce was crowned King of Scotland. War between the English and the Scots raged until 1314, when Robert the Bruce’s army defeated Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn . A legend was born. Scottish independence was declared 6 years later with the Declaration of Arbroath on 6 April 1320. Addressed to Pope John XXII, the letter asked him to recognise Scotland as an independent country and Robert the Bruce as its lawful king.

Mary Stuart (you might know her as Mary, Queen of Scots ) became queen when she was just 6 days old, following the death of her father James V. Sent to France aged 5, Mary returned to rule Scotland in 1561. She was welcomed at places like Falkland Palace and Alloa Tower , but made an enemy of her cousin Queen Elizabeth I, who had her executed in 1587.

The Jacobites

After Elizabeth I died without an heir, James VI of Scotland (Mary, Queen of Scots’ son) succeeded to the English throne and became James VI & I. This Union of the Crowns was supposed to signal an era of peace. Instead, a family feud, which eventually saw William of Orange invade England in 1688 to overthrow King James VII, would lead to decades of bloodshed and civil unrest.

When James VII fled to France, his supporters – the Jacobites – fought to try and restore him to the throne. The Jacobite risings saw a series of gruesome battles take place across the country, at places like Killiecrankie , Dunkeld and Glenshiel in Kintail .

In 1745, James VII’s grandson Prince Charles Edward Stuart, known as Bonnie Prince Charlie, arrived in Scotland to try to rally the troops. He raised his father’s standard at Glenfinnan . But the Jacobite cause came to a tragic end at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, when 1,500 Highlanders died in a single hour.

Enlightenment and industry

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Scotland was part of the one of the greatest intellectual and scientific outpourings ever recorded. The Age of Enlightenment saw Scottish thinkers and artists – the likes of Robert Burns, William Adam, Sir Walter Scott and Adam Smith – transform the way we see and understand the world. Their work remains for all to see at places like Newhailes House , Hugh Miller’s Birthplace Cottage & Museum and Robert Burns Birthplace Museum .

At the beginning of the 19th century, Scotland’s economy changed drastically. The arrival of industrial technology created a shift in wealth, also caused by the boom in the tobacco, sugar and cotton trades, based largely on the exploitation of enslaved people. Houses like Greenbank House and Harmony were owned by these newly rich businessmen.

The sudden dominance of mining, shipbuilding and textiles, along with rising rents and poor harvests, meant that many people from rural communities were forced to move to towns and cities, or sometimes even emigrate. The written evidence for this is often recorded in the papers of the large landed estates. Rich landowners also cleared their land of towns and villages to make way for profitable sheep farming. Some places, such as Mingulay and St Kilda , were abandoned altogether by the early 20th century.

Around 200 years ago 90% of Scotland’s population lived in the countryside; now 90% live in towns and cities.

Modern Scotland

1900 to the present day.

A number of architectural treasures in our care, such as the Tenement House and the Hill House , tell the story of the 1900s, including how the two World Wars impacted Scotland’s economy, industry and people, before prosperity returned in the 1950s and 60s (Scotland began drilling for oil in the North Sea in 1967).

In 1990, Glasgow was made European City of Culture, and the next decade saw Scottish culture make its mark on the world, with films like Trainspotting (1996) and the books of J K Rowling (1997) finding huge success. In 1999 the Scottish Parliament reconvened for the first time in nearly 300 years.

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Fabulous facts about Scotland!

Join us on a bonnie adventure, gang….

Green forests, towering mountains, vast lochs and a lively culture form this spectacular country! Join us on a bonnie adventure in our facts about Scotland…

Facts about Scotland

Official name:  Scotland, Alba

Form of government:  constitutional monarchy

Capital city:  Edinburgh

Largest city:  Glasgow

Population:  around 5.2 million

Monetary unit:  Pound sterling (GBP)

Official languages:  English/Gaelic/Scots

Area:  78,772 km² (30,414 sq mi)

Major mountain ranges:  Southern Uplands, Central Lowlands, Grampian Mountains, North West Highlands

Major rivers:  River Tay, River Spey, River Dee, River Tweed, River Clyde

Scottish flag

Map of scotland, scotland’s geography and landscape.

Scotland is a country in Europe and is part of the island of Great Britain (Europe’s largest island) alongside England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

This lush beautiful country is bursting with green spaces, lush forests, towering mountains and vast lochs (the Scottish word for lakes!).

The country can be roughly divided into three areas – lowlands, Highlands and islands. The lowlandsare known for their fertile farmland and thick woodlands, the Highlands for their towering mountains, sweeping moorland and deep lochs, and the islands for their compact wild landscapes, beautiful beaches and far-reaching sea views.

Did you know? Hundreds of millions of years ago Scotland’s landmass was once completely separate from England and Wales – it was actually joined to America and Greenland!

Scottish wildlife and nature

With so many habitats, there’s plenty of fascinating wildlife to see in Scotland. You’ll find river dwellers such as  otters, salmon and trout and red squirrels and birds, such as capercaillies, find refuge in the thick forests.

Out on the mountains and in the moorland you might spot majestic red deer or mountain hares while the islands are the perfect place to spot seals and seabirds, such as puffins .

Many animal species are protected in Scotland and there are two National Parks – the Cairngorms National Park and Loch Lomond & The Trossachs National Park – as well as numerous beautiful nature reserves, that have been set up to protect the land and the wildlife that lives there.

Psst! Read VisitScotland’s Scottish Wildlife Series to find out about six of the country’s coolest animals!

Scottish history

Scotland has been populated for 12,000 years, and has a rich and complex history. In 43 AD the  Romans  successfully invaded Britain and fought frequently with the native Scots, called the Caledonians.

From the 1200s to the 1300s the Scottish clan system became firmly established in the Highlands. Ruled over by a clan chief, these clans were like tribes and were made up of family members and people who had a loyalty to the chief. Each clan held a particular territory and clan members could be distinguished by the clothes they wore – the origins of what we now know as Scottish clan tartan!

In 1707 the Act of Union was signed, meaning Scotland, England and Wales were now a single state with one monarch (known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain).

In 1745 Charles Edward Stuart, or ‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’ as he is often known, travelled to Scotland to reclaim the thrones that his grandfather, once king of England, Ireland and Scotland, had lost in 1668. He had support from lots of Scottish clans but despite their early victories, they were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.

Following the battle, the British government was determined to bring the Highlanders under their control and harsh laws were passed to eradicate all aspect of Highland culture, including the Gaeliclanguage and traditional clothing. This signalled the end of the Highland clan system.

Despite these uncertain times, the 1700s also saw the beginning of one of the greatest periods in Scotland’s history – the Scottish Enlightenment. From the mid 1700s to the early 1800s educated Scottish people, such as professors, doctors and writers, began to question what was previously believed and instead formulate new theories and ideas. The discoveries and advances that were made during this time went on to shape the modern world as we know it.

Scottish people and culture

The Scots are a nation of innovators. Throughout the centuries Scottish people have brought us a huge range of new concepts, architectural techniques, scientific discoveries, inventions and more. Some of these wonderful things include the telephone, the television, tarmac, the steam engine, anaesthesia, penicillin, the pedal bicycle and the decimal point!

Many famed athletes and Olympic medal winners come from Scotland, including tennis player Andy Murray , rower Katherine Grainger and cyclist Sir Chris Hoy . Scotland also has a strong history for producing influential writers, including the poet Robert Burns (you can find out more about him in VisitScotland’s Rabbie for Weans eBook ), JM Barrie , author of Peter Pan and Sir Conan Doyle , author of the Sherlock Holmes novels.

Did you know? In the Harry Potter series, Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry is thought to be located in the Highlands of Scotland.

Check out these 25 amazing things about Scotland!

Scottish government and economy

Following centuries of Scotland’s policies lying in the hands of English politicians miles away in Westminster in London, a new Scottish Parliament was created and opened in 1999 at Holyrood in Edinburgh.

The Scottish Parliament is made up of 129 elected representatives who debate issues and make laws for Scotland. The head of the Scottish Government is the First Minister.

From 1850 – 1950 Scotland’s economy mainly centred around heavy industry like shipbuilding, coal mining, steel and iron ore mining and locomotive building. During  World War I  and  World War II  this brought prosperity to Scotland, but shortly afterwards the economy went into steep decline.

In the 1970s crude oil began to be pumped from the North Sea, creating a new industry in Scotland. The country now boasts a strong and varied economy, with industries such as financial and business, renewable energy and sustainable tourism.

Image credits: VisitScotland

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 To find out more about spectacular Scotland, head to visitscotland.com !

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A Not-So-Brief History of Scottish Independence

This primer covers Scottish sovereignty from the Roman era to the Jacobite revolts, the 2014 referendum and Brexit

Meilan Solly

Associate Editor, History

Following the resounding victory of the Conservative Party last year, the political drama of Brexit is seemingly in its final stages. On January 31, the United Kingdom is set to begin a transition period that will conclude at the end of 2020 with the official withdrawal of the nation from the European Union. With this departure, however, a new political drama may emerge.

While the U.K. as a whole voted in favor of Brexit back in the summer of 2016, most residents of Scotland—specifically, 62 percent —cast their ballots in hopes of remaining in the European Union, which offers Scotland the trade benefits of a single market and has contributed significantly to the country’s infrastructure and industry .

In a statement released at the time of the vote, First Minister of Scotland Nicola Sturgeon said, “As things stand, Scotland faces the prospect of being taken out of the E.U. against our will. […] I regard that as democratically unacceptable.”

The alternative, a Scottish departure from the United Kingdom, would be a shock to a union that has existed for more than 300 years. And though Scottish voters rejected independence with a resounding no as recently as 2014 , that was before Brexit was on the table.

In recent months, Sturgeon and other members of the pro-independence Scottish National Party have floated the possibility of a second referendum. Given the “ material change of circumstance ” since the 2014 vote, the argument goes, Scots are likely to arrive at a new consensus.

Polling conducted by What Scotland Thinks reflects a rise in support for independence but suggests the “Yes” side is still just shy of a majority . Still, says John Curtice , a political scientist at Strathclyde University who runs the polling site, “The majority against is not that big, and the longer the timeframe, somewhat greater the level of support.”

As Alan Renwick , deputy director of University College London’s Constitution Unit , explains, proponents of independence offer two main arguments. The first centers on national identity and sovereignty, suggesting Scotland’s “right for self-determination has been violated,” while the second focuses on access to trade. Interestingly, Renwick notes, the latter of these has actually been weakened by Brexit, as Scotland would be “leaving [the U.K.], a market that is much more important […] in terms of Scottish exports,” for an E.U. market with lower relative export value .

“There are those head and heart sides of the argument,” says Renwick, “and it’s not at all clear which of those might dominate in any future independence referendum.”

It remains to be seen whether Sturgeon will actually be able to follow through on her proposed independence vote —particularly in lieu of the news that Prime Minister Boris Johnson has formally rejected her request for a second referendum—and, if so, whether Scots are ultimately in favor of independence. In the meantime, Smithsonian magazine has you covered with a primer on the tangled history of Scottish sovereignty.

The early years

The inhabitants of what is now Scotland fiercely protected the region’s independence long before the kingdom’s official establishment in 843 A.D. When the Roman Empire’s armies, emboldened by their successful conquest of southern Britain, arrived in Scotland during the first century A.D., they were met by tribes who quickly “turned to armed resistance on a large scale,” according to Roman historian Tacitus .

Outmatched by the Romans’ “highly disciplined […] war machine,” writes Ben Johnson for Historic U.K. , the locals, called Caledonians by the Romans, resorted to guerrilla tactics like carrying out night-time raids on unsuspecting Roman forts. Although the Scottish tribes suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Mons Graupius in 83 A.D., the skirmish marked the Romans’ furthest advance into Scotland, and over the next several centuries, Rome failed to secure additional territory in the region. In northern Scotland, meanwhile, a tribe known as the Picts gained traction and started carrying out border raids at the far reaches of Hadrian’s Wall. By 212 A.D., the Romans had all but abandoned Scotland , and in 410, they withdrew from Britain entirely.

The next wave of outsiders to stake a claim on Scotland were the Vikings, who launched their first attacks on the British Isles during the late eighth century . These Scandinavians didn’t venture to new lands solely in search of plunder. Many settled down, making homes for themselves in places like Ireland and Scotland and building ties with existing communities. Still, the Vikings’ intentions weren’t entirely noble, and in the mid-ninth century, a tribal leader named Kenneth MacAlpin united the famously fragmented Scottish clans in the fight against the foreign invaders. In doing so, he became arguably the first ruler of the Kingdom of Scotland, founding a dynasty that would endure for centuries.

The Wars of Scottish Independence

During the medieval period, England started treating its northern neighbor much like a feudal territory. In response, Scottish patriots banded together under William Wallace , the freedom fighter forever (erroneously) cemented in popular imagination as a blue paint-covered kilt-wearer . Wallace and his men won a decisive victory at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in September 1297 but lost momentum and, in July 1298, suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Falkirk .

After Falkirk, Wallace went on the run. He evaded the English for years but was captured and executed in August 1305. As Wallace’s influence faded, Robert the Bruce seized power. Following years of fighting, most famously at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, Bruce convinced England to recognize Scotland’s independence , bringing the First War of Scottish Independence to a close in 1328. Though a Second War of Scottish Independence began soon after Bruce’s death, it petered out when England’s focus shifted to the Hundred Years’ War against France.

In Scottish lore, Wallace and Bruce are the figures around whom “pretty much everybody inside the [modern] nationalist movement is able to unite behind,” says Curtice. “Bannockburn is probably […] the most iconic piece of anti-English history.”

The Stuart dynasty and the English Civil War

When Elizabeth I died childless in 1603, an opportunity arose for unification between the neighboring nations. The deceased monarch’s distant cousin James VI of Scotland , son of Mary, Queen of Scots , took the English and Irish thrones as James I, becoming the first monarch to unite the three nations under one crown. His accession, in the words of University of Glasgow historian Karin Bowie , was a “dynastic accident” with longstanding consequences.

Though James hoped to unite England, Ireland and Scotland in one kingdom, his vision proved unpopular, and over the coming century, civil war and rebellion ran rampant in all three kingdoms. James’ son Charles I showed even less foresight than his father, and his tyrannical tendencies eventually cost him both the crown and his head . In the ensuing English Civil War , Scots fervently backed the forces of Charles II, who upon retaking the throne after the 1660 death of Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell , was hailed as king of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Charles was succeeded by his brother James II , who in turn lost the throne to Protestant William and Mary during the bloodless Glorious Revolution of 1688. (As the Catholic king of a largely Protestant country, James, whose Latin name inspired his supporters’ classification as Jacobites, alienated his subjects by prosecuting Anglican bishops and suspending the Scottish and English Parliaments after they refused to repeal anti-Catholic legislation.) Mary’s sister Anne inherited the throne following the couple’s untimely deaths, ushering in what would prove to be a decisive new era in Scottish-Anglican relations.

The Acts of Union and the Jacobite revolts

The contentious events of the 1690s and early 1700s—Scotland’s failed attempt to colonize what is now Panama decimated the country’s economy while divisions in the Scottish Parliament left the fate of the succession unclear, among other crises—culminated in the formation of a new kingdom.

On May 1, 1707, England and Scotland officially united, becoming “One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain.” According to Bowie, two main factors precipitated the arrival of this long-portended union : Scots were dissatisfied with “how they were being governed within the union” of crowns, and the monarchy created by the Glorious Revolution was “precarious,” under constant threat of rebellion by the Jacobite supporters of the deposed James II .

The treaty passed by both nations’ parliaments lent Scotland economic security and access to England’s colonial trade network; meanwhile, a provision that excluded all Catholics—namely, James’ exiled descendants—from the royal succession gave England a safeguard against the Jacobites and Catholic France.

With the passage of the Acts of Union , coinage, taxes and trade were standardized across Great Britain. Scotland retained its legal, religious and educational systems but joined the main British Parliament, albeit with a disproportionately low number of representatives.

The union of these two oft-warring countries proved predictably unpopular . As poet Robert Burns later observed , many Scots believed their representatives had been “bought and sold for English gold.”

Per Bowie, the Scottish Parliament voted to accept the union by a “fairly lukewarm majority” dominated by members of the nobility. Unionists tended to be fairly well-to-do and highly educated, but they met a “huge amount of resistance” from Scottish nationalists who shared a deep-seated distrust of England.

By 1715 , discontent over the union’s adverse political and economic effects was widespread enough to spark a Jacobite-led rebellion . According to the U.K. Parliament portal , the Jacobites painted themselves as “defenders of Scottish liberties,” pledging to repeal the union and restore Scotland’s parliament, but remained chiefly concerned with restoring the crown to the descendants of James II.

Though George I was able to quell the 1715 rebellion, the Jacobite cause remained a strong force in the Scottish Highlands, and in 1745 , a second revolt centered on Prince Charles Edward Stuart , better known as Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender, broke out. Following the revolt’s failure, the British government implemented harsh policies aimed at dismantling the Highlands’ clan system and eliminating the Jacobite cause once and for all.

Modern Scotland

By the late 18th century, the issue of Scottish versus English identity had been largely subsumed by the countries’ shared conflicts with other members of the British Empire, including the American colonies and Ireland. Scotland’s textile industry thrived, sparking industrialization and urbanization, and Scots gained more power within the British government.

Scotland “joined England just at the time, or just before, England takes off with the Industrial Revolution,” says Curtice. Its inhabitants profited “disproportionately” from Britain’s imperialism and industry, and for at least 150 years or so, the country was a “well and truly signed up part of the British Empire.”

But the question of independence, or at the very least devolution of power, remained of interest to Scots. When Prime Minister William Gladstone , a Brit of Scottish descent, proposed the restoration of an Irish parliament “separate from but subordinate to Westminster” in 1886, his conception of “ home rule ” also took root in Scotland , which had won a measure of administrative devolution with the establishment of the Scottish Office the year prior.

Member of Parliament William Cowan introduced a bill aimed at creating a separate Scottish parliament in 1913. His impassioned opening statement offered a prescient glimpse of contemporary talking points, criticizing English MPs who “imagine themselves experts on Scottish affairs” and calling for Scottish control over legislation “for land, for the liquor trade, for education, for housing, for fisheries, for ecclesiastical affairs, for one-hundred-and-one matters of purely local concerns.”

The advent of World War I suspended discussions of home rule for both Scotland and Ireland, but in 1922, the Irish Free State managed to successfully break away from the U.K. after a bloody guerrilla war. According to Curtice, Britain’s economic dominance and status as an imperial powerhouse began to fade around the same time as the conflict’s denouement, limiting the benefits Scotland reaped as a member of the union.

In 1934, the National Party of Scotland and the Scottish Party joined together to form the Scottish National Party . Plagued by infighting and policy differences, the nationalist SNP nevertheless gained momentum during World War II, with politician Robert McIntyre winning the party’s first seat in Parliament during an April 1945 by-election . Following the war’s conclusion, McIntyre immediately lost his seat, and, in the words of Curtice, “Party politics went back to normal.”

Outside of several largely symbolic victories—including nationalists’ Christmas 1950 theft of the Scottish coronation Stone of Scone , housed in Westminster Abbey since 1296—the SNP’s growth stagnated in the decades that followed. With the discovery of oil off Scotland’s North Sea coast during the 1970s, however, the party’s message started to resonate with more voters, and in 1974, the SNP won 11 seats in Parliament.

Building on this success, nationalist politicians introduced a referendum designed to gauge support for a local Scottish Assembly. Though pro-devolution voters just edged out the competition, only 32.8 percent of the electorate turned out for the referendum, rendering the verdict null and void.

A 1997 devolution referendum proved more successful, with Scotland overwhelmingly voting in favor of a decentralized legislature; the new governing body met in Edinburgh for the first time on May 12, 1999 .

For those hoping to preserve the United Kingdom, says Curtice, devolution was “an attempt to stymie the demand for independence.” But for the SNP, devolution was simply a “stepping stone” on the path to a fully autonomous Scotland.

The SNP won the Scottish Parliament’s first majority government in 2011, paving the way for the 2014 independence referendum . Ultimately, 45 percent of Scots voted in favor of leaving the U.K., while 55 percent voted against.

Though many of the issues debated around the time of the 1707 Acts of Union are no longer relevant, Bowie says the events of the 18th century hold valuable insights for the current independence movement.

“The union comes out of a ten-year context,” she explains. “That longer-term context of the union of crowns not working very well applies, but it had gotten particularly bad in the last ten years before 1707, so it’s in response to quite short-term pressures.”

While the formation of the United Kingdom yielded “great fruitfulness” in many areas, including the development of a shared British identity, the historian adds, “There’s nothing immutable or inevitable about it.”

Says Bowie, “This is probably the fundamental moral. If it’s not inevitable, then that means it’s a construct. And for it to last, it has to work. […] Like any relationship that needs to be maintained and sustained, if it starts to break down, it can potentially be recovered, but effort has to be put into that.”

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Meilan Solly is Smithsonian magazine's associate digital editor, history.

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF SCOTLAND

Traditionally, Scottish written history begins with the arrival of the Romans in the first century AD, although for thousands of years tribes had roamed the land, forging a simple life in stone huts and gathering food from the abundant crop that, even today, still provides the nation with a plentiful source of nourishment. The first settlers arrived in the aftermath of the Ice Age, crafting stone (and later, bronze) weapons and tools to hunt wild animals and developing farming techniques to take full advantage of the harvest. Little remnants remain of this period of Scottish history today, although the stone circles at Stenness and Callanish, amongst others, provide a glimpse into prehistoric society and belief.

ROMAN OCCUPATION

The Roman invasion of Scotland – or Caledonia – began in 80AD and within 20 years most of southern Britain was under Roman control. Scotland, however, proved to be a more challenging battleground: tribes controlled huge areas of land and important natural resources, such as lead, silver and gold, were not going to be yielded willingly to an invading army from Rome. 

Despite some early successes, by 123AD the Roman occupation was retreating, and the construction of a six- metre-high wall was underway on the orders of Emperor Hadrian, to keep the vicious and unruly Picts out of Roman territory south of the border. With the frontier established, it became the scene for repeated incursions from either side for the next 280 years, until the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain in the early 5th century, spurred on by the need to defend Rome from tribal assaults.

THE ARRIVAL OF THE SCOTS

Until the 6th century, the name Scotland was unheard of, but the establishment of the kingdom of Dalriada by the Scots, a group of Irish settlers who landed on the western shores of the country with little opposition from the native Picts, heralded the formation of the modern country. For the next 400 years, the inhabitants of Scotti collaborated and clashed with the Picts in equal measure, until the two groups were unified in 844AD in a single kingdom. 

By this time, Christianity was established in Scotland. The language and symbols of the Picts gradually disappeared and, as other kingdoms, such as Strathclyde which were previously under English rule, became absorbed into the country, modern Scotland was created.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE NORMANS

Norman domination of England quickly influenced Scottish politics. King Malcolm III, son of Donnchad mac Crinain who was immortalised by Shakespeare as the incompetent Duncan, married an English woman who brought Norman ways to the Scottish court.

During the reign of Malcolm’s son, David (1124-1153), Norman migration to Scotland increased, monasteries were built, townships were created and powerful trade links with England were formed. However, Scottish kings remained impotent in their control of the outlying parts of the country where local chieftains governed, often under the direction of overseas rulers.

THE START OF THE REBELLION

The death of Alexander III in 1286, and of his heir four years later, led to a power vacuum in Scotland with at least 13 claims to the throne made. As arbitrator, Edward I instilled John Balliol, a decision that was to spark centuries of rebellion and conflict with the English. Balliol’s refusal to support an attack on France led to his demise and Edward I’s attempt to rule Scotland alone, installing English officials to govern the country.

The subsequent landowner rebellion, led by William Wallace and famously recreated – though without a considerable degree of historical accuracy – in Braveheart, inflicted a heavy defeat on the English at Stirling Bridge in 1297. Continued English aggression was firmly rebuffed, restricting English territorial control to the south-east of the country, until total defeat by Scottish forces under the control of Robert the Bruce in 1307. Within six years, England had officially recognised Scottish independence.

THE ROAD TO THE UNION

The 16th century, under the rule of James IV, witnessed greater peace and prosperity within Scotland, with the rise of literature, printing and education. Nevertheless, continued skirmishes with England persisted, with attacks on both sides of the border. 

The Reformation confirmed Protestantism as the official religion of Scotland and, as civil war raged in England, Scottish forces repeatedly tried to make incursions south of the border; English forces eventually occupied Scotland in its entirety, a situation which only ended once Charles II became king of England and Scotland. 

The 1707 Act of Union, which created the United Kingdom and made Scotland subject to rule from London, proved to be unpopular with many, leading to a series of rebellions led by the Jacobites who recognised James, son of the deposed James II, as rightful king. However, the Jacobite rebellions were easily crushed by English forces and strict laws were imposed to curtail their freedoms, strengthening the Union and diminishing the threat from Scottish nationalists.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Industry, as in the rest of the western world, flourished in the 19 th century, with rapid growth in towns and cities and the coal, steel and iron industries booming. Scotland became renowned as a world centre for shipbuilding. 

However, as in England, living conditions could not keep apace of industrial development; housing was of a poor standard with little space and sanitation, leading to disease and low life expectancy for many workers. Only with the growth of the trade unions towards the 20 th century did standards begin to improve.

THE 20TH CENTURY

In common with other leading nations, Scotland experienced a huge economic slump in the 1920s, with homegrown industries such as mining, steel manufacture and shipbuilding all suffering a downturn. Unemployment was high, but the decades following World War 2 witnessed prosperity and economic stability. Redundant industries were gradually superseded by service industries and, with the advent of technology and IT, Scotland established itself as a key player in the United Kingdom.

The growth of nationalism in the country in the second half of the 20th century sowed the seeds for Scotland gaining a devolved parliament, offering some independence from Westminster that, for centuries, had been a source of disquiet for many Scots. Despite the failure to secure full independence in the 2014 referendum, a thirst for Scotland separating itself totally from the rest of the United Kingdom remains, and time will tell whether this will be enough to establish Scotland as a truly independent country in the years to come.

Irrespective of the outcome, Scotland is undoubtedly a fiercely competitive and forward-thinking modern country, proud of its culture and heritage, and determined to play a key role in the political map that will drive change in the rest of the century.

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Interactive timeline

The history of Scotland

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Timeline Events

Act of union.

Scotland and England are united to form Great Britain, a relationship that continues to this day. This is known as the Act of Union.

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The fundamental work of classical economics, The Wealth of Nations, is penned by Scots economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith.

Age of the Earth

Dr James Hutton published papers at Edinburgh University which was a turning point for geology and challenged the belief that the Earth was about 6,000 years old.

Andy Murray

Andy Murray, who grew up in Dunblane, defeated Novak Djokovic in the 2012 US Open final, becoming the first British player since 1977, and the first British man since 1936, to win a Grand Slam singles tournament. Murray is also the first British man to win more than one Wimbledon singles title since Fred Perry in 1935.

Antonine Wall

Scotland’s recorded history began with the arrival of the Roman Empire. Despite building two impressive fortifications – Hadrian’s Wall to defend the northern border, and the Antonine Wall across Central Scotland to advance it forward – the Romans never truly conquered Caledonia. Unable to defeat the Caledonians and Picts, the Romans eventually withdrew and over time retreated from Britain entirely. Much of the 60km Antonine Wall survives and it was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 2004.

Arrival of the Vikings

Around 800 AD, Vikings began migrating from Norway and Denmark, crossing the treacherous North Sea to trade and settle in Scotland. At the same time, natives known as the Picts were forging a new kingdom: the Kingdom of Alba.

22 May, 1859

Arthur Conan Doyle

The author who created 'The World's Greatest Detective' and Sherlock Holmes, Arthur Conan Doyle, was born in Edinburgh.

Bank of England

The Bank of England – the second oldest bank in the world – has Scottish trader, Sir William Paterson to thank for its existence. In 1694, Charles Montagu, Earl of Halifax, adopted Patterson's idea and founded the bank before being appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Bank of Scotland

The Bank of Scotland is founded in 1695. It was also the first bank in Europe to print its own banknotes, a function it still performs today.

Battle of Culloden

Shortly after the defeat of the Jacobites at the Battle of Culloden, a huge effort was made to repress many symbols of Scottish identity. The 1746 Act of Proscription prohibited the traditional wearing of clan tartans and kilts and played a massive role in the eventual destruction of the clan system.

The first Baxters shop opens. Baxters has been making jams for over a century, but it's the soups that have really defined the company. One of Scotland's truly iconic brands.

Best of LGBT equality

Scotland is rated the best country in Europe for LGBT equality and human rights for the second year running. (The Rainbow Europe Index 2016).

Birth of Edinburgh Festivals

Birth of the Edinburgh International Festival, the Edinburgh Festival Fringe – the world's largest arts festival – and the Edinburgh International Film Festival. All still going strong over 70 years later!

September, 2015

Borders Railway

The Borders Railway is opened by Her Majesty The Queen, connecting Edinburgh with Tweedbank. It's the longest new domestic railway to be built in the UK for over 100 years.

1 September, 1832

Braemar Gathering

Although gatherings of one form or another took place in Braemar up to 900 years ago, this year marked the first official Braemar Gathering. A traditional Highland Games to this day, the event is particularly famous for its patron, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, who regularly attends the event with members of the Royal Family.

Mel Gibson was too busy directing and starring in the epic account of William Wallace's battle against King Edward of England in Braveheart that he seemingly didn't have time to perfect a Scottish accent... The film took more than $200m at the box office.

Carnegie Library

The world's first Carnegie Library opens in Dunfermline, Fife, where Andrew Carnegie hails from. He went on to became the richest man in the world and was known as the father of modern philanthropy. In 2017 the library re-opened as Dunfermline Carnegie Library & Galleries, including an adjoining £12.4million new building.

Sir James Y Simpson, a professor of midwifery, was his own guinea pig, experimenting with chloroform on himself and later on his friends in 1847. He went on to use it as an anaesthetic to ease the pain of childbirth, leading to its acceptance in modern medicine.

1 December, 2014

City of Design

Dundee wins UK's first UNESCO City of Design status.

City of Literature

Edinburgh becomes UNESCO's first City of Literature.

Colour Photography

Colour photography as we know it was made possible thanks to 19th-century Scottish scientist James Maxwell, who invented the "three-colour method". His theory, based on mixing red, green and blue colours of light, led him to present the world's first colour photograph – of a tartan ribbon – in 1861.

Commonwealth Games

Edinburgh hosts the Commonwealth Games and Scotland wins 25 medals, including four Golds in athletics. Scotland goes on to host the Games twice more, in Edinburgh in 1986, and in Glasgow in 2014.

Curling Champions

Scotland became champions of the women’s World Curling Championships for the first time. In the same year, the all-Scottish Great Britain team also won Gold in women’s curling at the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. In 2017, Scotland became the World Mixed Curling Champions.

18 September, 2017

Cycling World Record

Scottish cyclist, Mark Beaumont, set the world record for cycling around the globe. Mark completed his incredible 18,000-mile route in just 79 days, working out at approximately 240 miles a day!

Deep Fried Mars Bar

First instance of deep-fried Mars bar in Stonehaven, Aberdeenshire.

Dolly the Sheep

Scientists at the Roslin Institute in Midlothian successfully cloned the first mammal from an adult cell, Dolly the Sheep.

Driving on the Left

It was Scotland, not England, that pioneered driving on the "wrong" side of the road. Driving on the left entered Scottish law in 1772, more than 60 years before England and Wales adopted it in 1835.

Edinburgh Old & New

The Old and New Towns of Edinburgh were inscribed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites.

12 September, 1914

Elsie Inglis

Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, physician and suffragist Elsie Inglis launched an appeal to fund the first Scottish Women’s Hospital for the Foreign Service Committee with the aim of providing all female-staffed relief hospitals for the Allied war effort. The first left for France in November 1914.

Encyclopedia Britannica

The Encyclopedia Britannica, the world's oldest surviving encyclopedia and one of the most scholarly of encyclopedias, was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh. The first nine editions (out of fifteen so far) were all edited in Scotland.

European Championships

Scotland co-hosts the European Championships in Glasgow. This new multisport event brings together the European Championships of seven individual sports into one massive celebration of sport.

European Cup

Celtic become the first British team, and first from northern Europe to win football's European Cup, with a team of 11 Scotsmen.

Falkirk Wheel

Opened in 2002, the Falkirk Wheel is the only rotating boat lift of its kind in the world, and is regarded as an engineering landmark for Scotland.

Finger Printing

It wasn't until 1880 that Dr Henry Faulds, a Scottish surgeon working in Japan, realised he had the secret to catching criminals. He published his idea of recording fingerprints with ink and was the first to identify fingerprints left on a glass bottle.

First Bicycle

In 1839, Kirkpatrick MacMillan, a Scottish blacksmith from Dumfries & Galloway, invented the first-ever mechanically-propelled bicycle. Unfortunately, he also has the dubious honour of having committed the first bicycle-related traffic offence, when he was fined five shillings for hitting a little girl with his bike in 1842.

30 November, 1872

First International Football Match

On 30 November 1872, Scotland and England played in the world's first international football match at Hamilton Crescent in Glasgow, ending 0-0.

27 March, 1871

First International Rugby Match

Raeburn Place in Edinburgh, was host to the world's first international rugby match on 27 March 1871, between Scotland and England, with Scotland emerging as winners.

First Open Championship

The Open Championship, the oldest of the four major golf championships, was first played in 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club, in Ayrshire, and was staged there annually for the first 12 years of its existence.

First Prime Ministers of Canada

Canada's confederation took place on 1 July 1867. The first two Prime Ministers of Canada, John A. Macdonald and Alexander Mackenzie, were Scottish.

First Refrigerator

William Cullen invented the basis for the modern refrigerator when he designed a small refrigerating machine in Glasgow.

First Scottish Female MP

Women won the right to vote and stand in parliamentary elections. The first Scottish woman to be elected as an MP was Katherine Murray, Duchess of Atholl, who won the seat of Kinross and Western Perthshire in 1923.

First World Cup

Scotland managed to qualify for the first World Cup – by organising it themselves. In 1909, 20 years before the official Fifa tournament, Scotsman Sir Thomas Lipton, of Lipton's Tea, organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy in Turin, where international club teams represented their countries.

Flushing Toilet

Scottish watchmaker Alexander Cummings was the first to patent a design of the flushing toilet. In 1775 he invented the, S-trap – still in use today – which uses standing water to prevent nasty smells backing up out of the sewer.

Gin and Tonic

Gin and tonic is the drink of choice of millions worldwide, but it would not exist had it not been for Edinburgh-born George Cleghorn. The 18th-century doctor discovered that quinine could cure malaria. The quinine was drunk in tonic water, but it was so bitter that gin was added to make it more palatable.

Glasgow School of Art

Since 2006, the Glasgow School of Art has produced 5 Turner Prize winners and 30% of all nominees.

Grand Theft Auto

Scottish Game developer Rockstar North (then known as DMA Design) release the first game in the Grand Theft Auto series. The series has gone on to be one of the most popular titles in gaming history, selling more than 250 million units.

Gretna Green

In 1753 a law was passed in England stating that under-21s needed parental permission to marry. This law didn't apply in Scotland, leading many young lovers to elope north of the border. The first village they came across was Gretna Green and so the legendary status of the town was born.

Hampden Park

From the time of its completion in 1903 until 1950, Hampden Park in Glasgow was the biggest stadium in the world with a capacity in excess of 100,000. In 1937, a Scotland v England match beat the all-time record attendance (149,415 spectators) for an international football match in Europe. The record still stands to this day.

Harris Tweed

The Orb Trade Mark was registered by the Harris Tweed Association and is Britain’s oldest surviving Certification Mark. To this day, it ensures that all tweed bearing the trade mark is hand-woven by the islanders at their home in the Outer Hebrides, and made from pure virgin wool dyed and finished in the Outer Hebrides.

Harry Potter

The first book in the Harry Potter series was released in 1997. Scotland was the inspiration behind many of the incredible locations in the magical series and J.K Rowling wrote much of the first instalment while frequenting Edinburgh's coffee shops.

Heart of Neolithic Orkney

The Heart of Neolithic Orkney – the area of the West Mainland surrounding the Ring of Brodgar – had been added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Heritage Brewing

Tennent Caledonian in Glasgow is one of the UK’s oldest brewers, with a heritage that stretches back centuries to the days of beer making in its very earliest forms.

Highland Clearances

The first phase of the infamous Highland Clearances took place in 1760. The entire process lasted more than 100 years as a number of laws were steadily introduced to forcibly remove highland families from their homes.

HPV Vaccine

HPV vaccine, created by Scot Ian Frazer, becomes widely available to protect women against cervical cancer.

Livingston-based Touch Bionics was spun-out from the National Health Service in 2003, and in 2007 launched its revolutionary i-Limb, the first powered prosthetic hand to incorporate articulating fingers.

Invention of the Cash Machine

The modern ATM, or Cash Machine, and accompanying PIN number system was invented by Scotsman James Goodfellow in 1966.

Invention of the Telephone

On 7 March 1876, Scotsman Alexander Graham Bell was awarded the US patent for inventing the telephone. The first-ever successful telephone call was made just three days later when Bell called his assistant Thomas Watson and said "Mr. Watson—Come here—I want to see you."

Invention of the TV

John Logie Baird invented the first-ever working television set.

IRN-BRU is launched in Scotland. Many believe that Scotland's national soft drink was originated in Scotland, but it was, in fact, created in the USA.

13 June, 1831

James Clerk Maxwell

Birth of James Clerk Maxwell in Edinburgh. Known as the Father of Modern Physics, Maxwell's discoveries influenced many of the world's greatest thinkers, including Albert Einstein and Stephen Hawking.

1 February, 1550

John Napier

John Napier, the inventor of logarithms, was born in Edinburgh.

King George IV

The 1822 visit of King George IV to Scotland, which was organised by Sir Walter Scott, was the first visit of a reigning monarch to Scotland in almost 200 years. Scott's organising of the event, which took place in Edinburgh, was steeped in tartan pageantry and helped reassert tartan and the kilt at the forefront of Scottish identity.

January, 2008

Largest Wind Farm in Europe

First phase of Whitelee Wind Farm begins feeding electricity to the grid. In May 2009, the wind farm, the largest in Europe, officially opens.

Loch Ness Monster

Mr Robert Wilson takes a photo of 'an object moving in Loch Ness', and it becomes the most famous hoax sighting of the Loch Ness Monster. The first reported sighting of a monster in the loch was during a visit by St Columba in 565AD, making Nessie a ripe old age. She was officially spotted eight times in 2017.

8 December, 1542

Mary Queen of Scots

Perhaps Scotland's most famous queen, Mary Queen of Scots was just six days old when her father died and she was crowned. Although born at Linlithgow Palace, Mary spent much of her youth in France, returning to Scotland in 1561 at the age of 19. After being removed from the Scottish throne, Mary fled south to England seeking protection from her cousin, Queen Elizabeth I of England. Instead, Mary spent almost 19 years imprisoned before being executed in 1587.

Munro bagging

Hugh Thomas Munro drew up a list of Scottish Mountains over 3000 feet (914 metres). These mountains became known as Munros and there are now 282 listed. 'Munro bagging' has now become a popular term for reaching their peaks, with many walkers attempting to scale them all.

Neolithic Scotland

The earliest prehistoric tools found in Scotland date from 3000 BC. During the Neolithic age, Scotland was home to nomadic hunter-gatherers as well as the first farmers who built permanent dwellings. The remains of these buildings make up The Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site.

UNESCO inscribed New Lanark as a World Heritage Site.

North Sea Oil

The drilling of the first North Sea oil well was considered a major industrial achievement of the time, creating a huge industry in Scotland and giving the UK access to oil made at home for the first time.

Oldest Distillery

Strathisla Distillery in Aberdeenshire is the oldest continuously operating whisky distillery in Scotland. It was founded as the Milltown Distillery by George Taylor in 1789.

Oldest University in Scotland

St Andrews University was granted its charter in 1411 by the Bishop of St Andrews. In 1413, it gained full university status after a blessing by the Pope, making it the oldest university in Scotland, and one of the oldest in the world.

Origin of Golf

The modern game of golf originated in Scotland in the 15th century. First mentioned as 'gowf' in 1457, golf was originally played on a course of 22 holes. It was first reduced to 18 holes at the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in 1764, with other courses following suit. This earned St Andrews the title of "The Home of Golf".

Origins of a Scottish Parliament

The earliest written mention of a Scottish Parliament. It refers to an assembly held at Kirkliston, on the outskirts of Edinburgh. The Parliament developed from meetings of the 'King's great council', which were gatherings of nobles and churchmen who advised the King on policy and justice issues. 

Scottish bacteriologist Alexander Fleming, rediscovered Penicillin, working at St. Mary's Hospital in London in 1928.

9 May, 1860

J.M. Barrie, creator of 'The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up', Peter Pan, was born in Kirriemuir, Angus.

7 June, 1811

Pioneer of Anaesthetic

James Young Simpson, pioneer of general anaesthetic, born in Bathgate, West Lothian.

Pure LiFi founded as a spin-out from the University of Edinburgh.

Quality Scottish Salmon

Scottish Salmon was the first foreign product to gain France’s prestigious ‘Label Rouge’ quality mark.

4 September, 2017

Queensferry Crossing

Opening of the Queensferry Crossing alongside its brothers, the Forth Road Bridge and the Forth Rail Bridge. The Queensferry Crossing is the longest triple tower cable stayed bridge in the world and is also the tallest bridge in the UK.

25 January, 1759

Robert Burns

Birth of Scotland's National Poet, Robert Burns in Alloway, Ayrshire.

Robert Louis Stevenson

The novelist behind Treasure Island and Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, Robert Louis Stevenson, was born in Edinburgh.

23 June, 1314

Robert the Bruce

Unrest continued into the 14th century when Robert the Bruce took the throne and was crowned king. Fighting continued until 1314 at the Battle of Bannockburn, where Robert the Bruce and his army defeated Edward II, a major turning point in his rule.

Roman Empire World Heritage Site

The Antonine Wall was inscribed by UNESCO to become part of the Frontiers of the Roman Empire World Heritage Site.

Same-sex Marriage

In 2014 Scotland voted overwhelmingly in favour of legalising same-sex marriage. The first same-sex marriage in Scotland took place later that same year, on the 16th December.

Scotland’s F1 Champion

Scot Jim Clark becomes Formula 1 World Champion for the first time, later winning the accolade again in 1965.

Scotland’s First Ski Centre

Scotland's first ski centre opens to the public at Glencoe. Since then, Cairngorm, Glenshee, The Lecht and Nevis Range have opened in Scotland, plus Europe's largest outdoor dry slope just outside Edinburgh and the UK's longest real snow indoor slope at Braehead.

Scottish Dr Who

Sylvester McCoy becomes the first Scot to play Dr Who in the long-running TV series. He plays The Doctor until 1989, and two incarnations of The Doctor have been played by Scots since – David Tennant and Peter Capaldi.

18 September, 2014

Scottish Independence Referendum

In 2012, the Edinburgh Agreement was signed by Scotland's First Minister Alex Salmond and UK Prime Minister David Cameron. It paved the way for a once in a generation referendum on Scottish independence by confirming the Scottish Parliament’s power to hold a vote that will be respected by both governments. On the 18 September 2014, the people of Scotland voted. In response to the question, 'Should Scotland be an independent country', 1,617,989 (45%) voted 'Yes' and 2,001,926 (55%) voted 'No'.

9 October, 2004

Scottish Parliament Building

Designed by Barcelona architects EMBT and partners RMJM Scotland, the new Scottish Parliament building at Holyrood was officially opened in the presence of Her Majesty The Queen.

Scottish Parliament Reconvened

The calls for more devolved powers had been growing for decades and resulted in a referendum in 1979. A second referendum was held in September 1997, with the vote delivering greater powers. In 1999 the Scottish Parliament reconvened for the first time in nearly 300 years, ushering in a new era for the Scottish people.

Scottish Samurai

Thomas Blake Glover, the 'Scottish Samurai', was born in Fraserburgh. Glover was the visionary industrialist who founded the giant Mitsubishi company. He was so revered in Japan that he became the first foreigner to be awarded one of Japan’s highest honours.

25 August, 1930

Sean Connery

Birth of actor Sean Connery in Edinburgh, who starred as James Bond in 7 films.

1940 - 1945

Shetland Bus

During the Second World War a secret operation known as the 'Shetland Bus' made use of Shetland's close proximity to Norway to ensure safe passage for thousands of Norwegians who escaped Nazi occupation and arrived in Shetland by fishing boat.

17 October, 1995

Skye Bridge

The Skye Bridge opens, connecting the Kyleakin on the Isle of Skye to Kyle of Lochalsh on the Scottish Mainland. Initially a toll bridge, it was later purchased by the Scottish Government and made free to cross.

Smallest Distillery

Loch Ewe distillery opens, Scotland's smallest distillery.

Sovereignty

The Declaration of Arbroath proclaimed Scotland’s status as an independent sovereign state. The declaration was written in Latin, signed by Scottish Barons and Nobles and sent to Pope John XXII. Though its effect was largely symbolic, the powerful declaration remains an important document in Scottish history – many historians believe it inspired America’s founding fathers to write the United States Declaration of Independence.

The SSE Hydro Arena in Glasgow staged its first concert, since becoming the world's 2nd most popular entertainment venue.

St Columba – Christianity

St Columba and his followers landed on the Isle of Iona in Argyll to establish a monastery, from where they would send missions across north Britain to convert people to Christianity.

UNESCO originally inscribed St Kilda as a World Heritage site, for its natural heritage. This was extended in 2005 to recognise its cultural importance.

Steam Power

James Watt, inventor and pioneer of Steam power was born in Greenock.

V&A Dundee

V&A Dundee, Scotland's first design museum due to open to the public. The only V&A museum in the world outside London, it will become the global home for Scotland’s design heritage.

Stone of Destiny

The Stone of Destiny, which has been used in coronations for hundreds of years, was returned to Scotland and resides in Edinburgh Castle.

Tay Road Bridge

The Tay Road Bridge is opened connecting Dundee and Newport-on-Tay. At 1250 metres in length, it remains one of the longest road bridges in Europe.

The Forth Bridge

The Forth Bridge is one of Scotland’s most iconic landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This magnificent railway bridge was built between 1883 and 1890 by Sir John Fowler, Benjamin Baker and over 4,500 men. In 2015, UNESCO inscribed the Forth Bridge as a World Heritage Site.

27 November, 2013

The Kelpies

The Kelpies, 30 metre high sculptures designed by Andy Scott, rose from the ground in just 90 days at The Helix park in Falkirk.

The Lewis Chess Men

The Lewis Chess Men were discovered on a beach on the Isle of Lewis. Dating from 1150 AD, these artefacts demonstrate the cultural and political links between Scotland and Scandinavia during the middle ages.

The Real Macbeth

Immortalised forever in Shakespeare’s fictitious retelling, Macbeth is perhaps one of the best-known early Scottish kings. Macbeth ruled as King of Alba from 1040 until his death in battle in 1057.

The Reformation of Scotland

Led by John Knox. The Scottish Parliament passed an act abolishing the authority of the Pope over the National church, which became officially Protestant. This is known as the Reformation of Scotland.

The Scottish Enlightenment

The Scottish Enlightenment begins around the middle of the 18th Century in Edinburgh and Glasgow with famous philosophers like David Hume, scientists like James Hutton who is credited as the father of geology, architects like the Adam Brothers and artists like Sir Henry Raeburn coming to the fore during this Scottish renaissance period.

Tunnocks Teacakes

The first Tunnock's Teacakes began to appear on shelves, joining other Tunnock's treats, including the Tunnocks Caramel Wafer and the Snowball.

Uisge Beatha

The first recorded reference to whisky appears in the Exchequer Roll, which notes that John Corr, a monk at Lindores Abbey in Fife, was allowed 8 bolls of grain to make 'aqua vitae' (or 'water of life') for the King.

Union of the Crowns

James VI of Scotland, who became king in 1567 at just 13 months old after Mary Queen of Scots was forced to abdicate, becomes King of England after Elizabeth I dies with no children. James VI becomes James VI & I – a historic move that’s now known as the Union of the Crowns.

Unofficial Football World Champions

A crowd of nearly 100,000 packed into Wembley Stadium to watch Scotland become 'unofficial world champions' as the national football team defeated England, who had won the World Cup the year before.

-290000000 to -360000000 years ago

Volcanic Activity

During the Carboniferous period (290 to 360 million years ago), Scotland sat astride the equator and was home to many active volcanos, including Edinburgh's iconic Arthur's Seat and North Berwick Law in East Lothian.

Wet Wet Wet

Scottish band Wet Wet Wet's single 'Love is all around' spends 15 weeks atop the British charts – the 2nd longest-standing UK number one single. Lead Singer Marty Pellow insisted on it being removed just days before it was scheduled to match the record.

11 September, 1297

William Wallace

A succession crisis brought unrest to Scotland after the death of Alexander III. England’s monarch, Edward I, believed he should be recognised as overlord of Scotland and his troops marched north in a series of bloody sieges. In 1297, Edward’s army planned to cross the River Forth at Stirling Bridge; the Scots seized the opportunity to attack, forcing the English army to retreat in this Battle of Stirling Bridge. It was here that one of Scotland’s most famous figures, William Wallace, earned his place in the history books forever.

World’s First Infant School

The world's first infant school was opened by philosopher and pedagogue Robert Owen in New Lanark in 1816.

18 June, 2015

Youth Votes

16 and 17 year olds get the right to vote in all Scottish elections.

Scotland commits to provide every baby born on or after 15 August 2017 and living in Scotland with a brand new ‘Baby Box’. The Baby Box is jam-packed full of all the essentials needed to help new parents welcome their bundle of joy into the world.

Period Equality

Scotland introduces a pioneering, world-first policy to offer free period products to students at all levels of education. In 2019 this was extended to put in place wider access through public places.  The passage of the Period Products Act in 2020 means that, when the Act comes into force,  free period products will be available to "anyone who needs them".

The Glasgow Climate Pact was adopted at the COP26 UN climate conference in Glasgow in November 2021, to help tackle the global climate emergency. COP26 was attended by world leaders, climate experts and public figures from nearly 200 countries.

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DISCOVER SOCIETY

Editors: Gurminder K Bhambra

The Irresistible Rise of Scottish Independence? A Brief History of Scotland’s Constitutional Debate

Ben Jackson

While it is obvious that Scotland’s political trajectory has significantly departed from England’s, the explanation for this divergence is less straightforward. Social scientists have demonstrated that Scotland’s economy, social structure, and even underlying values are not in fact that different from England’s. To understand why Scottish electoral behaviour and public debate has followed a distinctive path, it is instead necessary to turn to the realms of politics and culture, where the same underlying socio-economic shifts that have transformed England’s political landscape over the last fifty years have been filtered in a different direction in Scotland.

As the leading sociologist of modern Scotland, David McCrone, has put this point, a distinctive Scottish ‘frame of reference’ became more prominent in Scottish public life from around the 1970s onwards. The rise of this framing was produced by, among other things, the paradox that the mid-twentieth century rise of a centralised UK state committed to promoting economic welfare also highlighted Scotland’s special status as a nation whose economy was managed quasi-autonomously by the Scottish Office, the arm of the state that had been established to govern Scotland in 1885. McCrone argues that the expansion of the Scottish mass media, notably the introduction of separate Scottish television news bulletins, popularised an understanding of Scotland both as a distinct economy and as a distinct polity gripped by its own particular political debates about how to address economic challenges (1).

The rise of this Scottish framing was deepened in the 1980s as deindustrialisation accelerated. A clear Scottish political identity emerged that focused on national autonomy and presented this objective as expressing left-wing opposition to the dominant Conservative government in London. Until the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence, this leftist politics of national identity did not necessarily equate to support for the complete dissolution of the Anglo-Scottish Union. But, as I argue in my book, The Case for Scottish Independence , it is clear in retrospect that Scottish political discourse, as it developed across the 1980s and 1990s, had the effect of priming a large section of the Scottish electorate to support independence if faced with a choice between creating a new Scottish state and a Conservative government in London (2).

As the results of the 2021 Scottish Parliament elections show, Scotland is now a divided nation, with roughly half of its citizens supporting full independence and the other half in favour of the constitutional status quo of devolution. How did the rise of McCrone’s ‘Scottish frame of reference’ produce such a dramatic constitutional debate? (3)

the hegemonic view of the Union as a beneficial contractual arrangement was not placed under serious pressure until the late twentieth century

The durability of the 1707 Anglo-Scottish Union derived in part from its legitimation within Scotland as a voluntary contract between sovereign states, a bargain that was said to have preserved for Scotland its distinctive national religious, legal and educational institutions in return for merging its parliament with that of England and Wales (and later Ireland). Although Scottish culture did feature a consistent wistful romantic criticism of the Union as a bargain orchestrated by England using economic and diplomatic coercion, the hegemonic view of the Union as a beneficial contractual arrangement was not placed under serious pressure until the late twentieth century.

Economically, Scotland participated fully in the UK’s development into the leading industrial and imperial power in the world in the nineteenth century. At a political level, Scotland was integrated into the British parliamentary system. While culturally Scotland remained a distinct nation, as Britain democratised during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries each of the two major party systems that evolved (Conservative and Liberal; Conservative and Labour) bridged national distinctions between England, Scotland and Wales (the case of Ireland, of course, was very different). Within these integrative political and economic structures, space was also available for significant amounts of Scottish autonomy, notably (as we have seen) with the creation of the Scottish Office, which pioneered a form of administrative devolution long before its parliamentary counterpart.

More generally, Scottish identity in this period remained nested within a wider British imperial consciousness that transcended the islands of Britain and Ireland and thought of Britain not as a conventional nation-state but as an empire that linked the ‘mother nations’ of the UK to colonies around the world. As David Edgerton has argued, there is a sense in which Britain as a modern nation was a mid-twentieth century artefact, produced by the retreat from empire and global trade to the more autarchic, industrially-focused UK state of the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s (4).

In these decades, a new form of British identity began to displace earlier connections forged around a shared Protestantism or imperialism as the main bulwark of the British union-state, namely an image of the UK as a social democratic state committed to economic planning and social welfare. The Scottish National Party (SNP), founded in 1934, was only a fringe presence in popular politics at this time, but styled itself as a libertarian defender of Scottish national interests against the rise of the large impersonal bureaucracies that now drove British industrial development and redistributed economic resources. It was not at all successful, but the mere fact that dedicated activists were able to keep the party alive as an organisation across many decades of electoral unpopularity ensured that it would remain a possible outlet for voters when external circumstances became more favourable to a distinctively Scottish political appeal.

in the 1970s, as an economic downturn and crisis-ridden Labour and Conservative governments drove voters to express their dissatisfaction via third party voting

Circumstances did change in the 1970s, as an economic downturn and crisis-ridden Labour and Conservative governments drove voters to express their dissatisfaction via third party voting. The SNP had by this time positioned itself as a modernising force that backed a more decentralised model of government in order to address Scotland’s economic challenges. Bolstered by the discovery of North Sea oil in Scottish waters, which significantly enhanced the economic credibility of an independent Scotland, the SNP soared to 30 per cent of the Scottish vote and 11 MPs in the October 1974 general election.

The rise in support for the SNP triggered a panicked attempt by Labour to introduce Scottish devolution, the first example of what has become a recurring pattern of the electoral threat posed by the SNP shifting the UK political elite (and in particular the Labour Party) towards supporting ever stronger forms of Scottish self-government. The attempt to introduce devolution failed in 1979, washed away in a referendum that stipulated that 40 per cent of the eligible electorate had to vote in favour for the measure to pass. This was a bar that campaigners for devolution could not clear in the face of internal divisions, an unpopular incumbent government, and a bleak economic landscape characterised by fractious industrial relations and high inflation (though of those who turned out to vote in the 1979 referendum a majority still voted in favour of devolution).

But the Thatcher and Major years forged a deeper political consensus within Scotland on the need for a Scottish Parliament. A crucial feature of this period was that voting in Scotland followed a markedly different pattern than in England, with Labour clearly winning in Scotland in 1979, 1983, 1987 and 1992. Since these were also the decades in which rapid deindustrialisation occurred – with accompanying increases in unemployment, poverty and income inequality – the startling social and economic changes of the 1980s and 1990s became understood in Scottish political culture as an undemocratic imposition from outside, visited on Scotland by an illegitimate government.

The SNP did not significantly increase its support, but this was in part because the Scottish Labour Party adopted a quasi-nationalist rhetoric. Labour argued that the UK government lacked a democratic mandate to rule Scotland and presented itself as the guardian of Scottish national interests, which Labour maintained could best be advanced by a devolved parliament within the UK. Labour also pursued open dialogue with other parties and civil society organisations about the character of such a parliament through the Scottish Constitutional Convention (which the SNP chose to absent itself from because the Convention would not consider independence as a serious political option). Once Labour returned to office in 1997, devolution was duly delivered, ratified whole-heartedly in a successful referendum, and a new era in Scottish politics began with the first sitting of a democratically elected Scottish Parliament in 1999.

Devolution … represented an important staging post on the road to the creation of a new Scottish state

One important feature of the new devolved political system was that the SNP had clearly established itself as the second largest party (after Labour) in the 1999 Scottish Parliament elections. Although the SNP had supported the creation of the parliament, the party’s leaders were committed to what had become known as the ‘gradualist’ strategy for Scottish independence. Devolution in their view represented an important staging post on the road to the creation of a new Scottish state, a project that they would seek to pursue if they ever entered government in Edinburgh.

The defenders of the devolutionary settlement, notably the Labour Party, did not take the presence of the SNP as a competitor for government office as seriously as they should have. Labour’s years in control of the Holyrood parliament in coalition with the Liberal Democrats (1999-2007) were marked by a hubristic assumption that there was no need to continue, let alone deepen, their careful positioning in the 1980s and 1990s as the party best suited to advance the Scottish national interest. Indeed, it is striking in retrospect how dismissive of the prospect of Scottish independence the wider British political system was throughout this period. This was, after all, the New Labour era, in which a centre-left government had seemingly bound together Britain with a hegemonic electoral coalition that put them in office in London, Edinburgh and Cardiff. Tensions between the nations of the UK seemed to have been dissolved by the application of asymmetric devolution and a booming economy that in turn enabled a significant increase in the level of public spending.

This illusion was dispelled after 2007 on two fronts. Locally, it was in 2007 that the SNP capitalised on growing disenchantment with Labour in the wake of the Iraq War to emerge narrowly as the largest party at Holyrood and take office as a minority Scottish government. The SNP was elected on an appeal relating to governmental competence, with the question of independence parked as one that could only be resolved via a referendum at a later date. Globally, the financial crisis of 2007-8 transformed the terms of economic debate and eventually brought into power in London a Conservative-Liberal Democrat administration committed to a strikingly unequal distribution of the burdens of austerity. This new UK government elected in 2010 held twelve of the 59 Scottish seats at Westminster, only one of those won by the Conservatives.

The SNP was able to capitalise on Scottish opposition to this coalition to win a majority in the Scottish Parliament elections of 2011, significantly aided by the absence of any strategic purpose or strong leadership in the Scottish Labour Party. Independence was at this stage still an unpopular position in Scottish public opinion, favoured by perhaps only around a third of the electorate. Lulled into a false sense of security by this opinion polling, the UK government accepted that the 2011 victory granted the SNP a mandate to hold a referendum on whether to create a new Scottish state. Although supporters of the Union were indeed victorious in the 2014 referendum, the level of support for independence dramatically increased during the campaign, eventually finishing at 45 per cent of the vote on an exceptionally high turnout of 85 per cent of the electorate.

The referendum proved to be a moment of structural realignment in Scottish politics

The framing of the referendum by the SNP as a choice between Scottish self-determination and the continuation of an unpopular Conservative government that lacked democratic legitimacy in Scotland was an artful one, which drew on the arguments about Scottish self-government first developed in the 1980s and won over many Scots previously hesitant about independence. The referendum proved to be a moment of structural realignment in Scottish politics: pro-independence voters, many of whom had previously been Labour supporters, subsequently voted SNP, giving the party comfortable victories at the 2015 general election and then the 2016 Scottish Parliament election.

However, it was ultimately the referendum on Britain’s membership of the EU in 2016 that brought the debate about Scottish independence back to the forefront of political debate. A key argument of supporters of the Anglo-Scottish Union in 2014 had been that an independent Scotland’s prospects for membership of the EU were highly uncertain, so Scots might face exile from EU citizenship (even if only temporarily) if they voted to leave the UK. Of course, shortly afterwards the UK as a whole then voted to leave the EU, while Scotland registered a strong vote in favour of remaining (62 per cent voted for remain in Scotland as opposed to 48 per cent in the UK). The political significance of this vote was far wider than the specific issue of EU membership, since it provided another piece of evidence for supporters of independence that Scottish democratic preferences were doomed to be drowned out by a far larger English electorate.

In short, it provided a vivid illustration of the classic Scottish nationalist themes of the 1980s and 2010s, namely that the Anglo-Scottish Union was now a block on the democratic preferences of the Scottish people. The initial mobilisation of this argument by independence supporters was not as successful as they expected. Scots who voted for Brexit were still a large minority of the electorate, some of them SNP voters, and the 2017 UK general election in fact saw the SNP lose ground electorally. But support for the SNP was ultimately revitalised by the subsequent acrimonious debates over the details of Brexit, and then the high profile of the Scottish government during the pandemic, leaving the SNP unmatched as the dominant party in Scotland at the 2019 general election and the Scottish Parliament election in 2021.

Yet even then support for the SNP (or the SNP in combination with the pro-independence Greens) extends only to around one half of Scottish voters, with Labour, the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats splitting the other half between them. While Scotland is therefore now a nation broadly divided between two equally sized blocs of voters, recent opinion polling also suggests that some fluidity between the two positions is possible. In 2020, for example, there was a clear movement towards majority support for independence in the opinion polling, in reaction to the UK government’s initial maladroit response to the Covid pandemic, although this now seems to have unwound as vaccines are distributed and the economy reopens. But the very fact that public opinion can shift markedly in that direction indicates an underlying fragility to the Anglo-Scottish Union that was initially exposed in the 2014 referendum and has been exacerbated by subsequent events.

As long as Scottish nationalists can plausibly portray England as a conservative nation that thwarts the democratic will of the Scottish people, advocates of independence will have a resonant rhetorical frame at their disposal. They face from their opponents a barrage of detailed questions about the economics of independence and the transition to statehood, as well as a profound reluctance to entertain another referendum so soon after 2014. It seems likely that the next few years will become dominated by this latter, procedural question at the expense of the more substantive former ones. The danger for the advocates of the Union is that such a posture will merely strengthen support for Scottish independence.

The Anglo-Scottish Union has for centuries been legitimated as a voluntary contract. For the UK government to depart from that well-rehearsed line of argument by denying a referendum risks playing into the hands of Scottish nationalists, who have always suspected that behind the seemingly consensual façade of the Union lurks the coercive force of an undemocratic, quasi-imperial state. Scotland’s political future seems likely to hang in the balance unresolved for some time yet. But simply avoiding the argument altogether is a strategy that supporters of the Union will surely find has diminishing returns.

References:

(1) David McCrone, ‘Cultural Capital in an Understated Nation: The Case of Scotland’, British Journal of Sociology , 56 (1), pp. 67-9, 76-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2005.00047.x

(2) Ben Jackson, The Case for Scottish Independence: A History of Nationalist Political Thought in Modern Scotland (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2020).

(3) This article provides a concise outline of a complicated history. Readers interested in the full story will find the following excellent books helpful: Catriona MacDonald, Whaur Extremes Meet: Scotland’s Twentieth Century (Edinburgh, John Donald, 2009); James Mitchell, The Scottish Question (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014); Tom Devine, Independence or Union? Scotland’s Past and Scotland’s Future (London, Penguin, 2016); David McCrone, The New Sociology of Scotland (London, Sage, 2017); Michael Keating, State and Nation in the United Kingdom: Fractured Union (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2021).

(4) David Edgerton, The Rise and Fall of the British Nation: A Twentieth-Century History (London, Penguin, 2018).

Ben Jackson is Associate Professor of Modern History at Oxford University and the co-editor of Political Quarterly . He is the author of The Case for Scottish Independence: A History of Nationalist Political Thought in Modern Scotland (Cambridge University Press, 2020) and co-editor of Making Thatcher’s Britain (Cambridge University Press, 2012).

Header image credit: Study for ‘Edinburgh (from Salisbury Crags)’, William Crozier. Courtesy National Gallery of Scotland.

TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:

Jackson, Ben 2021. ‘The Irresistible Rise of Scottish Independence? A Brief History of Scotland’s Constitutional Debate’  Discover Society: New Series  1 (2) https://doi.org/10.51428/dsoc.2021.02.0003

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The Quality of Empathy

Moushumi Bhowmik

I came to Ranajit Guha’s work only recently, late in my life. If I had been a first year at university then my teachers and peers would tell me what to read and how to read him. Now I must seek assistance in writings on Guha, from his readers, scholars and critics; in interviews and reminiscences.

The good thing about coming so late to someone’s work, especially to work as vast and deep as an ocean, is that by now I have a measure of my own self, I know that I have not learned to swim and I can’t even stay afloat, but barely dip my ankles in the water. I also know a thing or two about what I can take home after hours of sitting by the shore; some sand sticks to my feet, that I must  dust off before walking in through the door. But I keep with me the sights of the rising waves I have seen and their sound as they come crashing, ships which cross the horizon, small fishing boats, even drowning people I was unable to save.

It is with such sounds and sights and feelings that I tried to loosely sketch an impression of Ranajit Guha, translating what I have understood to be some of his lifelong concerns and questions, into song.   

On 20 October 2023, when we had gathered at the University of Sussex to remember Ranajit Guha, two weeks of systematic destruction of life in Palestine had passed, following the 7 October bloody Hamas operation against Israeli occupation. Is there no daya left in our hearts? Where is the quality of empathy? There was an all-pervasive feeling of helplessness, even on the faces of those who were courageously marching to stop the killing spree. 

Around 2008, Ranajit Guha had started to write a Bengali book entitled Daya: Rammohan Roy O Amader Adhunikata (Empathy/Compassion: Rammohan Roy and Our Modernity) which was first published in 2010. 

‘We easily forget’, he wrote in its Prelude, which he subtitled ‘The Victory of Cruelty’. ‘If we couldn’t forget, then perhaps our very existence would be unbearable under the weight of remembrance. So, we need to forget. Even to those who witnessed Partition [of India] in their childhood and youth, that experience has faded now as [the colours and details] in an old scroll painting. The dust of Mahakal (Endless Time) falls on the past and everything fades away. Dust has begun to settle on the communal frenzy in Gujarat which happened barely seven or eight years ago. Which is why millions of people are unable to see in their minds’ eyes what they had actually seen. However, we know that the discipline of history and forgetting are sworn enemies. Hence, with my belief in justice [attainable through remembrance], I have picked up my pen to write about a much older time, to remind ourselves of 2002. [Lest we forget.]’ (Guha, 2021: 13; translation mine). 

‘Daya diye hobe go mor jiban dhute/Noile ki aar parbo tomar charan chhnute‘ (I must wash my life with daya/ How else can I touch your feet?) Rabindranath Tagore’s 1910 song rang in my ears. Ranajit Guha wrote extensively on Tagore and I wonder if this was one his favourite songs? His student, the historian Dipesh Chakrabarty, wrote after his death that in writing only in Bangla/ Bengali during the last decades of his life, Ranajit da was ‘returning home’.  In her memoirs Danube, Ganges, and Other Life Streams, Methchild Guha wrote: ‘Ranajit and I discussed many times what our roots were. He feels rooted in Bengali language and culture irrespective of where he lives, and, believing it crucial to maintain this sense of identity, he kept pressing me to similarly acknowledge the culture and language that had formed me,’ (Guha, 2014: 49).  

The Bengal of Ranajit’s birth is where I have travelled over the past decades, listening to songs and stories and making recordings of what may be considered ‘small voices’ of history, with my machine and in my memory. But ‘small’, says who? In the pouring rain of the monsoon month of Sraban, the women of Barisal are singing songs to the snake goddess Manasa; the song rises above the sound of the rain, then it drowns, and rises again–one female voice leads, others repeat the lines. I have heard them and imagine that Ranajit had also heard such sounds when he was a small boy, for Barisal was his birthplace. Perhaps this was also the language and culture that had formed him? Why did he not write about these little things of his own history? 

Ranajit Guha ‘turned down all requests to write an autobiography,’ wrote Partha Chatterjee. ‘He even did not want to give any long interviews on his life and work. He would refuse saying, “It is not possible to write the truth about one’s own life. Whatever autobiographies you read, know that they are full of lies.”” (Chatterjee, 2023: 86) But for some reason he did give Partha Chatterjee a long interview on 1 and 2 July 2018 in his home in Purkersdorf on the edge of the Vienna Woods; he was 95 at the time. They talked about books he read as a boy, the library at home, his grandfather, teachers, early friendships, introduction to communist ideology, Tagore, Bankim, his comrades, literature, politics, history-writing, subaltern studies and so much more, but not much about the interior of his childhood home and other realms of feeling. The conversation is marked by the stark absence of voices of women. There was an externality in that conversation, such as there is in Bengali male intellectual addas.

How to listen to that absence? How to interpret it? In The Art of Listening, Les Back wrote about the need for deep sociological listening, which is ‘tied to the art of [‘thick’] description’. (Back, 2007: 21). We must be able to listen to both the presence and absence of sound.

It is interesting that Ranajit Guha had opened up in a different way during another conversation that he had with the Bastar folklorist Harihar Vaishnav in Canberra in 1991. The master dhokra or bell metal sculptor Jaydev Baghel of Chattisgarh was also present in the room, along with anthropologist Chris Gregory. Ranajit Guha was talking in Hindi and this translation by Pritha Banerjee is from a  special volume  dedicated to him which was published after his death by Anushtup in Kolkata, edited by Simool Sen. ‘I am a Dukkhabadi (I incline towards sorrow),’ Ranajit had said to Harihar Vaishnav. ‘I see both happiness as well as dejection. I have seen both. But I perceive a sense of remorse in the unprecedented fate of mankind. […]  But the battle must be waged. It doesn’t matter whether you triumph or fail. The struggle must go on.’

Vaishnav then asked him if there was any one incident he remembered which gave him both inspiration and pain?  ‘I don’t know about any specific event,’ Ranajit said, ‘but there is one that I can recall. You people are all young, born after Independence. There is one event before Independence that has left a mark on all people’s lives — British Rule. Before our independence, the era of British rule was an era of humiliation. I cannot begin to tell you how deeply humiliating the situation was. An Englishman had the power to come to this country and demean its own citizens. My childhood was situated within this corridor of humiliation. My family was an elite, upper class family in Bangladesh. We were big Hindu landowners. When I was a child, I saw peasants being thrashed with shoes by members of zamindari (landowning) families like mine. There was a farmer who lived near my house. He was older than me. I used to call him Dada. Although I belonged to a wealthy family, he brought coconuts for me. When he went fishing in the river, he used to take me along in his boat. I saw my uncle and his servants in our zamindari family pummel him with shoes. One day, he was heartbroken and left his home and the village. He thought my family was affectionate towards him. But they beat him with shoes – that was sheer insult! He left in a small boat. My young mind was affected by this. This agony occupied my mind since childhood. This is a short anecdote. It’s not political. It is empathy. It is sympathy. My discernment, my anger come from that place.’ 

I think it was a real political act on the part of Ranajit Guha to draw from the deep well of empathy and fight the battle ‘that must be waged’, throughout his long life. 

Here is a clip from my presentation at a memorial event for historian Ranajit Guha (1923-2023) at the University of Sussex on 20 October 2023. My presentation-performance was entitled ‘Some Small Voices of History: Listening after Ranajit Guha’. The composition I sing, first setting the context, is of the Bengali poet and composer Rabindranath Tagore, written in 1910.

Back, Les 2007. The Art of Listening (Oxford, New York: Berg)

Guha, Methchild 2014.  Danube, Ganges , and Other Life Streams  (New Delhi: Permanent Black)

Chatterjee, Partha ed. 2023 Ranajit Guha Sahityer Satya (Kolkata: Anushtup)

Guha, Ranajit 2021. Daya: Rammohan Roy O Amader Adhunikata (Kolkata: Adom)

Sen, Simool ed. 2023. Ranajit Guha Bishesh Sankhya (Kolkata: Anustup)

Moushumi Bhowmik is an Indian singer-songwriter, writer and researcher based in Kolkata.

Header Image Credit: The Travelling Archive

Bhowmik, Moushumi 2024. ‘The Quality of Empathy’ Discover Society: New Series 4 (1):

Property and the Political Economy of Colonialism

Gurminder K Bhambra

Ranajit Guha, as set out so clearly in the other articles in this issue, was a complex man. He was at the University of Sussex for close on twenty years and is most well-known for work that he did at the end of that period; that is, his work on historiography and the setting up of Subaltern Studies. My own initial encounter with Guha’s work was through these very studies. In particular, I was taken with the way in which he used historiography to investigate the exclusion of the subaltern from the structure of academic disciplines and thereby revealed the parochial and partial nature of the histories produced. Here, I want to return to his earlier work; to his first book, A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the idea of Permanent Settlement.

Guha had started work on this topic in the 1950s and it was published in 1963 by a French publisher around the time that Guha started as a lecturer at Sussex. By all accounts, Asa Briggs, then Dean of the Social Sciences, who would go on to become Vice Chancellor, had invited Guha to apply for the job on the basis of this work. Around the same time, Briggs was also involved in bringing the economic historian, Donald Winch, to Sussex. Winch’s first book, Classical Political Economy and the Colonies, was published two years after Guha’s and ostensibly dealt with similar themes. It was developed from his dissertation which dealt with ‘the optimal conditions for colonial economic development’ and was primarily focused on Britain’s settler colonies with only a brief discussion of India via the work of the Mills.

The overlap between their concerns is sufficient, however, for it to be a puzzle – at least ostensibly – as to why they never appeared to acknowledge the work of the other. Winch did reference Stokes’s The English Utilitarians and India, which had been published just prior to Guha’s book and with which it was often compared and addressed in tandem. One reason could be that provided by David Fieldhouse in his review of Winch’s book which notes that while Winch ‘is good on economic theory, … [he] is obviously less strong on colonial history’. However, this would be to point to an intellectual divergence that was confirmed only through Guha’s later work directly addressing the colonial context. A Rule of Property is as much focused on economic theory as is Winch’s text and I will discuss the implications of their similarity subsequently. First, to the text itself.  

A Rule of Property addresses the debates that took place between East India Company administrators in Bengal in the late eighteenth century around the status of land, how it was best to be managed, and the consequences of this for the possibility of colonial governance and deriving revenue over the longer term. The focus of the debates was the idea of a ‘permanent settlement’ or solution. The primary impetus was that a new way of organising the ownership of the land was required and that this would be best served by entrusting its care to ‘a class of native entrepreneurs who had solid interests in the land and were politically reliable’ (p9). That is, the proposals being debated were around establishing a right of private property in land. The security of landownership was deemed to be necessary for the creation of a sound administration.

It was acknowledged by the colonial administrators of the time that they held no good title to the land. Alexander Dow, for example, noted that while the provinces were held ‘in appearance, by a grant from the present emperor’, in reality, they were only maintained ‘by the right of arms’ (quoted in Guha p25). As such, what was necessary was to establish the legitimacy of dominion beyond that which was provided through the act of conquest. This was done by developing economic theories that saw the territory governed as if it were a Company estate. This estate could then be parcelled out to local zamindars who would come to own the land, permanently, as property and be made responsible for the payment of taxes on it, thus ensuring a steady stream of revenue for the colonial government. It was this separation of the right of ownership from the right to collect revenue that would establish the permanence of dominion.

Guha, impressively and rigorously – as Sanjay Subrahamyam notes in his obituary – ‘took apart the minutes, proposals and counterproposals that were presented and debated in the administrative councils of the time’. He set out their different economic premises – deriving from mercantilist, physiocratic, and classical political economy – and demonstrated that, despite their differences, they nonetheless shared a common political focus, establishing the permanence of orderly dominion. However, this political orientation, is much less a concern for Guha in A Rule of Property, rather, his focus is on the detail of the economic debates.

As an aside – as I was reading in preparation for this, I came across reference to a review of Guha’s book, by Sarvepalli Gopal, published in 1966, who regarded it primarily as an exercise in British intellectual history, with the implication being that it was therefore of little concern to historians of India. A Das Gupta similarly suggested that the book had little to do with India ‘because India existed beyond the thoughts of Englishmen’. Guha rebutted this critique in the 1981 preface to the second edition of his book (comment and critique took longer in the times before social media) by stating that if the historical origins of the concepts and theories underpinning the most important land reform introduced by the British in India, which led to the statute of permanent proprietary rights, wasn’t important to the study of Indian history, he didn’t know what would be. Nonetheless, there was something to the critique.

While the importance of Guha’s book appears clear, to me at least, I am interested in the place of colonial histories in the book, or, rather, their absence. It is obvious that Guha is not unaware of them and, given his subsequent work, he is alert to the relationship between power and knowledge in the construction of disciplines and the production of histories. So, what accounts for his failure to locate the discussions of the East India Company administrators within their colonial context and discuss the implications of their theories with regard to that? I suggest that this is where the overlap between Guha and Winch is perhaps more pertinent.

The illegitimacy of colonial rule may have been so obvious to Guha that it was regarded as otiose to even mention that this was the context in which he was working. However, another explanation could be that, as a Marxist – as he was then and later – he worked within a frame of political economy that regarded capitalism as the more significant historical moment. One whose unfolding through time and history had to be understood in its own terms.

In Guha’s presentation of the discussions that were happening among colonial administrators about how best to organise the ownership and distribution of the land under their control, there is no questioning of their right to do so. The act of conquest is seemingly naturalised and forms no part of the contextualisation of the subsequent discussions oriented to establishing a permanence of dominion. As Subrahmanyam notes, Guha also had very little to say about ‘the complex property regimes [of the Mughal period] that had been in place before Company rule’. Something that was not omitted by at least one of the administrators under discussion, Dublin-born Phillip Francis.

This flattening of history and elision of its complexities enables colonial conquest to be made subordinate in an account of political economy oriented around ideas of capitalist development. This is also enabled through the way in which the debates constructed Mughal rule as despotic or feudal, at the same time as establishing a neo-feudal settlement. The British established despotism in the provinces and then claimed that Oriental despotism was the reason that they were needed in order to bring progress and modernity to these benighted areas!

While Guha’s political commitment to Marxism shifted over time – with him coming to support the Maoist Naxalbari peasant movements in the 1970s – the refusal to consider colonialism as central to the emergence and development of capitalism perhaps blunted the force of his arguments. Even in the terms of his own book, A Rule of Property, the question of colonialism is central to the emergence of the very need, on the part of the colonial administrators themselves, for a Permanent Settlement and yet this context is relegated to a few paragraphs.

I remember giving a lecture that mentioned British colonial rule in India and a student coming up to me afterwards and asking, ‘but what were the British doing in India?’ ‘Well, quite,’ I replied.

What were the British doing in India? And under what authority were they seeking to determine the patterns of land ownership and distribution there? And further, how do their understandings of property in the colonial context continue to shape our understandings in the present and how are our contemporary understandings inadequate to the extent that we do not acknowledge the significance of colonialism to the emergence of the very idea of property?

Not taking colonial histories seriously in the development of economic ideas is a shared elision in the work of Guha and Winch. While their political orientations may well have been different – Winch identified strongly as working class, whereas Guha saw himself as belonging to the Third World – what they had in common was a failure to acknowledge the significance of colonial histories to the emergence of a global political economy.

Guha’s identification with the struggles of the peasantry in the 1970s no doubt went on to shape his reflections on history and historiography, even if he did not return to consider the implications for political economy. This was also a moment when, as Vinita Damodaran notes, postcolonial nationalism was beginning to devour its children. Fifty years on, as political figures in India seek to decolonize from the ‘double empire’, it would be a shame – to put it mildly – if postcolonial perspectives were mobilized in the turn to populist ethno-religious nationalism as opposed to being the counter to it. Guha’s political commitments would undoubtedly have been with the latter.

Gurminder K Bhambra is Professor of Historical Sociology at the University of Sussex. She is author of Connected Sociologies and the award-winning Rethinking Modernity: Postcolonialism and the Sociological Imagination. She is also co-editor of Imperial Inequalities and co-author, with John Holmwood, of Colonialism and Modern Social Theory.

Header Image Credit: Book cover

Bhambra, Gurminder K 2024. ‘Property and the Political Economy of Colonialism’ Discover Society: New Series 4 (1):

Ranajit Guha: An inspirational and challenging teacher

I had the opportunity to share my reflections regarding being taught by Ranajit Guha at an event at Sussex University celebrating his career on 20th October 2023. I have had, and continue to have, a very varied career – I am a long away from where I was in 1984 submitting my PhD on the tebhaga movement, the sharecroppers’ struggle that took place in Bengal in the late 1940s. I have worked in the charity sector, as a paramedic, as a qualified social worker, manager and senior leader in Adult Social Services. I continue to work in the specialist field of safeguarding adults in England. This may appear quite random but there is a connection between then and now. People requiring safeguarding are often the most marginalised and vulnerable in our society in England; sharecroppers were amongst the most oppressed and dispossessed in rural communities in Bengal.

It is no exaggeration to say that Ranajit Guha changed my life; first in motivating me to undertake my degree in the School of African and Asian studies (AFRAS) in Sussex University, and then to undertake a PhD on sharecroppers’ struggles, particularly the tebhaga movement. In 1976, when I was choosing a subject for my PhD, no one had studied the tebhaga movement, which grew from a pre-history of peasant activism and was led by the Kisan Sabha, the peasant wing of the Communist Party of India.

Ranajit supported me to do my PhD in so many ways – significantly by advising me to do a PhD in the first place. I wanted to go to India after 3 years of studying Indian history and he said – ‘don’t go as a tourist but go as a scholar’, so I did. In Kolkata his connections sent me to the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences where I was supervised, befriended and supported by so many people through different networks, scholars and students. His name opened doors.

I had read – probably directed by Ranajit – Sunil Sen’s memoirs of being an activist in Dinajpur in the tebhaga movement. I wanted to know more: how, what, when and where the movement had taken place. I wanted to understand how marginalised and oppressed Bengali sharecroppers became the fighters, resisters, and activists in the tebhaga movement, demanding to keep a larger share of the crop, challenging the landlords and oppression in their lives. I wanted to record their history. I undertook conventional research and found written records in the Writers Building in Kolkata and government archives in Dhaka. I wanted to go beyond and behind these texts to find out from people who were still alive in the late 1970s what they remembered, and I was fortunate as so many people were able to tell me their stories.

I learnt Bengali before I left England and spent 2 years meeting and interviewing over 200 people who had been involved in the tebhaga struggles. I searched out people, followed up leads, used different networks to find them. I collected their memories, stories and songs. I spoke to so many different people, in towns and villages, young and old, men and women, in West Bengal and Bangladesh; landlords, sharecroppers and agricultural labourers, peasant activists and communists, including a Minister in the West Bengal CPM government. I travelled all over Bengal and then returned to England to write the PhD thesis. I tried to do justice to their experiences.

Studying the tebhaga movement was unconventional because it was about Bengal – both East and West Bengal, now Bangladesh and India. My privilege as foreign scholar was that I could do this, at that time, when local historians couldn’t cross the international border. This helped me with my own issues about being a white English woman doing this work. Local scholars assured me that in this way I could make a helpful contribution. In current discussions and debates about decolonising, I can frame this discomfort in a clearer way.

The post-colonial legacy of guilt haunted me even though my own family were immigrants to the UK, and anti-imperialists. They were communists. In this context I remember walking through some paddy fields with an interpreter (because my Bengali wasn’t adequate for understanding all the local dialects), in single file behind an elderly peasant activist who was walking ahead of us, whom I was going to interview, talking to himself. ‘What was he saying?’ The interpreter told me – ‘he was asking himself, ‘why has this English woman come all this way to speak to me. This because of international communism’. This has stayed with me for decades. There was some truth in his reflection because I had been brought up with an internationalist perspective in a communist family.

Studying in Sussex

Ranajit had been my tutor throughout my undergraduate course, as well as supervising my PhD. I had met him in 1972, arriving in Brighton after travelling overland from Pakistan. Coming back to Sussex I really wanted to know more about the history of the non-European world. A schoolfriend introduced me to Ranajit and I was inspired. I moved across to AFRAS and this changed the course of my life. University life in Sussex in the 1970s was very different to how I understand it might be now. Sussex had a radical reputation both academically and in terms of the student experience. The radical approach to learning was why I had applied to go there: the inter-disciplinary schools of studies and the more fluid approach to curriculum, with courses based on cross-cutting themes like ‘millenarian movements’, rather than historical periods. I was attracted to the radical political activism that Sussex was known for. I was already involved in the Women’s Liberation Movement, anti-Vietnam demos, school student radicalism in London. Sussex was perfect for me.

It was a privilege to be taught by Ranajit although I don’t think I recognised this at the time – you take for granted that your experience is normal when you are young and have little to compare it with. I have memories only of tutorials with 2 or 3 other students. Ranajit spoke about whatever the subject was – he was hugely knowledgeable, and there were discussions and debates. I remember him talking about the way in which Greek philosophers taught their students through discourse. So, his teaching methods did make sense. What was this like for students? Exciting and scary. Writing essays to explore ideas. Being pushed to think and consider different ways of thinking. Light bulb moments. Stimulating and intellectually challenging. Terrifying and I was always in awe of him. Our essays would be tightly critiqued with respect and ambition. Correcting our use of language. ‘Inspirational and challenging’ as I called this piece.

He was an intellectual giant – Anna (another student of Ranajit’s in the 1970s) reminded me that he learnt Gujarati to read Gandhi’s work. He referenced Marx, Lenin and Gramsci, structuralism and post structuralism, semiotics. We learnt how to deconstruct text – being able to read other stories from what was on the surface, to see through to what was behind and the stories that weren’t told. This was his biggest legacy. Anna reminded me of her arguments with him about feminism – would sexism fade away with capitalism as a relic of feudalism? And he always had the last word. Studying with Ranajit was never dull. He always went to what was most important – issues of justice and human rights, class analysis. He also said that history was the true and only worthwhile academic discipline. He was so astonishingly erudite; he would use literature and multiple cultural references; unapologetically an intellectual.

AFRAS had a very strong identity – we learnt about imperialism and post-colonialism from radical scholars. So different to history in school. It was a great place to be and learn. Ranajit was part of that – he had his own style and brilliance. Additionally, it was special but not unusual to be invited to academics’ homes to meet other students. I did feel privileged but a bit overwhelmed to meet the scholars that Ranajit brought together. It was helpful to know that there was a community of interest, in which he was the centre. The connections were helpful when I went to India and in validating what I was doing, which always felt niche and isolated, particularly when I was in England.

When I came back to England in 1979, I experienced serious culture shock on re-entry. Looking back, I think Ranajit’s high standards of scholarship and his critique of my writing triggered a writer’s block and I made the very difficult decision to change supervisor. I moved to work with Terry Byres at SOAS, who helped me through this. I completed my PhD on sharecroppers struggles and sharecropping in Bengal in 1930s and 1940s. It was published in Kolkata and part translated into Bengali and published in Bangladesh. I was driven to ensure that at least there was a record of what I had been able to find out. I owed it to all the people that I had met. Decades later I emailed Ranajit, prompted by Shireen Huq, a mutual friend who visited him in Austria (she also studied with Ranajit in the late 1970s). I said what I’d been doing over the many years and got a lovely response from Mechtild Guha; there was closure.

Remembering those years, I want to also reflect on our politics at that time. We were intellectually and academically applying a Marxist lens and critiquing it – so my PhD was about the economic history of sharecropping as a semi-feudal mode of production, as well as a political history of a peasant struggle. Ranajit introduced us to what was happening in Indian communism at the time, including the Naxalite struggles. This had significant personal resonance for me; coming from a communist family, as a child living through the 1950’s Cold War backlash of anti-communism, parents who had been deported from America due to McCarthyism. This was another connection. I had a tutor who could make some sense of that. Researching a peasant struggle led by communists was amazing on a personal level. I was in West Bengal when the CP(M) came to power after Indira Gandhi’s Emergency Rule: this was an extraordinary experience for me. All the hammer and sickle graffiti on the walls and communist red flags waved in demonstrations on the maidan. This was incredible for someone whose grandfather, a Polish tailor, had heard Lenin speak in Paris. In India and Bangladesh, my communist party family identity was an asset, not something to hide. People trusted and helped me in my research because of it. As the elderly peasant activist said – I had come to speak to him ‘because of international communism’.

Postscript/legacy – some final words

Looking back, I just feel very grateful to have had the experience of being taught and inspired by Ranajit. In subsequent decades I have randomly come across people who knew his work, so belatedly I have understood that during those years he was developing his subaltern studies approach. It is always such a surprise and a gift to have those conversations. I have continued to utilise the skills I learnt, and I have always maintained my values and commitment to supporting people who are most marginalised and excluded. For the last 15 years as a social work leader this has taken the form of transforming the ways vulnerable adults are safeguarding in England.

I ceased my academic career once my PhD was published, although have developed one in social work. But I have come back to this part of my life. An American professor sought me out a few years ago; I showed her the notebooks recording the interviews that had been kept in the loft, unopened for 25 years. She wrote a blog about the encounter. That was a key turning point. Subsequently Dr Layli Uddin contacted me and with her encouragement and support, I have been transcribing the interview notes. I want to place the transcripts in archives so others can access them, reflect, analyse, and learn from these stories.

This is also part of Ranajit’s lasting influence. I still believe that this work is so important – there is an ongoing interest in subaltern studies; in the histories of people, seen to be at the margins but really at the centre. There is so much richness in these recollections of their experiences, their memories. This is a legacy that I want to pass on to others. A legacy that wouldn’t exist, if not for Ranajit Guha.

Adrienne Cooper Sharecropping and Sharecropper’s Struggles in Bengal 1930-1950, K.P.Bagchi, Kolkata, 1988

Sunil Sen Agrarian Struggles in Bengal 1946-47 P.P.H. Delhi 1972

The full text of the presentation is in the upcoming volume:

Ranajit Guha (1923-2023): Bishesh Sankalan (Ranajit Guha (1923-2023): A Special Commemorative Collection). Edited by Sourav Chattopadhyay, Kolkata: Alochana Chakra, 2024. ISBN: 978-93-83208-15-9.

Adi Cooper OBE is a Visiting Professor at the University of Bedfordshire, Independent Chair of two Safeguarding Adults Boards in London and Adviser for safeguarding adults (Partners in Care and Heath). She is a Non-Executive Director of Social Work England. She also works as a safeguarding consultant and has published books and articles on safeguarding adults. She is a qualified social worker and worked in Adult Social Care for over 30 years, including as Director of Adult Social Services, Housing and Health for nine years. Her PhD thesis about the tebhaga movement was published in Kolkata on ‘sharecropping and sharecroppers struggles in Bengal 1930-50’ and she studied as an undergraduate and post-graduate with Ranajit Guha at Sussex University. Twitter @adi_coo

Header Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons (government open data licence, India)

Cooper, Adi 2024. ‘Ranajit Guha: An inspirational and challenging teacher’ Discover Society: New Series 4 (1):

• Past Issues

The History of Scotland

Jan 13, 2013

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The History of Scotland. Ancient Scotland Birth of a Nation Stewart Scotland North Britain Modern Scotland. Ancient Scotland. Around 10 000 BC the ice that had covered Scotland for a long time began to melt.

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Presentation Transcript

The History of Scotland • Ancient Scotland • Birth of a Nation • Stewart Scotland • North Britain • Modern Scotland

Ancient Scotland • Around 10 000 BC the ice that had covered Scotland for a long time began to melt. • Trees and bushes began to grow, and animals such as bears wolves and wild pigs came searching for food.

Ancient Scotland • The first settlers were hunters and gatherers from Ireland, Germany and the rest of Europé. • They decided to stay and lived as nomads in Britain. • Nomads are people who live in and move to different places, in search of food and shelter. • Around 7000BC they had spread to most parts of the country.

Ancient Scotland • Around 4000BC hunter and gatherers stopped living as nomads and settled down and became farmers. • They grew crops like oats and barley, which they later stored to survive the harsh winters. • They also learned how to tame animals and thereby didn’t need to hunt as much.

Ancient Scotland • Between 1200BC to AD200 Scotland got closer and merged with a civilization that flourished throughout Europé, called Celtic. • The name Celtic was given by the Greeks and Romans who fought against these people. • Celtic culture first developed in central Europé, and later spread to the British Isles.

Ancient Scotland • Around AD80 the Romans invaded and conquered Scotland. • The Romans realized it would be impossible to control all the land, so they withdrew. • The Romans built Hadrian’s Wall to protect themselves from the Scottish Celts.

Ancient Scotland • Before the Romans came, the people of Scotland worshipped many different gods and goddesses. • With the Romans this new religion called Christianity came along, and things like bishops monks and saints became part of everyday life in Scotland.

Ancient Scotland • Vikings from Scandinavia came to the northern part of Scotland, around AD800. • First just to plunder and and steal treasures and jewelry. • But around AD1000, they had settled down and ruled much of northern part of Scotland.

Birth of a Nation • For thousands of years, Scotland was not a united nation. • But between AD800 and 1300 warriors and kings created the first Scottish nation. • The new threat came not from Vikings or Romans now, but from the English…

Birth of a Nation • The last of the Viking kings to have any real power in Scotland was Norway’s Magnus the Lawgiver, who returned the power to the Scottish people in 1266.

Birth of a Nation • The first real towns in Scotland were built around 1150. • Towns like Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Inverness were founded by kings, great nobles or monasteries as trading centres.

Birth of a Nation • The way people lived was much determined by the environment. • In the Lowlands people mostly worked on great estates owned by kings lords or monks. • In the Highlands people were more independent, but instead they belonged to different clans and its clanchiefs. For example McDougals, McSorley and others.

Birth of a Nation • In 1296, the English king Edward I invaded and defeated Scotland. • Scotland now belonged to England and had no king.

Birth of a Nation • One of the most famous and important Scots to resist the English was William Wallace. • William Wallace and his army beat the English at Stirling Bridge, which was a great upset for Edward I. • Later, William Wallace and his army got defeated at Falkirk 1298 • William Wallace was later executed, but to this day he is considered to be a great hero.

Birth of a Nation • Inspired by William Wallace, Robert Bruce I fought against the English and won an amazing and surprising victory at Bannockburn in 1314. • This ensured the freedom and independence of the Scottish people for another 400 years.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Between 1300 to 1600 Scotland was transformed. • It turned from a weak country troubled with fights between warlords into a confident nation ruled by intelligent kings and queens. • Named ”Stewart Scotland” because of the dynasty (ruling family) that reigned during this era and started with Robert the Steward, who became king in 1371.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • The Black Death (the plague) was a deadly disease, carried by rats, which killed many Scots during the 14th century.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Many sea-based indistries developed during this era, much due to the fact that Scotland is surrounded by sea. • Such industries were fishing, salt-making and carrying goods by cargo ship.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Until around 1600 most Scottish people could not read and write. • Before 1600 most schools were run by churches, but after the Reformation schools were taken over by and run by town councils. • By time, education got more available for the Scots and more and more people learned how to read and write.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Scottish people had followed the Catholic Church led by the Pope in Rome until the Reformation. • You could pay the Church to forgive your sins and guarantee that you would go to heaven. • A lot of people protested against this, these people were called Protestants, and suddenly a new branch of Christianity was created.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Mary Queen of Scots refused to be part of this new Protestantism. • She wanted to be a Catholic so she abdicated as queen, and she is now the most famous queen in Scottish history.

North Britain • In 1603 King James VI of Scotland inherited the English crown, which made Scotland and England much closer to each other. • In 1707 Scotland and England were united and Scotland became more a part on Britain. • Since Scotland is in the northern part of Britain, you could say that it was North Britain.

North Britain • In the 16th century witches were seen as a threat to society, and beacause of that, witchcraft became a crime. • Innocent women were accused of being witches, and some were killed. • Witch-hunting became less common after around 1650.

North Britain • The massacre at Glencoe in 1692 was a horrible thing, but Scottish society was about to change. • People looked to England and France for a more polite and civil society. • People wanted to leave Scotland’s history of bloody clan battles and ”primitive” life behind.

North Britain • Around 1750, new people from all over Scotland moved to Edinburgh. • People as different as artists, architects, designers, boooksellers, scientists, publishers, teachers and students. • They gathered in coffee houses and salons. • This meant that the Enlightenment had started in Edinburgh and Scotland.

North Britain • Scottish engineers and inventors changed the world by helping to create the Industrial Revolution. • From around 1750-1850, millions of ordinary men and women stopped working at home and on farms, instead they began to work in huge factories.

Modern Scotland • Between 1750-1850, Scotland was transformed from a poor rebellious region to the workshop of the world. • In 1999, the Scottish parliament met again for the first time in almost 300 years.

Modern Scotland • In 1851 only one out of five Scots lived in big cities like Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen. • People lived very differently, there was a great gap between Scotland’s rich and poor.

Modern Scotland • The majority of Scottish people lived hard an unpleasent lives, but others had a much more comfortable existence. They were the middle-class. • Only 3 in 1000 belonged to the upper-class during the 19th century.

Modern Scotland • During the 19th century, ordinary men and women did not have the right to vote. • They could not choose their political leaders or make their views known.

Modern Scotland • Many Scots fought in the First World War in 1914-18. • In many towns and villages all the young men of fighting age (between 16 and 40) went to war together – and died together.

Modern Scotland • In 1939, Britian and its allies went to war with Germany. • Fighting in the Second World War until 1945, young Scottish menwere conscripted (forced by law) to join the army, navy and the new air force.

Modern Scotland • In 1999 Scotland got their own parliament and a bit more independence from Great Britain. • The Scottish Parliament now has the power to raise or lower taxes and manage Scotland’s health care, education, transport, farming and the environment.

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Welcome to the History of Scotland Podcast. We tell the in-depth chronological story of the proud nation of Scotland, from the Bronze Age, to the Invasion of the Romans, then the Rise of the Kingdom of Picts, to the formation of the Kingdom of Alba, The transformation from Alba to Scotland, the defiance of William Wallace and Robert the Bruce, the control of the Stuarts and the union of the crowns, then finally learning about a country no longer independent that leads up to the modern age. So come and join us on this great journey whilst we explore the great, the proud, the horrible and the ugly History of Scotland. New podcasts released weekly, 3 podcasts a month. All podcasts are available on Apple Podcasts, Podbean, Spotify and many other great podcasting platforms.

History of Scotland Podcast History of Scotland Podcast

• 4.5 • 13 Ratings
• MAY 7, 2024

Episode 56 - Ambitions of Life

Hello everyone and welcome to the History of Scotland, Episode 56. Well, today we will be bidding farewell to our king, Alexander II. His reign has been eventful, hasn’t it? Many things have been accomplished, and his legacy is undeniable. As is tradition now, I invite you to grab a hot drink, turn up the volume on your radio or headphones, and join me as we head back to Alexander II's reign in 1241, preparing to say goodbye to a king who was every bit as much a warrior as his father was. Alexander II, who was born on August 24, 1198, ascended to the throne in 1214 following the death of his father, William the Lion. Throughout his reign, Alexander was known as a king who was not afraid to assert his authority, whether it was against internal dissent or external threats. He proved to be a capable leader in securing Scotland’s borders and ensuring peace within his kingdom. But as we journey back to 1241, we find a king who, despite his achievements, faced new challenges. The year marked a turning point as Alexander II sought to secure the Western Isles, which remained under Norwegian control. This ambitious endeavor would define the last years of his reign and set the stage for future conflicts. Alexander’s focus on the Western Isles was not just about territorial expansion. It was also about consolidating his kingdom and asserting his influence over regions that were historically contested. His actions during this time would have lasting implications for Scotland’s future, especially concerning its relationship with Norway and the Western Isles. In addition to external threats, Alexander II also faced internal dissent, particularly from powerful noble families who sought to challenge his authority. However, he managed to navigate these challenges with a firm hand and a keen understanding of politics. His reign was characterized by a delicate balance between diplomacy and warfare, demonstrating his skills as both a warrior and a statesman. As we look back at Alexander II's reign, it becomes clear that he was a king who was driven by ambition and a desire to secure his legacy. He was not content to rest on his laurels but instead sought to expand his kingdom and secure its future. His reign, though marked by challenges, was also marked by achievements, and his legacy would live on through his son, Alexander III. So, as we prepare to bid farewell to Alexander II, let’s remember the man who was not just a king but a warrior, a knight, and a visionary. His reign was one of ambition and determination, and his legacy would shape the future of Scotland for generations to come. Now, without further ado, let’s journey back to the final years of Alexander II’s reign and explore the events that shaped his legacy. Please give us a follow-on twitter at: u/TheHistoryofSc1 or just our Facebook group which you can find by searching History of Scotland on Facebook. Leave any feedback you have for the podcast in reviews, likes, and comments. Our podcast is on PodBean, Apple Podcasts, Spotify, Google Podcasts and other great podcasting platforms. Stay safe.

• APR 27, 2024

Episode 55 - The Warrior and Knight

Hello everyone and welcome to the History of Scotland, Episode 55. Our story resumes in the year 1221, a time when Scotland was still stitching itself together from the fabric of feudal loyalties and regional allegiances. Alexander, young and ardently driven, was not content to sit idle while opportunities to fortify his kingdom presented themselves. His actions during this period laid the groundwork for what would become defining moments of his reign. But as we'll see, not all was to be victories and expansions. Tragedy, too, would find its way to Alexander's door. The untimely death of his first wife brought both personal grief and political challenges. How did a king, so focused on the expansion and security of his realm, cope with such intimate loss? And how did this personal tragedy affect his political maneuvers and decisions at court? Moreover, Alexander’s ambitions stretched to the northern reaches of his kingdom, where the influence of the Kingdom of Norway still held sway over the Isles and parts of the mainland. His confrontations there would not only define his military and diplomatic tactics but also shape the future interactions between Scotland and Norway. Will Alexander’s campaigns against these seasoned sea warriors bolster his legacy as a warrior king, or will they prove to be overreaching ventures that strain his resources and resolve? We will delve into these questions and more as we unravel the fabric of Alexander II’s kingship. How did he navigate the complex web of feudal loyalties and regional power bases? What strategies did he employ to assert his authority over the rugged territories of Argyll and the Isles? And what were the outcomes of his confrontations with the entrenched powers of Norway? As we explore these poignant chapters of Scottish history, remember that the past is not merely a series of events but a mosaic of human experiences, ambitions, and heartbreaks. Each decision and battle not only shaped Alexander's reign but also the very fabric of Scotland itself. So, grab your hot drink, turn up the volume on your radio or headphones, and let’s travel back to the bustling courts and battle-scarred landscapes of Alexander II’s Scotland. Whether at home or on the go, join me as we discover whether Alexander II’s audacious efforts to expand his kingdom were met with triumph or despair. And as always, we're not just recounting history; we're stepping into the lives of those who lived it. Let’s find out together how Alexander II’s tale unfolds. Please give us a follow-on twitter at: u/TheHistoryofSc1 or just our Facebook group which you can find by searching History of Scotland on Facebook. Leave any feedback you have for the podcast in reviews, likes, and comments. Our podcast is on PodBean, Apple Podcasts, Spotify, Google Podcasts and other great podcasting platforms. Stay safe.

• APR 15, 2024

Episode 54 - Alexander II "The King of Scots"

Hello everyone and welcome to the History of Scotland, Episode 54. Today, we turn the pages of history to the son and heir of William I. Alexander II. As we explore the continuation of a royal lineage that profoundly shaped our nation. Born in the year 1198, during a period of relative stability, Alexander II was thrust into leadership, bearing the legacy of his father's tumultuous yet triumphant reign. The question that now looms large is whether his tenure as king would mirror the unpredictability of his father's or would he navigate a course of peace and stability, reminiscent of his uncle, Malcolm IV? Alexander II's early years were marked by his upbringing in a royal household that was no stranger to the demands and intrigues of governance. Educated and groomed to rule, he witnessed firsthand the complexities of political maneuvering and the weight of leadership that he was destined to inherit. His formative years, underscored by his experiences at the royal court, were pivotal in shaping his character and his approach to kingship. As we explore Alexander’s transition from prince to king, we'll delve into the dynamics of his relationship with his father, the influence of his mother, Ermengarde, and the impact of his tutors who were entrusted with his education. These relationships and his early experiences were crucial in molding a king whose reign would be scrutinized against the backdrop of his father's formidable legacy. Will Alexander’s reign be characterized by the strife and struggles that often accompanied his father’s rule, or will he steer Scotland towards a period of peace and prosperity?  As we delve into this episode, grab your favourite hot drink, adjust your radio or headphones, and settle in as we embark on a journey back to the late 12th century, to the very beginning of Alexander II’s life and ascension to the throne. Our story begins with the birth of the only son and heir of William I… Please give us a follow-on twitter at: u/TheHistoryofSc1 or just our Facebook group which you can find by searching History of Scotland on Facebook. Leave any feedback you have for the podcast in reviews, likes, and comments. Our podcast is on PodBean, Apple Podcasts, Spotify, Google Podcasts and other great podcasting platforms. Stay safe.

• APR 3, 2024

Episode 53 - A Lions Rest

Hello everyone and welcome to the History of Scotland, Episode 53. Today, we pivot back to our political narrative, focusing on the twilight years of William I's reign. Known posthumously as William the Lion, his tenure on the Scottish throne was a rollercoaster of highs and lows. Yet, through it all, his leadership ensured Scotland remained a sovereign and independent kingdom, a testament to his formidable prowess as a monarch. But, as with all tales, there comes a time to turn the page. Preparing to bid farewell to William is not something I do lightly. His impact on Scotland's history is profound, marking an era of significant development and enduring legacy. Yet, as the saying goes, history is a journey that marches ever onwards, and so must we. As we prepare to delve into the final chapters of William the Lion's reign, starting from 1194, I invite you to settle in. Whether you're tuning in over a warm cup of tea, nestled comfortably with a radio, or plugged in through headphones, let's journey back together to a pivotal moment in Scotland's storied past. Today's tale will explore the nuanced political landscape of the time, William's relentless pursuit of Scottish independence, and the legacy he left behind. It's a story of perseverance, strategic insight, and, ultimately, the enduring spirit of a nation. So, without further ado, let us step back into the annals of history, to the reign of William I, and witness the final act of a monarch whose name would forever echo in the halls of Scotland's history. Welcome, once again, to "The History of Scotland." Please give us a follow-on twitter at: u/TheHistoryofSc1 or just our Facebook group which you can find by searching History of Scotland on Facebook. Leave any feedback you have for the podcast in reviews, likes, and comments. Our podcast is on PodBean, Apple Podcasts, Spotify, Google Podcasts and other great podcasting platforms. Stay safe.

• MAR 24, 2024

Episode 52 - Crusade Home & Abroad

Hello everyone and welcome to the History of Scotland, Episode 52. Today's we realign our focus with the political and historical narrative, though with a slight twist. Our spotlight turns to an epoch marked by fervor, faith, and ferocity—the Third Crusade. This chapter in history is not just a tale of battles and sieges; it's a saga of leadership, ambition, and the indomitable human spirit. We'll delve into the origins of this crusade, identifying the key figures who played pivotal roles in its unfolding. From Richard the Lionheart's exploits in the Holy Land to the less sung heroes, we aim to bring their stories to light. But what of Scotland? This episode will also explore Scotland's involvement in the crusade and the significant impact it had on King William I's reign. The narrative of Scotland during this period is both fascinating and complex, intertwined with the broader European political landscape yet distinct in its contributions and consequences. As we set the stage for this historical journey, I invite you to settle in comfortably. Perhaps with a hot drink in hand, let's turn up the volume on our radios or headphones and transport ourselves to the Holy Land. It's a story of crusaders and caliphs, of sieges and swordsmanship, of diplomacy and determination. This crusade, a pivotal moment in history, was more than a military campaign; it was a crucible that forged legends and reshaped the geopolitical map of the era. So, brace yourselves, for we are about to embark on a journey back in time. A journey to an era where warriors sought not only territorial conquests but also spiritual salvation. An era where the echoes of battle cries and the clash of swords were but one part of a larger, more intricate tapestry of human endeavor. This is the story of the Third Crusade, a chapter in history where great leaders emerged, alliances were tested, and the fate of nations was etched in the annals of time. It's going to be a lengthy and engaging narrative, so make sure you're comfortably seated. Let us journey together into the past, to a time when the quest for the Holy Land captivated kings, knights, and commoners alike. Welcome to "Crusade: Home & Abroad." Please give us a follow-on twitter at: u/TheHistoryofSc1 or just our Facebook group which you can find by searching History of Scotland on Facebook. Leave any feedback you have for the podcast in reviews, likes, and comments. Our podcast is on PodBean, Apple Podcasts, Spotify, Google Podcasts and other great podcasting platforms. Stay safe.

• MAR 16, 2024

Episode 51 - Q&A Special

Hello everyone and welcome to the History of Scotland, Episode 51. Today's focus, however, was on the eagerly anticipated Q&A session, sparked by the plethora of questions submitted by you, our listeners. Your enthusiasm and curiosity have been the driving force behind this episode, and it was my pleasure to address the wide range of topics brought to the table. From the ancient Scottish clans and their foundational role in the country's history to the dynamic and often contentious Scotland-England border, we covered significant ground. We discussed the general history of Scottish clans, their origins, and their enduring legacy, setting the stage for a future two-part special that will delve even deeper into this fascinating topic. The discussion on the Scotland-England border illuminated the fluid nature of this boundary over the centuries, characterized by raiding and political shifts, promising another in-depth exploration in upcoming episodes. Furthermore, we navigated through the rankings of Scottish monarchs, offering a perspective on their reigns based on stability and strong leadership. This ranking provided a framework to appreciate the complexities of governance and the varied challenges faced by these rulers throughout Scotland's history. As we concluded this episode, I expressed my gratitude for your active participation and insightful questions. The engagement and curiosity of our listeners not only enrich the content of our discussions but also reinforce the communal spirit of learning and exploration that defines this podcast. Looking forward, we are excited to continue our journey through Scotland's history, with the promise of more in-depth discussions, special episodes, and the exploration of pivotal events and figures that have shaped this nation. Your continued support and enthusiasm are what make this podcast a rewarding endeavor, and I eagerly anticipate the stories and insights we will share in the episodes to come. Echoes of Emperors links:https://twitter.com/Volcabanhttps://twitter.com/VolcabanStudiohttps://www.kickstarter.com/projects/volcabanstudio/echoes-of-emperors Please give us a follow-on twitter at: u/TheHistoryofSc1 or just our Facebook group which you can find by searching History of Scotland on Facebook. Leave any feedback you have for the podcast in reviews, likes, and comments. Our podcast is on PodBean, Apple Podcasts, Spotify, Google Podcasts and other great podcasting platforms. Stay safe.

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Customer Reviews

Informative and entertaining.

A lively podcast, informative and entertaining. I have only been to Scotland once, but you bring me there with every episode. Slàinte Mhath from an Urquhart in Northern California

Really like the history of Scandinavia and hearing about Robert the first. Fun detail and great information on Scotland. If you like history it’s a must add. Great audio and host! Really interesting hearing about the Vikings. Looking forward to more!

Great content but hard to understand speaker

I think the information is fantastic and full of facts. But the speaker definitely speaks too quickly and he doesn’t have a good cadence, especially when he is reading his prepared presentation. Lots of smacking, funny way of ending sentences with an increase in tone and pitch, throat and mouth sounds full of phlegm. Poor pronunciation of Scottish and Gaelic names and even normal English names and words. Big sighs at end of a few sentences like he needs to take a breath. Acts often like he is being forced to read boring stuff so he is hurrying—but I do not think this is the case. I believe he loves his topic. Needs practice in advance before recording. The content is so good that I still listen and gave four stars but I am sure lots of people will not persevere.

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