history of scotland presentation

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• Jacobitism in the Highlands
• The Scottish Enlightenment
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• The Highlands
• World War I and after
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• North Sea oil and the rise of Scottish nationalism
• The establishment of a Scottish Parliament
• Scottish independence referendum
• Scotland under First Minister Nicola Sturgeon
• Sovereigns of Scotland

• What did King James I do politically during his reign?
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• Did King James I write the King James Bible?

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Scotland , most northerly of the four parts of the United Kingdom , occupying about one-third of the island of Great Britain. The name Scotland derives from the Latin Scotia , land of the Scots , a Celtic people from Ireland who settled on the west coast of Great Britain about the 5th century ce . The name Caledonia has often been applied to Scotland, especially in poetry. It is derived from Caledonii , the Roman name of a tribe in the northern part of what is now Scotland.

An austere land, subject to extremes of weather, Scotland has proved a difficult home for countless generations of its people, who have nonetheless prized it for its beauty and unique culture . “I am a Scotsman,” the poet and novelist Sir Walter Scott wrote in the 19th century; “therefore I had to fight my way into the world.” Historically one of Europe’s poorest countries, Scotland has contributed much to political and practical theories of progress: forged in the Scottish Enlightenment in the hands of such philosophers as Francis Hutcheson , Adam Smith , and David Hume , who viewed humankind as a product of history and the “pursuit of happiness” as an inalienable right, this progressive ideal contributed substantially to the development of modern democracy . Scots have also played a vital role in many of the world’s most important scientific and technological innovations , with inventors, engineers, and entrepreneurs such as Alexander Graham Bell , James Watt , Andrew Carnegie , and John McAdam extending Scotland’s reach far beyond the small country’s borders. Few students of English-language literature are unacquainted with historian Thomas Carlyle , poet Robert Burns , and novelist Muriel Spark .

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Scotland’s relations with England, with which it was merged in 1707 to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain, have long been difficult. Although profoundly influenced by the English, Scotland has long refused to consider itself as anything other than a separate country, and it has bound itself to historical fact and legend alike in an effort to retain national identity, as well as to the distinct dialect of English called Scots ; writing defiantly of his country’s status, the nationalist poet Hugh MacDiarmid proclaimed: “For we ha’e faith in Scotland’s hidden poo’ers, The present’s theirs, but a’ the past and future’s oors.” That independent spirit bore fruit in 1996, when the highly symbolic Stone of Scone was returned to Edinburgh , Scotland’s capital, from London, and in 1999 a new Scottish Parliament—the first since 1707—was elected and given significant powers over Scottish affairs.

Edinburgh is a handsome city of great historical significance and one of Europe’s chief cultural centres. Other significant principal cities include Glasgow , Dundee , Aberdeen , and Perth , all centres for industry, transportation , and commerce .

Hardworking, practical, and proud of their traditions, the Scots have a reputation for thrift that verges on miserliness. Travelers to the country, however, often remark on the generosity and friendliness of their hosts, as well as on the vibrancy of contemporary Scottish culture. An ancient Gaelic song, a blessing on cattle and the people who keep them, speaks to that hospitality in a sometimes inhospitable landscape:

Pastures smooth, long, and spreading, Grassy meads aneath your feet, The friendship of God the Son to bring you home To the field of the fountains, Field of the fountains. Closed be every pit to you, Smoothed be every knoll to you, Cosy every exposure to you, Beside the cold mountains, Beside the cold mountains.

Scotland is bounded by England to the south, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and north, and the North Sea to the east. The west coast is fringed by deep indentations (sea lochs or fjords) and by numerous islands, varying in size from mere rocks to the large landmasses of Lewis and Harris , Skye , and Mull . The island clusters of Orkney and Shetland lie to the north. At its greatest length, measured from Cape Wrath to the Mull of Galloway , the mainland of Scotland extends 274 miles (441 km), while the maximum breadth—measured from Applecross, in the western Highlands , to Buchan Ness, in the eastern Grampian Mountains —is 154 miles (248 km). But, because of the deep penetration of the sea in the sea lochs and firths (estuaries), most places are within 40 to 50 miles (65 to 80 km) of the sea, and only 30 miles (50 km) of land separate the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth , the two great estuarine inlets on the west and east coasts, respectively.

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The history of Scotland

Scotland is a country with a fascinating history. We’re passionate about telling the story of Scotland and its people . This handy timeline offers a bird’s-eye view of Scottish history, from the first people to the Age of Enlightenment, and includes famous figures like Robert the Bruce and Mary, Queen of Scots .

Scotland’s beginnings

People first occupied Scotland in the Paleolithic era. Small groups of hunter-gatherers lived off the land, hunting wild animals and foraging for plants. Natural disasters were a serious threat – around 6200BC a 25m-high tsunami devastated coastal communities in the Northern Isles and eastern Scotland.

People first started cultivating and claiming ownership of the land in Scotland in the Neolithic period. They built permanent shelters, made pottery and stone axes, and created tombs to house the remains of their ancestors.

The arrival of metalworking signalled the start of the Bronze Age and a period of technological change. Burial structures, like the one that was uncovered at St Kilda , and ornaments made from exotic materials (such as gold, amber or jet) show that people were displaying their wealth and status, and that social hierarchies were starting to form. At Brodick Castle you can learn about this early period of history in a reconstructed roundhouse.

The Iron Age saw people making better tools and weapons. Communities also built defensive forts of timber, earth and stone to keep enemies at bay. We’ve found evidence of human activity dating back to the Iron Age in the caves beneath Culzean Castle .

Early Scottish history

We’re always uncovering and learning from historical written documents. Scotland’s recorded history began with the arrival of the Romans. Emperor Claudius invaded Britain in AD43 and soon ventured north. Despite the Romans’ best efforts to fortify the border with Hadrian’s Wall in AD122, and central Scotland with the Antonine Wall 20 years later, they were fought back by the Caledonians and the Picts, and eventually retreated from Britain altogether by AD410.

The Early Historic period refers to the era when Scotland’s history first started to be recorded in writing. There are records, written mostly by monks, that tell us that Christianity reached the west of Scotland in AD563, when Columba arrived in Iona .

Around this time the Vikings arrived to trade and settle around Scotland, both on the west coast and in the north at places like Fair Isle .

Where did Scottish people come from?

Early Historic Scotland was a melting pot of different groups – the Britons, the Picts, the Angles, the Gaels (Scots) and the Norse – and you can see this mixture reflected in place-names around the country, from Ben Macdui (Gaelic) to Stornoway (Norse) via Aberdeen (Pictish).

The medieval period saw the gradual expansion of the Scottish kingdom, as kings and queens came and went at a steady pace. The best known early Scottish king, Macbeth, was killed in battle in 1057, and the Kingdom of Alba became a feudal society by the 12th century. The reigns of William I (the Lion), Alexander II and Alexander III saw farming, trade and Christianity flourish.

The battle for independence

Following the death of Alexander III, England’s King Edward I had declared himself the overlord of Scotland and marched his troops north. In 1297, Edward’s army planned to cross the River Forth at Stirling Bridge, but were met by an army of Scots that forced them back. The Battle of Stirling Bridge is where William Wallace, one of Scotland’s most famous figures, earned his fame – he was knighted and appointed Guardian of Scotland the following year.

Robert the Bruce was crowned King of Scotland. War between the English and the Scots raged until 1314, when Robert the Bruce’s army defeated Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn . A legend was born. Scottish independence was declared 6 years later with the Declaration of Arbroath on 6 April 1320. Addressed to Pope John XXII, the letter asked him to recognise Scotland as an independent country and Robert the Bruce as its lawful king.

Mary Stuart (you might know her as Mary, Queen of Scots ) became queen when she was just 6 days old, following the death of her father James V. Sent to France aged 5, Mary returned to rule Scotland in 1561. She was welcomed at places like Falkland Palace and Alloa Tower , but made an enemy of her cousin Queen Elizabeth I, who had her executed in 1587.

The Jacobites

After Elizabeth I died without an heir, James VI of Scotland (Mary, Queen of Scots’ son) succeeded to the English throne and became James VI & I. This Union of the Crowns was supposed to signal an era of peace. Instead, a family feud, which eventually saw William of Orange invade England in 1688 to overthrow King James VII, would lead to decades of bloodshed and civil unrest.

When James VII fled to France, his supporters – the Jacobites – fought to try and restore him to the throne. The Jacobite risings saw a series of gruesome battles take place across the country, at places like Killiecrankie , Dunkeld and Glenshiel in Kintail .

In 1745, James VII’s grandson Prince Charles Edward Stuart, known as Bonnie Prince Charlie, arrived in Scotland to try to rally the troops. He raised his father’s standard at Glenfinnan . But the Jacobite cause came to a tragic end at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, when 1,500 Highlanders died in a single hour.

Enlightenment and industry

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Scotland was part of the one of the greatest intellectual and scientific outpourings ever recorded. The Age of Enlightenment saw Scottish thinkers and artists – the likes of Robert Burns, William Adam, Sir Walter Scott and Adam Smith – transform the way we see and understand the world. Their work remains for all to see at places like Newhailes House , Hugh Miller’s Birthplace Cottage & Museum and Robert Burns Birthplace Museum .

At the beginning of the 19th century, Scotland’s economy changed drastically. The arrival of industrial technology created a shift in wealth, also caused by the boom in the tobacco, sugar and cotton trades, based largely on the exploitation of enslaved people. Houses like Greenbank House and Harmony were owned by these newly rich businessmen.

The sudden dominance of mining, shipbuilding and textiles, along with rising rents and poor harvests, meant that many people from rural communities were forced to move to towns and cities, or sometimes even emigrate. The written evidence for this is often recorded in the papers of the large landed estates. Rich landowners also cleared their land of towns and villages to make way for profitable sheep farming. Some places, such as Mingulay and St Kilda , were abandoned altogether by the early 20th century.

Around 200 years ago 90% of Scotland’s population lived in the countryside; now 90% live in towns and cities.

Modern Scotland

1900 to the present day.

A number of architectural treasures in our care, such as the Tenement House and the Hill House , tell the story of the 1900s, including how the two World Wars impacted Scotland’s economy, industry and people, before prosperity returned in the 1950s and 60s (Scotland began drilling for oil in the North Sea in 1967).

In 1990, Glasgow was made European City of Culture, and the next decade saw Scottish culture make its mark on the world, with films like Trainspotting (1996) and the books of J K Rowling (1997) finding huge success. In 1999 the Scottish Parliament reconvened for the first time in nearly 300 years.

The birth of scotland

The Palaeolithic Era

The period of earliest known occupation of Scotland by man is from the Palaeolithic era – also known as the Stone Age. Hunter-gatherers hunted for fish and wild animals and gathered fruit, nuts, plants, roots and shells.

Neolithic Age

The earliest prehistoric tools found still surviving in Scotland date from 3000 BC – during the Neolithic age Scotland was home to nomadic hunter-gatherers as well as the first farmers who built permanent dwellings. The remains of domestic and ritual buildings from this time make up The Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site. Visit UNESCO for more information

The Roman Empire

Scotland’s recorded history began with the arrival of the Roman Empire. Despite building two impressive fortifications – Hadrian’s Wall to defend the northern border, and the Antonine Wall across Central Scotland to advance it forward – the Romans never truly conquered Caledonia. Unable to defeat the Caledonians and Picts, the Romans eventually withdrew and over time retreated away from Britain. Much of the 60km Antonine Wall survives and it was inscribed as a World Heritage Site, one of six in Scotland, since 2004.

Arrival of the Vikings

Vikings were accomplished sailors at this point in history, and around 800 AD they began migrating from Norway and Denmark, crossing the treacherous North Sea to trade and settle in Scotland. While Vikings began to settle in the west, the Picts were forging a new kingdom; the Kingdom of Alba.

Macbeth rules Scotland

Immortalised forever in Shakespeare’s fictitious retelling, Macbeth is perhaps one of the best-known early Scottish kings. Macbeth ruled as King of Alba from 1040 to his death in battle in 1057.

THE UNION OF THE CROWNS

Renaissance in Scotland

The cultural, intellectual and artistic movement that took hold around Europe brought significant changes to Scotland; education, intellectual life, literature, art, architecture, music and politics all advanced in the late 15th century.

Mary Queen of Scots

Mary, newly born at Linlithgow Palace, was just six days old when her father, James V, died and she was crowned Queen of Scots. Her reign was marked by Catholic-Protestant conflict and civil unrest in a period known as the ‘rough wooing’. In England, worried about the possibility of a Catholic plot against her, Elizabeth I imprisoned Mary and later, after almost 19 years of captivity, had her executed at Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire in 1567 at the age of 44.

The Union of the Crowns

James VI succeeded the throne at just 13 months old after Mary was forced to abdicate. When Elizabeth I died with no children, James VI succeeded to the English throne and became James VI & I – a historic move that’s now known as the Union of the Crowns.

What is scotland known for

Many of Scotland's most famous inventions – kilts, tartans and bagpipes - were actually developed elsewhere.

One of Scotland's most famous products, whisky, was actually invented in China

Languages they speak

• Scottish Gaelic

Religion in Scotland. Christianity is the largest religion in Scotland. In the 2011 census, 53.8% of the Scottish population identified as Christian

Natural features

Towering mountains, glittering lochs, dense woodlands and miles upon miles of golden beaches - Scotland's landscapes really will take your breath away

Politics/ Government

The Scottish Government uses a government structure that has a dual executive structure of a Cabinet that invokes collective decision-making, as well as non-cabinet members as Junior Ministers.

• Cured meat and cheese

A sport which is slightly reminiscent of the javelin, caber tossing is another show of sheer strength. Athletes launch huge and heavy wooden cabers up into the air so that they turn end over end. The main difference between tossing the caber and other Olympic sports is that competitors have to wear a kilt at all times, and the distance the caber is thrown is irrelevant.

A handy way to settle any decision or argument, the tug o’ war has been played for centuries. Two teams are pitted against each other to try a haul a piece of rope in opposite directions.

• Highland dancing

Watching gymnastics is truly mesmerising, and makes me think that Highland dancing comes pretty close with its enticing combination of poise, rhythm and stamina. Whether it’s the Highland Fling or the Sword Dance, you can watch intricate dances performed at several Highland games across the country, by dancers from all over the world.

• Haggis hurling

did you also know that Scotland’s national dish (Haggis) can be part of special Scottish sport? Whoever hurls the haggis the furthest, wins.

Scotland is a part of the United Kingdom (UK) and occupies the northern third of Great Britain.

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Fabulous facts about Scotland!

Join us on a bonnie adventure, gang….

Green forests, towering mountains, vast lochs and a lively culture form this spectacular country! Join us on a bonnie adventure in our facts about Scotland…

Facts about Scotland

Official name:  Scotland, Alba

Form of government:  constitutional monarchy

Capital city:  Edinburgh

Largest city:  Glasgow

Population:  around 5.2 million

Monetary unit:  Pound sterling (GBP)

Official languages:  English/Gaelic/Scots

Area:  78,772 km² (30,414 sq mi)

Major mountain ranges:  Southern Uplands, Central Lowlands, Grampian Mountains, North West Highlands

Major rivers:  River Tay, River Spey, River Dee, River Tweed, River Clyde

Scottish flag

Map of scotland, scotland’s geography and landscape.

Scotland is a country in Europe and is part of the island of Great Britain (Europe’s largest island) alongside England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

This lush beautiful country is bursting with green spaces, lush forests, towering mountains and vast lochs (the Scottish word for lakes!).

The country can be roughly divided into three areas – lowlands, Highlands and islands. The lowlandsare known for their fertile farmland and thick woodlands, the Highlands for their towering mountains, sweeping moorland and deep lochs, and the islands for their compact wild landscapes, beautiful beaches and far-reaching sea views.

Did you know? Hundreds of millions of years ago Scotland’s landmass was once completely separate from England and Wales – it was actually joined to America and Greenland!

Scottish wildlife and nature

With so many habitats, there’s plenty of fascinating wildlife to see in Scotland. You’ll find river dwellers such as  otters, salmon and trout and red squirrels and birds, such as capercaillies, find refuge in the thick forests.

Out on the mountains and in the moorland you might spot majestic red deer or mountain hares while the islands are the perfect place to spot seals and seabirds, such as puffins .

Many animal species are protected in Scotland and there are two National Parks – the Cairngorms National Park and Loch Lomond & The Trossachs National Park – as well as numerous beautiful nature reserves, that have been set up to protect the land and the wildlife that lives there.

Psst! Read VisitScotland’s Scottish Wildlife Series to find out about six of the country’s coolest animals!

Scottish history

Scotland has been populated for 12,000 years, and has a rich and complex history. In 43 AD the  Romans  successfully invaded Britain and fought frequently with the native Scots, called the Caledonians.

From the 1200s to the 1300s the Scottish clan system became firmly established in the Highlands. Ruled over by a clan chief, these clans were like tribes and were made up of family members and people who had a loyalty to the chief. Each clan held a particular territory and clan members could be distinguished by the clothes they wore – the origins of what we now know as Scottish clan tartan!

In 1707 the Act of Union was signed, meaning Scotland, England and Wales were now a single state with one monarch (known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain).

In 1745 Charles Edward Stuart, or ‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’ as he is often known, travelled to Scotland to reclaim the thrones that his grandfather, once king of England, Ireland and Scotland, had lost in 1668. He had support from lots of Scottish clans but despite their early victories, they were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.

Following the battle, the British government was determined to bring the Highlanders under their control and harsh laws were passed to eradicate all aspect of Highland culture, including the Gaeliclanguage and traditional clothing. This signalled the end of the Highland clan system.

Despite these uncertain times, the 1700s also saw the beginning of one of the greatest periods in Scotland’s history – the Scottish Enlightenment. From the mid 1700s to the early 1800s educated Scottish people, such as professors, doctors and writers, began to question what was previously believed and instead formulate new theories and ideas. The discoveries and advances that were made during this time went on to shape the modern world as we know it.

Scottish people and culture

The Scots are a nation of innovators. Throughout the centuries Scottish people have brought us a huge range of new concepts, architectural techniques, scientific discoveries, inventions and more. Some of these wonderful things include the telephone, the television, tarmac, the steam engine, anaesthesia, penicillin, the pedal bicycle and the decimal point!

Many famed athletes and Olympic medal winners come from Scotland, including tennis player Andy Murray , rower Katherine Grainger and cyclist Sir Chris Hoy . Scotland also has a strong history for producing influential writers, including the poet Robert Burns (you can find out more about him in VisitScotland’s Rabbie for Weans eBook ), JM Barrie , author of Peter Pan and Sir Conan Doyle , author of the Sherlock Holmes novels.

Did you know? In the Harry Potter series, Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry is thought to be located in the Highlands of Scotland.

Check out these 25 amazing things about Scotland!

Scottish government and economy

Following centuries of Scotland’s policies lying in the hands of English politicians miles away in Westminster in London, a new Scottish Parliament was created and opened in 1999 at Holyrood in Edinburgh.

The Scottish Parliament is made up of 129 elected representatives who debate issues and make laws for Scotland. The head of the Scottish Government is the First Minister.

From 1850 – 1950 Scotland’s economy mainly centred around heavy industry like shipbuilding, coal mining, steel and iron ore mining and locomotive building. During  World War I  and  World War II  this brought prosperity to Scotland, but shortly afterwards the economy went into steep decline.

In the 1970s crude oil began to be pumped from the North Sea, creating a new industry in Scotland. The country now boasts a strong and varied economy, with industries such as financial and business, renewable energy and sustainable tourism.

Image credits: VisitScotland

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i luve scotland scotland is the best

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The capital city of Scotland is Edinburgh.

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History of Scotland Timeline

Prehistoric scotland, first settlements in scotland, neolithic scotland, bronze age scotland, ancient scotland, iron age scotland, scotland during the roman empire, picts of scotland, kingdom of strathclyde, christianity in scotland, medieval scotland, kingdom of dál riata, kingdom of bernicia, post-roman scotland, battle of dun nechtain, scandinavian scotland, picts’ last stand, kingdom of alba, kingdom of the isles, constantine ii of scotland, alliance and expansion: from malcolm i to malcolm ii, gaelic kingship to norman influence: duncan i to alexander i, davidian revolution: from david i to alexander iii, wars of scottish independence, house of stuart, centralization and conflict: from james i to james ii, story of golf, renaissance and ruin: from james iii to james iv, early modern scotland, tumultuous times: james v and mary, queen of scots, scottish reformation, union of the crowns, wars of the three kingdoms, glorious revolution in scotland, jacobite rising of 1689, late modern scotland, acts of union 1707, jacobite rebellions, scottish enlightenment, industrial revolution in scotland, collapse of the clan system, scottish emigration, religious schism in 19th century scotland, scotland during world war i, scotland during world war ii, postwar scotland, 2014 scottish independence referendum.

History of Scotland

The recorded history of Scotland begins with the arrival of the Roman Empire in the 1st century CE. The Romans advanced to the Antonine Wall in central Scotland, but were forced back to Hadrian's Wall by the Picts of Caledonia. Before Roman times, Scotland experienced the Neolithic Era around 4000 BCE, the Bronze Age around 2000 BCE, and the Iron Age around 700 BCE.

In the 6th century CE, the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata was established on Scotland's west coast. Irish missionaries converted the Picts to Celtic Christianity in the following century. The Pictish king Nechtan later aligned with the Roman rite to diminish Gaelic influence and prevent conflict with Northumbria. Viking invasions in the late 8th century forced the Picts and Gaels to unite, forming the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century.

The Kingdom of Scotland was initially ruled by the House of Alpin, but internal conflicts over succession were common. The kingdom transitioned to the House of Dunkeld after Malcolm II's death in the early 11th century. The last Dunkeld king, Alexander III, died in 1286, leaving his infant granddaughter Margaret as heir. Her death led to Edward I of England's attempts to conquer Scotland, sparking the Wars of Scottish Independence . The kingdom ultimately secured its sovereignty.

In 1371, Robert II founded the House of Stuart, which ruled Scotland for three centuries. James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne in 1603, leading to the Union of the Crowns. The 1707 Acts of Union merged Scotland and England into the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Stuart dynasty ended with Queen Anne's death in 1714, succeeded by the houses of Hanover and Windsor.

Scotland flourished during the Scottish Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution, becoming a commercial and intellectual center. However, it faced significant industrial decline post- World War II . Recently, Scotland has seen cultural and economic growth, partly due to North Sea oil and gas. Nationalism has grown, culminating in a 2014 referendum on independence.

12000 BCE Prehistoric Scotland

People lived in Scotland for at least 8,500 years before Britain's recorded history began. During the last interglacial period (130,000–70,000 BCE), Europe experienced a warmer climate, which may have allowed early humans to reach Scotland, evidenced by the discovery of pre-Ice Age axes in Orkney and mainland Scotland. After glaciers receded around 9600 BCE, Scotland became habitable again. 

The first known settlements in Scotland were Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer encampments, with a notable site near Biggar dating to around 12000 BCE. These early inhabitants were highly mobile, boat-using people who crafted tools from bone, stone, and antlers. The oldest evidence of a house in Britain is an oval structure of wooden posts found at South Queensferry near the Firth of Forth, dating from the Mesolithic period, around 8240 BCE. Additionally, the earliest stone structures in Scotland are likely the three hearths discovered at Jura, dated to about 6000 BCE.

Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements to Scotland. At Balbridie in Aberdeenshire, crop markings led to the discovery of a massive timber-framed building dating to about 3600 BCE. A similar structure was found at Claish near Stirling, containing pottery evidence. On Eilean Domhnuill in Loch Olabhat, North Uist, Unstan ware pottery dated between 3200 and 2800 BCE suggests the presence of one of the earliest crannogs. Neolithic sites, particularly well-preserved in the Northern and Western Isles due to the scarcity of trees, are primarily built of local stone.

The Standing Stones of Stenness in Orkney, dating to around 3100 BCE, are part of a Neolithic landscape rich with well-preserved stone structures. The stone house at Knap of Howar on Papa Westray, Orkney, occupied from 3500 BCE to 3100 BCE, has intact stone furniture and walls standing to a low eaves height. Middens indicate the inhabitants practiced agriculture, kept livestock, and engaged in fishing and gathering shellfish. Unstan ware pottery links these inhabitants to chambered cairn tombs and sites like Balbridie and Eilean Domhnuill.

The houses at Skara Brae on Orkney's Mainland, occupied from about 3000 BCE to 2500 BCE, are similar to Knap of Howar but form a village connected by passageways. Grooved ware pottery found here is also present at the Standing Stones of Stenness, about six miles away, and throughout Britain. Nearby, Maeshowe, a passage grave dated to before 2700 BCE, and the Ring of Brodgar, an analyzed astronomical observatory, form part of a group of significant Neolithic monuments. Barnhouse Settlement, another Neolithic village, suggests these farming communities built and used these structures.

Similar to other European megalithic sites like Stonehenge and Carnac, the standing stones at Callanish on Lewis and other Scottish locations reflect a widespread Neolithic culture. Further evidence of these connections is seen at Kilmartin Glen, with its stone circles, standing stones, and rock art. Artifacts imported from Cumbria and Wales, found at Cairnpapple Hill, West Lothian, indicate extensive trade and cultural connections as early as 3500 BCE.

During the Bronze Age, cairns and megalithic monuments continued to be constructed in Scotland, though the scale of new structures and the total area under cultivation declined. The Clava cairns and standing stones near Inverness exhibit complex geometries and astronomical alignments, shifting towards smaller, possibly individual tombs, in contrast to the communal Neolithic tombs.

Notable Bronze Age discoveries include mummies dating from 1600 to 1300 BCE found at Cladh Hallan on South Uist. Hill forts, such as Eildon Hill near Melrose in the Scottish Borders, emerged around 1000 BCE, providing fortified housing for several hundred inhabitants. Excavations at Edinburgh Castle have revealed material from the late Bronze Age, approximately 850 BCE. In the first millennium BCE, Scottish society evolved into a chiefdom model. This period saw the consolidation of settlements, leading to the concentration of wealth and the establishment of underground food storage systems.

800 BCE Ancient Scotland

From around 700 BCE extending into Roman times, Scotland's Iron Age featured forts and defended farmsteads, suggesting quarrelsome tribes and petty kingdoms. The Clava cairns near Inverness, with their complex geometries and astronomical alignments, represent smaller, possibly individual tombs rather than the communal Neolithic tombs.

Brythonic Celtic culture and language spread into southern Scotland after the 8th century BCE, likely through cultural contact rather than invasion, leading to the development of kingdoms. Large fortified settlements expanded, such as the Votadini stronghold at Traprain Law, East Lothian. Numerous small duns, hill forts, and ring forts were built, and impressive brochs like Mousa Broch in Shetland were constructed. Souterrain passageways and island crannogs became common, probably for defensive purposes.

Over 100 large-scale excavations of Iron Age sites, dating from the 8th century BCE to the 1st century CE, have produced numerous radiocarbon dates. The Iron Age in Britain, influenced by continental styles like La Tène, is divided into periods paralleling continental cultures:

• Earliest Iron Age (800–600 BCE): Hallstatt C
• Early Iron Age (600–400 BCE): Hallstatt D and La Tène I
• Middle Iron Age (400–100 BCE): La Tène I, II, and III
• Late Iron Age (100–50 BCE): La Tène III
• Latest Iron Age (50 BCE – 100 CE)

Developments included new pottery types, increased agricultural cultivation, and settlement in areas with heavier soils. The transition from the Bronze Age saw the decline of the bronze trade, possibly due to the rise of iron.

Social and economic status during the Iron Age was expressed through cattle, which were a significant investment and source of wealth, although there was a shift towards sheep rearing in the later Iron Age. Salt was a key commodity, with evidence of salt production in East Anglia. Iron Age coinage, including gold staters and bronze potin coins, reflects the economic and political landscape. Notable coin hoards include the Silsden Hoard and the Hallaton Treasure.

Trade links with the continent, especially from the late 2nd century BCE onwards, integrated Britain into Roman trading networks, evidenced by imports of wine, olive oil, and pottery. Strabo recorded Britain's exports as grain, cattle, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves, and hunting dogs.

The Roman invasion marked the end of the Iron Age in southern Britain, although Roman cultural assimilation was gradual. Iron Age beliefs and practices persisted in areas with weak or no Roman rule, with some Roman influence evident in place names and settlement structures.

During the Roman Empire, the area now known as Scotland, inhabited by the Caledonians and the Maeatae, was not fully incorporated into the Empire despite various attempts between the first and fourth centuries CE. Roman legions arrived around 71 CE, aiming to conquer the territory north of the River Forth, known as Caledonia, while the rest of modern Britain, called Britannia, was already under Roman control.

Roman campaigns in Scotland were initiated by governors such as Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Gnaeus Julius Agricola. Agricola's campaigns in the 70s and 80s CE culminated in a purported victory at the Battle of Mons Graupius, though the exact location remains uncertain. A Roman road built by Agricola was rediscovered in 2023 near Stirling, highlighting Roman efforts to consolidate control.

The Romans established temporary borders first along the Gask Ridge and later along the Stanegate, which was fortified as Hadrian's Wall. Another attempt to control the region north of Hadrian's Wall led to the construction of the Antonine Wall. The Romans managed to hold most of their Caledonian territory for about 40 years, but their influence waned after the early 2nd century CE.

Iron Age tribes in Scotland during this period included the Cornovii, Caereni, Smertae, and others. These tribes likely spoke a form of Celtic known as Common Brittonic. The construction of brochs, hill forts, and souterrains characterized the period, with brochs like Mousa Broch being particularly notable. Despite the Roman presence, there was little evidence of a hierarchical elite or centralized political control among these tribes.

Roman interactions with Scotland diminished after the early 3rd century CE. Emperor Septimius Severus campaigned in Scotland around 209 CE but faced significant resistance and logistical challenges. After Severus' death in 211 CE, the Romans withdrew permanently to Hadrian's Wall. The intermittent Roman presence coincided with the emergence of the Picts, who lived north of the Forth and Clyde and may have been descendants of the Caledonians. Pictish society, like that of the earlier Iron Age, lacked centralized control and was characterized by fortified settlements and brochs.

As Roman power waned, Pictish raids on Roman territories increased, particularly in 342, 360, and 365 CE. They participated in the Great Conspiracy of 367, which overran Roman Britannia. Rome retaliated with a campaign under Count Theodosius in 369, re-establishing a province named Valentia, though its precise location remains unclear. A subsequent campaign in 384 was also short-lived. Stilicho, a Roman general, may have fought the Picts around 398, but by 410, Rome had fully withdrawn from Britain, never to return.

Roman influence on Scotland included the spread of Christianity and literacy, mainly via Irish missionaries. Although the Roman military presence was brief, their legacy included the use of Latin script and the establishment of Christianity, which persisted long after their departure. The archaeological record of Roman Scotland includes military forts, roads, and temporary camps, but the impact on local culture and settlement patterns appears limited. The most enduring Roman legacy may be the establishment of Hadrian's Wall, which approximates the modern border between Scotland and England.

The Picts were a group of peoples living in what is now Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth, during the Early Middle Ages. Their name, Picti, appears in Roman records from the late 3rd century CE. Initially, the Picts were organized into several chiefdoms, but by the 7th century, the Kingdom of Fortriu became dominant, leading to a unified Pictish identity.

Pictland, as their territory is referred to by historians, saw significant cultural and political development. The Picts were known for their distinctive stones and symbols, and their society paralleled other early medieval groups in northern Europe. Archaeological evidence and medieval sources, such as the writings of Bede, hagiographies, and the Irish annals, provide insights into their culture and history. The Pictish language, an Insular Celtic language related to Brittonic, was gradually replaced by Middle Gaelic due to Gaelicisation starting in the late 9th century.

The Picts' territory, previously described by Roman geographers as the home of the Caledonii, included various tribes like the Verturiones, Taexali, and Venicones. By the 7th century, the Picts were tributary to the powerful Northumbrian kingdom until they secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685 under King Bridei mac Beli, halting Northumbrian expansion.

Dál Riata, a Gaelic kingdom, fell under Pictish control during the reign of Óengus mac Fergusa (729–761). Although it had its own kings from the 760s, it remained politically subordinate to the Picts. Attempts by the Picts to dominate the Britons of Alt Clut (Strathclyde) were less successful.

The Viking Age brought significant upheaval. The Vikings conquered and settled in various regions, including Caithness, Sutherland, and Galloway. They established the Kingdom of the Isles and, by the late 9th century, had weakened Northumbria and Strathclyde and founded the Kingdom of York. In 839, a major Viking battle resulted in the deaths of key Pictish and Dál Riatan kings, including Eógan mac Óengusa and Áed mac Boanta.

In the 840s, Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín) became king of the Picts. During the reign of his grandson, Caustantín mac Áeda (900–943), the region began to be referred to as the Kingdom of Alba, indicating a shift towards a Gaelic identity. By the 11th century, the inhabitants of northern Alba had become fully Gaelicised Scots, and Pictish identity faded from memory. This transformation was noted by 12th-century historians like Henry of Huntingdon, and the Picts later became a subject of myth and legend.

Strathclyde, also known as Alt Clud in its early days, was a Brittonic kingdom in northern Britain during the Middle Ages. It encompassed parts of what are now southern Scotland and northwest England, referred to by Welsh tribes as Yr Hen Ogledd ("the Old North"). At its greatest extent in the 10th century, Strathclyde stretched from Loch Lomond to the River Eamont at Penrith. The kingdom was annexed by the Goidelic-speaking Kingdom of Alba in the 11th century, becoming part of the emerging Kingdom of Scotland.

The kingdom's early capital was Dumbarton Rock, and it was known as the Kingdom of Alt Clud. It likely emerged during Britain's post-Roman period and may have been founded by the Damnonii people. After a Viking sack of Dumbarton in 870, the capital moved to Govan, and the kingdom became known as Strathclyde. It expanded south into the former lands of Rheged. The Anglo-Saxons called this enlarged kingdom Cumbraland. The language of Strathclyde, known as Cumbric, was closely related to Old Welsh. Its inhabitants, the Cumbrians, experienced some Viking or Norse-Gael settlement, though less than in neighboring Galloway.

The Kingdom of Alt Clud saw increased mention in sources after 600 CE. At the beginning of the 7th century, Áedán mac Gabráin of Dál Riata was a dominant king in northern Britain, but his power waned after a defeat by Æthelfrith of Bernicia at the Battle of Degsastan around 604. In 642, the Britons of Alt Clut, led by Eugein son of Beli, defeated Dál Riata at Strathcarron, killing Domnall Brecc, a grandson of Áedán.

Alt Clut's involvement in regional conflicts continued, with battles against Dál Riata reported in the 8th century. The Pictish king Óengus I campaigned against Alt Clut multiple times, with mixed results. In 756, Óengus and Eadberht of Northumbria besieged Dumbarton Rock, extracting a submission from Dumnagual, the likely king at the time. Little is known about Alt Clut between the 8th and 9th centuries. The "burning" of Alt Clut in 780, the circumstances of which are unclear, marks one of the few mentions of the kingdom. In 849, men from Alt Clut burned Dunblane, possibly during the reign of Artgal.The Kingdom of Strathclyde's independence ended when it was annexed by the Kingdom of Alba in the 11th century, contributing to the formation of the Kingdom of Scotland.

Christianity was first introduced to what is now southern Scotland during the Roman occupation of Britain. Missionaries from Ireland in the fifth century, such as St. Ninian, St. Kentigern (St. Mungo), and St. Columba, are often credited with spreading Christianity in the region. However, these figures appeared in areas where churches were already established, indicating an earlier introduction of Christianity.

From the fifth to the seventh centuries, Irish-Scots missions, particularly associated with St. Columba, played a significant role in converting Scotland to Christianity. These missions often established monastic institutions and collegiate churches. This period saw the development of a distinctive form of Celtic Christianity, where abbots held more authority than bishops, clerical celibacy was less strict, and there were differences in practices such as the form of tonsure and the calculation of Easter. By the mid-seventh century, most of these differences had been resolved, and Celtic Christianity accepted Roman practices.

Monasticism heavily influenced early Christianity in Scotland, with abbots being more prominent than bishops, though both Kentigern and Ninian were bishops. The exact nature and structure of the early medieval church in Scotland remain difficult to generalize.

After the departure of the Romans, Christianity likely persisted among the Brythonic enclaves like Strathclyde, even as the pagan Anglo-Saxons advanced into the Lowlands. In the sixth century, Irish missionaries, including St. Ninian, St. Kentigern, and St. Columba, were active on the British mainland. St. Ninian, traditionally seen as a missionary figure, is now considered a construct of the Northumbrian church, with his name likely a corruption of Uinniau or Finnian, a saint of probable British origin. St. Kentigern, who died in 614, likely worked in the Strathclyde region. St. Columba, a disciple of Uinniau, founded the monastery at Iona in 563 and conducted missions among the Scots of Dál Riata and the Picts, who had likely already begun converting to Christianity.

497 Medieval Scotland

Dál Riata, also known as Dalriada, was a Gaelic kingdom that encompassed the western seaboard of Scotland and northeastern Ireland, straddling the North Channel. At its height in the 6th and 7th centuries, Dál Riata covered what is now Argyll in Scotland and part of County Antrim in Northern Ireland. The kingdom eventually became associated with the Gaelic Kingdom of Alba.

In Argyll, Dál Riata consisted of four main kindreds or tribes, each with its own chief:

• The Cenél nGabráin, based in Kintyre.
• The Cenél nÓengusa, based on Islay.
• The Cenél Loairn, who gave their name to the district of Lorn.
• The Cenél Comgaill, who gave their name to Cowal.

The hillfort of Dunadd is believed to have been its capital, with other royal forts including Dunollie, Dunaverty, and Dunseverick. The kingdom included the important monastery of Iona, a center of learning and a key player in the spread of Celtic Christianity throughout northern Britain.

Dál Riata had a strong seafaring culture and a substantial naval fleet. The kingdom is said to have been founded by the legendary king Fergus Mór (Fergus the Great) in the 5th century. It reached its peak under Áedán mac Gabráin (r. 574–608), who expanded its influence through naval expeditions to Orkney and the Isle of Man, and military assaults on Strathclyde and Bernicia. However, Dál Riata's expansion was checked by King Æthelfrith of Bernicia at the Battle of Degsastan in 603.

The reign of Domnall Brecc (died 642) saw serious defeats in both Ireland and Scotland, ending Dál Riata's "golden age" and reducing it to a client kingdom of Northumbria. In the 730s, the Pictish king Óengus I led campaigns against Dál Riata, bringing it under Pictish overlordship by 741. The kingdom experienced a decline and faced intermittent Viking raids from 795 onwards.

The late 8th century saw differing scholarly interpretations of Dál Riata's fate. Some argue that the kingdom saw no revival after a long period of domination (c. 637 to c. 750–760), while others see a resurgence under Áed Find (736–778) and claim that Dál Riata may have usurped the kingship of Fortriu. By the mid-9th century, there may have been a merger of the Dál Riatan and Pictish crowns, with some sources suggesting that Cináed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) was king of Dál Riata before becoming king of the Picts in 843, following a major Viking defeat of the Picts.

Latin sources often referred to the inhabitants of Dál Riata as Scots (Scoti), a term initially used by Roman and Greek writers for the Irish Gaels who raided and colonized Roman Britain. Later, it referred to Gaels from both Ireland and elsewhere. Herein, they are referred to as Gaels or Dál Riatans. The kingdom's independence ended as it merged with Pictland to form the Kingdom of Alba, marking the genesis of what would become Scotland.

Bernicia was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom established by Anglian settlers in the 6th century. Located in what is now southeastern Scotland and North East England, it encompassed modern Northumberland, Tyne and Wear, Durham, Berwickshire, and East Lothian, stretching from the River Forth to the River Tees.

The kingdom was initially part of the Brythonic territory formed from the southern lands of the Votadini, potentially as a division of Coel Hen's 'great northern realm' around 420 CE. This region, known as Yr Hen Ogledd ("The Old North"), may have had its early power center at Din Guardi (modern Bamburgh). The island of Lindisfarne, known in Welsh as Ynys Medcaut, became the ecclesiastical seat of Bernicia's bishops.

Bernicia was first ruled by Ida, and around 604, his grandson Æthelfrith (Æðelfriþ) united Bernicia with the neighboring kingdom of Deira to form Northumbria. Æthelfrith ruled until he was killed by Rædwald of East Anglia in 616, who was sheltering Edwin, the son of Ælle, king of Deira. Edwin then took over as king of Northumbria. During his reign, Edwin converted to Christianity in 627, following his conflicts with Brythonic kingdoms and, later, the Welsh.

In 633, at the Battle of Hatfield Chase, Edwin was defeated and killed by Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd and Penda of Mercia. This defeat led to the temporary division of Northumbria into Bernicia and Deira. Bernicia was briefly ruled by Eanfrith, son of Æthelfrith, who was killed after suing for peace with Cadwallon. Eanfrith's brother, Oswald, then raised an army and defeated Cadwallon at the Battle of Heavenfield in 634. Oswald's victory led to his recognition as king of a united Northumbria. Subsequently, the kings of Bernicia dominated the unified kingdom, although Deira occasionally had its own sub-kings during the reigns of Oswiu and his son Ecgfrith.

In the centuries following the Roman departure from Britain , four distinct groups occupied what is now Scotland. In the east were the Picts, whose territories extended from the River Forth to Shetland. The dominant kingdom was Fortriu, centered around Strathearn and Menteith. The Picts, possibly derived from the Caledonii tribes, were first noted in Roman records at the end of the 3rd century. Their notable king, Bridei mac Maelchon (r. 550–584), had a base at Craig Phadrig near modern Inverness. The Picts converted to Christianity around 563, influenced by missionaries from Iona. King Bridei map Beli (r. 671–693) achieved a significant victory over the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Dunnichen in 685, and under Óengus mac Fergusa (r. 729–761), the Picts reached their zenith of power.

To the west were the Gaelic-speaking people of Dál Riata, who had their royal fortress at Dunadd in Argyll and maintained strong ties with Ireland . The kingdom, which reached its height under Áedán mac Gabráin (r. 574–608), faced setbacks after losing to Northumbria at the Battle of Degsastan in 603. Despite periods of subjugation and revival, the kingdom's influence waned before the arrival of the Vikings .

In the south, the Kingdom of Strathclyde, also known as Alt Clut, was a Brythonic realm centered at Dumbarton Rock. It emerged from the Roman-influenced "Hen Ogledd" (Old North) and saw rulers like Coroticus (Ceredig) in the 5th century. The kingdom endured attacks from Picts and Northumbrians, and after its capture by Vikings in 870, its center shifted to Govan.

In the southeast, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Bernicia, established by Germanic invaders, was initially ruled by King Ida around 547. His grandson, Æthelfrith, united Bernicia with Deira to form Northumbria around 604. Northumbria's influence expanded under King Oswald (r. 634–642), who promoted Christianity through missionaries from Iona. However, Northumbria's northern expansion was halted by the Picts at the Battle of Nechtansmere in 685.

The Battle of Dun Nechtain, also known as the Battle of Nechtansmere (Old Welsh: Gueith Linn Garan), took place on May 20, 685, between the Picts led by King Bridei Mac Bili and the Northumbrians led by King Ecgfrith. The conflict marked a significant moment in the disintegration of Northumbrian control over northern Britain, which had been established by Ecgfrith's predecessors.

Throughout the 7th century, the Northumbrians extended their influence northward, subjugating several regions, including the Pictish territories. King Oswald's conquest of Edinburgh in 638 and subsequent control over the Picts continued under his successor, Oswiu. Ecgfrith, who became king in 670, faced continuous rebellions, including a notable uprising by the Picts at the Battle of Two Rivers. This rebellion, crushed with the help of Beornhæth, led to the deposition of the Northern Pictish king, Drest mac Donuel, and the rise of Bridei Mac Bili.

By 679, Northumbrian dominance began to wane, with significant setbacks such as the Mercian victory where Ecgfrith's brother Ælfwine was killed. Pictish forces led by Bridei seized the opportunity, attacking key Northumbrian strongholds at Dunnottar and Dundurn. In 681, Bridei also attacked the Orkney Islands, further destabilizing Northumbrian power.

The religious landscape was another point of contention. The Northumbrian church, having aligned with the Roman Church after the Synod of Whitby in 664, established new dioceses, including one at Abercorn. This expansion was likely opposed by Bridei, a supporter of the Iona church.

Ecgfrith's decision to lead his forces against the Picts in 685, despite warnings, culminated in the Battle of Dun Nechtain. The Picts feigned a retreat, luring the Northumbrians into an ambush near what is now believed to be Dunachton, near Loch Insh. The Picts secured a decisive victory, killing Ecgfrith and decimating his army.

This defeat shattered Northumbrian hegemony in northern Britain. The Picts regained their independence, and the Northumbrian diocese of the Picts was abandoned, with Bishop Trumwine fleeing. Although subsequent battles occurred, the Battle of Dun Nechtain marked the end of Northumbrian dominance over the Picts, securing Pictish independence permanently.

Early Viking incursions likely predated recorded history, with evidence of Scandinavian settlers in Shetland as early as the mid-7th century. From 793, Viking raids on the British Isles became more frequent, with significant attacks on Iona in 802 and 806. Various Viking leaders mentioned in the Irish annals, such as Soxulfr, Turges, and Hákon, suggest a notable Norse presence. The Viking defeat of the kings of Fortriu and Dál Riata in 839 and subsequent references to a king of "Viking Scotland" highlight the growing influence of Norse settlers during this period.

Contemporary documentation of Viking-era Scotland is limited. The monastery on Iona provided some records from the mid-6th to mid-9th centuries, but Viking raids in 849 led to the removal of Columba's relics and a subsequent decline in local written evidence for the next 300 years. Information from this period is largely drawn from Irish, English, and Norse sources, with the Orkneyinga saga being a key Norse text. Modern archaeology has gradually expanded our understanding of life during this time. The Northern Isles were among the first territories conquered by Vikings and the last relinquished by the Norwegian crown. Thorfinn Sigurdsson's 11th-century rule marked the peak of Scandinavian influence, including extensive control over northern mainland Scotland. The integration of Norse culture and the establishment of settlements laid the groundwork for significant trading, political, cultural, and religious achievements during the later periods of Norse rule in Scotland.

The Vikings had been raiding Britain since the late 8th century, with notable attacks on Lindisfarne in 793 and repeated raids on Iona Abbey, where many monks were killed. Despite these raids, there are no records of direct conflict between the Vikings and the kingdoms of Pictland and Dál Riata until 839.

The Battle of 839, also known as the Disaster of 839 or the Picts’ Last Stand, was a crucial conflict between the Vikings and the combined forces of the Picts and Gaels. Details of the battle are scarce, with the Annals of Ulster providing the only contemporary account. It mentions that "a great slaughter of the Picts" occurred, suggesting a large battle involving many combatants. The involvement of Áed indicates that the Kingdom of Dál Riata was under Pictish dominion, as he fought alongside the men of Fortriu. The battle is considered one of the most significant in British history.

This battle resulted in a decisive Viking victory, leading to the deaths of Uuen, the king of the Picts, his brother Bran, and Áed mac Boanta, the King of Dál Riata. Their deaths paved the way for Kenneth I's rise and the formation of the Kingdom of Scotland, signaling the end of Pictish identity. Uuen was the last king from the house of Fergus, which had dominated Pictland for at least 50 years. His defeat ushered in a period of instability in northern Britain. The ensuing chaos allowed Kenneth I to emerge as a stabilizing figure.

Kenneth I unified the kingdoms of Pictland and Dál Riata, providing stability and laying the foundations for what would become Scotland. Under his rule and that of the House of Alpin, references to the Picts ceased, and a process of Gaelicisation began, with Pictish language and customs gradually replaced. By the 12th century, historians like Henry of Huntingdon noted the disappearance of the Picts, describing their annihilation and the destruction of their language.

The balance between rival kingdoms in northern Britain was dramatically transformed in 793 when Viking raids began on monasteries like Iona and Lindisfarne, spreading fear and confusion. These raids led to the Norse conquest of Orkney, Shetland, and the Western Isles. In 839, a major Viking defeat resulted in the deaths of Eógan mac Óengusa, king of Fortriu, and Áed mac Boanta, king of Dál Riata. The subsequent mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlers in southwest Scotland produced the Gall-Gaidel, giving rise to the region known as Galloway.

During the 9th century, the kingdom of Dál Riata lost the Hebrides to the Vikings, with Ketil Flatnose allegedly founding the Kingdom of the Isles. These Viking threats may have accelerated the gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, leading to the adoption of Gaelic language and customs. The merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns is debated among historians, with some arguing for a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata and others the reverse. This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) in the 840s, establishing the House of Alpin, which led a combined Gaelic-Pictish kingdom.

Cínaed's descendants were styled either as King of the Picts or King of Fortriu. They were ousted in 878 when Áed mac Cináeda was killed by Giric mac Dúngail but returned upon Giric's death in 889. Domnall mac Causantín, who died at Dunnottar in 900, was the first to be recorded as "rí Alban" (King of Alba). This title suggests the birth of what became known as Scotland. Known in Gaelic as "Alba," in Latin as "Scotia," and in English as "Scotland," this kingdom formed the nucleus from which the Scottish kingdom expanded as Viking influence waned, paralleling the expansion of the Kingdom of Wessex into the Kingdom of England.

The Kingdom of the Isles was a Norse-Gaelic kingdom that included the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, and the islands of the Clyde from the 9th to the 13th centuries CE. Known to the Norse as the Suðreyjar (Southern Isles), distinct from the Norðreyjar (Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland), it is referred to in Scottish Gaelic as Rìoghachd nan Eilean. The kingdom's extent and control varied, with rulers often subject to overlords in Norway, Ireland , England , Scotland, or Orkney, and at times, the territory had competing claims.

Before Viking incursions, the southern Hebrides were part of the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata, while the Inner and Outer Hebrides were nominally under Pictish control. Viking influence began in the late 8th century with repeated raids, and by the 9th century, the first references to the Gallgáedil (foreign Gaels of mixed Scandinavian-Celtic descent) appear.

In 872, Harald Fairhair became the king of a united Norway, driving many of his opponents to flee to the Scottish islands. Harald incorporated the Northern Isles into his kingdom by 875 and, shortly after, the Hebrides as well. Local Viking chieftains rebelled, but Harald sent Ketill Flatnose to subdue them. Ketill then declared himself King of the Isles, though his successors remain poorly recorded.

In 870, Amlaíb Conung and Ímar besieged Dumbarton and likely established Scandinavian dominance on Scotland’s western coasts. Subsequent Norse hegemony saw the Isle of Man taken by 877. After Viking expulsions from Dublin in 902, internecine conflicts continued, such as Ragnall ua Ímair's naval battles off the Isle of Man.

The 10th century saw obscured records, with notable rulers like Amlaíb Cuarán and Maccus mac Arailt controlling the isles. In the mid-11th century, Godred Crovan established control over the Isle of Man after the Battle of Stamford Bridge . His rule marked the beginning of his descendants' dominance in Mann and the Isles, despite intermittent conflicts and rival claims.

By the late 11th century, Norwegian king Magnus Barefoot reasserted direct Norwegian control over the isles, consolidating territories through campaigns across the Hebrides and into Ireland. After Magnus's death in 1103, his appointed rulers, like Lagmann Godredsson, faced rebellions and shifting allegiances.

Somerled, Lord of Argyll, emerged in the mid-12th century as a powerful figure opposing Godred the Black's rule. Following naval battles and territorial agreements, Somerled's control expanded, effectively recreating Dalriada in the southern Hebrides. After Somerled's death in 1164, his descendants, known as the Lords of the Isles, divided his territories among his sons, leading to further fragmentation.

The Scottish Crown, seeking control over the islands, led to conflicts culminating in the Treaty of Perth in 1266, wherein Norway ceded the Hebrides and Mann to Scotland. The last Norse king of Mann, Magnus Olafsson, ruled until 1265, after which the kingdom was absorbed into Scotland.

Causantín mac Áeda, or Constantine II, was born no later than 879 and ruled as King of Alba (modern-day Northern Scotland) from 900 to 943. The kingdom's heartland lay around the River Tay, stretching from the River Forth in the south to the Moray Firth and possibly Caithness in the north. Constantine's grandfather, Kenneth I of Scotland, was the first in the family to be recorded as king, initially ruling over the Picts. During Constantine's reign, the title shifted from "king of the Picts" to "king of Alba," signaling the transformation of Pictland into the Kingdom of Alba.

Constantine's reign was dominated by the incursions and threats from Viking rulers, notably the Uí Ímair dynasty. In the early 10th century, Viking forces plundered Dunkeld and much of Albania. Constantine successfully repelled these attacks, securing his kingdom against further Norse incursions. However, his reign also saw conflicts with the southern Anglo-Saxon rulers. In 934, King Æthelstan of England invaded Scotland with a large force, ravaging parts of southern Alba, though no major battles are recorded.

In 937, Constantine allied with Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, and Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, to challenge Æthelstan at the Battle of Brunanburh. This coalition was defeated, marking a significant but not conclusive victory for the English. Following this defeat, Constantine's political and military power waned.

By 943, Constantine abdicated the throne and retired to the Céli Dé monastery of St Andrews, where he lived until his death in 952. His reign, notable for its length and influence, saw the Gaelicisation of Pictland and the solidification of Alba as a distinct kingdom. The use of "Scots" and "Scotland" began during his time, and the early ecclesiastical and administrative structures of what would become medieval Scotland were established.

Between the accession of Malcolm I and Malcolm II, the Kingdom of Scotland experienced a period of complex dynamics involving strategic alliances, internal discord, and territorial expansion.

Malcolm I (reigned 943-954) fostered good relations with the Wessex rulers of England. In 945, King Edmund of England invaded Strathclyde (or Cumbria) and later handed it over to Malcolm on the condition of a permanent alliance. This marked a significant political maneuver, securing the Scottish kingdom's influence in the region. Malcolm's reign also saw tensions with Moray, a region integral to the old Scoto-Pictish kingdom of Fortriu. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba records Malcolm's campaign in Moray, where he killed a local leader named Ceallach, but he was later killed by the Moravians.

King Indulf (954-962), Malcolm I's successor, expanded Scottish territory by capturing Edinburgh, providing Scotland with its first foothold in Lothian. Despite their authority in Strathclyde, the Scots often struggled to enforce control, leading to ongoing conflicts. Cuilén (966-971), one of Indulf's successors, was killed by the men of Strathclyde, indicating persistent resistance.

Kenneth II (971-995) continued the expansionist policies. He invaded Britannia, likely targeting Strathclyde, as part of a traditional Gaelic inauguration rite known as crechríghe, which involved a ceremonial raid to assert his kingship.

Malcolm II (reigned 1005-1034) achieved significant territorial consolidation. In 1018, he defeated the Northumbrians at the Battle of Carham, securing control over Lothian and parts of the Scottish Borders. The same year saw the death of King Owain Foel of Strathclyde, who left his kingdom to Malcolm. A meeting with King Canute of Denmark and England around 1031 further solidified these gains. Despite the complexities of Scottish rule over Lothian and the Borders, these regions were fully integrated during the subsequent Wars of Independence.

The period between the accession of King Duncan I in 1034 and the death of Alexander I in 1124 marked significant transitions for Scotland, just before the arrival of the Normans. Duncan I's reign was notably unstable, marked by his military failure at Durham in 1040 and his subsequent overthrow by Macbeth, Mormaer of Moray. Duncan's lineage continued to rule, as Macbeth and his successor Lulach were eventually succeeded by Duncan's descendants.

Malcolm III, Duncan's son, significantly shaped the future Scottish dynasty. Nicknamed "Canmore" (Great Chief), Malcolm III's reign saw both consolidation of power and expansion through raids. His two marriages—to Ingibiorg Finnsdottir and then Margaret of Wessex—produced a large number of children, securing his dynasty's future. Malcolm's reign, however, was marked by aggressive raids into England, exacerbating the suffering in the wake of the Norman Conquest.

Malcolm's death in 1093 during one of these raids triggered increased Norman interference in Scotland. His sons, through Margaret, were given Anglo-Saxon names, underscoring his aspirations for claims to the English throne. After Malcolm's death, his brother Donalbane initially took the throne, but Norman-backed Duncan II, Malcolm's son, briefly seized power before being killed in 1094, allowing Donalbane to reclaim the kingship.

Norman influence persisted, and Malcolm's son Edgar, supported by the Normans, eventually took the throne. This period saw the implementation of a succession system resembling the Norman primogeniture, marking a shift from traditional Gaelic practices. Edgar's reign was relatively uneventful, notable mainly for his diplomatic gift of a camel or elephant to the High King of Ireland .

When Edgar died, his brother Alexander I became king, while their youngest brother David was granted rule over "Cumbria" and Lothian. This era laid the groundwork for future Scottish governance, intertwining traditional practices with new influences from the Normans, setting the stage for the transformations that would follow under later rulers like David I.

The period between the accession of David I in 1124 and the death of Alexander III in 1286 was marked by significant changes and developments in Scotland. During this time, Scotland experienced relative stability and good relations with the English monarchy, despite the Scottish kings being vassals to the English kings.

David I initiated extensive reforms that transformed Scotland. He established numerous burghs, which became the first urban institutions in Scotland, and promoted feudalism, closely modeled after French and English practices. This era saw the "Europeanisation" of Scotland, with the imposition of royal authority over much of the modern country and the decline of traditional Gaelic culture. The Scottish kings increasingly viewed themselves as French in manners and customs, a sentiment reflected in their households and retinues, which were predominantly French-speaking.

The imposition of royal authority was often met with resistance. Significant rebellions included those led by Óengus of Moray, Somhairle Mac Gille Brighdhe, Fergus of Galloway, and the MacWilliams, who sought to claim the throne. These revolts were met with harsh suppression, including the execution of the last MacWilliam heir, a baby girl, in 1230.

Despite these conflicts, the Scottish kings successfully expanded their territory. Key figures such as Uilleam, Mormaer of Ross, and Alan, Lord of Galloway, played crucial roles in extending Scottish influence into the Hebrides and western seaboard. By the Treaty of Perth in 1266, Scotland annexed the Hebrides from Norway, marking a significant territorial gain.

The assimilation of Gaelic lords into the Scottish fold continued, with notable alliances and marriages strengthening the Scottish kingdom. The Mormaers of Lennox and the Campbells are examples of Gaelic chieftains integrated into the Scottish realm.

This period of expansion and consolidation set the stage for the future Wars of Independence. The increased power and influence of Gaelic lords in the west, such as Robert the Bruce, a Gaelicised Scoto-Norman from Carrick, would be instrumental in Scotland's struggle for independence following the death of Alexander III.

The death of King Alexander III in 1286 and the subsequent death of his granddaughter and heir, Margaret, Maid of Norway, in 1290, left Scotland without a clear successor, resulting in 14 rivals vying for the throne. To prevent civil war, the Scottish magnates requested Edward I of England to arbitrate. In return for his arbitration, Edward extracted legal recognition that Scotland was held as a feudal dependency of England. He selected John Balliol, who had the strongest claim, as king in 1292. Robert Bruce, the 5th Lord of Annandale and the next strongest claimant, reluctantly accepted this outcome.

Edward I systematically undermined King John's authority and Scotland's independence. In 1295, King John entered into the Auld Alliance with France, provoking Edward to invade Scotland in 1296 and depose him. Resistance emerged in 1297 when William Wallace and Andrew de Moray defeated an English army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge . Wallace ruled Scotland briefly as Guardian in John Balliol's name until Edward defeated him at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298. Wallace was eventually captured and executed in 1305.

Rivals John Comyn and Robert the Bruce were appointed joint guardians. On February 10, 1306, Bruce murdered Comyn at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries and was crowned king seven weeks later. However, Edward's forces defeated Bruce at the Battle of Methven, leading to Bruce's excommunication by Pope Clement V. Gradually, Bruce's support grew, and by 1314, only the castles of Bothwell and Stirling remained under English control. Bruce's forces defeated Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, securing de facto independence for Scotland.

In 1320, the Declaration of Arbroath helped convince Pope John XXII to recognize Scotland's sovereignty. The first full Parliament of Scotland, comprising the Three Estates (nobility, clergy, and burgh commissioners), met in 1326. In 1328, the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton was signed by Edward III, acknowledging Scottish independence under Robert the Bruce.

However, after Robert's death in 1329, England invaded again, attempting to place Edward Balliol, son of John Balliol, on the Scottish throne. Despite initial victories, English efforts failed due to strong Scottish resistance led by Sir Andrew Murray. Edward III lost interest in Balliol's cause due to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War . David II, Robert's son, returned from exile in 1341, and Balliol ultimately resigned his claim in 1356, dying in 1364. At the conclusion of both wars, Scotland maintained its status as an independent state.

David II of Scotland died childless on 22 February 1371 and was succeeded by Robert II. The Stewarts expanded their influence significantly during Robert II's reign. His sons were granted significant territories: Robert, the second surviving son, received the earldoms of Fife and Menteith; Alexander, the fourth son, acquired Buchan and Ross; and David, the eldest son from Robert's second marriage, obtained Strathearn and Caithness. Robert's daughters also formed strategic alliances through marriage with powerful lords, strengthening Stewart power. This build-up of Stewart authority did not incite major resentment among senior magnates, as the king generally did not threaten their territories. His strategy of delegating authority to his sons and earls contrasted with David II's more domineering approach, proving effective in the first decade of his reign.

Robert II was succeeded in 1390 by his ailing son John, who took the regnal name Robert III. During Robert III's reign from 1390 to 1406, actual power largely rested with his brother, Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany. In 1402, the suspicious death of Robert III's elder son, David, Duke of Rothesay, possibly orchestrated by the Duke of Albany, left Robert III fearful for the safety of his younger son, James. In 1406, Robert III sent James to France for safety, but he was captured by the English en route and spent the next 18 years as a prisoner held for ransom.

Following Robert III's death in 1406, regents ruled Scotland. Initially, this was the Duke of Albany, and after his death, his son Murdoch took over. When Scotland finally paid the ransom in 1424, James, aged 32, returned with his English bride, determined to assert his authority. Upon his return, James I executed several members of the Albany family to centralize control in the hands of the crown. However, his efforts to consolidate power resulted in increasing unpopularity, culminating in his assassination in 1437.

The early 15th century was a transformative period in the history of Scotland, marked by the reigns of James I and James II. These monarchs played crucial roles in shaping the political landscape, both through internal reforms and military campaigns. Their actions reflected broader themes of royal authority, feudal conflicts, and the consolidation of centralized power, which were pivotal in the development of the Scottish state.

James I's captivity in England from 1406 to 1424 occurred during a time of significant political instability in Scotland. While he was imprisoned, the country was ruled by regents, and noble factions vied for power, exacerbating the challenges of governance. Upon his return, James I's determination to assert royal authority can be seen as part of a broader effort to stabilize and strengthen the Scottish monarchy. His imprisonment had provided him with insights into the English model of centralized governance, which he sought to emulate in Scotland.

James I implemented several reforms to enhance royal authority and diminish the influence of the powerful nobility. This period was characterized by a shift towards a more centralized government, with efforts to streamline administration, improve justice, and enhance fiscal policies. These reforms were essential for establishing a stronger, more effective monarchy capable of governing a fragmented and often turbulent realm.

The reign of James II (1437-1460) continued the efforts to consolidate royal power, but it also highlighted the persistent challenge of powerful noble families, such as the Douglases. The power struggle between James II and the Douglas family is a critical episode in the history of Scotland, illustrating the ongoing conflict between the crown and the nobility. The Douglases, with their extensive lands and military resources, represented a significant threat to the authority of the king.

James II's military campaigns against the Douglases, including the significant conflict culminating in the Battle of Arkinholm in 1455, were not just personal vendettas but crucial battles for the centralization of power. By defeating the Douglases and redistributing their lands to loyal supporters, James II significantly weakened the feudal structure that had long dominated Scottish politics. This victory helped to shift the balance of power more firmly in favor of the monarchy.

In the broader context of Scottish history, the actions of James I and James II were part of the ongoing process of centralization and state-building. Their efforts to curtail the power of the nobility and strengthen the administrative capacities of the crown were essential steps in the evolution of Scotland from a feudal society to a more modern state. These reforms laid the groundwork for future monarchs to continue the process of centralization and helped to shape the trajectory of Scottish history.

Moreover, the period from 1406 to 1460 reflects the complexities of Scottish political life, where the authority of the king was continually challenged by powerful noble families. The success of James I and James II in asserting royal power and diminishing the influence of the nobility was crucial in transforming the political landscape of Scotland, paving the way for a more unified and centralized kingdom.

Golf has a storied history in Scotland, often regarded as the birthplace of the modern game. The origins of golf in Scotland can be traced back to the early 15th century. The first written record of golf appears in 1457, when King James II banned the game because it was distracting Scots from practicing archery, which was essential for national defense. Despite such bans, golf's popularity continued to grow.

The late 15th and early 16th centuries were significant in the history of Scotland, marked by the reigns of James III and James IV. These periods saw a continuation of internal conflicts and efforts at centralization, as well as cultural advancements and military ambitions that had lasting impacts on the Scottish kingdom.

James III ascended to the throne in 1460 as a child, and his early reign was dominated by regency due to his youth. As he grew older and began to exercise his authority, James III faced significant challenges from the nobility. His reign was characterized by internal conflicts, largely stemming from his attempts to assert royal authority over powerful noble families. Unlike his predecessors, James III struggled to maintain control over the fractious nobility, leading to widespread dissatisfaction and unrest.

James III’s inability to effectively manage these noble factions resulted in several uprisings. The most significant of these was the rebellion led by his own son, the future James IV, in 1488. The rebellion culminated in the Battle of Sauchieburn, where James III was defeated and killed. His downfall can be seen as a direct result of his failure to consolidate power and manage the competing interests of the nobility, which had been a persistent issue in Scottish politics.

In contrast, James IV, who took the throne after the death of his father, brought a period of relative stability and significant cultural advancement to Scotland. James IV was a Renaissance monarch, known for his patronage of the arts and sciences. His reign saw the flourishing of Scottish culture, with advancements in literature, architecture, and education. He founded the Royal College of Surgeons and supported the establishment of the University of Aberdeen, reflecting his commitment to learning and cultural development.

James IV’s reign was also marked by ambitious military pursuits, both within and outside of Scotland. Domestically, he sought to assert his authority over the Highlands and the Isles, continuing the efforts of his predecessors to bring these regions under tighter control. His military ambitions extended beyond Scotland’s borders as well. He sought to expand Scotland's influence in Europe, most notably through his alliance with France against England , part of the broader Auld Alliance.

This alliance and James IV’s commitment to supporting France led to the catastrophic Battle of Flodden in 1513. In response to English aggression against France, James IV invaded northern England, only to face a well-prepared English army. The Battle of Flodden was a disastrous defeat for Scotland, resulting in the death of James IV and much of the Scottish nobility. This loss not only decimated the Scottish leadership but also left the country vulnerable and in a state of mourning.

1500 Early Modern Scotland

The period between 1513 and 1567 was a critical era in Scottish history, dominated by the reigns of James V and Mary, Queen of Scots. These years were marked by significant efforts to consolidate royal authority, intricate marriage alliances, religious upheavals, and intense political conflicts. The actions and challenges faced by these monarchs played a crucial role in shaping the political and religious landscape of Scotland.

James V, ascending to the throne as an infant after the death of his father, James IV, at the Battle of Flodden in 1513, faced the daunting task of solidifying royal power in a kingdom fraught with noble factions and external threats. During his minority, Scotland was governed by regents, leading to political instability and power struggles among the nobility. When he assumed full control in 1528, James V embarked on a determined campaign to strengthen royal authority and reduce the influence of the nobility.

James V's efforts to consolidate power included a series of measures aimed at centralizing governance and curbing the autonomy of powerful noble families. He increased royal revenues through the imposition of taxes and confiscation of lands from rebellious nobles. James V also sought to enhance the judicial system, making it more efficient and impartial, thus extending royal influence into the localities. His marriage to Mary of Guise in 1538 further strengthened his position, aligning Scotland with France and reinforcing his political standing.

Despite these efforts, James V's reign was fraught with challenges. The king faced continuous resistance from powerful nobles who were reluctant to relinquish their traditional privileges. Moreover, his aggressive taxation policies and attempts to enforce royal justice often led to unrest. The death of James V in 1542, following the Scottish defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss, plunged the kingdom into another period of political instability. His death left his infant daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots, as his heir, creating a power vacuum that intensified factional conflicts.

Mary, Queen of Scots, inherited a tumultuous kingdom and her reign was marked by a series of dramatic events that profoundly impacted Scotland. Raised in France and married to the Dauphin, who became Francis II of France, Mary returned to Scotland as a young widow in 1561. Her reign was characterized by efforts to navigate the complex political and religious landscape of the time. The Protestant Reformation had taken hold in Scotland, leading to deep divisions between Catholics and Protestants.

Mary's marriage to Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, in 1565 was initially aimed at strengthening her claim to the English throne. However, the union quickly soured, leading to a series of violent and politically destabilizing events, including Darnley's murder in 1567. Mary's subsequent marriage to James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of being involved in Darnley's death, further eroded her political support.

Religious conflict was a persistent challenge during Mary’s reign. As a Catholic monarch in a predominantly Protestant country, she faced substantial opposition from Protestant nobles and reformers, including John Knox, who vehemently opposed her policies and her faith. The tensions between Catholic and Protestant factions led to continuous unrest and power struggles.

Mary's turbulent reign culminated in her forced abdication in 1567 in favor of her infant son, James VI, and her imprisonment. She fled to England seeking protection from her cousin, Elizabeth I, but was instead imprisoned for 19 years due to fears of her Catholic influence and claims to the English throne. Mary’s abdication marked the end of a tumultuous chapter in Scottish history, characterized by intense political and religious strife.

During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation, transforming the national church into a predominantly Calvinist Kirk with a Presbyterian outlook, significantly reducing the powers of bishops. Early in the century, Martin Luther's and John Calvin's teachings began influencing Scotland, particularly through Scottish scholars who had studied at Continental universities. The Lutheran preacher Patrick Hamilton was executed for heresy in St. Andrews in 1528. The execution of George Wishart, influenced by Zwingli, in 1546 on the orders of Cardinal Beaton, further angered Protestants. Wishart's supporters assassinated Beaton shortly after and seized St. Andrews Castle. The castle was held for a year before being defeated with French assistance. The survivors, including chaplain John Knox, were condemned to serve as galley slaves in France, fueling resentment against the French and creating Protestant martyrs.

Limited toleration and the influence of exiled Scots and Protestants abroad facilitated the spread of Protestantism in Scotland. In 1557, a group of lairds, known as the Lords of the Congregation, began to represent Protestant interests politically. The collapse of the French alliance and English intervention in 1560 allowed a small but influential group of Protestants to impose reforms on the Scottish church. That year, Parliament adopted a confession of faith that rejected papal authority and the mass, while the young Mary, Queen of Scots, was still in France.

John Knox, who had escaped the galleys and studied under Calvin in Geneva, emerged as the leading figure of the Reformation. Under Knox's influence, the reformed Kirk adopted a Presbyterian system and discarded many of the medieval church's elaborate traditions. The new Kirk empowered local lairds, who often controlled clergy appointments. Although iconoclasm occurred widely, it was generally orderly. Despite a predominantly Catholic population, especially in the Highlands and Islands, the Kirk began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation with relatively little persecution compared to other European Reformations.

Women participated actively in the religious fervor of the era. Calvinism's egalitarian and emotional appeal attracted both men and women. Historian Alasdair Raffe notes that men and women were considered equally likely to be among the elect, fostering close, pious relationships between genders and within marriages. Laywomen gained new religious roles, particularly in prayer societies, marking a significant shift in their religious engagement and societal influence.

The Union of the Crowns was the accession of James VI of Scotland to the throne of England as James I, effectively uniting the two realms under one monarch on 24 March 1603. This followed the death of Elizabeth I of England, the last Tudor monarch. The union was dynastic, with England and Scotland remaining distinct entities despite James's efforts to create a new imperial throne. The two kingdoms shared a monarch who directed their domestic and foreign policies until the Acts of Union of 1707, except during the republican interregnum in the 1650s when Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth temporarily unified them.

The early 16th-century marriage of James IV of Scotland to Margaret Tudor, Henry VII of England's daughter, was intended to end hostilities between the nations and brought the Stuarts into England's line of succession. However, this peace was short-lived, with renewed conflicts such as the Battle of Flodden in 1513. By the late 16th century, with the Tudor line nearing extinction, James VI of Scotland emerged as the most acceptable heir to Elizabeth I.

From 1601, English politicians, notably Sir Robert Cecil, corresponded secretly with James to ensure a smooth succession. Upon Elizabeth's death on 24 March 1603, James was proclaimed king in London without protest. He traveled to London, where he was received enthusiastically, though he returned to Scotland only once, in 1617.

James's ambition to be titled King of Great Britain faced resistance from the English Parliament, which was reluctant to merge the two kingdoms fully. Despite this, James unilaterally assumed the title of King of Great Britain in 1604, though this was met with little enthusiasm from both English and Scottish parliaments.

In 1604, both parliaments appointed commissioners to explore a more perfect union. The Union Commission made some progress on issues like border laws, trade, and citizenship. However, free trade and equal rights were contentious, with fears of job threats from Scots migrating to England. The legal status of those born after the Union, known as post nati, was decided in Calvin's Case (1608), granting property rights to all the king's subjects under English common law.

Scottish aristocrats sought high positions in the English government, often facing scorn and satire from English courtiers. Anti-English sentiment also grew in Scotland, with literary works criticizing the English. By 1605, it was clear that achieving a full union was impossible due to mutual obstinacy, and James abandoned the idea for the time being, hoping that time would resolve the issues.

The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, also known as the British Civil Wars, began with rising tensions during the early reign of Charles I. Political and religious conflicts were brewing in England , Scotland, and Ireland , all separate entities under Charles's rule. Charles believed in the divine right of kings, which clashed with the Parliamentarians' push for a constitutional monarchy. Religious disputes also simmered, with English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters opposing Charles's Anglican reforms, while Irish Catholics sought an end to discrimination and greater self-governance.

The spark ignited in Scotland with the Bishops' Wars of 1639-1640, where the Covenanters resisted Charles's attempts to enforce Anglican practices. Gaining control of Scotland, they marched into northern England, setting a precedent for further conflicts. Simultaneously, in 1641, Irish Catholics launched a rebellion against Protestant settlers, which quickly spiraled into an ethnic conflict and civil war.

In England, the struggle came to a head in August 1642, with the outbreak of the First English Civil War . Royalists, loyal to the king, clashed with Parliamentarians and their Scottish allies. By 1646, Charles surrendered to the Scots, but his refusal to make concessions led to renewed fighting in the Second English Civil War of 1648. The Parliamentarians, led by the New Model Army, defeated the Royalists and a faction of Scottish supporters known as the Engagers.

The Parliamentarians, determined to end Charles's reign, purged Parliament of his supporters and executed the king in January 1649, marking the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Oliver Cromwell emerged as a central figure, leading campaigns to subdue Ireland and Scotland. The Commonwealth forces were ruthless, confiscating Catholic lands in Ireland and crushing resistance.

Cromwell's dominance established a republic across the British Isles, with military governors ruling Scotland and Ireland. However, this period of unity under the Commonwealth was fraught with tension and uprisings. Cromwell's death in 1658 plunged the Commonwealth into instability, and General George Monck marched from Scotland to London, paving the way for the Restoration of the monarchy.

In 1660, Charles II was invited to return as king, marking the end of the Commonwealth and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The monarchy was restored, but the conflicts had lasting impacts. The divine right of kings was effectively abolished, and the mistrust of military rule became deeply ingrained in British consciousness. The political landscape was forever changed, setting the stage for the constitutional monarchy and democratic principles that would emerge in the centuries to come.

The Glorious Revolution in Scotland was part of the wider 1688 revolution that replaced James VII and II with his daughter Mary II and her husband William III as joint monarchs of Scotland and England. Despite sharing a monarch, Scotland and England were separate legal entities, and decisions in one did not bind the other. The revolution confirmed parliamentary supremacy over the Crown and established the Church of Scotland as Presbyterian.

James became king in 1685 with considerable support, but his Catholicism was controversial. When the Parliaments of England and Scotland refused to remove restrictions on Catholics, James ruled by decree. The birth of his Catholic heir in 1688 sparked civil disorder. A coalition of English politicians invited William of Orange to intervene, and on November 5, 1688, William landed in England. James fled to France by December 23.

Despite Scotland's minimal involvement in the initial invitation to William, Scots were prominent on both sides. The Scottish Privy Council asked William to act as regent pending a Convention of the Estates, which met in March 1689 to settle the matter. William and Mary were declared joint monarchs of England in February 1689, and a similar arrangement was made for Scotland in March.

While the revolution was quick and relatively bloodless in England, Scotland experienced significant unrest. A rising in support of James caused casualties, and Jacobitism persisted as a political force. The Scottish Convention declared James had forfeited the throne on April 4, 1689, and the Claim of Right Act established parliamentary authority over the monarchy.

Key figures in the new Scottish government included Lord Melville and the Earl of Stair. Parliament faced a stalemate over religious and political issues but eventually abolished Episcopacy in the Church of Scotland and gained control over its legislative agenda.

The religious settlement was contentious, with radical Presbyterians dominating the General Assembly and removing over 200 conformist and Episcopalian ministers. William attempted to balance tolerance with political necessity, restoring some ministers who accepted him as king.

Jacobite resistance persisted, led by Viscount Dundee, but was largely quelled after the Battle of Killiecrankie and the Battle of Cromdale. The Glorious Revolution in Scotland confirmed Presbyterian dominance and parliamentary supremacy, but it alienated many Episcopalians and contributed to ongoing Jacobite unrest. In the long term, these conflicts paved the way for the Acts of Union in 1707, creating Great Britain and resolving issues of succession and political unity.

The Jacobite rising of 1689 was a pivotal conflict in Scottish history, primarily fought in the Highlands, aimed at restoring James VII to the throne after he was deposed by the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This uprising was the first of several Jacobite efforts to reinstate the House of Stuart, spanning into the late 18th century.

James VII, a Catholic, had come to power in 1685 with broad support, despite his religion. His reign was controversial, particularly in Protestant England and Scotland. His policies and the birth of his Catholic heir in 1688 turned many against him, leading to William of Orange's invitation to intervene. William landed in England in November 1688, and James fled to France in December. By February 1689, William and Mary were declared joint monarchs of England.

In Scotland, the situation was complex. A Scottish Convention was called in March 1689, heavily influenced by exiled Presbyterians who opposed James. When James sent a letter demanding obedience, it only solidified opposition. The Convention ended James' reign and affirmed the power of the Scottish Parliament.

The rising began under John Graham, Viscount Dundee, who rallied Highland clans. Despite a significant victory at Killiecrankie in July 1689, Dundee was killed, weakening the Jacobites. His successor, Alexander Cannon, struggled due to lack of resources and internal divisions. Major conflicts included the siege of Blair Castle and the Battle of Dunkeld, both proving inconclusive for the Jacobites.

Government forces, led by Hugh Mackay and later Thomas Livingstone, systematically dismantled Jacobite strongholds. The decisive defeat of Jacobite forces at Cromdale in May 1690 marked the effective end of the rebellion.

The conflict formally ended with the Massacre of Glencoe in February 1692, following the failed negotiations and attempts to secure Highland loyalty. This event underscored the harsh realities of post-rebellion reprisals.

In the aftermath, William's reliance on Presbyterian support led to the elimination of episcopacy in the Church of Scotland. Many displaced ministers were later allowed back, while a significant faction formed the Scottish Episcopal Church, continuing to support Jacobite causes in future uprisings.

1700 Late Modern Scotland

The Acts of Union of 1706 and 1707 were two landmark pieces of legislation passed by the Parliaments of England and Scotland, respectively. They were designed to bring the two separate kingdoms into a single political entity, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain. This followed the Treaty of Union, agreed upon by commissioners representing both parliaments on July 22, 1706. These Acts, which came into effect on May 1, 1707, unified the English and Scottish Parliaments into the Parliament of Great Britain, based at the Palace of Westminster in London.

The idea of union between England and Scotland had been contemplated since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne as James I, uniting the two crowns in his person. Despite his ambitions to merge the two realms into a single kingdom, political and religious differences prevented a formal union. Initial attempts in 1606, 1667, and 1689 to create a unified state through parliamentary acts had failed. It was not until the early 18th century that the political climates of both countries became conducive to union, each driven by different motivations.

The backdrop to the Acts of Union was complex. Prior to 1603, Scotland and England had distinct monarchs and often conflicting interests. James VI's accession to the English throne brought a personal union but maintained separate legal and political systems. James's desire for a unified kingdom was met with resistance from both parliaments, particularly from the English who feared absolutist governance.

Efforts to create a unified church also failed, as religious differences between the Calvinist Church of Scotland and the Episcopal Church of England were too significant. The Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–1651) further complicated relations, with Scotland emerging with a Presbyterian government following the Bishops' Wars. Subsequent civil wars saw fluctuating alliances and culminated in Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth, which temporarily unified the countries but was dissolved with the Restoration of Charles II in 1660.

Economic and political tensions persisted into the late 17th century. Scotland's economy was hit hard by the English Navigation Acts and wars with the Dutch, leading to unsuccessful attempts at negotiation for trade concessions. The Glorious Revolution of 1688, which saw William of Orange replace James VII, further strained relations. The Scottish parliament's abolition of Episcopacy in 1690 alienated many, sowing seeds of division that would later affect union debates.

The late 1690s were marked by severe economic hardship in Scotland, exacerbated by the disastrous Darien scheme, an ambitious but failed attempt to establish a Scottish colony in Panama. This failure crippled the Scottish economy, creating a sense of desperation that made the idea of union more appealing to some. The political landscape was ripe for change as economic recovery seemed increasingly tied to political stability and access to English markets.

The early 18th century saw renewed efforts for union, driven by economic necessity and political maneuvering. The Alien Act of 1705 by the English Parliament threatened severe sanctions on Scotland unless it entered negotiations for union. This act, alongside economic incentives and political pressure, pushed the Scottish Parliament towards agreement.

Despite significant opposition within Scotland, where many viewed the union as a betrayal by their own elite, the Acts were passed. The unionists argued that economic integration with England was vital for Scotland’s prosperity, while anti-unionists feared loss of sovereignty and economic subjugation. Ultimately, the union was formalized, creating a single British state with a unified parliament, marking the beginning of a new political and economic era for both nations.

The revival of Jacobitism, driven by the unpopularity of the 1707 Union, saw its first significant attempt in 1708 when James Francis Edward Stuart, known as the Old Pretender, tried to invade Britain with a French fleet carrying 6,000 men. The Royal Navy thwarted this invasion, preventing any troops from landing. 

A more formidable effort followed in 1715 after Queen Anne's death and the accession of George I, the first Hanoverian king. This uprising, called The 'Fifteen, planned simultaneous rebellions in Wales, Devon, and Scotland. However, government arrests halted the southern plans. In Scotland, John Erskine, Earl of Mar, known as Bobbin' John, rallied the Jacobite clans but proved an ineffective leader. Mar captured Perth but failed to dislodge the smaller government force under the Duke of Argyll at the Stirling plain. Some of Mar’s army joined forces with risings in northern England and southern Scotland, fighting their way into England. However, they were defeated at the Battle of Preston, surrendering on November 14, 1715. The day before, Mar had failed to defeat Argyll at the Battle of Sheriffmuir. James landed in Scotland too late and, seeing the hopelessness of their cause, fled back to France. A subsequent Jacobite attempt with Spanish support in 1719 also ended in failure at the Battle of Glen Shiel.

In 1745, another Jacobite uprising, known as The ' Forty-Five , began when Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender or Bonnie Prince Charlie, landed on the island of Eriskay in the Outer Hebrides. Despite initial reluctance, several clans joined him, and his early successes included capturing Edinburgh and defeating the government army at the Battle of Prestonpans. The Jacobite army advanced into England, capturing Carlisle and reaching Derby. However, without substantial English support and facing two converging English armies, the Jacobite leadership retreated to Scotland. 

Charles’ fortunes waned as Whig supporters regained control of Edinburgh. After failing to take Stirling, he retreated north towards Inverness, pursued by the Duke of Cumberland. The Jacobite army, exhausted, faced Cumberland at Culloden on April 16, 1746, where they were decisively defeated. Charles hid in Scotland until September 1746, when he escaped to France. Following this defeat, brutal reprisals were meted out against his supporters, and the Jacobite cause lost foreign support. The exiled court was forced out of France, and the Old Pretender died in 1766. The Young Pretender died without legitimate issue in 1788, and his brother, Henry, Cardinal of York, died in 1807, marking the end of the Jacobite cause.

The Scottish Enlightenment, a period of remarkable intellectual and scientific achievements in 18th and early 19th century Scotland, was fueled by a robust educational network and a culture of rigorous discussion and debate. By the 18th century, Scotland boasted parish schools in the Lowlands and five universities, fostering an environment conducive to intellectual growth. Intellectual gatherings at places like The Select Society and The Poker Club in Edinburgh, and discussions within Scotland's ancient universities, were central to this culture.

Emphasizing human reason and empirical evidence, Scottish Enlightenment thinkers valued improvement, virtue, and practical benefits for individuals and society. This pragmatic approach spurred advances in various fields, including philosophy, political economy, engineering, medicine, geology, and more. Notable figures of this period included David Hume, Adam Smith, James Hutton, and Joseph Black.

The Enlightenment's impact extended beyond Scotland due to the high regard for Scottish achievements and the dissemination of its ideas through the Scottish diaspora and foreign students. The 1707 Union with England, which dissolved the Scottish Parliament but left legal, religious, and educational institutions intact, helped form a new middle-class elite that drove the Enlightenment forward.

Economically, Scotland began closing the wealth gap with England post-1707. Agricultural improvements and international trade, particularly with the Americas, boosted prosperity, with Glasgow emerging as a tobacco trade hub. Banking also expanded, with institutions like the Bank of Scotland and the Royal Bank of Scotland supporting economic growth.

Scotland's education system played a pivotal role. A network of parish schools and five universities provided a foundation for intellectual development. By the late 17th century, most Lowlands areas had parish schools, though the Highlands lagged. This educational network fostered a belief in social mobility and literacy, contributing to Scotland's intellectual dynamism.

The Enlightenment in Scotland revolved around books and intellectual societies. Clubs like The Select Society and The Poker Club in Edinburgh, and the Political Economy Club in Glasgow, fostered intellectual exchange. This network supported a liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented culture, pivotal to the Enlightenment's development.

Scottish Enlightenment thought heavily influenced various domains. Francis Hutcheson and George Turnbull laid philosophical foundations, while David Hume's empiricism and skepticism shaped modern philosophy. Thomas Reid's Common Sense Realism sought to reconcile scientific developments with religious belief.

Literature flourished with figures like James Boswell, Allan Ramsay, and Robert Burns. Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" laid the groundwork for modern economics. Advances in sociology and anthropology, spearheaded by thinkers like James Burnett, explored human behavior and societal development.

Scientific and medical knowledge also thrived. Figures like Colin Maclaurin, William Cullen, and Joseph Black made significant contributions. James Hutton's work in geology challenged prevailing ideas about Earth's age, and Edinburgh became a center of medical education.

The Encyclopædia Britannica, first published in Edinburgh, symbolized the Enlightenment's far-reaching impact, becoming a vital reference work globally. Cultural influence extended to architecture, art, and music, with architects like Robert Adam and artists like Allan Ramsay contributing significantly.

The Scottish Enlightenment's influence persisted into the 19th century, impacting British science, literature, and beyond. Its political ideas influenced the American Founding Fathers, and the philosophy of Common Sense Realism shaped 19th-century American thought.

In Scotland, the Industrial Revolution marked a significant transition to new manufacturing processes and economic expansion from the mid-18th to the late 19th century. The political union between Scotland and England in 1707 was driven by the promise of larger markets and the growing British Empire. This union encouraged the gentry and nobility to improve agriculture, introducing new crops and enclosures, gradually replacing the traditional run rig system.

The economic benefits of the union were slow to materialize. However, progress was evident in areas like the linen and cattle trades with England, revenue from military service, and the thriving tobacco trade dominated by Glasgow after 1740. Profits from American trade led Glasgow merchants to invest in various industries such as textiles, iron, coal, sugar, and more, laying the groundwork for the city's industrial boom after 1815.

In the 18th century, the linen industry was Scotland’s leading sector, setting the stage for future cotton, jute, and woolen industries. With support from the Board of Trustees, Scottish linens became competitive in the American market, driven by merchant entrepreneurs who controlled all stages of production. The Scottish banking system, known for its flexibility and dynamism, played a crucial role in the rapid economic development of the 19th century.

Initially, the cotton industry, centered in the west, dominated Scotland's industrial landscape. However, the American Civil War's disruption of raw cotton supplies in 1861 spurred diversification. The 1828 invention of the hot blast for smelting iron revolutionized the Scottish iron industry, propelling Scotland into a central role in engineering, shipbuilding, and locomotive production. By the late 19th century, steel production had largely supplanted iron production. Scottish entrepreneurs and engineers turned to the abundant coal resources, leading to advancements in engineering, shipbuilding, and locomotive construction, with steel replacing iron after 1870. This diversification established Scotland as a hub for engineering and heavy industries.

Coal mining became increasingly significant, fueling homes, factories, and steam engines, including locomotives and steamships. By 1914, there were 1,000,000 coal miners in Scotland. Early stereotypes painted Scottish colliers as brutish and socially isolated, but their lifestyle, characterized by masculinity, egalitarianism, group solidarity, and radical labor support, was typical of miners everywhere.

By 1800, Scotland was among Europe's most urbanized societies. Glasgow, known as the "Second City of the Empire" after London, became one of the world's largest cities. Dundee modernized its harbor and became a key industrial and trading center. Rapid industrial development brought both wealth and challenges. Overcrowding, high infant mortality, and rising tuberculosis rates highlighted poor living conditions due to inadequate housing and public health infrastructure. Efforts were made by industry owners and government programs to improve housing and support self-help initiatives among the working class.

The Highland clan system had long been a challenge for Scottish rulers, predating the 17th century. James VI's efforts to assert control included the Statutes of Iona, which aimed to integrate clan leaders into wider Scottish society. This began a gradual transformation where, by the late 18th century, clan chiefs viewed themselves more as commercial landlords rather than patriarchs. Initially, tenants paid monetary rents instead of in-kind, and rent increases became more frequent.

In the 1710s, the Dukes of Argyll began auctioning land leases, fully implementing this by 1737, replacing the traditional principle of dùthchas, which required clan chiefs to provide land for their members. This commercial outlook spread among the Highland elite but was not shared by their tenants. The integration of clan chiefs into Scottish and British society led many to accumulate substantial debts. From the 1770s, borrowing against Highland estates became easier, and lenders, often from outside the Highlands, were quick to foreclose on defaults. This financial mismanagement led to the sale of many Highland estates between 1770 and 1850, with a peak in estate sales occurring towards the end of this period.

The 1745 Jacobite rebellion marked a brief resurgence in the military importance of Highland clans. However, following their defeat at Culloden, clan leaders swiftly resumed their transition to commercial landlords. This shift was accelerated by punitive post-rebellion laws, such as the Heritable Jurisdictions Act of 1746, which transferred judicial powers from clan chiefs to Scottish courts. Historian T. M. Devine, however, cautions against attributing the collapse of clanship solely to these measures, noting that significant social changes in the Highlands began in the 1760s and 1770s, driven by market pressures from the industrializing Lowlands.

The aftermath of the 1745 rebellion saw 41 properties of Jacobite rebels forfeited to the Crown, most of which were auctioned to pay creditors. Thirteen were retained and managed by the government between 1752 and 1784. The 1730s changes by the Dukes of Argyll had displaced many tacksmen, a trend that became policy across the Highlands from the 1770s. By the early 19th century, tacksmen had largely disappeared, many emigrating to North America with their tenants, taking their capital and entrepreneurial spirit with them.

Agricultural improvements swept the Highlands between 1760 and 1850, leading to the infamous Highland Clearances. These evictions varied regionally: in the eastern and southern Highlands, communal farming townships were replaced by larger enclosed farms. In the north and west, including the Hebrides, crofting communities were established as land was reallocated for large pastoral sheep farms. Displaced tenants moved to coastal crofts or poor-quality land. Sheep farming's profitability increased, supporting higher rents. Some crofting communities worked in the kelp industry or fishing, with small croft sizes ensuring they sought additional employment.

The Highland potato famine of 1846 hit crofting communities hard. By 1850, charitable relief efforts had ceased, and emigration was promoted by landlords, charities, and the government. Nearly 11,000 people received assisted passages between 1846 and 1856, with many more emigrating independently or with assistance. The famine affected around 200,000 people, and many who stayed behind became more engaged in temporary migration for work. By the time the famine ended, long-term migration had become common, with tens of thousands participating in seasonal industries such as the herring fishery. The clearances led to even greater emigration from the Highlands, a trend that continued, except during World War I, until the Great Depression. This period saw a significant outflow of Highland population, reshaping the social and economic landscape of the region.

In the 19th century, Scotland's population saw steady growth, increasing from 1,608,000 in 1801 to 2,889,000 in 1851 and reaching 4,472,000 by 1901. Despite industrial development, the availability of quality jobs could not keep pace with the growing population. Consequently, from 1841 to 1931, approximately 2 million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia, while another 750,000 relocated to England. This significant emigration resulted in Scotland losing a much higher proportion of its population compared to England and Wales, with up to 30.2 percent of its natural increase from the 1850s onwards being offset by emigration. Almost every Scottish family experienced the loss of members due to emigration, which predominantly involved young males, thereby affecting the country's sex and age ratios.

Scottish emigrants played crucial roles in the foundation and development of several countries. In the United States, notable Scots-born figures included cleric and revolutionary John Witherspoon, sailor John Paul Jones, industrialist and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, and scientist and inventor Alexander Graham Bell. In Canada, influential Scots included soldier and governor of Quebec James Murray, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, and politician and social reformer Tommy Douglas. Australia's prominent Scots included soldier and governor Lachlan Macquarie, governor and scientist Thomas Brisbane, and Prime Minister Andrew Fisher. In New Zealand, significant Scots were politician Peter Fraser and outlaw James McKenzie. By the 21st century, the number of Scottish Canadians and Scottish Americans roughly equaled the five million people remaining in Scotland.

After prolonged struggle, the Evangelicals gained control of the General Assembly in 1834 and passed the Veto Act, allowing congregations to reject "intrusive" patron presentations. This led to the "Ten Years' Conflict" of legal and political battles, culminating in the civil courts ruling against the non-intrusionists. The defeat resulted in the Great Disruption of 1843, where about a third of the clergy, primarily from the North and Highlands, seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Free Church of Scotland, led by Dr. Thomas Chalmers.

Chalmers emphasized a social vision that sought to revive and preserve Scotland's communal traditions amid social strain. His idealized vision of small, egalitarian, kirk-based communities that valued individuality and cooperation significantly influenced both the breakaway group and mainstream Presbyterian churches. By the 1870s, these ideas had been assimilated by the established Church of Scotland, demonstrating the church's concern for the social issues arising from industrialization and urbanization.

In the late 19th century, fundamentalist Calvinists and theological liberals, who rejected a literal interpretation of the Bible, debated fiercely. This resulted in another split in the Free Church, with rigid Calvinists forming the Free Presbyterian Church in 1893. Conversely, there were moves towards reunion, beginning with the unification of secessionist churches into the United Secession Church in 1820, which later merged with the Relief Church in 1847 to form the United Presbyterian Church. In 1900, this church joined with the Free Church to form the United Free Church of Scotland. The removal of legislation on lay patronage allowed the majority of the Free Church to rejoin the Church of Scotland in 1929. However, some smaller denominations, including the Free Presbyterians and a remnant of the Free Church that did not merge in 1900, persisted.

Catholic Emancipation in 1829 and the arrival of many Irish immigrants, especially after the late 1840s famine, transformed Catholicism in Scotland, particularly in urban centers like Glasgow. In 1878, despite opposition, a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy was restored, making Catholicism a significant denomination. Episcopalianism also revived in the 19th century, becoming established as the Episcopal Church in Scotland in 1804, an autonomous organization in communion with the Church of England.

Baptist, Congregationalist, and Methodist churches, which appeared in Scotland in the 18th century, saw significant growth in the 19th century, partly because of existing radical and evangelical traditions within the Church of Scotland and the free churches. The Salvation Army joined these denominations in 1879, aiming to make substantial inroads in the growing urban centers.

Scotland played a crucial role in the British effort during the First World War , contributing significantly in terms of manpower, industry, and resources. The nation's industries were mobilized for the war effort, with the Singer Clydebank sewing machine factory, for instance, securing over 5,000 government contracts and producing a staggering array of war materials, including 303 million artillery shells and components, aeroplane parts, grenades, rifle parts, and 361,000 horseshoes. By the war's end, the factory's 14,000-strong workforce was about 70 percent female.

From a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent 690,000 men to the war, with 74,000 losing their lives and 150,000 suffering serious injuries. Urban centers in Scotland, marked by poverty and unemployment, were fertile recruiting grounds for the British army. Dundee, with its predominantly female jute industry, had a notably high proportion of reservists and soldiers. Initially, concern for the welfare of soldiers' families hindered enlistment, but voluntary rates surged after the government assured a weekly stipend for the survivors of those killed or disabled. The introduction of conscription in January 1916 extended the impact of the war across all of Scotland. Scottish troops often comprised significant portions of active combatants, as seen in the Battle of Loos, where Scots divisions and units were heavily involved and suffered high casualties. Although Scots represented only 10 percent of the British population, they constituted 15 percent of the armed forces and accounted for 20 percent of the war's fatalities. The island of Lewis and Harris experienced some of the highest proportional losses in Britain.

Scotland's shipyards and engineering shops, particularly in Clydeside, were central to the war industry. However, Glasgow also saw radical agitation leading to industrial and political unrest, which continued post-war. After the war, in June 1919, the German fleet interned at Scapa Flow was scuttled by its crews to prevent the ships from being seized by the Allies.

At the war's outset, RAF Montrose was Scotland's primary military airfield, having been established by the Royal Flying Corps a year earlier. The Royal Naval Air Service set up flying-boat and seaplane stations in Shetland, East Fortune, and Inchinnan, with the latter two also serving as airship bases protecting Edinburgh and Glasgow. The world's first aircraft carriers were based at Rosyth Dockyard in Fife, which became a significant site for aircraft landing trials. Glasgow-based William Beardmore and Company produced the Beardmore W.B.III, the first Royal Navy aircraft designed for aircraft carrier operations. Due to its strategic importance, Rosyth dockyard was a prime target for Germany at the war's outset.

As in World War I , Scapa Flow in Orkney served as a crucial Royal Navy base during World War II . Attacks on Scapa Flow and Rosyth resulted in RAF fighters achieving their first successes, downing bombers in the Firth of Forth and East Lothian. Glasgow and Clydeside's shipyards and heavy engineering factories played vital roles in the war effort, though they suffered significant Luftwaffe attacks, resulting in substantial destruction and loss of life. Given Scotland's strategic position, it played a key role in the Battle of the North Atlantic, and Shetland's proximity to occupied Norway facilitated the Shetland Bus operation, where fishing boats helped Norwegians escape the Nazis and supported resistance efforts.

Scots made significant individual contributions to the war effort, notably Robert Watson-Watt's invention of radar, which was crucial in the Battle of Britain, and Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding's leadership at RAF Fighter Command. Scotland's airfields formed a complex network for training and operational needs, each playing an essential role. Several squadrons on the Ayrshire and Fife coasts conducted anti-shipping patrols, while fighter squadrons on Scotland's east coast protected and defended the fleet at Rosyth Dockyard and Scapa Flow. East Fortune served as a diversion airfield for bombers returning from operations over Nazi Germany. By the end of World War II, 94 military airfields operated across Scotland.

Prime Minister Winston Churchill appointed Labour politician Tom Johnston as Secretary of State for Scotland in February 1941. Johnston controlled Scottish affairs until the war's end, launching numerous initiatives to promote Scotland, attract businesses, and create jobs. He established 32 committees to address social and economic issues, regulated rents, and created a prototype national health service using new hospitals built in anticipation of casualties from German bombing. Johnston's most successful venture was the development of hydroelectric power in the Highlands. A proponent of Home Rule, Johnston convinced Churchill of the need to counter the nationalist threat and created the Scottish Council of State and the Council of Industry to devolve some power from Whitehall.

Despite extensive bombing, Scottish industry emerged from the depression slump through a dramatic expansion of industrial activity, employing many previously unemployed men and women. Shipyards were particularly active, but many smaller industries also contributed by producing machinery for British bombers, tanks, and warships. Agriculture prospered, though coal mining faced challenges due to near-exhausted mines. Real wages rose by 25 percent, and unemployment temporarily vanished. Increased income and the equitable distribution of food through a strict rationing system significantly improved health and nutrition, with the average height of 13-year-olds in Glasgow increasing by 2 inches.

During World War II, approximately 57,000 Scots lost their lives, including both military personnel and civilians. This figure reflects the significant contribution and sacrifices made by Scots during the conflict. Around 34,000 combat deaths were recorded, with an additional 6,000 civilian casualties, primarily due to air raids on cities like Glasgow and Clydebank​​. The Royal Scots Regiment alone contributed significantly, with battalions serving in various key operations across Europe and Asia. The Scots Guards also played a crucial role, participating in major campaigns in North Africa, Italy, and Normandy.

After World War I I, Scotland's economic situation deteriorated due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes. This began to change in the 1970s, driven by the discovery and development of North Sea oil and gas and a shift towards a service-based economy. The discovery of major oilfields, such as the Forties oilfield in 1970 and the Brent oilfield in 1971, established Scotland as a significant oil-producing nation. Oil production began in the mid-1970s, contributing to economic revitalization. The rapid deindustrialization in the 1970s and 1980s saw traditional industries shrink or close, replaced by a service-oriented economy, including financial services and electronics manufacturing in Silicon Glen.

This period also saw the rise of the Scottish National Party (SNP) and movements advocating for Scottish independence and devolution. Although a 1979 referendum on devolution failed to meet the required threshold, a 1997 referendum succeeded, leading to the establishment of the Scottish Parliament in 1999. This parliament marked a significant shift in Scotland's political landscape, providing greater autonomy. In 2014, a referendum on Scottish independence resulted in a 55% to 45% vote to remain in the United Kingdom. The SNP's influence grew, particularly evident in the 2015 Westminster election, where it won 56 out of 59 Scottish seats, becoming the third-largest party in Westminster.

The Labour Party dominated Scottish seats in the Westminster parliament for much of the 20th century, although it lost ground briefly to the Unionists in the 1950s. Scottish support was crucial for Labour's electoral success. Politicians with Scottish connections, including Prime Ministers Harold Macmillan and Alec Douglas-Home, played prominent roles in UK political life. The SNP gained prominence in the 1970s but experienced a decline in the 1980s. The introduction of the Community Charge (Poll Tax) by the Thatcher-led Conservative government further fueled demands for Scottish control over domestic affairs, leading to constitutional changes under the New Labour government.

The devolution referendum in 1997 led to the formation of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, with a coalition government between Labour and the Liberal Democrats, and Donald Dewar as the first minister. The new Scottish Parliament Building opened in 2004. The SNP became the official opposition in 1999, formed a minority government in 2007, and won a majority in 2011. The 2014 independence referendum resulted in a vote against independence.

Post-war Scotland experienced a decline in church attendance and an increase in church closures. New Christian denominations emerged, but overall, religious adherence waned. The 2011 census showed a decline in the Christian population and a rise in those with no religious affiliation. The Church of Scotland remained the largest religious group, followed by the Roman Catholic Church. Other religions, including Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, established presences mainly through immigration.

A referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom was held on 18 September 2014. The referendum posed the question, "Should Scotland be an independent country?", to which voters responded with "Yes" or "No." The result saw 55.3% (2,001,926 votes) voting against independence and 44.7% (1,617,989 votes) voting in favor, with a historically high turnout of 84.6%, the highest in the UK since the January 1910 general election.

The referendum was arranged under the Scottish Independence Referendum Act 2013, passed by the Scottish Parliament in November 2013 following an agreement between the devolved Scottish government and the UK government. A simple majority was required for the independence proposal to pass. The electorate included almost 4.3 million people, extending the voting franchise to 16- and 17-year-olds for the first time in Scotland. Eligible voters were EU or Commonwealth citizens residing in Scotland aged 16 or over, with some exceptions.

The main campaign group for independence was Yes Scotland, while Better Together campaigned to maintain the union. The referendum saw involvement from various campaign groups, political parties, businesses, newspapers, and prominent individuals. Key issues discussed included the currency an independent Scotland would use, public expenditure, EU membership, and the significance of North Sea oil. An exit poll revealed that the retention of the pound sterling was the deciding factor for many No voters, while disaffection with Westminster politics motivated many Yes voters.

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The History of Scotland

Jan 13, 2013

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The History of Scotland. Ancient Scotland Birth of a Nation Stewart Scotland North Britain Modern Scotland. Ancient Scotland. Around 10 000 BC the ice that had covered Scotland for a long time began to melt.

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The History of Scotland • Ancient Scotland • Birth of a Nation • Stewart Scotland • North Britain • Modern Scotland

Ancient Scotland • Around 10 000 BC the ice that had covered Scotland for a long time began to melt. • Trees and bushes began to grow, and animals such as bears wolves and wild pigs came searching for food.

Ancient Scotland • The first settlers were hunters and gatherers from Ireland, Germany and the rest of Europé. • They decided to stay and lived as nomads in Britain. • Nomads are people who live in and move to different places, in search of food and shelter. • Around 7000BC they had spread to most parts of the country.

Ancient Scotland • Around 4000BC hunter and gatherers stopped living as nomads and settled down and became farmers. • They grew crops like oats and barley, which they later stored to survive the harsh winters. • They also learned how to tame animals and thereby didn’t need to hunt as much.

Ancient Scotland • Between 1200BC to AD200 Scotland got closer and merged with a civilization that flourished throughout Europé, called Celtic. • The name Celtic was given by the Greeks and Romans who fought against these people. • Celtic culture first developed in central Europé, and later spread to the British Isles.

Ancient Scotland • Around AD80 the Romans invaded and conquered Scotland. • The Romans realized it would be impossible to control all the land, so they withdrew. • The Romans built Hadrian’s Wall to protect themselves from the Scottish Celts.

Ancient Scotland • Before the Romans came, the people of Scotland worshipped many different gods and goddesses. • With the Romans this new religion called Christianity came along, and things like bishops monks and saints became part of everyday life in Scotland.

Ancient Scotland • Vikings from Scandinavia came to the northern part of Scotland, around AD800. • First just to plunder and and steal treasures and jewelry. • But around AD1000, they had settled down and ruled much of northern part of Scotland.

Birth of a Nation • For thousands of years, Scotland was not a united nation. • But between AD800 and 1300 warriors and kings created the first Scottish nation. • The new threat came not from Vikings or Romans now, but from the English…

Birth of a Nation • The last of the Viking kings to have any real power in Scotland was Norway’s Magnus the Lawgiver, who returned the power to the Scottish people in 1266.

Birth of a Nation • The first real towns in Scotland were built around 1150. • Towns like Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Inverness were founded by kings, great nobles or monasteries as trading centres.

Birth of a Nation • The way people lived was much determined by the environment. • In the Lowlands people mostly worked on great estates owned by kings lords or monks. • In the Highlands people were more independent, but instead they belonged to different clans and its clanchiefs. For example McDougals, McSorley and others.

Birth of a Nation • In 1296, the English king Edward I invaded and defeated Scotland. • Scotland now belonged to England and had no king.

Birth of a Nation • One of the most famous and important Scots to resist the English was William Wallace. • William Wallace and his army beat the English at Stirling Bridge, which was a great upset for Edward I. • Later, William Wallace and his army got defeated at Falkirk 1298 • William Wallace was later executed, but to this day he is considered to be a great hero.

Birth of a Nation • Inspired by William Wallace, Robert Bruce I fought against the English and won an amazing and surprising victory at Bannockburn in 1314. • This ensured the freedom and independence of the Scottish people for another 400 years.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Between 1300 to 1600 Scotland was transformed. • It turned from a weak country troubled with fights between warlords into a confident nation ruled by intelligent kings and queens. • Named ”Stewart Scotland” because of the dynasty (ruling family) that reigned during this era and started with Robert the Steward, who became king in 1371.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • The Black Death (the plague) was a deadly disease, carried by rats, which killed many Scots during the 14th century.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Many sea-based indistries developed during this era, much due to the fact that Scotland is surrounded by sea. • Such industries were fishing, salt-making and carrying goods by cargo ship.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Until around 1600 most Scottish people could not read and write. • Before 1600 most schools were run by churches, but after the Reformation schools were taken over by and run by town councils. • By time, education got more available for the Scots and more and more people learned how to read and write.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Scottish people had followed the Catholic Church led by the Pope in Rome until the Reformation. • You could pay the Church to forgive your sins and guarantee that you would go to heaven. • A lot of people protested against this, these people were called Protestants, and suddenly a new branch of Christianity was created.

Stewart Scotland 1300-1600 • Mary Queen of Scots refused to be part of this new Protestantism. • She wanted to be a Catholic so she abdicated as queen, and she is now the most famous queen in Scottish history.

North Britain • In 1603 King James VI of Scotland inherited the English crown, which made Scotland and England much closer to each other. • In 1707 Scotland and England were united and Scotland became more a part on Britain. • Since Scotland is in the northern part of Britain, you could say that it was North Britain.

North Britain • In the 16th century witches were seen as a threat to society, and beacause of that, witchcraft became a crime. • Innocent women were accused of being witches, and some were killed. • Witch-hunting became less common after around 1650.

North Britain • The massacre at Glencoe in 1692 was a horrible thing, but Scottish society was about to change. • People looked to England and France for a more polite and civil society. • People wanted to leave Scotland’s history of bloody clan battles and ”primitive” life behind.

North Britain • Around 1750, new people from all over Scotland moved to Edinburgh. • People as different as artists, architects, designers, boooksellers, scientists, publishers, teachers and students. • They gathered in coffee houses and salons. • This meant that the Enlightenment had started in Edinburgh and Scotland.

North Britain • Scottish engineers and inventors changed the world by helping to create the Industrial Revolution. • From around 1750-1850, millions of ordinary men and women stopped working at home and on farms, instead they began to work in huge factories.

Modern Scotland • Between 1750-1850, Scotland was transformed from a poor rebellious region to the workshop of the world. • In 1999, the Scottish parliament met again for the first time in almost 300 years.

Modern Scotland • In 1851 only one out of five Scots lived in big cities like Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen. • People lived very differently, there was a great gap between Scotland’s rich and poor.

Modern Scotland • The majority of Scottish people lived hard an unpleasent lives, but others had a much more comfortable existence. They were the middle-class. • Only 3 in 1000 belonged to the upper-class during the 19th century.

Modern Scotland • During the 19th century, ordinary men and women did not have the right to vote. • They could not choose their political leaders or make their views known.

Modern Scotland • Many Scots fought in the First World War in 1914-18. • In many towns and villages all the young men of fighting age (between 16 and 40) went to war together – and died together.

Modern Scotland • In 1939, Britian and its allies went to war with Germany. • Fighting in the Second World War until 1945, young Scottish menwere conscripted (forced by law) to join the army, navy and the new air force.

Modern Scotland • In 1999 Scotland got their own parliament and a bit more independence from Great Britain. • The Scottish Parliament now has the power to raise or lower taxes and manage Scotland’s health care, education, transport, farming and the environment.

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How to use Timeline

You can move up and down the timeline using the date bands: the bottom band moves you along centuries quickly and the middle bank moves along decades. Click on individual events to see more details and description.

Timeline of Scottish History

History of scotland.

Our ongoing history of Scotland that chronicles the events in Scotland over the past million years with a special focus on the last thousand as you might expect. We have also digitised a copy of Patrick Tytler's  History of Scotland which is an eccentric but wonderfully written history of the the mediaeval years in Scotland. The project of chronicling Scotland's history is ongoing, as is the process of organising and structuring and linking the pages together.

Page 1 of 30

Subcategories

History timeline 69.

A series of articles that chronicles Scotland's history through the ages right up to the present day. Articles provide a summary overview of our history and also link to useful and interesting external resources for even more information.

Scotland in the 21st Century 1

An ongoing series of articles that explore Scotland in the 21st century with a particular interest in the changing economic and social and political landscape of the country.

Scotland in the Twentieth Century 9

Scotland in the nineteenth century 6.

The nineteenth century is the era when Scotland moved towards the modern era in the central belt with the growth of the cities and their industrialisation. the scottish highlands became the seat for a new romantic image of scotland that remains resonant today.

Ninteenth Century Scottish History Timeline

• 1800 Rich ironstone discovered in the Monklands area  
• 1800 Robert Owen takes over at New Lanark  
• 1802 Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border published  
• 1803 Telford begins the Caledonian Canal  
• 1806 Appointed Clerk to the Court of Session  
• 1808 Marmion published  
• 1810 Lady of the Lake published  
• 1811 Scott buys Abbotsford  
• 1811 Scots settle Red River in Manitoba  
• 1811 John Rennie builds Waterloo Bridge in London  
• 1812 Henry Bell launches the Comet on the Clyde  
• 1814 Waverley written  
• 1815 John Loudon McAdam develops his surfaced roads  
• 1816 Old Mortality published  
• 1819 The Radical War  
• 1819 Queen Victoria born  
• 1819 Ivanhoe published  
• 1820 1820s - Start of fall in kelp prices sparks off widespread emigration  
• 1823 Robert Napier builds his first marine steam engine  
• 1823 Reduction of whisky duty makes commercial sales viable  
• 1826 Charlotte dies. Scott suffers financial collapse  
• 1827 John Brown born  
• 1828 James Neilson invents hot blast method of iron smelting  
• 1828 Burke and Hare tried  
• 1830 Glasgow's population reaches 200,000  
• 1830 1830s - Beginning of failure of potato crops  
• 1831 New patent whisky still helps large scale production  
• 1832 Reform Act introduced
• 1832 Firsy books on tartan published  
• 1834 First iron shipyard opened by Tod and MacGregor at Meadowside on the Clyde  
• 1834 Veto Act introduced  
• 1837 Victoria takes the throne  
• 1842 Ministers meet at the Edinburgh Convocation  
• 1842 She and Albert visit Scotland for the first time  
• 1843 The Disruption  
• 1844 Lewis bought by Sir James Matheson  
• 1846 Robert Lister first uses ether as an anaesthetic  
• 1846 Thomas Cook organises first Scottish tour  
• 1847 James Young Simpson discovers chloroform  
• 1847 Lease offered on Balmoral  
• 1848 Victoria first meets John Brown  
• 1848 The Queen first attends the Braemar Gathering  
• 1850 1850s - Clearances end when virtually everyone is evicted  
• 1850 Highland Estate Building. A period during which the scenery and romantic stories of and about the Highlands of Scotland led to a rapid expansion of travelling and sport. In order to facilitate this, many houses and estates were built. The tracks built for stalking are often still in use today and can be useful for hill approaches. This period of ?Balmoralism? (named after Queen Victoria?s Highland Castle) was made easier by the ?clearances?, when crofters were displaced to make way for more profitable sheep.  
• 1851 Paraffin Young patents his shale oil extraction process  
• 1852 Victoria and Albert buy Balmoral  
• 1856 James Keir Hardie born  
• 1856 Hugh Thomas Munro born in London. Munro born in London, at 27 Eaton Place. The eldest of a family of nine. His collecting habit starts early, with butterflies, birds? eggs, shells, fossils and so on. Goes to school in Crieff, Perthshire.  
• 1860 Glasgow's population reaches nearly 400,000  
• 1860 Joseph Lister begins his practical work on antiseptic surgery  
• 1860 Invention of breech loading shotgun makes Highland hunting easier  
• 1861 Prince Albert dies  
• 1863 Railway from Perth to Inverness completed  
• 1866 Gossip about an illicit relationship spreads  
• 1866 He starts work in the mines  
• 1873 Munro in Germany. Munro goes to Stuttgart to learn German. Starts climbing in the Alps.  
• 1875 Munro returns to London. Back in London, Munro studies business methods and enjoys the social life. He has a good ear for music and becomes an expert dancer. Goes to Europe as Aide-de-Camp to General the Honourable W. Fielding. Several years later develops pleurisy.  
• 1877 Large scale (six-inch) field survey of Scotland completed by O.S. The O.S. complete the six-inch maps, the basis for the one-inch series to follow.  
• 1878 Matheson dies  
• 1879 Hardie joins the Lanarkshire Miners' Union  
• 1880 Moves to Ayrshire  
• 1880 Railway reaches Tyndrum. The Oban Railway Line reaches Tyndrum, making it easier to reach many mountainous areas.  
• 1880 Munro in S. Africa. To improve his health, Munro goes to S. Africa, as Private Secretary to Sir George Colley, Governor of Natal. When the Basuto War breaks out volunteers for active service and carries despatches as a member of an irregular cavalry corps, Landrey's Horse. At end of war returns home to London, bringing with him Basuto and Zulu curios, antelope heads, a black boy, and a monkey.  
• 1882 Highland Land League formed  
• 1883 O.S. one-inch maps cover most of Scotland. Growth of walking clubs. In the 3rd quarter of this century, at least a dozen walking and rambling clubs were formed in the Lowlands of Scotland.  
• 1884 William Hesketh Lever makes his first trip to the Hebrides  
• 1884 Early listing of Scottish Mountains. Third Edition of 'The Highland Sportsman and Tourist' (Robert Hall) - Lists 236 heights of 3000ft or more. But it is not known for certain whether Munro saw this, or other early lists.  
• 1885 Munro tries politics. Munro, now living mainly at the family home in Forfarshire, at Lindertis, stands as Conservative candidate for Kirkcaldy Burghs. And gets heavily defeated. Continues to explore the Scottish hills.  
• 1888 Fights and loses Mid Lanark by-election  
• 1888 Scottish Labour Party formed  
• 1889 Formation of Scottish Mountaineering Club. March 1889, Glasgow. The SMC is constituted after correspondence in the ?Glasgow Herald? discussing the possibility of forming a ?Scottish Alpine Club?. There was already in Scotland a small nucleus of active and experienced mountaineers, but contact between them was spare. The SMC begin a Journal in 1890, initially published three times a year, and including a serially published guide to the Scottish Mountains. The first Editor, J.G. Stott, commissions Munro to draw up a list of Scottish mountains. Munro has to date climbed 42 tops.  
• 1891 An Comunn Gaidhealach - the Gaelic Society - founded to promote the Gaelic language  
• 1891 Munro?s Tables Published The famous tables are published for the first time in September, 1891, in the sixth issue of Volume 1 of the SMC Journal. They include 538 tops which exceed 3,000 feet in height; 283 are deemed to be separate mountains. Munro completed the list in five months of very hard work, using many field notes collected before and during its compilation. In a note to the Tables, Munro admits that he did not foresee the amount of work which would be required. Munro is 35.  
• 1892 Hardie elected as MP for West Ham South  
• 1892 Munro becomes 3rd President of SMC. As President he entertains his fellow members on Club Meets by playing the flute. He does not drink tea.  
• 1892 Marries general's daughter. Travels widely. He continues, while in Scotland, to work on the Tables, as he is not completely happy with the first edition. 1893 He dies at Abbotsford  
• 1893 John Brown dies  
• 1893 Independent Labour Party formed  
• 1894 West Highland Railway reaches Fort William  
• 1894 Scottish Labour Party wound up  
• 1895 Hardie loses West Ham  
• 1897 Victoria celebrates her Diamond Jubilee  

Scotland in the Eighteenth Century 11

Eighteenth century scotland chronology of key events.

• 1700 Scots population of Ulster now about 100,000. Less than 14 per cent of land of Ireland owned by Catholics
• 1700 second expedition flees Darien
• 1701 New English war with France begins
• 1701 James VII dies
• 1702  William of Orange dies, to be succeeded by Queen Anne
• 1702 King William dies
• 1702 First discussions between commissioners about union begin
• 1702 King William of Orange dies. Mary's sister Anne becomes Queen
• 1703 Talks collapse. Anne calls for fresh Scottish elections
• 1703 New Scottish parliament meets
• 1703 Scots parliament passes Act of Security
• 1705 English pass the Alien Act
• 1705 Scots parliament agrees Queen Anne can appoint its commissioners to negotiate for union
• 1706 Negotiations between commissioners start
• 1706 Estates meet to discuss deal drawn up by commissioners
• 1706 Riots break out in the town as a protest against merger with England
• 1707 Power moves from Edinburgh to Westminster after Treaty of Union
• 1707 Act of Union
• 1707 Estates pass act agreeing to Articles of Union
• 1707 Estates adjourned
• 1707 Act of Union passed
• 1707 Act of Union comes into effect
• 1708 Scottish Privy Council abolished. First Jacobite invasion beaten off
• 1712 Rob Roy runs off with Montrose's money and becomes an outlaw
• 1712 Patronage Act introduced
• 1713 English malt tax forces Scottish boycott of parliament. Lords vote to dissolve the union narrowly fails
• 1714 Queen Anne dies
• 1715 Earl of Mar raises standard of the Stewart Pretender, James VIII and III, and quickly seizes Perth
• 1715 battle of Sheriffmuir
• 1715 James lands at Peterhead
• 1715 He takes part in the battle of Sheriffmuir, ostensibly on the Jacobite side
• 1716 James leaves again for France
• 1719 Alexander Monro, appointed Professor of Anatomy at Edinburgh University
• 1720 Prince Charles Edward Stewart born in Rome
• 1722 Argyll brings about a reconciliation between Rob Roy and Montrose
• 1726 Rob Roy pardoned while in Newgate Prison awaiting transportation to Barbados
• 1726 Wade appointed Commander in Chief of Scotland with orders to pacify the Highlands
• 1726 Plans for new Edinburgh Royal Infirmary drawn up
• 1733 Original secession
• 1734 Rob Roy dies
• 1739 Wade's major road building programme in the Highlands completed
• 1740 War between Britain and France begins
• 1744 Proposed French invasion of Scotland called off
• 1745 Charles arrives in Scotland to start his campaign
• 1745 the Jacobites take Perth and Edinburgh
• 1745 Carlisle falls, followed by Lancaster, Preston and Manchester
• 1745 6 December 1745: Prince begins retreat from Derby
• 1745 25 December: Jacobites enter Glasgow
• 1745 Prince reaches Derby
• 1745 Charles wins the Battle of Prestonpans
• 1745 Charles's standard raised at Glenfinnan
• 1746 3 January 1746: Charles and his army leave Glasgow
• 1746 18 February: Jacobites take Inverness
• 1746 14 April: Cumberland arrives at Nairn
• 1746 April 1746 - Battle of Culloden
• 1746 September 1746 - Charles catches a boat to France
• 1746 June 1746 - Flora MacDonald smuggles Charles to Skye
• 1746 Defeat of the Jacobites at Culloden
• 1746 End of last Jacobite rebellion
• 1746 16 April: Battle of Culloden
• 1746 5 March: Fort Augustus falls to the Prince
• 1746 17 January: Battle of Falkirk
• 1748 Wade dies and is buried in Westminster Abbey
• 1750 Charles secretly returns to London
• 1752 Plans for a New Town are drawn up
• 1753 his daughter Charlotte born to Clementina Walkenshaw
• 1755 first Scottish census completed
• 1759 Nor' Loch drained
• 1759 Robert Burns born in Alloway
• 1760 Beginning of introduction of sheep to the Highlands
• 1760 Carron ironworks begins operation
• 1761 Second secession
• 1765 James Watt invents the separate condenser steam engine
• 1766 Charles's father, the Old Pretender, dies
• 1766 Burns family move to Mount Oliphant
• 1767 Work on New Town begun
• 1768 First Encyclopaedia Britannica published
• 1769 Ascent of Ben More. Ben More, Crianlarich, was climbed in 1769 by a group of astronomers, seeking to observe a transit of the planet Venus.
• 1770 Height of tobacco trade with America
• 1770 1770s - Demand for wool increases
• 1771 Walter Scott born in Edinburgh
• 1771 Early Ascents of Ben Nevis. In 1771, the first recorded ascent of Ben Nevis was made, by the botanist James Robertson, then collecting specimens. He was followed three years later by John Williams, who was on the lookout for commercial mineral deposits. In 1787, a third recorded ascent was made by a Lieutenant Walker and party. This ascent seems to have had no other purpose other than curiosity, and what is interesting is that it seems likely that in the three years between these two latter ascents, many had made the laborious climb to the summit for pleasure, as some 30 small cairns were found by Walker on the summit plateau.
• 1772 Charles marries Louisa, Princess of Stolberg
• 1772 North Bridge completed
• 1774 Flora MacDonald emigrates to America
• 1774 Schiehallion use to ?weigh? the Earth. The Astronomer Royal, the Rev. Nevil Maskelyne (so unflatteringly portrayed in the recent television adaptation of ?Longitude?), spends four months on Schiehallion making observations relating to the density of the earth.
• 1775 American Revolution begins
• 1776 Adam Smith publishes Wealth of Nations
• 1777 Family move again to Lochlea
• 1777 Returns from a childhood in the Borders
• 1780 Founds bachelors Club in Tarbolton
• 1780 Glasgow's population reaches more than 40,000
• 1783 Robert and his brother lease farm at Mossgiel
• 1783 Emigration begins after American War of Independence
• 1784 Robert's father dies
• 1786 Robert changes the spelling of his surname from Burness to Burns
• 1786 Apprenticed to his father's law fi
• 1786 Kilmarnock Edition of his work published
• 1787 Consolidates his position in Edinburgh society and publishes Edinburgh Edition
• 1788 Charles dies in Rome
• 1788 Marries Jean Armour, moves to Ellisland and joins Excise Service
• 1790 Death of Flora MacDonald
• 1791 Robert Adam designs Charlotte Square
• 1791 Gives up Ellisland and moves to Dumfries
• 1791 Ordnance Survey founded. Following the second ill-fated Jacobite rebellion in 1745, Cumberland?s Deputy Quartermaster General, Lieutenant-General Watson, decided that a map of the Highlands was required. An infantry detachment, under the direction of William Roy, was posted to Fort Augustus in 1747,where they spent the next eight years on this mammoth task. It was largely due to him that the Ordnance Survey was founded in 1791. The principal project for the next 33 years was the production of a one-inch to the mile map of Great Britain. In 1810, their triangulations reached Scotland. The Director-General, from 1820 to 1846 was Thomas Colby.
• 1792 Ross rebellion against importation of sheep takes place
• 1794 Appointed excise supervisor
• 1796 Appointed excise supervisor
• 1797 Marries Charlotte Carpenter
• 1799 Appointed Sheriff-Depute of Selkirkshire

Scotland in the Seventeenth Century 9

Seventeenth Century Scottish History Chronology of Events

• 1600 James is seized in the Gowrie Conspiracy
• 1603 The Union of the Crowns. Mary's son James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England
• 1603 Elizabeth of England dies. James also becomes James I of England 
• 1603 Union of the Crowns. James VI of Scotland also becomes James I of England on the death of Elizabeth
• 1603 The Union of the Crowns. James becomes James I of England and VI of Scotland.
• 1603 Surrender of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, after rebellion at Kinsale
• 1605 Guy Fawkes captured as the Gunpowder Plot is foiled
• 1606 James holds talks with leading Kirk ministers in Lo
• 1606 new Union Flag, similar to present day Union Jack, is agreed
• 1606 The new plantation under James VI begins
• 1607 Treaty of Union passed by Scottish parliament but rejected by the English
• 1608 Scots begin to settle area around Derry
• 1609 James orders Andrew Knox to strike a deal with the clans
• 1610 James increases the number of Scottish bishops to 11 and creates two new archbishops
• 1611 Authorised version of the Bible first published
• 1612 Mary's body is moved to Westminster Abbey
• 1612 Birth of James Graham, Earl of Montrose
• 1617 James visits Scotland for the final time
• 1618 Five Articles of Perth passed through the Kirk's General Assembly
• 1618 Ascent of Mount Keene by John Taylor, The 'Water Poet' of London.(He was a waterman on the Thames, hence his pen-name.) This pamphleteer, from London, passed over this mountain on his way from Glenmark to Braemar, in July or August, 1618. In his amusing description of the walk he verified the wetting ability of 'Scottish Miste', as well as commenting on the temperature difference between valley and top.
• 1621 Scottish parliament reluctantly approves the Five Articles
• 1625 James VI dies of old age
• 1625 Charles passes Act of Revocation
• 1625 Charles succeeds James VI as king of Scotland and England
• 1625 James I dies, to be succeeded by Charles I, who keeps the settlement policy going
• 1633 Coronation of Charles in Edinburgh
• 1636 Glasgow's population estimated at less than 10,000
• 1637 New service book introduced. Riots in St Giles Cathedral
• 1638 National Covenant signed in Edinburgh
• 1638 General Assembly meets in Glasgow
• 1639 Parliament House, seat of the Scottish parliament, completed
• 1639 Royalist forces beaten at Battle of Brig O'Dee. Truce agreed
• 1640 Covenantor army re-forms
• 1641 Major Gaelic rebellion in attempt to get lands returned
• 1642 English civil war begins
• 1642 Start of the English civil war
• 1643 Solemn League and Covenant signed
• 1644 Montrose captures Dumfries
• 1645 Montrose's forces beat Argyll at Inverlochy
• 1645 Victory turns to disaster at Philiphaugh
• 1646 Charles I surrenders to the Scottish Army near Newark in Nottinghamshire
• 1648 Charles tried
• 1649 Charles I executed. Oliver Cromwell invades Ireland
• 1649 Charles I executed outside Whitehall
• 1650 Scots population in Ulster estimated to be 50,000
• 1650 Montrose executed in Edinburgh
• 1650 Charles II returns to Scotland
• 1650 Scots forces defeated at battle of Dunbar
• 1651 Charles II crowned King of Scots
• 1651 Forces of Charles defeated at battle of Worcester
• 1653 Earl of Glencairn begins attempted rising against Cromwell
• 1658 Cromwell dies
• 1659 General Monck marches south to offer Charles II his kingdom back
• 1660 Charles II restored
• 1660 Charles II restored to the thrones of Scotland and England
• 1661 Earl of Lauderdale recalls the Scottish Estates
• 1662 Covenant declared illegal
• 1662 New quay for shipping built at the Broomielaw
• 1665 Open air Conventicles grow in popularity
• 1666 Battle at Rullion Green near Edinburgh
• 1669 Lauderdale softens the Kirk's parish appointments policy
• 1670 Glasgow becomes second Scottish burgh to Edinburgh in terms of size of assessed revenue
• 1671 Rob Roy born
• 1674 First consignment of Virginia tobacco reaches city
• 1679 Archbishop James Sharp of St Andrews murdered
• 1680 The Killing Time
• 1681 Scottish Privy Council discusses idea of a colony
• 1681 Robert Sibbald founds the College of Physicians in Edinburgh
• 1685 Charles II dies, to be replaced by James VII and II
• 1687 James issues a Declaration of Indulgence allowing greater religious toleration
• 1689 James deposed as king. William and Mary take the Scottish throne as well as that of England
• 1689 Viscount Dundee's rising quelled
• 1689 James flees to France with his exiled court after being deposed
• 1690 Battle of the Boyne. William of Orange defeats James II
• 1690 Scots adopt the Westminster Confession of faith
• 1690 William takes the Scottish throne along with his wife, Queen Mary
• 1691 William demands oath of loyalty from Highland clan chiefs
• 1692 Deadline for taking of the oath runs out
• 1692 McIain arrives to take the oath, to find the local sheriff is on holiday
• 1692 Oath is finally taken
• 1692 The King's orders for the massacre are issued
• 1692 Troops are sent to Glencoe and are billeted with the MacDonalds
• 1692 Massacre takes place in the early morning
• 1693 Scottish parliament passes act to encourage trade
• 1694 Queen Mary dies
• 1695 Government inquiry places most of the blame on Dalrymple. The affair is then officially forgotten
• 1695 MacGregor clan proscribed
• 1695 Bank of Scotland founded
• 1695 series of bad harvests caused by early frosts and wet summers bring famine to Scotland
• 1695 Scottish Africa and India Company founded
• 1697 ships made ready for first Darien expedition
• 1698 first four ships leave Leith for Darien
• 1699 first expedition flees Darien. Second expedition arrives

Scotland in the 16th Century 7

Sixteenth century history of scotland  ~ chronology of key events.

• 1503 James IV marries Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII.
• 1508 Scotland begins to cast its own cannon in Edinburgh Castle.
• 1509 Henry VII dies, to be succeeded by his son Henry VIII.
• 1511 The Great Michael is launched.
• 1512 The Auld Alliance is renewed. Under its terms all Scottish citizens become French and vice versa.
• 1512 Henry VIII declares war on France.
• 1513 Battle of Flodden. James IV killed in battle along with much of the aristocracy.
• 1513 the Flodden wall is built, protecting the city but also boxing it in.
• 1513 James V takes the throne.
• 1514 Henry VIII makes peace with France. Peace with Scotland automatically follows.
• 1517 Luther publishes his Fifty Nine Theses. Start of the Reformation.
• 1525 Scots parliament bans the import of Lutheran books. The Lutheran Bible continues to be smuggled in from Germany.
• 1528 The martyr Patrick Hamilton is burned at the stake by Archbishop Beaton for heresy.
• 1541 The Monarch of England begins to call himself King of Ireland.
• 1542 James V dies and Mary, his week old daughter, succeeds to the throne of Scotland. The earl of Arran is appointed governor in Mary's infancy, but her mother, Mary of Guise, has huge influence.
• 1543 The Protestant reformer George Wishart returns to Scotland from Cambridge and begins preaching.
• 1544 Battle of the Shirts fought near Laggan. Frasers of Lovat almost wiped out in the fight against the Clanranald Macdonalds.
• 1545 John Knox joins Wishart and becomes converted to the reformed faith.
• 1545 The Rough Wooing. English forces attack southern Scotland.
• 1546 Wishart arrested and burned at the stake by Cardinal Beaton of St. Andrews.
• 1546 Cardinal Beaton assassinated by a group of Fife Protestants. They barricade themselves in but capitulate after a month.
• 1547 Death of Henry VIII of England. He is succeeded by his son, Edward VI.
• 1548 Scots agree to let Mary Queen of Scots marry the French dauphin. She is immediately sent to France.
• 1549 John Knox released from captivity by the French. He goes to England to help its Reformation.
• 1552 Archbishop Hamilton publishes his Catechism in an attempt to reform the Scottish Catholic church.
• 1553 Edward VI of England dies and his sister Mary Tudor, a Catholic, becomes Queen. John Knox flees from England to the Continent and falls under the influence of John Calvin.
• 1557 The Lords of the Congregation sign their convenant to make Scotland a Protestant country.
• 1558 Mary Queen of Scots marries the Dauphin of France.
• 1558 Unsuccessful policy of plantation of Ireland begins under Elizabeth I.
• 1559 John Knox returns to Scotland and lands at Leith.
• 1559 Francois II becomes king of France when his father, Henri II, dies.
• 1560 The Scots parliament bans celebration of the Mass.
• 1560 Francois II dies, leaving Mary Queen of Scots a widow.
• 1561 Mary returns to Scotland from France to claim her kingdom.
• 1562 She visits Inverness for the first time.
• 1563 Mary passes the Witchcraft Acts allowing witches to be burned as heretics.
• 1565 Mary marries Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, at the Chapel Royal in Holyrood Palace.
• 1566 David Rizzio murdered within the Palace of Holyrood.
• 1566 James born to Mary Queen of Scots.
• 1566 The future King James VI born at Edinburgh Castle.
• 1567 Darnley murdered.
• 1567 Mary abdicates and flees to England.
• 1567 Mary marries the Earl of Bothwell, is imprisoned, and renounces her throne.
• 1568 She escapes from Loch Leven castle, loses the Battle of Langside, and crosses the border into England.
• 1569 Inquiry into Mary's role in Darnley's death collapses.
• 1570 Mary imprisoned in Sheffield Castle after attempted incursion into Scotland by her English sympathisers fails.
• 1570 Regent Moray shot in Linlithgow.
• 1571 Regent Lennox shot in the back during an attack on the King at Stirling.
• 1572 Duke of Norfolk executed for treason.
• 1572 Regent Erskine dies of illness.
• 1578 The Earl of Bothwell dies a madman in a Danish prison.
• 1579 Esme Stewart arrives in Scotland.
• 1581 Regent Moray executed.
• 1582 Esme Stewart returns to France after James is captured by the Earl of Gowrie.
• 1583 University of Edinburgh established.
• 1586 Babington conspiracy is foiled.
• 1586 Trial against Mary begins at Fotheringhay.
• 1587 Mary Queen of Scots is executed.
• 1589 James marries Anne of Denmark.
• 1590 First possible documented ascent of a Scottish 'mountain'. There are two documented early ascents of mountains that are now listed as Munros. The first of these took place about 1590, when 'Mad' Colin Campbell of Glenlyon made the ascent of Stuch an Lochain (960m, OS Sheet 51, M194, peak of the little loch). This peak lies far up Glen Lyon, above Castle Meggernie, built by 'Mad' Campbell.
• 1599 Oliver Cromwell born.

Scotland in the 15th Century 1

Fifteenth century history of scotland.

• 1406 Robert III dies and is replaced by James I, who is almost immediately captured by the English.
• 1411 Battle of Harlaw . Donald fights an army of Lowlanders led by the Earl of Mar in an attempt to bring the lands forming the Earldom of Ross into his kingdom. Both sides claim they won. But the concensus is that the Highlanders got the worse of it.
• 1412 St. Andrews University founded by Bishop Henry Wardlaw .
• 1415 The English win a major victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt.
• 1424 James I is finally released from captivity in England.
• 1424 Donald is succeeded as Lord by his son Alexander.
• 1431 James begins his campaign to move St. Andrews University to Perth.
• 1437 James I assassinated at Perth. James II succeeds him, though he is only six years old.
• 1437  Edinburgh becomes the national capital of Scotland.
• 1449 John, the last Lord of the Isles, succeeds Alexander.
• 1450 Skye becomes part of the Lordship of the Isles.
• 1451 University of Glasgow founded by Bishop William Turnbull .
• 1460 Glasgow University moves into its first permanent premises near the city's High Street.
• 1488 James IV success to the Scottish throne.
• 1490 Angus the Young murdered in Inverness.
• 1493 James IV declares the Lordship forfeited. End of the Lords of the Isles.

Scotland in the 14th Century 4

Fourteenth century scotland history chronology.

• 1300   Bruce  mysteriously resigns the guardianship of Scotland.
• 1302 Bruce sides with Edward I.
• 1303  Wallace  returns secretly to Scotland.
• 1304 He begins to secretly ally with the Scottish rebels.
• 1305 Wallace betrayed and arrested.
• 1305 Sir William Wallace is tried and executed. He is hung, drawn and quartered in London, and his body is sent to the four corners of Britain as a warning. Bruce swears to avenge his death.
• 1306 John Comyn is murdered with Robert's involvement. Bruce takes the Scottish throne but later flees to Rathlin Island after defeat in battle.
• 1307 Edward I dies. Bruce returns to Scotland.
• 1313 Bruce captures Perth.
• 1314 The inevitable clash with the English. Bruce wins a glorious victory at Bannockburn.
• 1314 Robert I beats the English at Bannockburn.
• 1317 He sends the Papal envoys home to think again.
• 1318 The Scots capture Berwick from the English.
• 1320 Declaration of Arbroath signed on April 6 and sent to the Pope.
• 1324  Pope finally accepts the Declaration.
• 1324 David II born.
• 1327 Edward II is murdered and is replaced by Edward III.
• 1328 Treaty of Northampton signed between Edward III and Robert. It officially recognises Scottish independence and Robert Bruce as King of Scots.
• 1328 He marries Joan or Joanna, sister of Edward III of England.
• 1329 Robert the Bruce grants Edinburgh its charter.
• 1329 Robert the Bruce dies at Cardross. David II takes the throne of Scotland.
• 1330 The normally recognised beginning of the Lordship of the Isles with the accession of good King John of Islay
• 1331 David is crowned as David II at Scone.
• 1332 Battle of Dopplin Moor near Perth.
• 1333 Battle of Halidon Hill near Berwick.
• 1334 David leaves for the safety of France, where he spends much of his boyhood.
• 1341 He returns from France and begins to consolidate his kingdom.
• 1346 David taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville's Cross.
• 1346 He marries his distant cousin Amie McRauri and consolidates the kingdom further.
• 1357 He is liberated for a ransom of 100,000 merks.
• 1362 Robert the Stewart leads an unsuccessful rebellion against David.
• 1371 David dies and Robert the Stewart assumes the throne of Scotland as Robert II.
• 1385 Richard II burns down St. Giles.
• 1387 John of Islay dies and is succeeded by his son Donald.
• 1388 Battle of Otterburn. Henry Percy Hotspur and the English are defeated by the Scots who are commanded by James, 2nd Earl of Douglas.
• 1390 Robert II dies. His eldest son Robert III replaces him as king.
• 1394 English defeat Scots at battle of Homildon Hill in Northumberland.
• 1396 Battle of the Clans fought at Perth to settle the feud between the clans Mackintosh and Mackay.

Lang's Short History of Scotland 36

Scottish architects 7, scottish historical figures 27, scottish writers 17, scottish musicians 2, scottish artists 1, scottish scientists 21, scottish political figures 12, scottish philosophers & historians 9, scottish military figures 13, scottish religious figures 18, scottish mountaineers 11, infamous scots 3, scottish financiers 3, scottish inventors 6, scottish engineers 9, scottish poets 10, scottish medical pioneers 12, famous scottish explorers 5, scottish actors 2, kings & queens of scotland 30, people of scotland 1, great scottish people 0, history of scotland by patrick tytler 2 268.

Patrick Tytler's History of Scotland is a wonderful rhetorical tale of Scotland filled with anecdote and detail of the  Middle Ages and Scotland's great battles for survival and freedom. The text of the book is not available online in readable form and so we are slowly transcribing it for visitors to the site.

In the next part of the project we will cross reference it with other titles to enable enthusiasts of Scottish history to enjoy the varied interpretations of our past.

Chapter I Alexander the Third-1149-1292 55

Chapter ii john baliol 1292-1305 74, chapter iii robert bruce 1305-1314 70, chapter iv robert bruce 1305-1314 69.

Robert Bruce

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A Not-So-Brief History of Scottish Independence

This primer covers Scottish sovereignty from the Roman era to the Jacobite revolts, the 2014 referendum and Brexit

Meilan Solly

Associate Editor, History

Following the resounding victory of the Conservative Party last year, the political drama of Brexit is seemingly in its final stages. On January 31, the United Kingdom is set to begin a transition period that will conclude at the end of 2020 with the official withdrawal of the nation from the European Union. With this departure, however, a new political drama may emerge.

While the U.K. as a whole voted in favor of Brexit back in the summer of 2016, most residents of Scotland—specifically, 62 percent —cast their ballots in hopes of remaining in the European Union, which offers Scotland the trade benefits of a single market and has contributed significantly to the country’s infrastructure and industry .

In a statement released at the time of the vote, First Minister of Scotland Nicola Sturgeon said, “As things stand, Scotland faces the prospect of being taken out of the E.U. against our will. […] I regard that as democratically unacceptable.”

The alternative, a Scottish departure from the United Kingdom, would be a shock to a union that has existed for more than 300 years. And though Scottish voters rejected independence with a resounding no as recently as 2014 , that was before Brexit was on the table.

In recent months, Sturgeon and other members of the pro-independence Scottish National Party have floated the possibility of a second referendum. Given the “ material change of circumstance ” since the 2014 vote, the argument goes, Scots are likely to arrive at a new consensus.

Polling conducted by What Scotland Thinks reflects a rise in support for independence but suggests the “Yes” side is still just shy of a majority . Still, says John Curtice , a political scientist at Strathclyde University who runs the polling site, “The majority against is not that big, and the longer the timeframe, somewhat greater the level of support.”

As Alan Renwick , deputy director of University College London’s Constitution Unit , explains, proponents of independence offer two main arguments. The first centers on national identity and sovereignty, suggesting Scotland’s “right for self-determination has been violated,” while the second focuses on access to trade. Interestingly, Renwick notes, the latter of these has actually been weakened by Brexit, as Scotland would be “leaving [the U.K.], a market that is much more important […] in terms of Scottish exports,” for an E.U. market with lower relative export value .

“There are those head and heart sides of the argument,” says Renwick, “and it’s not at all clear which of those might dominate in any future independence referendum.”

It remains to be seen whether Sturgeon will actually be able to follow through on her proposed independence vote —particularly in lieu of the news that Prime Minister Boris Johnson has formally rejected her request for a second referendum—and, if so, whether Scots are ultimately in favor of independence. In the meantime, Smithsonian magazine has you covered with a primer on the tangled history of Scottish sovereignty.

The early years

The inhabitants of what is now Scotland fiercely protected the region’s independence long before the kingdom’s official establishment in 843 A.D. When the Roman Empire’s armies, emboldened by their successful conquest of southern Britain, arrived in Scotland during the first century A.D., they were met by tribes who quickly “turned to armed resistance on a large scale,” according to Roman historian Tacitus .

Outmatched by the Romans’ “highly disciplined […] war machine,” writes Ben Johnson for Historic U.K. , the locals, called Caledonians by the Romans, resorted to guerrilla tactics like carrying out night-time raids on unsuspecting Roman forts. Although the Scottish tribes suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Mons Graupius in 83 A.D., the skirmish marked the Romans’ furthest advance into Scotland, and over the next several centuries, Rome failed to secure additional territory in the region. In northern Scotland, meanwhile, a tribe known as the Picts gained traction and started carrying out border raids at the far reaches of Hadrian’s Wall. By 212 A.D., the Romans had all but abandoned Scotland , and in 410, they withdrew from Britain entirely.

The next wave of outsiders to stake a claim on Scotland were the Vikings, who launched their first attacks on the British Isles during the late eighth century . These Scandinavians didn’t venture to new lands solely in search of plunder. Many settled down, making homes for themselves in places like Ireland and Scotland and building ties with existing communities. Still, the Vikings’ intentions weren’t entirely noble, and in the mid-ninth century, a tribal leader named Kenneth MacAlpin united the famously fragmented Scottish clans in the fight against the foreign invaders. In doing so, he became arguably the first ruler of the Kingdom of Scotland, founding a dynasty that would endure for centuries.

The Wars of Scottish Independence

During the medieval period, England started treating its northern neighbor much like a feudal territory. In response, Scottish patriots banded together under William Wallace , the freedom fighter forever (erroneously) cemented in popular imagination as a blue paint-covered kilt-wearer . Wallace and his men won a decisive victory at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in September 1297 but lost momentum and, in July 1298, suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Falkirk .

After Falkirk, Wallace went on the run. He evaded the English for years but was captured and executed in August 1305. As Wallace’s influence faded, Robert the Bruce seized power. Following years of fighting, most famously at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, Bruce convinced England to recognize Scotland’s independence , bringing the First War of Scottish Independence to a close in 1328. Though a Second War of Scottish Independence began soon after Bruce’s death, it petered out when England’s focus shifted to the Hundred Years’ War against France.

In Scottish lore, Wallace and Bruce are the figures around whom “pretty much everybody inside the [modern] nationalist movement is able to unite behind,” says Curtice. “Bannockburn is probably […] the most iconic piece of anti-English history.”

The Stuart dynasty and the English Civil War

When Elizabeth I died childless in 1603, an opportunity arose for unification between the neighboring nations. The deceased monarch’s distant cousin James VI of Scotland , son of Mary, Queen of Scots , took the English and Irish thrones as James I, becoming the first monarch to unite the three nations under one crown. His accession, in the words of University of Glasgow historian Karin Bowie , was a “dynastic accident” with longstanding consequences.

Though James hoped to unite England, Ireland and Scotland in one kingdom, his vision proved unpopular, and over the coming century, civil war and rebellion ran rampant in all three kingdoms. James’ son Charles I showed even less foresight than his father, and his tyrannical tendencies eventually cost him both the crown and his head . In the ensuing English Civil War , Scots fervently backed the forces of Charles II, who upon retaking the throne after the 1660 death of Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell , was hailed as king of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Charles was succeeded by his brother James II , who in turn lost the throne to Protestant William and Mary during the bloodless Glorious Revolution of 1688. (As the Catholic king of a largely Protestant country, James, whose Latin name inspired his supporters’ classification as Jacobites, alienated his subjects by prosecuting Anglican bishops and suspending the Scottish and English Parliaments after they refused to repeal anti-Catholic legislation.) Mary’s sister Anne inherited the throne following the couple’s untimely deaths, ushering in what would prove to be a decisive new era in Scottish-Anglican relations.

The Acts of Union and the Jacobite revolts

The contentious events of the 1690s and early 1700s—Scotland’s failed attempt to colonize what is now Panama decimated the country’s economy while divisions in the Scottish Parliament left the fate of the succession unclear, among other crises—culminated in the formation of a new kingdom.

On May 1, 1707, England and Scotland officially united, becoming “One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain.” According to Bowie, two main factors precipitated the arrival of this long-portended union : Scots were dissatisfied with “how they were being governed within the union” of crowns, and the monarchy created by the Glorious Revolution was “precarious,” under constant threat of rebellion by the Jacobite supporters of the deposed James II .

The treaty passed by both nations’ parliaments lent Scotland economic security and access to England’s colonial trade network; meanwhile, a provision that excluded all Catholics—namely, James’ exiled descendants—from the royal succession gave England a safeguard against the Jacobites and Catholic France.

With the passage of the Acts of Union , coinage, taxes and trade were standardized across Great Britain. Scotland retained its legal, religious and educational systems but joined the main British Parliament, albeit with a disproportionately low number of representatives.

The union of these two oft-warring countries proved predictably unpopular . As poet Robert Burns later observed , many Scots believed their representatives had been “bought and sold for English gold.”

Per Bowie, the Scottish Parliament voted to accept the union by a “fairly lukewarm majority” dominated by members of the nobility. Unionists tended to be fairly well-to-do and highly educated, but they met a “huge amount of resistance” from Scottish nationalists who shared a deep-seated distrust of England.

By 1715 , discontent over the union’s adverse political and economic effects was widespread enough to spark a Jacobite-led rebellion . According to the U.K. Parliament portal , the Jacobites painted themselves as “defenders of Scottish liberties,” pledging to repeal the union and restore Scotland’s parliament, but remained chiefly concerned with restoring the crown to the descendants of James II.

Though George I was able to quell the 1715 rebellion, the Jacobite cause remained a strong force in the Scottish Highlands, and in 1745 , a second revolt centered on Prince Charles Edward Stuart , better known as Bonnie Prince Charlie or the Young Pretender, broke out. Following the revolt’s failure, the British government implemented harsh policies aimed at dismantling the Highlands’ clan system and eliminating the Jacobite cause once and for all.

Modern Scotland

By the late 18th century, the issue of Scottish versus English identity had been largely subsumed by the countries’ shared conflicts with other members of the British Empire, including the American colonies and Ireland. Scotland’s textile industry thrived, sparking industrialization and urbanization, and Scots gained more power within the British government.

Scotland “joined England just at the time, or just before, England takes off with the Industrial Revolution,” says Curtice. Its inhabitants profited “disproportionately” from Britain’s imperialism and industry, and for at least 150 years or so, the country was a “well and truly signed up part of the British Empire.”

But the question of independence, or at the very least devolution of power, remained of interest to Scots. When Prime Minister William Gladstone , a Brit of Scottish descent, proposed the restoration of an Irish parliament “separate from but subordinate to Westminster” in 1886, his conception of “ home rule ” also took root in Scotland , which had won a measure of administrative devolution with the establishment of the Scottish Office the year prior.

Member of Parliament William Cowan introduced a bill aimed at creating a separate Scottish parliament in 1913. His impassioned opening statement offered a prescient glimpse of contemporary talking points, criticizing English MPs who “imagine themselves experts on Scottish affairs” and calling for Scottish control over legislation “for land, for the liquor trade, for education, for housing, for fisheries, for ecclesiastical affairs, for one-hundred-and-one matters of purely local concerns.”

The advent of World War I suspended discussions of home rule for both Scotland and Ireland, but in 1922, the Irish Free State managed to successfully break away from the U.K. after a bloody guerrilla war. According to Curtice, Britain’s economic dominance and status as an imperial powerhouse began to fade around the same time as the conflict’s denouement, limiting the benefits Scotland reaped as a member of the union.

In 1934, the National Party of Scotland and the Scottish Party joined together to form the Scottish National Party . Plagued by infighting and policy differences, the nationalist SNP nevertheless gained momentum during World War II, with politician Robert McIntyre winning the party’s first seat in Parliament during an April 1945 by-election . Following the war’s conclusion, McIntyre immediately lost his seat, and, in the words of Curtice, “Party politics went back to normal.”

Outside of several largely symbolic victories—including nationalists’ Christmas 1950 theft of the Scottish coronation Stone of Scone , housed in Westminster Abbey since 1296—the SNP’s growth stagnated in the decades that followed. With the discovery of oil off Scotland’s North Sea coast during the 1970s, however, the party’s message started to resonate with more voters, and in 1974, the SNP won 11 seats in Parliament.

Building on this success, nationalist politicians introduced a referendum designed to gauge support for a local Scottish Assembly. Though pro-devolution voters just edged out the competition, only 32.8 percent of the electorate turned out for the referendum, rendering the verdict null and void.

A 1997 devolution referendum proved more successful, with Scotland overwhelmingly voting in favor of a decentralized legislature; the new governing body met in Edinburgh for the first time on May 12, 1999 .

For those hoping to preserve the United Kingdom, says Curtice, devolution was “an attempt to stymie the demand for independence.” But for the SNP, devolution was simply a “stepping stone” on the path to a fully autonomous Scotland.

The SNP won the Scottish Parliament’s first majority government in 2011, paving the way for the 2014 independence referendum . Ultimately, 45 percent of Scots voted in favor of leaving the U.K., while 55 percent voted against.

Though many of the issues debated around the time of the 1707 Acts of Union are no longer relevant, Bowie says the events of the 18th century hold valuable insights for the current independence movement.

“The union comes out of a ten-year context,” she explains. “That longer-term context of the union of crowns not working very well applies, but it had gotten particularly bad in the last ten years before 1707, so it’s in response to quite short-term pressures.”

While the formation of the United Kingdom yielded “great fruitfulness” in many areas, including the development of a shared British identity, the historian adds, “There’s nothing immutable or inevitable about it.”

Says Bowie, “This is probably the fundamental moral. If it’s not inevitable, then that means it’s a construct. And for it to last, it has to work. […] Like any relationship that needs to be maintained and sustained, if it starts to break down, it can potentially be recovered, but effort has to be put into that.”

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Meilan Solly is Smithsonian magazine's associate digital editor, history.

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Edinburgh History

A incredibly brief history of the capital....

This page is have five sections:

Celts and Romans

• United Scotland
• Medieval Edinburgh

Georgian Edinburgh

To the present day.

When the Roman "Governor of Britain" Agricola advanced North in AD79 and reached the mouth of the River Esk at what is now Inveresk, he encountered the Celtic tribe of Votadinii. The Votadinii controlled the Forth River valley and based themselves at Dunedin... what is now probably Edinburgh Castle.

There is plenty of archaeological evidence that the Roman army mixed on a day to day basis with the locals. After all most of the Roman army was made up of Celts (Gauls) from mainland Europe.

Although they fought, and defeated the Pictish leader Calgacus at Mons Graupius in AD84, the Romans could never master Caledonia and by 211 had retreated behind Hadrians wall, about a hundred miles to the south. By 410 they had left Britain for good.

The first United Scotland

By the sixth century four Kingdoms had developed in what is now Scotland; To the North, the Picts, To the far West, the Scots To the West, the Britons To the South-East, the Angles.

For the next two of hundred years these four kingdoms struggled, beset by Viking raiding parties , until in the 9th century the King of Dalraida, Kenneth MacAlpin, fought his way to something like a united Scotland. His Grandson, Duncan I, became the first King of Scotland in 1035

Medieval and Renaissance Edinburgh

Although at this time Scottish rulers tended to base themselves further north across the Forth, King Malcolm III Canmore (died 1093) built his castle at Edinburgh, and his wife Queen (Saint) Margaret built a chapel within its walls - now the oldest building in the city.

Her son, David I built the Abbey at Holyrood, a mile to the East along "The Royal Mile". Castle and Abbey became the anchor points of Edinburgh; a thriving town grew up along side the road between them, connected to Leith, Edinburgh's port and trade-link to the world. (see map above)

During the Wars of Independence Edinburgh Castle was captured by the English until Robert the Bruce's nephew, Thomas Randolph daringly recapture it by climbing its steep and craggy sides in the dead of night. Robert the Bruce granted Edinburgh a Royal Charter in 1329.

If Edinburgh did not grow outwards at this time, it did grow upwards. By the end of the 1500's it was established as the Capital of Scotland, and growing in population the inhabitants chose to build high houses close to the protection of the Castle: high tenement buildings most of which can be seen to this day.

When King James VI inherited the throne of England in 1603, Edinburgh ceased to be the principal site of the royal court, although it did continue to have its own Parliament.

Everything changed after the Act of Union in 1707... Parliament ceased in Edinburgh, but the city prospered. The loch below the North side of the castle was filled in. New streets and and thousands of houses were planned and built in the Classical fashion (see map again).

This period of energetic building during the "Enlightenment", which lasted into the 1800's, has left the city one of the most architecturally beautiful in the world. See Georgian Edinburgh: (The New Town)

During the Victorian era expansion continued to grow, but the Old Town tenements around the Royal Mile declined into slums where poor people lived in cramped and unsanitary conditions. Industry flourished in Glasgow, but Edinburgh remained the preserve of professionals, which it has tended to remain.

Since the last war its prestige has risen not least because of the establishment of the Edinburgh Festival. In the 1960's he city was being torn down and rebuilt at an alarming rate , but fortunately the New Town Conservation Committee (formed in the 70's) put a stop to that. Buildings have been restored using traditional and sympathetic methods, and now the city looks as though it will remain as one of Europe's most beautiful and historically interesting living monuments.

Edinburgh Art Galleries...

National Gallery | Fruitmarket Gallery | Gallery of Modern Art |

Supporting pages about Edinburgh...

The Royal Mile | Architects of the Enlightenment | Georgian New Town | Alice's Fringe | Arthur's Seat

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5. Scotland's culture

4. Historical Events

3. Before and after the UK

2. Gaelic Heritage

Flags of Scotland

By Thalia.J

• The flag of Scotland is a white X-shaped cross also known as a saltire, which represents the cross of the patron saint of Scotland, Saint Andrew on a blue sky. The flag is called Saint Andrew's Cross or the Saltire.

There are actually two Scottish flags, but only the Saltire is recognised as official. The other is the Lion Rampant, which is referred to as the 'Royal Flag of Scotland' which can only be used by royalty.

Are there 2 Scottish flags?

About The Official Scottish Flag

The actual word 'Saltire' means a cross with diagonal bars of equal length and the national flag of Scotland is made up of a white saltire also known as St. Andrews' Cross on a blue background. First hosted in 1512, it's believed to be one of the oldest flags in the world still in use today.

Gaelic Heritage

By Karim and Ahmad

Dating back centuries, Gaelic is the founding language of Scotland that is thought to originate from Ireland. It spread its way across the country as the principal Scottish language of the medieval Kingdom of Alba, extending from the Borders to Aberdeenshire, the Highlands and Islands.

What is Gaelic and its origins?

Settlers brought Gaelic to Scotland from Antrim in Ireland over 1500 years ago and it quickly spread from its initial base in what is now known as Argyllshire. At one time Gaelic was the language of the Scottish court and of the majority of the country's population.

Celtic language spoken mainly in the highlands and islands of western Scotland. It was brought from Ireland in the 5th and 6th centuries AD and is now spoken by about 58,000 people.

Before and after the UK

By Celia and Perla

Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles and other royal symbols of statehood* specific to the pre-union Kingdom of Scotland. The legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland; Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction* in both public and private law. The continued existence of legal, educational, religious and other institutions distinct from those in the remainder of the UK have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and national identity since the 1707 incorporating* union with England.

Scotland, ruled from London since 1603, formally joined with England and Wales in 1707 to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain. The United Kingdom has made significant contributions to the world economy, especially in technology and industry. Since world war 2 however, the United Kingdom's most prominent exports have been cultural, including literature, theatre, film, television, and popular music that draw on all parts of the country. Perhaps Britain's greatest export has been the English language now spoken in every corner of the world as one of the leading international mediums of cultural and economic exchange.

Historical Events

Historical events are significant facts that explain moments in history, deemed to be remembered and recorded , because of their impact on the course of history. A historical event therefore typically constitutes a breaking point, endowed with a before and after.

What does Historical Events mean?

The declaration of Arbraoth is the name usually given to a letter, dated 6 April 1320 at Arbraoth, written by Scottish barons and addressed to Pope John XXII . It cinstetuted king Robert 1s response to his excommunication for disobeying the pope's demand in 1317 for a truce in the First war of Scottish and asking him recognise Scotland s independence and acknowledge Robert the Bruce as the country's lawful king.

The declaration of Arbraoth

In 1603, Queen Elizabeth 1 of England died. She wasn't married, and had no children; so England crown passed to her cousin James Vl king of "Scotland". England and Scotland now shared the same monarch under what was known as a "Union Of The Crown".

The Union of the Crowns

European and world history was changed at Culloden on April 16, 1746. The war had come to Scotland. Then, after only one hour, the Jacobite army took their last stand to claim the thromes of Britain. Between 1500 and 2000 Jacobites and about 300 soldiers were killed on this battle.

The Battle of Culloden

Scotland's Culture

The traditions combine the Scots love for dancing, eating and storytelling. Whether you're exploring the streets of Edinburgh, or attending one of the world famous Highland games, you will undoubtedly come across men dressed in kilts, or a bagpiper entertaining the crowds.

The traditions

Some facts about Scotland are that Scotland's national animal is a unicorn, Golf was invented in Scotland, and there are over 900 islands in Scotland.

A small fact about Scotland!

Statehood: the status of being a recognized independent nation.

Incorporating: include

Jurisdiction: control / power

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History Of Scotland PowerPoint PPT Presentations