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How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

How to write a research paper
Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
Stage 2 : Structure & outline
Stage 3 : Iterative writing
Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

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Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Don’t fixate on an article’s citation count in isolation - relevance (to your research question) and recency are also very important.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

You need to have a rough outline in place before you start writing your paper - or you’ll end up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

Introduction
Literature review
Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail.

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications . If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

To choose a research question and review the literature
To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

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Research Paper Guide

Research Paper Example

Research Paper Examples - Free Sample Papers for Different Formats!

Research Paper Example for Different Formats

Following a specific formatting style is essential while writing a research paper . Knowing the conventions and guidelines for each format can help you in creating a perfect paper. Here we have gathered examples of research paper for most commonly applied citation styles :

Social Media and Social Media Marketing: A Literature Review

APA Research Paper Example

APA (American Psychological Association) style is commonly used in social sciences, psychology, and education. This format is recognized for its clear and concise writing, emphasis on proper citations, and orderly presentation of ideas.

Here are some research paper examples in APA style:

Research Paper Example APA 7th Edition

Research Paper Example MLA

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is frequently employed in humanities disciplines, including literature, languages, and cultural studies. An MLA research paper might explore literature analysis, linguistic studies, or historical research within the humanities.

Here is an example:

Found Voices: Carl Sagan

Research Paper Example Chicago

Chicago style is utilized in various fields like history, arts, and social sciences. Research papers in Chicago style could delve into historical events, artistic analyses, or social science inquiries.

Here is a research paper formatted in Chicago style:

Chicago Research Paper Sample

Research Paper Example Harvard

Harvard style is widely used in business, management, and some social sciences. Research papers in Harvard style might address business strategies, case studies, or social policies.

View this sample Harvard style paper here:

Harvard Research Paper Sample

Examples for Different Research Paper Parts

A research paper has different parts. Each part is important for the overall success of the paper. Chapters in a research paper must be written correctly, using a certain format and structure.

The following are examples of how different sections of the research paper can be written.

Research Proposal

The research proposal acts as a detailed plan or roadmap for your study, outlining the focus of your research and its significance. It's essential as it not only guides your research but also persuades others about the value of your study.

Example of Research Proposal

An abstract serves as a concise overview of your entire research paper. It provides a quick insight into the main elements of your study. It summarizes your research's purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions in a brief format.

Research Paper Example Abstract

Literature Review

A literature review summarizes the existing research on your study's topic, showcasing what has already been explored. This section adds credibility to your own research by analyzing and summarizing prior studies related to your topic.

Literature Review Research Paper Example

Methodology

The methodology section functions as a detailed explanation of how you conducted your research. This part covers the tools, techniques, and steps used to collect and analyze data for your study.

Methods Section of Research Paper Example

How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper

The conclusion summarizes your findings, their significance and the impact of your research. This section outlines the key takeaways and the broader implications of your study's results.

Research Paper Conclusion Example

Research Paper Examples for Different Fields

Research papers can be about any subject that needs a detailed study. The following examples show research papers for different subjects.

History Research Paper Sample

Preparing a history research paper involves investigating and presenting information about past events. This may include exploring perspectives, analyzing sources, and constructing a narrative that explains the significance of historical events.

View this history research paper sample:

Many Faces of Generalissimo Fransisco Franco

Sociology Research Paper Sample

In sociology research, statistics and data are harnessed to explore societal issues within a particular region or group. These findings are thoroughly analyzed to gain an understanding of the structure and dynamics present within these communities.

Here is a sample:

A Descriptive Statistical Analysis within the State of Virginia

Science Fair Research Paper Sample

A science research paper involves explaining a scientific experiment or project. It includes outlining the purpose, procedures, observations, and results of the experiment in a clear, logical manner.

Here are some examples:

Science Fair Paper Format

What Do I Need To Do For The Science Fair?

Psychology Research Paper Sample

Writing a psychology research paper involves studying human behavior and mental processes. This process includes conducting experiments, gathering data, and analyzing results to understand the human mind, emotions, and behavior.

Here is an example psychology paper:

The Effects of Food Deprivation on Concentration and Perseverance

Art History Research Paper Sample

Studying art history includes examining artworks, understanding their historical context, and learning about the artists. This helps analyze and interpret how art has evolved over various periods and regions.

Check out this sample paper analyzing European art and impacts:

European Art History: A Primer

Research Paper Example Outline

Before you plan on writing a well-researched paper, make a rough draft. An outline can be a great help when it comes to organizing vast amounts of research material for your paper.

Here is an outline of a research paper example:

Here is a downloadable sample of a standard research paper outline:

Research Paper Outline

Want to create the perfect outline for your paper? Check out this in-depth guide on creating a research paper outline for a structured paper!

Good Research Paper Examples for Students

Here are some more samples of research paper for students to learn from:

Fiscal Research Center - Action Plan

Qualitative Research Paper Example

Research Paper Example Introduction

How to Write a Research Paper Example

Research Paper Example for High School

Now that you have explored the research paper examples, you can start working on your research project. Hopefully, these examples will help you understand the writing process for a research paper.

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Research Paper Examples

Research paper examples are of great value for students who want to complete their assignments timely and efficiently. If you are a student in the university, your first stop in the quest for research paper examples will be the campus library where you can get to view the research sample papers of lecturers and other professionals in diverse fields plus those of fellow students who preceded you in the campus. Many college departments maintain libraries of previous student work, including large research papers, which current students can examine.

Embark on a journey of academic excellence with iResearchNet, your premier destination for research paper examples that illuminate the path to scholarly success. In the realm of academia, where the pursuit of knowledge is both a challenge and a privilege, the significance of having access to high-quality research paper examples cannot be overstated. These exemplars are not merely papers; they are beacons of insight, guiding students and scholars through the complex maze of academic writing and research methodologies.

At iResearchNet, we understand that the foundation of academic achievement lies in the quality of resources at one’s disposal. This is why we are dedicated to offering a comprehensive collection of research paper examples across a multitude of disciplines. Each example stands as a testament to rigorous research, clear writing, and the deep understanding necessary to advance in one’s academic and professional journey.

Access to superior research paper examples equips learners with the tools to develop their own ideas, arguments, and hypotheses, fostering a cycle of learning and discovery that transcends traditional boundaries. It is with this vision that iResearchNet commits to empowering students and researchers, providing them with the resources to not only meet but exceed the highest standards of academic excellence. Join us on this journey, and let iResearchNet be your guide to unlocking the full potential of your academic endeavors.

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Importance of Research Paper Examples

Research Paper Writing Services

A Sample Research Paper on Child Abuse

A research paper represents the pinnacle of academic investigation, a scholarly manuscript that encapsulates a detailed study, analysis, or argument based on extensive independent research. It is an embodiment of the researcher’s ability to synthesize a wealth of information, draw insightful conclusions, and contribute novel perspectives to the existing body of knowledge within a specific field. At its core, a research paper strives to push the boundaries of what is known, challenging existing theories and proposing new insights that could potentially reshape the understanding of a particular subject area.

The objective of writing a research paper is manifold, serving both educational and intellectual pursuits. Primarily, it aims to educate the author, providing a rigorous framework through which they engage deeply with a topic, hone their research and analytical skills, and learn the art of academic writing. Beyond personal growth, the research paper serves the broader academic community by contributing to the collective pool of knowledge, offering fresh perspectives, and stimulating further research. It is a medium through which scholars communicate ideas, findings, and theories, thereby fostering an ongoing dialogue that propels the advancement of science, humanities, and other fields of study.

Research papers can be categorized into various types, each with distinct objectives and methodologies. The most common types include:

Analytical Research Paper: This type focuses on analyzing different viewpoints represented in the scholarly literature or data. The author critically evaluates and interprets the information, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.
Argumentative or Persuasive Research Paper: Here, the author adopts a stance on a contentious issue and argues in favor of their position. The objective is to persuade the reader through evidence and logic that the author’s viewpoint is valid or preferable.
Experimental Research Paper: Often used in the sciences, this type documents the process, results, and implications of an experiment conducted by the author. It provides a detailed account of the methodology, data collected, analysis performed, and conclusions drawn.
Survey Research Paper: This involves collecting data from a set of respondents about their opinions, behaviors, or characteristics. The paper analyzes this data to draw conclusions about the population from which the sample was drawn.
Comparative Research Paper: This type involves comparing and contrasting different theories, policies, or phenomena. The aim is to highlight similarities and differences, thereby gaining a deeper understanding of the subjects under review.
Cause and Effect Research Paper: It explores the reasons behind specific actions, events, or conditions and the consequences that follow. The goal is to establish a causal relationship between variables.
Review Research Paper: This paper synthesizes existing research on a particular topic, offering a comprehensive analysis of the literature to identify trends, gaps, and consensus in the field.

Understanding the nuances and objectives of these various types of research papers is crucial for scholars and students alike, as it guides their approach to conducting and writing up their research. Each type demands a unique set of skills and perspectives, pushing the author to think critically and creatively about their subject matter. As the academic landscape continues to evolve, the research paper remains a fundamental tool for disseminating knowledge, encouraging innovation, and fostering a culture of inquiry and exploration.

Browse Sample Research Papers

iResearchNet prides itself on offering a wide array of research paper examples across various disciplines, meticulously curated to support students, educators, and researchers in their academic endeavors. Each example embodies the hallmarks of scholarly excellence—rigorous research, analytical depth, and clear, precise writing. Below, we explore the diverse range of research paper examples available through iResearchNet, designed to inspire and guide users in their quest for academic achievement.

Anthropology Research Paper Examples

Our anthropology research paper examples delve into the study of humanity, exploring cultural, social, biological, and linguistic variations among human populations. These papers offer insights into human behavior, traditions, and evolution, providing a comprehensive overview of anthropological research methods and theories.

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Art Research Paper Examples

The art research paper examples feature analyses of artistic expressions across different cultures and historical periods. These papers cover a variety of topics, including art history, criticism, and theory, as well as the examination of specific artworks or movements.

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Cancer Research Paper Examples

Our cancer research paper examples focus on the latest findings in the field of oncology, discussing the biological mechanisms of cancer, advancements in diagnostic techniques, and innovative treatment strategies. These papers aim to contribute to the ongoing battle against cancer by sharing cutting-edge research.

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Communication Research Paper Examples

These examples explore the complexities of human communication, covering topics such as media studies, interpersonal communication, and public relations. The papers examine how communication processes affect individuals, societies, and cultures.

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Crime Research Paper Examples

The crime research paper examples provided by iResearchNet investigate various aspects of criminal behavior and the factors contributing to crime. These papers cover a range of topics, from theoretical analyses of criminality to empirical studies on crime prevention strategies.

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Criminal Justice Research Paper Examples

Our criminal justice research paper examples delve into the functioning of the criminal justice system, exploring issues related to law enforcement, the judiciary, and corrections. These papers critically examine policies, practices, and reforms within the criminal justice system.

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Criminal Law Research Paper Examples

These examples focus on the legal aspects of criminal behavior, discussing laws, regulations, and case law that govern criminal proceedings. The papers provide an in-depth analysis of criminal law principles, legal defenses, and the implications of legal decisions.

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Criminology Research Paper Examples

iResearchNet’s criminology research paper examples study the causes, prevention, and societal impacts of crime. These papers employ various theoretical frameworks to analyze crime trends and propose effective crime reduction strategies.

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Culture Research Paper Examples

The culture research paper examples examine the beliefs, practices, and artifacts that define different societies. These papers explore how culture shapes identities, influences behaviors, and impacts social interactions.

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Economics Research Paper Examples

Our economics research paper examples offer insights into the functioning of economies at both the micro and macro levels. Topics include economic theory, policy analysis, and the examination of economic indicators and trends.

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Education Research Paper Examples

These examples address a wide range of issues in education, from teaching methods and curriculum design to educational policy and reform. The papers aim to enhance understanding and improve outcomes in educational settings.

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Health Research Paper Examples

The health research paper examples focus on public health issues, healthcare systems, and medical interventions. These papers contribute to the discourse on health promotion, disease prevention, and healthcare management.

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History Research Paper Examples

Our history research paper examples cover significant events, figures, and periods, offering critical analyses of historical narratives and their impact on present-day society.

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Leadership Research Paper Examples

These examples explore the theories and practices of effective leadership, examining the qualities, behaviors, and strategies that distinguish successful leaders in various contexts.

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Mental Health Research Paper Examples

The mental health research paper examples provided by iResearchNet discuss psychological disorders, therapeutic interventions, and mental health advocacy. These papers aim to raise awareness and improve mental health care practices.

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Political Science Research Paper Examples

Our political science research paper examples analyze political systems, behaviors, and ideologies. Topics include governance, policy analysis, and the study of political movements and institutions.

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Psychology Research Paper Examples

These examples delve into the study of the mind and behavior, covering a broad range of topics in clinical, cognitive, developmental, and social psychology.

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Sociology Research Paper Examples

The sociology research paper examples examine societal structures, relationships, and processes. These papers provide insights into social phenomena, inequality, and change.

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Technology Research Paper Examples

Our technology research paper examples address the impact of technological advancements on society, exploring issues related to digital communication, cybersecurity, and innovation.

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Other Research Paper Examples

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Other Sample Research Papers

Each category of research paper examples provided by iResearchNet serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers seeking to deepen their understanding of a specific field. By offering a comprehensive collection of well-researched and thoughtfully written papers, iResearchNet aims to support academic growth and encourage scholarly inquiry across diverse disciplines.

Sample Research Papers: To Read or Not to Read?

When you get an assignment to write a research paper, the first question you ask yourself is ‘Should I look for research paper examples?’ Maybe, I can deal with this task on my own without any help. Is it that difficult?

Thousands of students turn to our service every day for help. It does not mean that they cannot do their assignments on their own. They can, but the reason is different. Writing a research paper demands so much time and energy that asking for assistance seems to be a perfect solution. As the matter of fact, it is a perfect solution, especially, when you need to work to pay for your studying as well.

Firstly, if you search for research paper examples before you start writing, you can save your time significantly. You look at the example and you understand the gist of your assignment within several minutes. Secondly, when you examine some sample paper, you get to know all the requirements. You analyze the structure, the language, and the formatting details. Finally, reading examples helps students to overcome writer’s block, as other people’s ideas can motivate you to discover your own ideas.

The significance of research paper examples in the academic journey of students cannot be overstated. These examples serve not only as a blueprint for structuring and formatting academic papers but also as a beacon guiding students through the complex landscape of academic writing standards. iResearchNet recognizes the pivotal role that high-quality research paper examples play in fostering academic success and intellectual growth among students.

Blueprint for Academic Success

Research paper examples provided by iResearchNet are meticulously crafted to demonstrate the essential elements of effective academic writing. These examples offer clear insights into how to organize a paper, from the introductory paragraph, through the development of arguments and analysis, to the concluding remarks. They showcase the appropriate use of headings, subheadings, and the integration of tables, figures, and appendices, which collectively contribute to a well-organized and coherent piece of scholarly work. By studying these examples, students can gain a comprehensive understanding of the structure and formatting required in academic papers, which is crucial for meeting the rigorous standards of academic institutions.

Sparking Ideas and Providing Evidence

Beyond serving as a structural guide, research paper examples act as a source of inspiration for students embarking on their research projects. These examples illuminate a wide array of topics, methodologies, and analytical frameworks, thereby sparking ideas for students’ own research inquiries. They demonstrate how to effectively engage with existing literature, frame research questions, and develop a compelling thesis statement. Moreover, by presenting evidence and arguments in a logical and persuasive manner, these examples illustrate the art of substantiating claims with solid research, encouraging students to adopt a similar level of rigor and depth in their work.

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A research paper is an academic piece of writing, so you need to follow all the requirements and standards. Otherwise, it will be impossible to get the high results. To make it easier for you, we have analyzed the structure and peculiarities of a sample research paper on the topic ‘Child Abuse’.

The paper includes 7300+ words, a detailed outline, citations are in APA formatting style, and bibliography with 28 sources.

To write any paper you need to write a great outline. This is the key to a perfect paper. When you organize your paper, it is easier for you to present the ideas logically, without jumping from one thought to another.

In the outline, you need to name all the parts of your paper. That is to say, an introduction, main body, conclusion, bibliography, some papers require abstract and proposal as well.

A good outline will serve as a guide through your paper making it easier for the reader to follow your ideas.

I. Introduction

Ii. estimates of child abuse: methodological limitations, iii. child abuse and neglect: the legalities, iv. corporal punishment versus child abuse, v. child abuse victims: the patterns, vi. child abuse perpetrators: the patterns, vii. explanations for child abuse, viii. consequences of child abuse and neglect, ix. determining abuse: how to tell whether a child is abused or neglected, x. determining abuse: interviewing children, xi. how can society help abused children and abusive families, introduction.

An introduction should include a thesis statement and the main points that you will discuss in the paper.

A thesis statement is one sentence in which you need to show your point of view. You will then develop this point of view through the whole piece of work:

‘The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood.’

Child abuse is a very real and prominent social problem today. The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood. Most children are defenseless against abuse, are dependent on their caretakers, and are unable to protect themselves from these acts.

Childhood serves as the basis for growth, development, and socialization. Throughout adolescence, children are taught how to become productive and positive, functioning members of society. Much of the socializing of children, particularly in their very earliest years, comes at the hands of family members. Unfortunately, the messages conveyed to and the actions against children by their families are not always the positive building blocks for which one would hope.

In 2008, the Children’s Defense Fund reported that each day in America, 2,421 children are confirmed as abused or neglected, 4 children are killed by abuse or neglect, and 78 babies die before their first birthday. These daily estimates translate into tremendous national figures. In 2006, caseworkers substantiated an estimated 905,000 reports of child abuse or neglect. Of these, 64% suffered neglect, 16% were physically abused, 9% were sexually abused, 7% were emotionally or psychologically maltreated, and 2% were medically neglected. In addition, 15% of the victims experienced “other” types of maltreatment such as abandonment, threats of harm to the child, and congenital drug addiction (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006). Obviously, this problem is a substantial one.

In the main body, you dwell upon the topic of your paper. You provide your ideas and support them with evidence. The evidence include all the data and material you have found, analyzed and systematized. You can support your point of view with different statistical data, with surveys, and the results of different experiments. Your task is to show that your idea is right, and make the reader interested in the topic.

In this example, a writer analyzes the issue of child abuse: different statistical data, controversies regarding the topic, examples of the problem and the consequences.

Several issues arise when considering the amount of child abuse that occurs annually in the United States. Child abuse is very hard to estimate because much (or most) of it is not reported. Children who are abused are unlikely to report their victimization because they may not know any better, they still love their abusers and do not want to see them taken away (or do not themselves want to be taken away from their abusers), they have been threatened into not reporting, or they do not know to whom they should report their victimizations. Still further, children may report their abuse only to find the person to whom they report does not believe them or take any action on their behalf. Continuing to muddy the waters, child abuse can be disguised as legitimate injury, particularly because young children are often somewhat uncoordinated and are still learning to accomplish physical tasks, may not know their physical limitations, and are often legitimately injured during regular play. In the end, children rarely report child abuse; most often it is an adult who makes a report based on suspicion (e.g., teacher, counselor, doctor, etc.).

Even when child abuse is reported, social service agents and investigators may not follow up or substantiate reports for a variety of reasons. Parents can pretend, lie, or cover up injuries or stories of how injuries occurred when social service agents come to investigate. Further, there is not always agreement about what should be counted as abuse by service providers and researchers. In addition, social service agencies/agents have huge caseloads and may only be able to deal with the most serious forms of child abuse, leaving the more “minor” forms of abuse unsupervised and unmanaged (and uncounted in the statistical totals).

While most laws about child abuse and neglect fall at the state levels, federal legislation provides a foundation for states by identifying a minimum set of acts and behaviors that define child abuse and neglect. The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), which stems from the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003, defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum, “(1) any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation; or (2) an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk or serious harm.”

Using these minimum standards, each state is responsible for providing its own definition of maltreatment within civil and criminal statutes. When defining types of child abuse, many states incorporate similar elements and definitions into their legal statutes. For example, neglect is often defined as failure to provide for a child’s basic needs. Neglect can encompass physical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary food or shelter, or lack of appropriate supervision), medical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary medical or mental health treatment), educational elements (e.g., failure to educate a child or attend to special educational needs), and emotional elements (e.g., inattention to a child’s emotional needs, failure to provide psychological care, or permitting the child to use alcohol or other drugs). Failure to meet needs does not always mean a child is neglected, as situations such as poverty, cultural values, and community standards can influence the application of legal statutes. In addition, several states distinguish between failure to provide based on financial inability and failure to provide for no apparent financial reason.

Statutes on physical abuse typically include elements of physical injury (ranging from minor bruises to severe fractures or death) as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning, or otherwise harming a child. Such injury is considered abuse regardless of the intention of the caretaker. In addition, many state statutes include allowing or encouraging another person to physically harm a child (such as noted above) as another form of physical abuse in and of itself. Sexual abuse usually includes activities by a parent or caretaker such as fondling a child’s genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, and exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials.

Finally, emotional or psychological abuse typically is defined as a pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or sense of self-worth. This may include constant criticism, threats, or rejection, as well as withholding love, support, or guidance. Emotional abuse is often the most difficult to prove and, therefore, child protective services may not be able to intervene without evidence of harm to the child. Some states suggest that harm may be evidenced by an observable or substantial change in behavior, emotional response, or cognition, or by anxiety, depression, withdrawal, or aggressive behavior. At a practical level, emotional abuse is almost always present when other types of abuse are identified.

Some states include an element of substance abuse in their statutes on child abuse. Circumstances that can be considered substance abuse include (a) the manufacture of a controlled substance in the presence of a child or on the premises occupied by a child (Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Virginia); (b) allowing a child to be present where the chemicals or equipment for the manufacture of controlled substances are used (Arizona, New Mexico); (c) selling, distributing, or giving drugs or alcohol to a child (Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Minnesota, and Texas); (d) use of a controlled substance by a caregiver that impairs the caregiver’s ability to adequately care for the child (Kentucky, New York, Rhode Island, and Texas); and (e) exposure of the child to drug paraphernalia (North Dakota), the criminal sale or distribution of drugs (Montana, Virginia), or drug-related activity (District of Columbia).

One of the most difficult issues with which the U.S. legal system must contend is that of allowing parents the right to use corporal punishment when disciplining a child, while not letting them cross over the line into the realm of child abuse. Some parents may abuse their children under the guise of discipline, and many instances of child abuse arise from angry parents who go too far when disciplining their children with physical punishment. Generally, state statutes use terms such as “reasonable discipline of a minor,” “causes only temporary, short-term pain,” and may cause “the potential for bruising” but not “permanent damage, disability, disfigurement or injury” to the child as ways of indicating the types of discipline behaviors that are legal. However, corporal punishment that is “excessive,” “malicious,” “endangers the bodily safety of,” or is “an intentional infliction of injury” is not allowed under most state statutes (e.g., state of Florida child abuse statute).

Most research finds that the use of physical punishment (most often spanking) is not an effective method of discipline. The literature on this issue tends to find that spanking stops misbehavior, but no more effectively than other firm measures. Further, it seems to hinder rather than improve general compliance/obedience (particularly when the child is not in the presence of the punisher). Researchers have also explained why physical punishment is not any more effective at gaining child compliance than nonviolent forms of discipline. Some of the problems that arise when parents use spanking or other forms of physical punishment include the fact that spanking does not teach what children should do, nor does it provide them with alternative behavior options should the circumstance arise again. Spanking also undermines reasoning, explanation, or other forms of parental instruction because children cannot learn, reason, or problem solve well while experiencing threat, pain, fear, or anger. Further, the use of physical punishment is inconsistent with nonviolent principles, or parental modeling. In addition, the use of spanking chips away at the bonds of affection between parents and children, and tends to induce resentment and fear. Finally, it hinders the development of empathy and compassion in children, and they do not learn to take responsibility for their own behavior (Pitzer, 1997).

One of the biggest problems with the use of corporal punishment is that it can escalate into much more severe forms of violence. Usually, parents spank because they are angry (and somewhat out of control) and they can’t think of other ways to discipline. When parents are acting as a result of emotional triggers, the notion of discipline is lost while punishment and pain become the foci.

In 2006, of the children who were found to be victims of child abuse, nearly 75% of them were first-time victims (or had not come to the attention of authorities prior). A slight majority of child abuse victims were girls—51.5%, compared to 48% of abuse victims being boys. The younger the child, the more at risk he or she is for child abuse and neglect victimization. Specifically, the rate for infants (birth to 1 year old) was approximately 24 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The victimization rate for children 1–3 years old was 14 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The abuse rate for children aged 4– 7 years old declined further to 13 per 1,000 children of the same age group. African American, American Indian, and Alaska Native children, as well as children of multiple races, had the highest rates of victimization. White and Latino children had lower rates, and Asian children had the lowest rates of child abuse and neglect victimization. Regarding living arrangements, nearly 27% of victims were living with a single mother, 20% were living with married parents, while 22% were living with both parents but the marital status was unknown. (This reporting element had nearly 40% missing data, however.) Regarding disability, nearly 8% of child abuse victims had some degree of mental retardation, emotional disturbance, visual or hearing impairment, learning disability, physical disability, behavioral problems, or other medical problems. Unfortunately, data indicate that for many victims, the efforts of the child protection services system were not successful in preventing subsequent victimization. Children who had been prior victims of maltreatment were 96% more likely to experience another occurrence than those who were not prior victims. Further, child victims who were reported to have a disability were 52% more likely to experience recurrence than children without a disability. Finally, the oldest victims (16–21 years of age) were the least likely to experience a recurrence, and were 51% less likely to be victimized again than were infants (younger than age 1) (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

Child fatalities are the most tragic consequence of maltreatment. Yet, each year, children die from abuse and neglect. In 2006, an estimated 1,530 children in the United States died due to abuse or neglect. The overall rate of child fatalities was 2 deaths per 100,000 children. More than 40% of child fatalities were attributed to neglect, but physical abuse also was a major contributor. Approximately 78% of the children who died due to child abuse and neglect were younger than 4 years old, and infant boys (younger than 1) had the highest rate of fatalities at 18.5 deaths per 100,000 boys of the same age in the national population. Infant girls had a rate of 14.7 deaths per 100,000 girls of the same age (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

One question to be addressed regarding child fatalities is why infants have such a high rate of death when compared to toddlers and adolescents. Children under 1 year old pose an immense amount of responsibility for their caretakers: they are completely dependent and need constant attention. Children this age are needy, impulsive, and not amenable to verbal control or effective communication. This can easily overwhelm vulnerable parents. Another difficulty associated with infants is that they are physically weak and small. Injuries to infants can be fatal, while similar injuries to older children might not be. The most common cause of death in children less than 1 year is cerebral trauma (often the result of shaken-baby syndrome). Exasperated parents can deliver shakes or blows without realizing how little it takes to cause irreparable or fatal damage to an infant. Research informs us that two of the most common triggers for fatal child abuse are crying that will not cease and toileting accidents. Both of these circumstances are common in infants and toddlers whose only means of communication often is crying, and who are limited in mobility and cannot use the toilet. Finally, very young children cannot assist in injury diagnoses. Children who have been injured due to abuse or neglect often cannot communicate to medical professionals about where it hurts, how it hurts, and so forth. Also, nonfatal injuries can turn fatal in the absence of care by neglectful parents or parents who do not want medical professionals to possibly identify an injury as being the result of abuse.

Estimates reveal that nearly 80% of perpetrators of child abuse were parents of the victim. Other relatives accounted for nearly 7%, and unmarried partners of parents made up 4% of perpetrators. Of those perpetrators that were parents, over 90% were biological parents, 4% were stepparents, and 0.7% were adoptive parents. Of this group, approximately 58% of perpetrators were women and 42% were men. Women perpetrators are typically younger than men. The average age for women abusers was 31 years old, while for men the average was 34 years old. Forty percent of women who abused were younger than 30 years of age, compared with 33% of men being under 30. The racial distribution of perpetrators is similar to that of victims. Fifty-four percent were white, 21% were African American, and 20% were Hispanic/Latino (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

There are many factors that are associated with child abuse. Some of the more common/well-accepted explanations are individual pathology, parent–child interaction, past abuse in the family (or social learning), situational factors, and cultural support for physical punishment along with a lack of cultural support for helping parents here in the United States.

The first explanation centers on the individual pathology of a parent or caretaker who is abusive. This theory focuses on the idea that people who abuse their children have something wrong with their individual personality or biological makeup. Such psychological pathologies may include having anger control problems; being depressed or having post-partum depression; having a low tolerance for frustration (e.g., children can be extremely frustrating: they don’t always listen; they constantly push the line of how far they can go; and once the line has been established, they are constantly treading on it to make sure it hasn’t moved. They are dependent and self-centered, so caretakers have very little privacy or time to themselves); being rigid (e.g., having no tolerance for differences—for example, what if your son wanted to play with dolls? A rigid father would not let him, laugh at him for wanting to, punish him when he does, etc.); having deficits in empathy (parents who cannot put themselves in the shoes of their children cannot fully understand what their children need emotionally); or being disorganized, inefficient, and ineffectual. (Parents who are unable to manage their own lives are unlikely to be successful at managing the lives of their children, and since many children want and need limits, these parents are unable to set them or adhere to them.)

Biological pathologies that may increase the likelihood of someone becoming a child abuser include having substance abuse or dependence problems, or having persistent or reoccurring physical health problems (especially health problems that can be extremely painful and can cause a person to become more self-absorbed, both qualities that can give rise to a lack of patience, lower frustration tolerance, and increased stress).

The second explanation for child abuse centers on the interaction between the parent and the child, noting that certain types of parents are more likely to abuse, and certain types of children are more likely to be abused, and when these less-skilled parents are coupled with these more difficult children, child abuse is the most likely to occur. Discussion here focuses on what makes a parent less skilled, and what makes a child more difficult. Characteristics of unskilled parents are likely to include such traits as only pointing out what children do wrong and never giving any encouragement for good behavior, and failing to be sensitive to the emotional needs of children. Less skilled parents tend to have unrealistic expectations of children. They may engage in role reversal— where the parents make the child take care of them—and view the parent’s happiness and well-being as the responsibility of the child. Some parents view the parental role as extremely stressful and experience little enjoyment from being a parent. Finally, less-skilled parents tend to have more negative perceptions regarding their child(ren). For example, perhaps the child has a different shade of skin than they expected and this may disappoint or anger them, they may feel the child is being manipulative (long before children have this capability), or they may view the child as the scapegoat for all the parents’ or family’s problems. Theoretically, parents with these characteristics would be more likely to abuse their children, but if they are coupled with having a difficult child, they would be especially likely to be abusive. So, what makes a child more difficult? Certainly, through no fault of their own, children may have characteristics that are associated with child care that is more demanding and difficult than in the “normal” or “average” situation. Such characteristics can include having physical and mental disabilities (autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], hyperactivity, etc.); the child may be colicky, frequently sick, be particularly needy, or cry more often. In addition, some babies are simply unhappier than other babies for reasons that cannot be known. Further, infants are difficult even in the best of circumstances. They are unable to communicate effectively, and they are completely dependent on their caretakers for everything, including eating, diaper changing, moving around, entertainment, and emotional bonding. Again, these types of children, being more difficult, are more likely to be victims of child abuse.

Nonetheless, each of these types of parents and children alone cannot explain the abuse of children, but it is the interaction between them that becomes the key. Unskilled parents may produce children that are happy and not as needy, and even though they are unskilled, they do not abuse because the child takes less effort. At the same time, children who are more difficult may have parents who are skilled and are able to handle and manage the extra effort these children take with aplomb. However, risks for child abuse increase when unskilled parents must contend with difficult children.

Social learning or past abuse in the family is a third common explanation for child abuse. Here, the theory concentrates not only on what children learn when they see or experience violence in their homes, but additionally on what they do not learn as a result of these experiences. Social learning theory in the context of family violence stresses that if children are abused or see abuse (toward siblings or a parent), those interactions and violent family members become the representations and role models for their future familial interactions. In this way, what children learn is just as important as what they do not learn. Children who witness or experience violence may learn that this is the way parents deal with children, or that violence is an acceptable method of child rearing and discipline. They may think when they become parents that “violence worked on me when I was a child, and I turned out fine.” They may learn unhealthy relationship interaction patterns; children may witness the negative interactions of parents and they may learn the maladaptive or violent methods of expressing anger, reacting to stress, or coping with conflict.

What is equally as important, though, is that they are unlikely to learn more acceptable and nonviolent ways of rearing children, interacting with family members, and working out conflict. Here it may happen that an adult who was abused as a child would like to be nonviolent toward his or her own children, but when the chips are down and the child is misbehaving, this abused-child-turned-adult does not have a repertoire of nonviolent strategies to try. This parent is more likely to fall back on what he or she knows as methods of discipline.

Something important to note here is that not all abused children grow up to become abusive adults. Children who break the cycle were often able to establish and maintain one healthy emotional relationship with someone during their childhoods (or period of young adulthood). For instance, they may have received emotional support from a nonabusing parent, or they received social support and had a positive relationship with another adult during their childhood (e.g., teacher, coach, minister, neighbor, etc.). Abused children who participate in therapy during some period of their lives can often break the cycle of violence. In addition, adults who were abused but are able to form an emotionally supportive and satisfying relationship with a mate can make the transition to being nonviolent in their family interactions.

Moving on to a fourth familiar explanation for child abuse, there are some common situational factors that influence families and parents and increase the risks for child abuse. Typically, these are factors that increase family stress or social isolation. Specifically, such factors may include receiving public assistance or having low socioeconomic status (a combination of low income and low education). Other factors include having family members who are unemployed, underemployed (working in a job that requires lower qualifications than an individual possesses), or employed only part time. These financial difficulties cause great stress for families in meeting the needs of the individual members. Other stress-inducing familial characteristics are single-parent households and larger family size. Finally, social isolation can be devastating for families and family members. Having friends to talk to, who can be relied upon, and with whom kids can be dropped off occasionally is tremendously important for personal growth and satisfaction in life. In addition, social isolation and stress can cause individuals to be quick to lose their tempers, as well as cause people to be less rational in their decision making and to make mountains out of mole hills. These situations can lead families to be at greater risk for child abuse.

Finally, cultural views and supports (or lack thereof) can lead to greater amounts of child abuse in a society such as the United States. One such cultural view is that of societal support for physical punishment. This is problematic because there are similarities between the way criminals are dealt with and the way errant children are handled. The use of capital punishment is advocated for seriously violent criminals, and people are quick to use such idioms as “spare the rod and spoil the child” when it comes to the discipline or punishment of children. In fact, it was not until quite recently that parenting books began to encourage parents to use other strategies than spanking or other forms of corporal punishment in the discipline of their children. Only recently, the American Academy of Pediatrics has come out and recommended that parents do not spank or use other forms of violence on their children because of the deleterious effects such methods have on youngsters and their bonds with their parents. Nevertheless, regardless of recommendations, the culture of corporal punishment persists.

Another cultural view in the United States that can give rise to greater incidents of child abuse is the belief that after getting married, couples of course should want and have children. Culturally, Americans consider that children are a blessing, raising kids is the most wonderful thing a person can do, and everyone should have children. Along with this notion is the idea that motherhood is always wonderful; it is the most fulfilling thing a woman can do; and the bond between a mother and her child is strong, glorious, and automatic—all women love being mothers. Thus, culturally (and theoretically), society nearly insists that married couples have children and that they will love having children. But, after children are born, there is not much support for couples who have trouble adjusting to parenthood, or who do not absolutely love their new roles as parents. People look askance at parents who need help, and cannot believe parents who say anything negative about parenthood. As such, theoretically, society has set up a situation where couples are strongly encouraged to have kids, are told they will love kids, but then society turns a blind or disdainful eye when these same parents need emotional, financial, or other forms of help or support. It is these types of cultural viewpoints that increase the risks for child abuse in society.

The consequences of child abuse are tremendous and long lasting. Research has shown that the traumatic experience of childhood abuse is life changing. These costs may surface during adolescence, or they may not become evident until abused children have grown up and become abusing parents or abused spouses. Early identification and treatment is important to minimize these potential long-term effects. Whenever children say they have been abused, it is imperative that they be taken seriously and their abuse be reported. Suspicions of child abuse must be reported as well. If there is a possibility that a child is or has been abused, an investigation must be conducted.

Children who have been abused may exhibit traits such as the inability to love or have faith in others. This often translates into adults who are unable to establish lasting and stable personal relationships. These individuals have trouble with physical closeness and touching as well as emotional intimacy and trust. Further, these qualities tend to cause a fear of entering into new relationships, as well as the sabotaging of any current ones.

Psychologically, children who have been abused tend to have poor self-images or are passive, withdrawn, or clingy. They may be angry individuals who are filled with rage, anxiety, and a variety of fears. They are often aggressive, disruptive, and depressed. Many abused children have flashbacks and nightmares about the abuse they have experienced, and this may cause sleep problems as well as drug and alcohol problems. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and antisocial personality disorder are both typical among maltreated children. Research has also shown that most abused children fail to reach “successful psychosocial functioning,” and are thus not resilient and do not resume a “normal life” after the abuse has ended.

Socially (and likely because of these psychological injuries), abused children have trouble in school, will have difficulty getting and remaining employed, and may commit a variety of illegal or socially inappropriate behaviors. Many studies have shown that victims of child abuse are likely to participate in high-risk behaviors such as alcohol or drug abuse, the use of tobacco, and high-risk sexual behaviors (e.g., unprotected sex, large numbers of sexual partners). Later in life, abused children are more likely to have been arrested and homeless. They are also less able to defend themselves in conflict situations and guard themselves against repeated victimizations.

Medically, abused children likely will experience health problems due to the high frequency of physical injuries they receive. In addition, abused children experience a great deal of emotional turmoil and stress, which can also have a significant impact on their physical condition. These health problems are likely to continue occurring into adulthood. Some of these longer-lasting health problems include headaches; eating problems; problems with toileting; and chronic pain in the back, stomach, chest, and genital areas. Some researchers have noted that abused children may experience neurological impairment and problems with intellectual functioning, while others have found a correlation between abuse and heart, lung, and liver disease, as well as cancer (Thomas, 2004).

Victims of sexual abuse show an alarming number of disturbances as adults. Some dislike and avoid sex, or experience sexual problems or disorders, while other victims appear to enjoy sexual activities that are self-defeating or maladaptive—normally called “dysfunctional sexual behavior”—and have many sexual partners.

Abused children also experience a wide variety of developmental delays. Many do not reach physical, cognitive, or emotional developmental milestones at the typical time, and some never accomplish what they are supposed to during childhood socialization. In the next section, these developmental delays are discussed as a means of identifying children who may be abused.

There are two primary ways of identifying children who are abused: spotting and evaluating physical injuries, and detecting and appraising developmental delays. Distinguishing physical injuries due to abuse can be difficult, particularly among younger children who are likely to get hurt or receive injuries while they are playing and learning to become ambulatory. Nonetheless, there are several types of wounds that children are unlikely to give themselves during their normal course of play and exploration. These less likely injuries may signal instances of child abuse.

While it is true that children are likely to get bruises, particularly when they are learning to walk or crawl, bruises on infants are not normal. Also, the back of the legs, upper arms, or on the chest, neck, head, or genitals are also locations where bruises are unlikely to occur during normal childhood activity. Further, bruises with clean patterns, like hand prints, buckle prints, or hangers (to name a few), are good examples of the types of bruises children do not give themselves.

Another area of physical injury where the source of the injury can be difficult to detect is fractures. Again, children fall out of trees, or crash their bikes, and can break limbs. These can be normal parts of growing up. However, fractures in infants less than 12 months old are particularly suspect, as infants are unlikely to be able to accomplish the types of movement necessary to actually break a leg or an arm. Further, multiple fractures, particularly more than one on a bone, should be examined more closely. Spiral or torsion fractures (when the bone is broken by twisting) are suspect because when children break their bones due to play injuries, the fractures are usually some other type (e.g., linear, oblique, compacted). In addition, when parents don’t know about the fracture(s) or how it occurred, abuse should be considered, because when children get these types of injuries, they need comfort and attention.

Head and internal injuries are also those that may signal abuse. Serious blows to the head cause internal head injuries, and this is very different from the injuries that result from bumping into things. Abused children are also likely to experience internal injuries like those to the abdomen, liver, kidney, and bladder. They may suffer a ruptured spleen, or intestinal perforation. These types of damages rarely happen by accident.

Burns are another type of physical injury that can happen by accident or by abuse. Nevertheless, there are ways to tell these types of burn injuries apart. The types of burns that should be examined and investigated are those where the burns are in particular locations. Burns to the bottom of the feet, genitals, abdomen, or other inaccessible spots should be closely considered. Burns of the whole hand or those to the buttocks are also unlikely to happen as a result of an accident.

Turning to the detection and appraisal of developmental delays, one can more readily assess possible abuse by considering what children of various ages should be able to accomplish, than by noting when children are delayed and how many milestones on which they are behind schedule. Importantly, a few delays in reaching milestones can be expected, since children develop individually and not always according to the norm. Nonetheless, when children are abused, their development is likely to be delayed in numerous areas and across many milestones.

As children develop and grow, they should be able to crawl, walk, run, talk, control going to the bathroom, write, set priorities, plan ahead, trust others, make friends, develop a good self-image, differentiate between feeling and behavior, and get their needs met in appropriate ways. As such, when children do not accomplish these feats, their circumstances should be examined.

Infants who are abused or neglected typically develop what is termed failure to thrive syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by slow, inadequate growth, or not “filling out” physically. They have a pale, colorless complexion and dull eyes. They are not likely to spend much time looking around, and nothing catches their eyes. They may show other signs of lack of nutrition such as cuts, bruises that do not heal in a timely way, and discolored fingernails. They are also not trusting and may not cry much, as they are not expecting to have their needs met. Older infants may not have developed any language skills, or these developments are quite slow. This includes both verbal and nonverbal means of communication.

Toddlers who are abused often become hypervigilant about their environments and others’ moods. They are more outwardly focused than a typical toddler (who is quite self-centered) and may be unable to separate themselves as individuals, or consider themselves as distinct beings. In this way, abused toddlers cannot focus on tasks at hand because they are too concerned about others’ reactions. They don’t play with toys, have no interest in exploration, and seem unable to enjoy life. They are likely to accept losses with little reaction, and may have age-inappropriate knowledge of sex and sexual relations. Finally, toddlers, whether they are abused or not, begin to mirror their parents’ behaviors. Thus, toddlers who are abused may mimic the abuse when they are playing with dolls or “playing house.”

Developmental delays can also be detected among abused young adolescents. Some signs include the failure to learn cause and effect, since their parents are so inconsistent. They have no energy for learning and have not developed beyond one- or two-word commands. They probably cannot follow complicated directions (such as two to three tasks per instruction), and they are unlikely to be able to think for themselves. Typically, they have learned that failure is totally unacceptable, but they are more concerned with the teacher’s mood than with learning and listening to instruction. Finally, they are apt to have been inadequately toilet trained and thus may be unable to control their bladders.

Older adolescents, because they are likely to have been abused for a longer period of time, continue to get further and further behind in their developmental achievements. Abused children this age become family nurturers. They take care of their parents and cater to their parents’ needs, rather than the other way around. In addition, they probably take care of any younger siblings and do the household chores. Because of these default responsibilities, they usually do not participate in school activities; they frequently miss days at school; and they have few, if any, friends. Because they have become so hypervigilant and have increasingly delayed development, they lose interest in and become disillusioned with education. They develop low self-esteem and little confidence, but seem old for their years. Children this age who are abused are still likely to be unable to control their bladders and may have frequent toileting accidents.

Other developmental delays can occur and be observed in abused and neglected children of any age. For example, malnutrition and withdrawal can be noticed in infants through teenagers. Maltreated children frequently have persistent or untreated illnesses, and these can become permanent disabilities if medical conditions go untreated for a long enough time. Another example can be the consequences of neurological damage. Beyond being a medical issue, this type of damage can cause problems with social behavior and impulse control, which, again, can be discerned in various ages of children.

Once child abuse is suspected, law enforcement officers, child protection workers, or various other practitioners may need to interview the child about the abuse or neglect he or she may have suffered. Interviewing children can be extremely difficult because children at various stages of development can remember only certain parts or aspects of the events in their lives. Also, interviewers must be careful that they do not put ideas or answers into the heads of the children they are interviewing. There are several general recommendations when interviewing children about the abuse they may have experienced. First, interviewers must acknowledge that even when children are abused, they likely still love their parents. They do not want to be taken away from their parents, nor do they want to see their parents get into trouble. Interviewers must not blame the parents or be judgmental about them or the child’s family. Beyond that, interviews should take place in a safe, neutral location. Interviewers can use dolls and role-play to help children express the types of abuse of which they may be victims.

Finally, interviewers must ask age-appropriate questions. For example, 3-year-olds can probably only answer questions about what happened and who was involved. Four- to five-year-olds can also discuss where the incidents occurred. Along with what, who, and where, 6- to 8-year-olds can talk about the element of time, or when the abuse occurred. Nine- to 10-year-olds are able to add commentary about the number of times the abuse occurred. Finally, 11-year-olds and older children can additionally inform interviewers about the circumstances of abusive instances.

A conclusion is not a summary of what a writer has already mentioned. On the contrary, it is the last point made. Taking every detail of the investigation, the researcher makes the concluding point. In this part of a paper, you need to put a full stop in your research. You need to persuade the reader in your opinion.

Never add any new information in the conclusion. You can present solutions to the problem and you dwell upon the results, but only if this information has been already mentioned in the main body.

Child advocates recommend a variety of strategies to aid families and children experiencing abuse. These recommendations tend to focus on societal efforts as well as more individual efforts. One common strategy advocated is the use of public service announcements that encourage individuals to report any suspected child abuse. Currently, many mandatory reporters (those required by law to report abuse such as teachers, doctors, and social service agency employees) and members of communities feel that child abuse should not be reported unless there is substantial evidence that abuse is indeed occurring. Child advocates stress that this notion should be changed, and that people should report child abuse even if it is only suspected. Public service announcements should stress that if people report suspected child abuse, the worst that can happen is that they might be wrong, but in the grander scheme of things that is really not so bad.

Child advocates also stress that greater interagency cooperation is needed. This cooperation should be evident between women’s shelters, child protection agencies, programs for at-risk children, medical agencies, and law enforcement officers. These agencies typically do not share information, and if they did, more instances of child abuse would come to the attention of various authorities and could be investigated and managed. Along these lines, child protection agencies and programs should receive more funding. When budgets are cut, social services are often the first things to go or to get less financial support. Child advocates insist that with more resources, child protection agencies could hire more workers, handle more cases, conduct more investigations, and follow up with more children and families.

Continuing, more educational efforts must be initiated about issues such as punishment and discipline styles and strategies; having greater respect for children; as well as informing the community about what child abuse is, and how to recognize it. In addition, Americans must alter the cultural orientation about child bearing and child rearing. Couples who wish to remain child-free must be allowed to do so without disdain. And, it must be acknowledged that raising children is very difficult, is not always gloriously wonderful, and that parents who seek help should be lauded and not criticized. These kinds of efforts can help more children to be raised in nonviolent, emotionally satisfying families, and thus become better adults.

Bibliography

When you write a paper, make sure you are aware of all the formatting requirements. Incorrect formatting can lower your mark, so do not underestimate the importance of this part.

Organizing your bibliography is quite a tedious and time-consuming task. Still, you need to do it flawlessly. For this reason, analyze all the standards you need to meet or ask professionals to help you with it. All the comas, colons, brackets etc. matter. They truly do.

Bibliography:

American Academy of Pediatrics: https://www.aap.org/
Bancroft, L., & Silverman, J. G. (2002). The batterer as parent. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, 42 U.S.C.A. § 5106g (1998).
Childhelp: Child Abuse Statistics: https://www.childhelp.org/child-abuse-statistics/
Children’s Defense Fund: https://www.childrensdefense.org/
Child Stats.gov: https://www.childstats.gov/
Child Welfare League of America: https://www.cwla.org/
Crosson-Tower, C. (2008). Understanding child abuse and neglect (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
DeBecker, G. (1999). Protecting the gift: Keeping children and teenagers safe (and parents sane). New York: Bantam Dell.
Family Research Laboratory at the University of New Hampshire: https://cola.unh.edu/family-research-laboratory
Guterman, N. B. (2001). Stopping child maltreatment before it starts: Emerging horizons in early home visitation services. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Herman, J. L. (2000). Father-daughter incest. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Medline Plus, Child Abuse: https://medlineplus.gov/childabuse.html
Myers, J. E. B. (Ed.). (1994). The backlash: Child protection under fire. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
National Center for Missing and Exploited Children: https://www.missingkids.org/home
National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. (2006). Child maltreatment 2006: Reports from the states to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.
New York University Silver School of Social Work: https://socialwork.nyu.edu/
Pitzer, R. L. (1997). Corporal punishment in the discipline of children in the home: Research update for practitioners. Paper presented at the National Council on Family Relations Annual Conference, Washington, DC.
RAND, Child Abuse and Neglect: https://www.rand.org/topics/child-abuse-and-neglect.html
Richards, C. E. (2001). The loss of innocents: Child killers and their victims. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources.
Straus, M. A. (2001). Beating the devil out of them: Corporal punishment in American families and its effects on children. Edison, NJ: Transaction.
Thomas, P. M. (2004). Protection, dissociation, and internal roles: Modeling and treating the effects of child abuse. Review of General Psychology, 7(15).
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/

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4 Research Essay

Jeffrey Kessler

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

Construct a thesis based upon your research
Use critical reading strategies to analyze your research
Defend a position in relation to the range of ideas surrounding a topic
Organize your research essay in order to logically support your thesis

I. Introduction

The goal of this book has been to help demystify research and inquiry through a series of genres that are part of the research process. Each of these writing projects—the annotated bibliography, proposal, literature review, and research essay—builds on each other. Research is an ongoing and evolving process, and each of these projects help you build towards the next.

In your annotated bibliography, you started your inquiry into a topic, reading widely to define the breadth of your inquiry. You recorded this by summarizing and/or evaluating the first sources you examined. In your proposal, you organized a plan and developed pointed questions to pursue and ideas to research. This provided a good sense of where you might continue to explore. In your literature review, you developed a sense of the larger conversations around your topic and assessed the state of existing research. During each of these writing projects, your knowledge of your topic grew, and you became much more informed about its key issues.

You’ve established a topic and assembled sources in conversation with one another. It’s now time to contribute to that conversation with your own voice. With so much of your research complete, you can now turn your focus to crafting a strong research essay with a clear thesis. Having the extensive knowledge that you have developed across the first three writing projects will allow you to think more about putting the pieces of your research together, rather than trying to do research at the same time that you are writing.

This doesn’t mean that you won’t need to do a little more research. Instead, you might need to focus strategically on one or two key pieces of information to advance your argument, rather than trying to learn about the basics of your topic.

But what about a thesis or argument? You may have developed a clear idea early in the process, or you might have slowly come across an important claim you want to defend or a critique you want to make as you read more into your topic. You might still not be sure what you want to argue. No matter where you are, this chapter will help you navigate the genre of the research essay. We’ll examine the basics of a good thesis and argument, different ways to use sources, and strategies to organize your essay.

While this chapter will focus on the kind of research essay you would write in the college classroom, the skills are broadly applicable. Research takes many different forms in the academic, professional, and public worlds. Depending on the course or discipline, research can mean a semester-long project for a class or a few years’ worth of research for an advanced degree. As you’ll see in the examples below, research can consist of a brief, two-page conclusion or a government report that spans hundreds of pages with an overwhelming amount of original data.

Above all else, good research is engaged with its audience to bring new ideas to light based on existing conversations. A good research essay uses the research of others to advance the conversation around the topic based on relevant facts, analysis, and ideas.

II. Rhetorical Considerations: Contributing to the Conversation

The word “essay” comes from the French word essayer , or “attempt.” In other words, an essay is an attempt—to prove or know or illustrate something. Through writing an essay, your ideas will evolve as you attempt to explore and think through complicated ideas. Some essays are more exploratory or creative, while some are straightforward reports about the kind of original research that happens in laboratories.

Most research essays attempt to argue a point about the material, information, and data that you have collected. That research can come from fieldwork, laboratories, archives, interviews, data mining, or just a lot of reading. No matter the sources you use, the thesis of a research essay is grounded in evidence that is compelling to the reader.

Where you described the conversation in your literature review, in your research essay you are contributing to that conversation with your own argument. Your argument doesn’t have to be an argument in the cable-news-social-media-shouting sense of the word. It doesn’t have to be something that immediately polarizes individuals or divides an issue into black or white. Instead, an argument for a research essay should be a claim, or, more specifically, a claim that requires evidence and analysis to support. This can take many different forms.

Example 4.1: Here are some different types of arguments you might see in a research essay:

Critiquing a specific idea within a field
Interrogating an assumption many people hold about an issue
Examining the cause of an existing problem
Identifying the effects of a proposed program, law, or concept
Assessing a historical event in a new way
Using a new method to evaluate a text or phenomenon
Proposing a new solution to an existing problem
Evaluating an existing solution and suggesting improvements

These are only a few examples of the kinds of approaches your argument might take. As you look at the research you have gathered throughout your projects, your ideas will have evolved. This is a natural part of the research process. If you had a fully formed argument before you did any research, then you probably didn’t have an argument based on strong evidence. Your research now informs your position and understanding, allowing you to form a stronger evidence-based argument.

Having a good idea about your thesis and your approach is an important step, but getting the general idea into specific words can be a challenge on its own. This is one of the most common challenges in writing: “I know what I want to say; I just don’t know how to say it.”

Example 4.2: Here are some sample thesis statements. Examine them and think about their arguments.

Whether you agree, disagree, or are just plain unsure about them, you can imagine that these statements require their authors to present evidence, offer context, and explain key details in order to argue their point.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has the ability to greatly expand the methods and content of higher education, and though there are some transient shortcomings, faculty in STEM should embrace AI as a positive change to the system of student learning. In particular, AI can prove to close the achievement gap often found in larger lecture settings by providing more custom student support.
I argue that while the current situation for undocumented college students remains tumultuous, there are multiple routes—through financial and social support programs like the Fearless Undocumented Alliance—that both universities and colleges can utilize to support students affected by the reality of DACA’s shortcomings.

While it can be argued that massive reform of the NCAA’s bylaws is needed in the long run, one possible immediate improvement exists in the form of student-athlete name, image, and likeness rights. The NCAA should amend their long-standing definition of amateurism and allow student athletes to pursue financial gains from the use of their names, images, and likenesses, as is the case with amateur Olympic athletes.

Each of these thesis statements identifies a critical conversation around a topic and establishes a position that needs evidence for further support. They each offer a lot to consider, and, as sentences, are constructed in different ways.

Some writing textbooks, like They Say, I Say (2017), offer convenient templates in which to fit your thesis. For example, it suggests a list of sentence constructions like “Although some critics argue X, I will argue Y” and “If we are right to assume X, then we must consider the consequences of Y.”

More Resources 4.1: Templates

Templates can be a productive start for your ideas, but depending on the writing situation (and depending on your audience), you may want to expand your thesis beyond a single sentence (like the examples above) or template. According to Amy Guptill in her book Writing in Col lege (2016) , a good thesis has four main elements (pp. 21-22). A good thesis:

Makes a non-obvious claim
Poses something arguable
Provides well-specified details
Includes broader implications

Consider the sample thesis statements above. Each one provides a claim that is both non-obvious and arguable. In other words, they present something that needs further evidence to support—that’s where all your research is going to come in. In addition, each thesis identifies specifics, whether these are teaching methods, support programs, or policies. As you will see, when you include those specifics in a thesis statement, they help project a starting point towards organizing your essay.

Finally, according to Guptill, a good thesis includes broader implications. A good thesis not only engages the specific details of its argument, but also leaves room for further consideration. As we have discussed before, research takes place in an ongoing conversation. Your well-developed essay and hard work won’t be the final word on this topic, but one of many contributions among other scholars and writers. It would be impossible to solve every single issue surrounding your topic, but a strong thesis helps us think about the larger picture. Here’s Guptill:

Putting your claims in their broader context makes them more interesting to your reader and more impressive to your professors who, after all, assign topics that they think have enduring significance. Finding that significance for yourself makes the most of both your paper and your learning. (p. 23)

Thinking about the broader implications will also help you write a conclusion that is better than just repeating your thesis (we’ll discuss this more below).

Example 4.3: Let’s look at an example from above:

This thesis makes a key claim about the rights of student athletes (in fact, shortly after this paper was written, NCAA athletes became eligible to profit from their own name, image, and likeness). It provides specific details, rather than just suggesting that student athletes should be able to make money. Furthermore, it provides broader context, even giving a possible model—Olympic athletes—to build an arguable case.

Remember, that just like your entire research project, your thesis will evolve as you write. Don’t be afraid to change some key terms or move some phrases and clauses around to play with the emphasis in your thesis. In fact, doing so implies that you have allowed the research to inform your position.

Example 4.4: Consider these examples about the same topic and general idea. How does playing around with organization shade the argument differently?

Although William Dowling’s amateur college sports model reminds us that the real stakeholders are the student athletes themselves, he highlights that the true power over student athletes comes from the athletic directors, TV networks, and coaches who care more about profits than people.
While William Dowling’s amateur college sports model reminds us that the real stakeholders in college athletics are not the athletic directors, TV networks, and coaches, but the students themselves, his plan does not seem feasible because it eliminates the reason many people care about student athletes in the first place: highly lucrative bowl games and March Madness.
Although William Dowling’s amateur college sports model has student athletes’ best interests in mind, his proposal remains unfeasible because financial stakeholders in college athletics, like athletic directors, TV networks, and coaches, refuse to let go of their power.

When you look at the different versions of the thesis statements above, the general ideas remain the same, but you can imagine how they might unfold differently in a paper, and even how those papers might be structured differently. Even after you have a good version of your thesis, consider how it might evolve by moving ideas around or changing emphasis as you outline and draft your paper.

More Resources 4.2: Thesis Statements

Looking for some additional help on thesis statements? Try these resources:

How to Write a Thesis Statement
Writing Effective Thesis Statements.

Library Referral: Your Voice Matters!

(by Annie R. Armstrong)

If you’re embarking on your first major college research paper, you might be concerned about “getting it right.” How can you possibly jump into a conversation with the authors of books, articles, and more, who are seasoned experts in their topics and disciplines? The way they write might seem advanced, confusing, academic, irritating, and even alienating. Try not to get discouraged. There are techniques for working with scholarly sources to break them down and make them easier to work with (see How to Read a Scholarly Article ). A librarian can work with you to help you find a variety of source types that address your topic in a meaningful way, or that one specific source you may still be trying to track down.

Furthermore, scholarly experts are not the only voices welcome at the research table! This research paper and others to come are an invitation to you to join the conversation; your voice and lived experience give you one-of-a-kind expertise equipping you to make new inquiries and insights into your topic. Sure, you’ll need to wrestle how to interpret difficult academic texts and how to piece them together. That said, your voice is an integral and essential part of the puzzle. All of those scholarly experts started closer to where you are than you might think.

III. The Research Essay Across the Disciplines

Example 4.5: Academic and Professional Examples

These examples are meant to show you how this genre looks in other disciplines and professions. Make sure to follow the requirements for your own class or to seek out specific examples from your instructor in order to address the needs of your own assignment.

As you will see, different disciplines use language very differently, including citation practices, use of footnotes and endnotes, and in-text references. (Review Chapter 3 for citation practices as disciplinary conventions.) You may find some STEM research to be almost unreadable, unless you are already an expert in that field and have a highly developed knowledge of the key terms and ideas in that field. STEM fields often rely on highly technical language and assume a high level of knowledge in the field. Similarly, humanities research can be hard to navigate if you don’t have a significant background in the topic or material.

As we’ve discussed, highly specialized research assumes its readers are other highly specialized researchers. Unless you read something like The Journ al of American Medicine on a regular basis, you usually learn about scientific or medical breakthroughs when they are reported by another news outlet, where a reporter makes the highly technical language of a scientific discovery more accessible for non-specialists.

Even if you are not an expert in multiple disciplines of study, you will find that research essays contain a lot of similarities in their structure and organization. Most research essays have an abstract that summarizes the entire article at the beginning. Introductions provide the necessary setup for the article. Body sections can vary. Some essays include a literature review section that describes the state of research about the topic. Others might provide background or a brief history. Many essays in the sciences will have a methodology section that explains how the research was conducted, including details such as lab procedures, sample sizes, control populations, conditions, and survey questions. Others include long analyses of primary sources, sets of data, or archival documents. Most essays end with conclusions about what further research needs to be completed or what their research further implies.

As you examine some of the different examples, look at the variations in arguments and structures. Just as in reading research about your own topic, you don’t need to read each essay from start to finish. Browse through different sections and see the different uses of language and organization that are possible.

IV. Research Strategies: When is Enough?

At this point, you know a lot about your topic. You’ve done a lot of research to complete your first three writing projects, but when do you have enough sources and information to start writing? Really, it depends.

If you’re writing a dissertation, you may have spent months or years doing research and still feel like you need to do more or to wait a few months until that next new study is published. If you’re writing a research essay for a class, you probably have a schedule of due dates for drafts and workshops. Either way, it’s better to start drafting sooner rather than later. Part of doing research is trying on ideas and discovering things throughout the drafting process.

That’s why you’ve written the other projects along the way instead of just starting with a research essay. You’ve built a foundation of strong research to read about your topic in the annotated bibliography, planned your research in the proposal, and understood the conversations around your topic in the literature review. Now that you are working on your research essay, you are far enough along in the research process where you might need a few more sources, but you will most likely discover this as you are drafting your essay. In other words, get writing and trust that you’ll discover what you need along the way.

V. Reading Strategies: Forwarding and Countering

Using sources is necessary to a research essay, and it is essential to think about how you use them. At this point in your research, you have read, summarized, analyzed, and made connections across many sources. Think back to the literature review. In that genre, you used your sources to illustrate the major issues, topics, and/or concerns among your research. You used those sources to describe and make connections between them.

For your research essay, you are putting those sources to work in a different way: using them in service of supporting your own contribution to the conversation. According to Joseph Harris in his book Rewriting (2017), we read texts in order to respond to them: “drawing from, commenting on, adding to […] the works of others” (p. 2). The act of writing, according to Harris, takes place among the different texts we read and the ways we use them for our own projects. Whether a source provides factual information or complicated concepts, we use sources in different ways. Two key ways to do so for Harris are forwarding and countering .

Forwarding a text means taking the original concept or idea and applying it to a new context. Harris writes: “In forwarding a text you test the strength of its insights and the range and flexibility of its phrasings. You rewrite it through reusing some of its key concepts and phrasings” (pp. 38-39). This is common in a lot of research essays. In fact, Harris identifies different types of forwarding:

Illustrating: using a source to explain a larger point
Authorizing: appealing to another source for credibility
Borrowing: taking a term or concept from one context or discipline and using it in a new one
Extending: expanding upon a source or its implications

It’s not enough in a research essay to include just sources with which you agree. Countering a text means more than just disagreeing with it, but it allows you to do more with a text that might not initially support your argument. This can include for Harris:

Arguing the other side: oftentimes called “including a naysayer” or addressing objections
Uncovering values: examining assumptions within the text that might prove problematic or reveal interesting insights
Dissenting: finding the problems in or the limits of an argument (p. 58)

While the categories above are merely suggestions, it is worth taking a moment to think a little more about sources with which you might disagree. The whole point of an argument is to offer a claim that needs to be proved and/or defended. Essential to this is addressing possible objections. What might be some of the doubts your reader may have? What questions might a reasonable person have about your argument? You will never convince every single person, but by addressing and acknowledging possible objections, you help build the credibility of your argument by showing how your own voice fits into the larger conversation—if other members of that conversation may disagree.

VI. Writing Strategies: Organizing and Outlining

At this point you likely have a draft of a thesis (or the beginnings of one) and a lot of research, notes, and three writing projects about your topic. How do you get from all of this material to a coherent research essay? The following section will offer a few different ideas about organizing your essay. Depending on your topic, discipline, or assignment, you might need to make some necessary adjustments along the way, depending on your audience. Consider these more as suggestions and prompts to help in the writing and drafting of your research essay.

Sometimes, we tend to turn our research essay into an enthusiastic book report: “Here are all the cool things I read about my topic this semester!” When you’ve spent a long time reading and thinking about a topic, you may feel compelled to include every piece of information you’ve found. This can quickly overwhelm your audience. Other times, we as writers may feel so overwhelmed with all of the things we want to say that we don’t know where to start.

Writers don’t all follow the same processes or strategies. What works for one person may not always work for another, and what worked in one writing situation (or class) may not be as successful in another. Regardless, it’s important to have a plan and to follow a few strategies to get writing. The suggestions below can help get you organized and writing quickly. If you’ve never tried some of these strategies before, it’s worth seeing how they will work for you.

Think in Sections, Not Paragraphs

For smaller papers, you might think about what you want to say in each of the five to seven paragraphs that paper might require. Sometimes writing instructors even tell students what each paragraph should include. For longer essays, it’s much easier to think about a research essay in sections, or as a few connected short papers. In a short essay, you might need a paragraph to provide background information about your topic, but in longer essays—like the ones you have read for your project—you will likely find that you need more than a single paragraph, sometimes a few pages.

You might think about the different types of sections you have encountered in the research you have already gathered. Those types of sections might include: introduction, background, the history of an issue, literature review, causes, effects, solutions, analysis, limits, etc. When you consider possible sections for your paper, ask yourself, “What is the purpose of this section?” Then you can start to think about the best way to organize that information into paragraphs for each section.

Build an Outline

After you have developed what you want to argue with your thesis (or at least a general sense of it), consider how you want to argue it. You know that you need to begin with an introduction (more on that momentarily). Then you’ll likely need a few sections that help lead your reader through your argument.

Your outline can start simple. In what order are you going to divide up your main points? You can slowly build a larger outline to include where you will discuss key sources, as well as what are the main claims or ideas you want to present in each section. It’s much easier to move ideas and sources around when you have a larger structure in place.

Example 4.6: A Sample Outline for a Research Paper

College athletics is a central part of American culture
Few of its viewers fully understand the extent to which players are mistreated
Thesis: While William Dowling’s amateur col lege sports model does not seem feasible to implement in the twenty-first century, his proposal reminds us that the real stakeholders in college athletics are not the athletic directors, TV networks, and coaches, but the students themselves, who deserve th e chance to earn a quality education even more than the chance to play ball.
While many student athletes are strong students, many D-1 sports programs focus more on elite sports recruits than academic achievement
Quotes from coaches and athletic directors about revenue and building fan bases (ESPN)
Lowered admissions standards and fake classes (Sperber)
Scandals in academic dishonesty (Sperber and Dowling)
Some elite D-1 athletes are left in a worse place than where they began
Study about athletes who go pro (Knight Commission, Dowling, Cantral)
Few studies on after-effects (Knight Commission)
Dowling imagines an amateur sports program without recruitment, athletic scholarships, or TV contracts
Without the presence of big money contracts and recruitment, athletics programs would have less temptation to cheat in regards to academic dishonesty
Knight Commission Report
Is there any incentive for large-scale reform?
Is paying student athletes a real possibility?

Some writers don’t think in as linear a fashion as others, and starting with an outline might not be the first strategy to employ. Other writers rely on different organizational strategies, like mind mapping, word clouds, or a reverse outline.

More Resources 4.3: Organizing Strategies

At this point, it’s best to get some writing done, even if writing is just taking more notes and then organizing those notes. Here are a few more links to get your thoughts down in some fun and engaging ways:

Concept Mapping
The Mad Lib from Hell: Three Alternatives to Traditional Outlining
Thinking Outside the Formal Outline
Mind Mapping in Research
Reverse Outlining

Start Drafting in the Middle

This may sound odd to some people, but it’s much easier to get started by drafting sections from the middle of your paper instead of starting with the introduction. Sections that provide background or more factual information tend to be more straightforward to write. Sections like these can even be written as you are still finalizing your argument and organizational structure.

If you’ve completed the three previous writing projects, you will likely also funnel some of your work from those projects into the final essay. Don’t just cut and paste entire chunks of those other assignments. That’s called self-plagiarism, and since those assignments serve different purposes in different genres, they won’t fit naturally into your research essay. You’ll want to think about how you are using the sources and ideas from those assignments to serve the needs of your argument. For example, you may have found an interesting source for your literature review paper, but that source may not help advance your final paper.

Draft your Introduction and Conclusion towards the End

Your introduction and conclusion are the bookends of your research essay. They prepare your reader for what’s to come and help your reader process what they have just read. The introduction leads your reader into your paper’s research, and the conclusion helps them look outward towards its implications and significance.

Many students think you should write your introduction at the beginning of the drafting stage because that is where the paper starts. This is not always the best idea. An introduction provides a lot of essential information, including the paper’s method, context, organization, and main argument. You might not have all of these details figured out when you first start drafting your paper. If you wait until much later in the drafting stage, the introduction will be much easier to write. In fact, most academic writers and researchers wait until the rest of their project—a paper, dissertation, or book—is completed before they write the introduction.

A good introduction does not need to be long. In fact, short introductions can impressively communicate a lot of information about a paper when the reader is most receptive to new information. You don’t need to have a long hook or anecdote to catch the reader’s attention, and in many disciplines, big, broad openings are discouraged. Instead, a good introduction to a research essay usually does the following:

defines the scope of the paper
indicates its method or approach
gives some brief context (although more significant background may be saved for a separate section)
offers a road map

If we think about research as an ongoing conversation, you don’t need to think of your conclusion as the end—or just a repetition of your argument. No matter the topic, you won’t have the final word, and you’re not going to tie up a complicated issue neatly with a bow. As you reach the end of your project, your conclusion can be a good place to reflect about how your research contributes to the larger conversations around your issue.

Think of your conclusion as a place to consider big questions. How does your project address some of the larger issues related to your topic? How might the conversation continue? How might it have changed? You might also address limits to existing research. What else might your readers want to find out? What do we need to research or explore in the future?

You need not answer every question. You’ve contributed to the conversation around your topic, and this is your opportunity to reflect a little about that. Still looking for some additional strategies for introductions and conclusions? Try this additional resource:

More Resources 4.4: Introductions and Conclusions

If you’re a bit stuck on introductions and conclusions, check out these helpful links:

Introductions & Writing Effective Introductions
Guide to Writing Introductions and Conclusions
Conclusions & Writing Effective Conclusions

Putting It All Together

This chapter is meant to help you get all the pieces together. You have a strong foundation with your research and lots of strategies at your disposal. That doesn’t mean you might not still feel overwhelmed. Two useful strategies are making a schedule and writing out a checklist.

You likely have a due date for your final draft, and maybe some additional dates for submitting rough drafts or completing peer review workshops. Consider expanding this schedule for yourself. You might have specific days set aside for writing or for drafting a certain number of words or pages. You can also schedule times to visit office hours, the library, or the writing center (especially if your writing center takes appointments—they fill up quickly at the end of the semester!). The more you fill in specific dates and smaller goals, the more likely you will be to complete them. Even if you miss a day that you set aside to write four hundred words, it’s easier to make that up than saying you’ll write an entire draft over a weekend and not getting much done.

Another useful strategy is assembling a checklist, as you put together all the pieces from your research, citations, key quotes, data, and different sections. This allows you to track what you have done and what you still need to accomplish. You might review your assignment’s requirements and list them out so you know when you’ve hit the things like required sources or minimum length. It also helps remind you towards the end to review things like your works cited and any other key grammar and style issues you might want to revisit.

You’re much closer to completing everything than you think. You have all the research, you have all the pieces, and you have a good foundation. You’ve developed a level of understanding of the many sources you have gathered, along with the writing projects you have written. Time to put it all together and join the conversation.

Key Takeaways

Your research essay adds to the conversation surrounding your topic.
Begin drafting your essay and trust that your ideas will continue to develop and evolve.
As you assemble your essay, rely on what works for you, whether that is outlining, mindmapping, checklists, or anything else.
You have come far. The end is in sight.

Image shows a person walking up the stairs, believing they are far from the top. In the next frame it shows that they have travelled a long distance and are much closer to the top than they think.

Clemson Libaries. (2016). “Joining the (Scholarly) Conversation.” YouTube . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=79WmzNQvAZY

Fosslien, L. Remember how much progress you’ve made [Image].

Graff, G. & Birkenstein, C. (2017). They Say, I Say: The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing . W. W. Norton and Co.

Guptill, A. (2016). Constructing the Thesis and Argument—From the Ground Up : Writing in College . Open SUNY Textbooks.

Harris, Joseph. Rewriting: How to Do Things with Texts . Second Edition. Utah State University Press, 2017.

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

How often do you use social media per day?
Less than 30 minutes
30 minutes to 1 hour
1 to 2 hours
2 to 4 hours
More than 4 hours
Which social media platforms do you use?
Others (Please specify)
How often do you experience the following on social media?
Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
Cyberbullying
Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
Very positive
Somewhat positive
Somewhat negative
Very negative
In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Social comparison
In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Education on healthy social media use
Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
Social media detox programs
Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

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Research Essay Examples

In the realm of academia, selecting the right research essay topics is the foundation of a successful research project. These topics encompass a broad spectrum of contemporary issues, offering ample opportunities for in-depth analysis and exploration. Choose a subject that resonates with your interests and aligns with your academic goals, and you'll be on your way to crafting a compelling research essay that contributes valuable insights to your chosen field of study.

For instance, when exploring research essay topics, consider seeking out research topic essay examples related to your chosen subject. Examining well-crafted research essays can provide valuable insights into effective research methodologies, structure, and writing styles, helping you refine your own research and writing skills. These examples serve as guides and sources of inspiration as you embark on your academic exploration and contribute to the body of knowledge in your field.

To further assist your research journey, consider seeking out research essay examples related to your chosen topic. Examining well-crafted research essays can provide valuable insights into effective research methodologies, structure, and writing styles, helping you refine your own research and writing skills. These examples serve as guides and sources of inspiration as you embark on your academic exploration and contribute to the body of knowledge in your field.

Research Topics to Write About

When choosing research essay topics, it is important to consider your own interests and expertise. You should also make sure that there is enough information available on the topic to support your research. Here are some research topics that you may want to write about:

History and Society

The rise and fall of empires
The causes of revolutions
The impact of colonialism on indigenous peoples
The role of women in history
The history of civil rights movements

More myriad of interesting US history topics on the blog

Literature and Art

The influence of technology on art
The role of the artist in society
The relationship between art and politics
The evolution of different literary genres
The interpretation of famous works of art

Biology Research Topics

The impact of climate change on biodiversity
Genetic engineering in agriculture
Neuroplasticity and learning
Microbial ecology of the human gut
Evolutionary origins of human behavior

For more biology research topics , check out our blog where you'll discover even more intriguing ideas and research directions in this fascinating science!

Business and Economics

The impact of globalization on the world economy
The challenges of income inequality
The future of the workplace
The ethics of business
The role of government in the economy

Psychology and Education

The nature of intelligence
The causes of mental illness
The effectiveness of different teaching methods
The role of technology in education
The importance of early childhood education

Choosing a Research Essay Topics

Choosing a research topic should combine personal interest with feasibility and potential contribution. Align your curiosity with your field of study, narrowing down to a specific, manageable question. Ensure sufficient credible sources exist for your research, and consider if you can realistically complete it within constraints. Evaluate your topic's originality and importance. Consult advisors for guidance, and be open to adapting your focus as needed. Remember, finding the right topic is an iterative process, so explore and refine as you go.

The craft of writing a compelling research essay is both an art and science. Such essays are foundational to academia and the broader professional landscape. By examining solid research essay examples , writers can gain insights into structuring their own work more effectively.

Research essays play a pivotal role in academic and professional circles. Their structure, backed by clarity and robust evidence, holds the power to influence, inform, and educate readers. With a well-written research essay example in hand, students and professionals alike can better understand their role and significance.

In addition to traditional research essays, another important genre is proposal essays. These essays outline plans for future research or projects, providing a framework for addressing specific issues or questions. By carefully crafting a proposal essay , writers can effectively communicate their objectives, methods, and anticipated outcomes, garnering support and funding for their endeavors.

What is Research Essay Example

A research essay is a type of academic writing that involves an in-depth investigation into a specific topic or question. It requires the writer to gather and analyze relevant information, present arguments, and draw conclusions based on their research findings. Here’s an example of a research essay in PDF :

This research essay sample provides an example of how to structure and discuss a topic while incorporating research findings and analysis. Remember that the specific format and requirements for research essays may vary depending on the academic institution or guidelines provided by your instructor.

What Makes a Good Research Essay

1️⃣ Structure of a Research Essay

A standard research essay comprises three main segments:

Introduction : Presents the topic and posits a thesis
Body : Delves into arguments, evidence, and analysis
Conclusion : Wraps up the discussion and revisits the thesis

Let’s proceed with the structure guidelines for a research essay, which should encompass the following sections:

This research essay structure is designed to guide your writing process and ensure that your arguments are presented logically and persuasively while maintaining objectivity and integrity in your research.

2️⃣ Importance of Citing Sources

Citing your sources isn’t merely a formality; it lends credibility to your arguments and respects the original authors’ contributions. Through accurate citations, a research essay example can also avoid plagiarism and uphold academic integrity.

10 Expert Tips to Craft the Perfect Research Essay Example

Research essays require finding, evaluating, and integrating source material to support an analytical thesis. This process demands care and effort. Use these tips to write top-quality research essays.

Start with a Clear Thesis Statement. Your thesis acts as the guiding star of your essay. For instance, a compelling research essay example would kick off with a concise and debatable thesis, immediately grabbing the reader’s attention.
Use Reliable Sources. Quality over quantity always holds. Ensure your sources are credible. Perusing research paper examples can offer insights into sourcing reputable references.
Organize Ideas with an Outline . Outlining can serve as a roadmap, guiding you through your essay’s journey. Many sample research essay structures emphasize the importance of a coherent flow of ideas.
Draft with Clarity and Precision . Your words should clearly convey your message. Keeping examples of research essays as benchmarks can ensure your content is both clear and impactful.
Incorporate Multiple Points of View. A comprehensive essay considers various perspectives. This not only strengthens your argument but also makes for a more rounded research essay example.
Use Transition Words for Flow. Transition words act as the glue between your ideas. For instance, a research paper example might employ words like ‘however,’ ‘moreover,’ and ‘consequently’ to ensure smooth navigation.
Ensure Proper Formatting . Consistency in formatting – be it APA, MLA, or Chicago – is essential. A polished research essay example adheres strictly to formatting rules, enhancing readability.
Edit and Revise Multiple Times. Perfection comes with revision. Always iterate and refine your draft.
Seek Peer Reviews . Fresh eyes can spot overlooked errors or provide new perspectives. Feedback can also enhance the quality of your research paper example.
Reference Research Paper Examples . By studying multiple research paper examples and examples of research essays, you can understand common structures, styles, and tones in the field.

Over-generalization, neglecting counterarguments, or providing superficial evidence are common pitfalls in research essays. Always consult diverse research paper examples to understand and sidestep these mistakes.

Research Essay Writing Checklist

By following this checklist, you can better prepare yourself to critically evaluate research essay examples in a way that is aligned with your research goals and standards.

Be sure to review your grading rubric carefully, and consider studying at least one freely available research essay example. This will aid you in comparing the given guidelines with your specific task as you embark on the writing process.

Using these research and writing strategies will boost essay quality. Crafting a well-structured research essay is pivotal for academic and professional success. By harnessing the power of sample research essay resources and various research paper examples, anyone can elevate their writing and convey their arguments compellingly.

Additionally, writers can also benefit from exploring other genres of essays. Unlike research essays, which focus on presenting evidence and analysis, personal narrative essays allow writers to share personal experiences, reflections, and insights. These essays offer a unique opportunity for self-expression and storytelling, enabling writers to connect with readers on a deeper emotional level.

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How do you write a research essay?

Just like any research paper that a college student encounters, you must follow the classic pattern of “Introduction - Thesis - 3 Body Paragraphs - Conclusion”. Some cases may differ, depending on what you have been asked to do, yet a research paper is the one where you must synthesize available information and make a strong argument regarding the main topic or subject of your research. Check our research paper example to see how the sources and evidence are incorporated and mixed with the author’s opinion. Remember about formatting and style requirements in terms of indents and the spaces.

What is a research essay?

Unlike reflective or comparative writing, the research essay will always contain a strict academic structure. An example of a research paper usually represents writing with a thesis statement that makes a proposal, assumption, or uses a strong argument about some scientific idea. It is usually not written in the first person since an author must combine various resources, include quotations, and implement evidence to support certain ideas. The presence of focus on the ideas and the analysis of information is what makes it stand apart from the author-based essay writing.

What is an example of research?

In short, research always implements a certain methodology. While there is no universal formula that would explain what does the research mean in writing, it is sufficient to say that research must contain a topic, strong thesis statement (or an argument), a list of reliable sources, a counter-argument paragraph (if relevant) and the conclusion where information is summed up and stated in a clearer or simpler way. Check our college research paper example to examine the structure in practice and see the key differences when compared to the usual college essay papers.

How do I choose a research topic?

Select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Ensure it's specific enough to be manageable but broad enough to find sufficient research material.

What's the structure of a research essay?

Typically, it includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. However, structure may vary depending on the assignment or guidelines.

What's the purpose of the introduction?

The introduction introduces your topic, provides context, and states your research question or thesis. It should engage readers and set the stage for your essay.

The most popular topics for Research Essay

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Writing a Research Paper

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The Research Paper

There will come a time in most students' careers when they are assigned a research paper. Such an assignment often creates a great deal of unneeded anxiety in the student, which may result in procrastination and a feeling of confusion and inadequacy. This anxiety frequently stems from the fact that many students are unfamiliar and inexperienced with this genre of writing. Never fear—inexperience and unfamiliarity are situations you can change through practice! Writing a research paper is an essential aspect of academics and should not be avoided on account of one's anxiety. In fact, the process of writing a research paper can be one of the more rewarding experiences one may encounter in academics. What is more, many students will continue to do research throughout their careers, which is one of the reasons this topic is so important.

Becoming an experienced researcher and writer in any field or discipline takes a great deal of practice. There are few individuals for whom this process comes naturally. Remember, even the most seasoned academic veterans have had to learn how to write a research paper at some point in their career. Therefore, with diligence, organization, practice, a willingness to learn (and to make mistakes!), and, perhaps most important of all, patience, students will find that they can achieve great things through their research and writing.

The pages in this section cover the following topic areas related to the process of writing a research paper:

Genre - This section will provide an overview for understanding the difference between an analytical and argumentative research paper.
Choosing a Topic - This section will guide the student through the process of choosing topics, whether the topic be one that is assigned or one that the student chooses themselves.
Identifying an Audience - This section will help the student understand the often times confusing topic of audience by offering some basic guidelines for the process.
Where Do I Begin - This section concludes the handout by offering several links to resources at Purdue, and also provides an overview of the final stages of writing a research paper.

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Research Papers

How to Write a Research Paper

Last Updated: February 18, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Chris Hadley, PhD . Chris Hadley, PhD is part of the wikiHow team and works on content strategy and data and analytics. Chris Hadley earned his PhD in Cognitive Psychology from UCLA in 2006. Chris' academic research has been published in numerous scientific journals. There are 14 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 4,188,851 times.

Whether you’re in a history, literature, or science class, you’ll probably have to write a research paper at some point. It may seem daunting when you’re just starting out, but staying organized and budgeting your time can make the process a breeze. Research your topic, find reliable sources, and come up with a working thesis. Then create an outline and start drafting your paper. Be sure to leave plenty of time to make revisions, as editing is essential if you want to hand in your best work!

Sample Research Papers and Outlines

Researching Your Topic

Step 1 Focus your research on a narrow topic.

For instance, you might start with a general subject, like British decorative arts. Then, as you read, you home in on transferware and pottery. Ultimately, you focus on 1 potter in the 1780s who invented a way to mass-produce patterned tableware.

Tip: If you need to analyze a piece of literature, your task is to pull the work apart into literary elements and explain how the author uses those parts to make their point.

Step 2 Search for credible sources online and at a library.

Authoritative, credible sources include scholarly articles (especially those other authors reference), government websites, scientific studies, and reputable news bureaus. Additionally, check your sources' dates, and make sure the information you gather is up to date.
Evaluate how other scholars have approached your topic. Identify authoritative sources or works that are accepted as the most important accounts of the subject matter. Additionally, look for debates among scholars, and ask yourself who presents the strongest evidence for their case. [3] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
You’ll most likely need to include a bibliography or works cited page, so keep your sources organized. List your sources, format them according to your assigned style guide (such as MLA or Chicago ), and write 2 or 3 summary sentences below each one. [4] X Research source

Step 3 Come up with a preliminary thesis.

Imagine you’re a lawyer in a trial and are presenting a case to a jury. Think of your readers as the jurors; your opening statement is your thesis and you’ll present evidence to the jury to make your case.
A thesis should be specific rather than vague, such as: “Josiah Spode’s improved formula for bone china enabled the mass production of transfer-printed wares, which expanded the global market for British pottery.”

Drafting Your Essay

Your outline is your paper’s skeleton. After making the outline, all you’ll need to do is fill in the details.
For easy reference, include your sources where they fit into your outline, like this: III. Spode vs. Wedgewood on Mass Production A. Spode: Perfected chemical formula with aims for fast production and distribution (Travis, 2002, 43) B. Wedgewood: Courted high-priced luxury market; lower emphasis on mass production (Himmelweit, 2001, 71) C. Therefore: Wedgewood, unlike Spode, delayed the expansion of the pottery market.

For instance, your opening line could be, “Overlooked in the present, manufacturers of British pottery in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries played crucial roles in England’s Industrial Revolution.”
After presenting your thesis, lay out your evidence, like this: “An examination of Spode’s innovative production and distribution techniques will demonstrate the importance of his contributions to the industry and Industrial Revolution at large.”

Tip: Some people prefer to write the introduction first and use it to structure the rest of the paper. However, others like to write the body, then fill in the introduction. Do whichever seems natural to you. If you write the intro first, keep in mind you can tweak it later to reflect your finished paper’s layout.

Step 3 Build your argument in the body paragraphs.

After setting the context, you'd include a section on Josiah Spode’s company and what he did to make pottery easier to manufacture and distribute.
Next, discuss how targeting middle class consumers increased demand and expanded the pottery industry globally.
Then, you could explain how Spode differed from competitors like Wedgewood, who continued to court aristocratic consumers instead of expanding the market to the middle class.
The right number of sections or paragraphs depends on your assignment. In general, shoot for 3 to 5, but check your prompt for your assigned length.

Step 4 Address a counterargument to strengthen your case.

If you bring up a counterargument, make sure it’s a strong claim that’s worth entertaining instead of ones that's weak and easily dismissed.
Suppose, for instance, you’re arguing for the benefits of adding fluoride to toothpaste and city water. You could bring up a study that suggested fluoride produced harmful health effects, then explain how its testing methods were flawed.

Sum up your argument, but don’t simply rewrite your introduction using slightly different wording. To make your conclusion more memorable, you could also connect your thesis to a broader topic or theme to make it more relatable to your reader.
For example, if you’ve discussed the role of nationalism in World War I, you could conclude by mentioning nationalism’s reemergence in contemporary foreign affairs.

Revising Your Paper

This is also a great opportunity to make sure your paper fulfills the parameters of the assignment and answers the prompt!
It’s a good idea to put your essay aside for a few hours (or overnight, if you have time). That way, you can start editing it with fresh eyes.

Tip: Try to give yourself at least 2 or 3 days to revise your paper. It may be tempting to simply give your paper a quick read and use the spell-checker to make edits. However, revising your paper properly is more in-depth.

Step 2 Cut out unnecessary words and other fluff.

The passive voice, such as “The door was opened by me,” feels hesitant and wordy. On the other hand, the active voice, or “I opened the door,” feels strong and concise.
Each word in your paper should do a specific job. Try to avoid including extra words just to fill up blank space on a page or sound fancy.
For instance, “The author uses pathos to appeal to readers’ emotions” is better than “The author utilizes pathos to make an appeal to the emotional core of those who read the passage.”

Read your essay out loud to help ensure you catch every error. As you read, check for flow as well and, if necessary, tweak any spots that sound awkward. [13] X Trustworthy Source University of North Carolina Writing Center UNC's on-campus and online instructional service that provides assistance to students, faculty, and others during the writing process Go to source

Step 4 Ask a friend, relative, or teacher to read your work before you submit it.

It’s wise to get feedback from one person who’s familiar with your topic and another who’s not. The person who knows about the topic can help ensure you’ve nailed all the details. The person who’s unfamiliar with the topic can help make sure your writing is clear and easy to understand.

Community Q&A

Remember that your topic and thesis should be as specific as possible. Thanks Helpful 5 Not Helpful 0
Researching, outlining, drafting, and revising are all important steps, so do your best to budget your time wisely. Try to avoid waiting until the last minute to write your paper. Thanks Helpful 6 Not Helpful 2

↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/evaluating-print-sources/
↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/conducting_research/research_overview/index.html
↑ https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/writing/graduate-writing-lab/writing-through-graduate-school/working-sources
↑ https://opentextbc.ca/writingforsuccess/chapter/chapter-5-putting-the-pieces-together-with-a-thesis-statement/
↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/developing_an_outline/index.html
↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/introductions/
↑ https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/writingprocess/counterarguments
↑ https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/ending-essay-conclusions
↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/revising-drafts/
↑ https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/formandstyle/writing/scholarlyvoice/activepassive
↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/editing-and-proofreading/
↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/reading-aloud/
↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/proofreading/index.html

About This Article

To write a research paper, start by researching your topic at the library, online, or using an academic database. As you conduct your research and take notes, zero in on a specific topic that you want to write about and create a 1-2 sentence thesis to state the focus of your paper. Then, create an outline that includes an introduction, 3 to 5 body paragraphs to present your arguments, and a conclusion to sum up your main points. Once you have your paper's structure organized, draft your paragraphs, focusing on 1 argument per paragraph. Use the information you found through your research to back up your claims and prove your thesis statement. Finally, proofread and revise your content until it's polished and ready to submit. For more information on researching and citing sources, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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ENG101 - First-Year Composition

ASSESSMENT 1
Selecting Topics
Information Cycle & Search Strategies
Primary vs Secondary Sources
Video & Images
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Types of Research Essays

Pvcc english division writing rubric, pvcc eng101 handbook.

Causal Analysis (Cause & Effect)
Literary Analysis This link opens in a new window
Literature Review This link opens in a new window
Plagiarism & Copyright
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ASSESSMENT 2

Use ONESearch to locate articles off our many databases on any of your topics.

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There are multiple types of essays that everyone should be able to write or be familiar with and they are: analytical, argumentative (persuasive), cause & effect, compare & contrast, critical, definition & expository, descriptive, experimental research, interpretative, literary analysis, literature review, reports, and surveys.

Analytical , the analytical research paper often begins with the student asking a question (a.k.a. a research question) on which he has taken no stance. such a paper is often an exercise in exploration and evaluation. this type of paper hopes to offer a well-supported critical analysis without necessarily persuading the reader to any particular way of thinking. , the kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment include: 'analyze', 'compare', 'contrast', 'relate', and 'examine'., example: do later school start times increase student success, argumentative (persuasive), the argumentative research paper consists of an introduction in which the writer clearly introduces the topic and informs his audience exactly which stance he intends to take. an important goal of the argumentative research paper is persuasion, which means the topic chosen should be debatable or controversial., the kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment include: 'argue', 'evaluate', 'discuss', and 'take a position'. example: self-driving cars are dangerous and should be banned from the streets., the argumentative essay - lois roma-deeley & john nelson, causal analysis - cause & effect a cause is something that produces an event or condition; an effect is what results from an event or condition. the purpose of the cause-and-effect essay is to determine how various phenomena relate in terms of origins and results. sometimes the connection between cause and effect is clear, but often determining the exact relationship between the two is very difficult., causal analysis information - lois roma-deeley & john nelson, compare & contrast, this essay is needed to analyze the differences between two subjects, authors, viewpoints, leadership styles, or other criteria and it is a common assignment for subjects such as literature, philosophy, social sciences, and many other disciplines. , writing the comparison essay - lois roma-deeley & john nelson, critical , critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and advanced undergraduate writing. it has all the features of persuasive writing, with the added feature of at least one other point of view. while persuasive writing requires you to have your own point of view on an issue or topic, critical writing requires you to consider at least two points of view, including your own., for example, you may explain a researcher's interpretation or argument and then evaluate the merits of the argument, or give your own alternative interpretation. examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of a journal article or a literature review that identifies the strengths and weaknesses of existing research. the kinds of instructions for critical writing include: 'critique', 'debate', 'disagree' and 'evaluate'., characteristics of a critical thinker - dr. tom butler, it is a focused analysis of a piece of writing or a live performance. while it may contain a sentence or two of summary material, the critique will offer the reader a “considered evaluation” of the writing or performance in question., how to write a critique - pvcc english division, definition & expository , an expository essay "exposes" the reader to a new topic; it informs the reader with descriptions or explanations of a subject. if you are writing an expository essay, your thesis statement should explain to the reader what they will learn in your essay. example: how to lead a healthy lifestyle on a tight budget., descriptive/narrative , the simplest type of academic writing is descriptive. its purpose is to provide facts or information. an example would be a summary of an article or a report of the results of an experiment. the kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive assignment include: 'identify', 'report', 'record', 'summarize' and 'define'., writing the descriptive/narrative essay - lois roma-deeley & john nelson, experimental research, this essay is commonly written for biology, chemistry, physics, psychology, and sociology papers. it is used to describe an experimental research case in detail. the student conducts the experiment, shares their results and provides data evidence and sums up the case. the paper describes your experiment with supporting data and an analysis of the experiment. experiments are aimed to explain some causation or predict a fact or reality with certain actions., interpretive, this essay requires one to use the knowledge that he or she has gained from a particular case study situation, for example, a poem or work of art, or material from business and psychology fields. this paper requires using learned theoretical knowledge to write the paper and using supporting information for the thesis statement and findings., literary analysis, the purpose of a literary analysis essay is to carefully examine and sometimes evaluate a work of literature or an aspect of a work of literature. , literature review, a "literature review“ is a critical analysis of a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles” (university of wisconsin writing center)., outlines the case of a study situation. as a rule, such text includes the summary of a breakdown, situation, identification of the main issue, and recommendations, which means that it is basically a logical and detailed summary of some case study situation. a report is a mere restatement of the significant elements or components of a piece of writing or a live performance. it is, primarily, a summary of the substantial elements (the who, what, where, when and how) which are embedded in a piece of writing or a live performance. .

English Division Writing Rubric (Based on Arizona State Standardswith college-level emphasis on higher order thinking skills, research, documentation, and manuscript preparation)
PVCC ENG101 Handbook The ENG101 Handbook was created by PVCC professors Lois Roma-Deeley and John Nelson. This was created prior to the 2009 updates to MLA; therefore, if you use them, be aware you will need to update them. However, the instructions on how to write each essay type are clear and very helpful.
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Research Paper Example

To fully understand what information particular parts of the paper should discuss, here’s another example of a research paper.

This article is a part of the guide:

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1 Write a Research Paper
2 Writing a Paper
3.1 Write an Outline
3.2 Outline Examples
4.1 Thesis Statement
4.2 Write a Hypothesis
5.2 Abstract
5.3 Introduction
5.4 Methods
5.5 Results
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6.1 Table of Contents
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8.1.1 Sham Peer Review
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9.1 Article Writing
9.2 Ideas for Topics

It includes some key parts of the paper such as the Abstract , Introduction , Discussion and References :

Text center-aligned and placed at the middle of the page, stating the title of the paper, name of author and affiliation.

A Study on the Factors Affecting the Infant Feeding Practices

Of Mothers in Las Piñas City

By [Author], University of the Philippines

The abstract starts on the next page, page 2. The text starts at the top, left flushed, double-spaced.

Abstract [Abstract here]

The body text starts on the next page, page 3. The text starts at the top, left flushed, double-spaced.

Introduction The melamine controversy that erupted during the last quarter of year 2008 brought people’s attention back to the debates between breastfeeding and the use of breast milk substitutes like commercial infant formula. This wasn’t the first time that infant formula had caused illnesses and even deaths to infants worldwide - hence the continuous campaign of World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF along with other breastfeeding advocates, for mothers to breastfeed their children at least until 6 months of age. Infant feeding practices refer generally to meet the nutritional and immunological needs of the baby. A study of infant feeding practices was carried out on a sample of 100 mother and infant pairs. The results revealed that only 20% of mothers in the study currently exclusively breastfeed their babies. It also shows that socio-economic factors like mother’s work status, marital status and educational attainment had direct bearing on these practices. Employed mothers tend to cease from breastfeeding their babies and eventually stop and just resort to formula feeding as they go back to work. The study also showed that mothers who are married and living with their partners are more likely to breastfeed their infants than single mothers. Those with higher educational attainment resort more to formula feeding and mixed feeding than those with lower educational attainment. Health care professionals influence mothers the most when it comes to infant feeding decisions. Methodology Type of Research The type of research that will be used in this study is qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The discipline investigates the “why” and “how” of decision making. Besides this, the researcher will also examine the phenomenon through observations in numerical representations and through statistical analysis. Along with questionnaires that will be given out to respondents for the statistical representation of the findings in the study, interviews with the respondents and a few experts in this field will also be conducted. Sampling Method The research sampling method that will be used in this study is random sampling to obtain a more scientific result that could be used to represent the entirety of the population. A list of all health care facilities (maternity and lying-in clinics, public and private hospitals, health centers) was acquired from the Las Piñas City Hall. From 20 barangays, 3 will be picked through random sampling. The health care facilities and institutions in these three barangays will then be the target sources of respondents of the researcher. The health care facilities and institutions will be contacted to obtain a verbal consent to administer the questionnaire to mothers at their places. A letter of consent will also be sent to them along with a sample copy of the questionnaire that will be used, as well as the protocol of the researcher. A letter was also addressed to the City Health Officer to obtain endorsement and consent to conduct a research in selected barangays and distribute questionnaires to the mothers in the vicinity. Data collection was conducted throughout the facilities‟ and health centers‟ operating hours from Mondays through Sundays in order to include both working and non-working mothers. Respondents The respondents in this research will all be coming from one single location - Las Piñas City, specifically the randomly selected barangays of Pamplona I, CAA/BF International and Pamplona III. The researcher chose Las Piñas City because of the socio-economic conditions present in the area that is relevant to the study and also as it fits the time frame and resources of the researcher. The randomly sampled respondents will be asked by the researcher for consent and approval to answer the questionnaire until the desired number of respondents which is 100 is reached. The opinion of experts will also be sought in this research to provide explanations regarding the respondents‟ infant feeding behaviors and practices. Questionnaire The questionnaire requires information about the socio-economic and demographic background of the mother. It also has questions related to previous infant feeding practices and the birth of her youngest infant and also regarding the baby’s general health and age. Statements that are perceived to be factors that influence mothers‟ infant feeding decisions were presented. The description of the type of infant formula given by formula and mixed feeding mothers will also be asked in the material. Conclusion Majority of the mothers formula feed their child and only a minority exclusively breastfeeds their children, especially as per recommendation of the World Health Organization. While majority of the mothers in this study showed a positive attitude towards breastfeeding, most of them decided only to formula feed due to the reasons of insufficient milk supply and work. Based on the results of the study, the educational attainment, work status, marital status, and seminars in the barangay the respondents are part of, about breastfeeding, are the significant factors that affect the infant feeding decision of mothers in Las Piñas City. Majority of the mothers that served as respondents in this study fall under the age range of 17-30 years old. More than half of them were also college graduates while a significant number are undergraduates and have only reached until high school. Most of the mothers are housewives and the others remaining have full-time jobs, part-time jobs and self-employed. A few of them are still students. While majority of them were married, a lot were still in a status of live-in and are single. More than half of the mothers did not have previous children before the current one. Majority of the respondents also have an annual gross household income that does not exceed P50,000. Among the several information sources namely, media through televisions/radios and printed/published materials, the social support system comprised of the mother’s family, friends and other relatives and health institutions, the mothers who give their babies infant formula are influenced the most by health care institutions through health professionals and other health care personnel. They influence the mothers in deciding to feed the baby with formula and in choosing, as well, which brand of formula is best for their babies. Mothers trust their baby’s doctor because of their expertise in the said field hence this kind of relation is achieved. Mothers were overall not concerned about the possible side effects of breastfeeding as a few were only worried as shown in the data presented. It can be concluded that numerous internal as well as external factors influence a mother in making infant feeding decisions, and a greater fraction of these is socio-economic in nature.

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How to Write an Explanatory Essay

Smodin Editorial Team
Published: May 24, 2024

A study from the English Language Teaching Educational Journal found that students encounter difficulty in organizing thoughts, generating ideas, and understanding writing processes when writing essays [1]. These are all key components of putting together a good explanatory essay. If this sounds like you, then don’t worry.

With the right approach, you can seamlessly combine all these components. This guide will give you a simple step-by-step strategy for writing an explanatory essay. It’ll also give you handy writing tips and tool suggestions, like utilizing artificial intelligence.

With this guide, you’ll be able to write an explanatory essay with confidence.

1. Develop a strong thesis statement

Crafting a strong thesis statement is the cornerstone of any well-written explanatory essay. It sets the stage for what your essay will cover and clarifies the main point you’re going to explain. Here’s how to create a thesis:

Find the main idea : Start by pinpointing the key concept or question you want to explain. Develop a clear purpose for the essay. This will guide your research and writing process for your explanatory paper. Use other reputable explanatory essay examples to guide your ideas. This may involve exploring other explanatory essay topics within the same field.
Be specific : A vague thesis can confuse readers. So, make sure your statement is clear. If you’re explaining a complex process, break it down to its key points. After that, break it into a clear, concise statement that’s easy to understand.
Reflect objectivity : Explanatory essays educate and inform. They do not argue a point. So, your thesis should take an unbiased stance on the topic. It should present the facts as they are, not as you interpret them.
Use tools like the Smodin Writer : Smodin Writer does all the heavy lifting by leveraging the power of artificial intelligence. With it, you can generate an essay with a thesis statement. How, you ask? Through its dedicated thesis generator . It can create a statement that’s both strong and relevant. Plus, it can pull in all the most interesting information based on your topic to further enrich your thesis statement.

Make your thesis clear, informative, and neutral. This sets a strong foundation for an effective explanatory essay. Next, let’s look at how to gather the information you’ll need to support this thesis effectively.

2. Research and gather information

You need to conduct thorough research that will back your thesis with credible sources and relevant evidence. This will make your explanatory essay both informative and persuasive. Here’s a step-by-step guide to conducting effective research:

Start with a plan: Put together an explanatory essay outline that includes the information you need to support your thesis. The plan should list the best sources, like academic journals, books, reputable websites, or scholarly articles.
Use credible sources: They ensure the accuracy of your essay. Libraries, academic databases, and certified websites are excellent places to find trustworthy information.
Seek detailed information: Look for the most current sources that explain your topic well and provide unique insights related to or opposing your thesis statement. This depth is crucial for explaining complex ideas clearly and thoroughly in your explanatory papers. Pay attention to the explanatory essay structure to guide your topic of choice (more on this later).
Gather relevant evidence: Collect data, stats, and examples. They should directly support your main points. Make sure this evidence is directly related to your topic and enhances your narrative.
Employ digital tools: Tools like Smodin’s Research Assistant can accelerate your research process. Smodin’s tools can help you find detailed information quickly, ensuring that the data you use is up-to-date and relevant.
Document your sources: As you conduct research, keep a meticulous record of where your information comes from. This practice will help you make an accurate bibliography. It can save you time when you need to refer back to details or verify facts. Again, this is something that’s covered thanks to Smodin’s Citation Machine.
Evaluate your findings: Critically assess the information you collect. Ensure it provides a balanced view and covers the necessary aspects of your topic to give a comprehensive overview of your essay.

By following these steps, you can gather a rich pool of information that provides a strong backbone for your explanatory essay. Now, you can start structuring your findings into well-organized body paragraphs.

3. Structure body paragraphs

Once you’ve gathered relevant evidence through thorough research, it’s time to organize it. You should put it into well-structured body paragraphs that follow a logical flow. Here’s how to structure each body paragraph for a strong explanatory essay:

Decide how many paragraphs to use : It will depend on your topic’s complexity and the needed detail. Typically, three to five paragraphs are suitable, but longer essays may require more. An explanatory essay example on your topic of choice will be helpful.
Start with a topic sentence : Each body paragraph should begin with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea of the paragraph. This sentence will act as a roadmap for the paragraph, giving the reader a sense of what to expect.
Provide supporting evidence : After the topic sentence, share the evidence from your research. Ensure the evidence is relevant and directly supports the paragraph’s topic sentence.
Give a detailed explanation : Follow the evidence with an analysis or explanation that ties it back to the thesis statement. This step is crucial for maintaining logical flow throughout your body paragraphs.
Use linking words : They connect body paragraphs smoothly, ensuring the reader can follow your argument.
End each body paragraph with a closing sentence : It should sum up the point and move to the next idea.

Following this structure will help your body paragraphs support your thesis. These paragraphs will also offer a clear, detailed explanation of your essay topic. Strong body paragraphs are essential to maintain objectivity in your writing.

4. Maintain objectivity

An explanatory essay aims to inform and educate, which makes maintaining objectivity crucial. Staying neutral lets readers form their own opinions based on facts. This ensures the writing is both reliable and informative. Here’s how to maintain objectivity:

Avoid personal opinions: Your goal is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic. Refrain from injecting your personal opinion or biases. Instead, stick to presenting factual information that supports the thesis.
Use relevant evidence: As mentioned, ground your arguments with relevant evidence from credible sources. Back up your main points with data and use research findings and verified details. This will make the explanatory article trustworthy.
Provide a balanced view: In cases with multiple perspectives, offer a balanced view. Cover each side fairly. Even if one view prevails in consensus, acknowledging others gives readers a broader understanding.
Adopt neutral language: Be careful with word choice and tone. Neutral language implies words that don’t encourage or illustrate bias. This helps avoid emotionally charged phrases and keeps the writing objective.
Cite sources accurately: Proper citation of sources provides accountability for the evidence presented. This transparency builds credibility and shows you’ve conducted research thoroughly. It’s also worth noting that different intuitions have different citation styles like APA and Chicago, which is important to note before starting your essay.
Review for biases: After drafting your essay, review it with an eye for biases. Ensure no part leans too much on one viewpoint. And, don’t dismiss an opposing perspective without cause.

Maintaining objectivity enhances the clarity and reliability of explanatory writing. Let’s now focus on crafting an introduction and conclusion that bookend your work effectively.

5. Craft an effective introduction and conclusion

A good introduction and a strong conclusion frame your explanatory essay. They give context at the start and reinforce the main points at the end. Here’s how to craft an effective introduction and conclusion.

In the introduction:

Hook your reader in the introduction : Use an interesting fact, a compelling quote, or a surprising statistic.
Provide background information : Be brief and offer only the essential context the reader needs to fully understand the topic. This should give the audience a foundational understanding before diving deeper into your main points.
Include the thesis statement : Clearly state your thesis near the end of the introduction. This statement will outline the essay’s direction and give readers a preview of the body paragraphs.

In the conclusion:

Summarize the key points : Start your explanatory essay conclusion with a summary. It should cover the main points from the body paragraphs. This summary should help readers recall and reinforce the information they’ve just read.
Restate the thesis : Repeat your thesis again but in a new way. Explain how the evidence from the body paragraphs supported or clarified it.
Provide a conclusion : End the essay with a statement that wraps up the argument. This statement should resonate with the reader. It should leave them with an impression that stresses the topic’s importance.

An effective introduction and conclusion give the essay structure and coherence. They guide readers from start to finish. The next step is revising and editing your entire essay for clarity and precision.

6. Revise and check clarity

Revising and editing are key in writing. They make sure your essay is clear, joined, and polished. Here’s how to refine your writing using an explanatory essay checklist and proven academic writing techniques:

Take a break: Before diving into revisions, step away from your essay for a few hours or even a day. This break will help you return with fresh eyes, making it easier to spot errors or inconsistencies.
Follow an essay checklist: Create or use a checklist to ensure your essay has all the needed parts. It needs a strong intro with a clear thesis, well-structured body paragraphs, good sources, and a short conclusion. Check that your arguments follow a logical flow and that all relevant evidence is directly linked to your thesis statement.
Check for clarity and conciseness: Academic writing needs clarity. So, make sure each paragraph and sentence conveys your point. Don’t use unnecessary jargon or overly complex language. Keep sentences concise while maintaining detailed explanations of your main points.
Verify facts and citations: Make sure all facts, data, and quotes in the essay are accurate. Also, check that they are cited in the required academic style (e.g. MLA, APA). Improper citations can undermine the credibility of your writing.
Review the grammar and style: Look for common grammar mistakes, punctuation errors, and awkward phrasing. Reading the essay aloud can help catch odd sentence structures or confusing wording.
Seek feedback: Share your essay with a peer or use online tools to get constructive criticism. A second perspective can highlight issues you might have missed.

These editing steps will help you produce a polished essay that clearly explains your main points and holds up to academic scrutiny.

Explanatory Essay Format

Understanding the explanatory essay format is key to a well-structured and logical paper. Here’s a basic breakdown of the format for an explanatory essay:

Introduction paragraph

Begin with an interesting sentence to capture the reader’s attention.
Give a short intro. It should set the topic and outline the essay’s purpose.
Present a clear thesis statement summarizing the main idea of the entire essay.

Body paragraphs

Organize the body paragraphs around logical subtopics related to the essay topic.
Start each body paragraph with a topic sentence that aligns with the thesis.
Show evidence from good sources. Also, give key details for each main point.
Incorporate a robust concluding statement per paragraph that drives home your point and links to the ideas in the next paragraph/section.
Summarize the key points.
Provide a final statement that reinforces the main idea without introducing new information.
Craft a concluding statement that leaves your teacher or professor with a lasting impression.

Following this essay outline ensures that your paper has a clear flow. This makes it easy for readers to understand and follow your argument.

Write Better Explanatory Essays With Smodin

Explanatory essays can be overwhelming. Presenting a solid argument, keeping your professor or teacher interested, and remembering conventions like citations can be a real headache.

But, a strong thesis and thorough research make them easier. Well-structured body paragraphs also help deliver a clear, insightful essay that maintains objectivity. Just remember to revise and check for accuracy!

AI-powered platforms like Smodin simplify and enhance the process of writing explanatory essays.

Smodin’s tools help craft clear and well-structured essays that meet any of your academic standards. With Smodin’s advanced research capabilities, you can gather detailed and relevant information quickly. This will save you time and improve your work.

Plagiarism Checker : Ensure your essay maintains originality with Smodin’s plagiarism detection tool. This feature helps maintain academic integrity by checking your work against vast databases.
Auto Citation : Cite your sources accurately without the hassle. Smodin’s auto-citation tool ensures your references are in the right format and meet your academic institution’s rules.
Text Shortener : If your explanatory essay is too long, use Smodin’s AI writer as an essay shortener. It will help you cut your content without losing key details. This helps keep your essay clear and relevant.
Text Rewriter : Helps paraphrase existing content, ensuring uniqueness and a fresh perspective.
Summarizer : The Summarizer boils down long articles into short summaries. They are perfect for making an efficient outline or conclusion.

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The Simple Macroeconomics of AI

This paper evaluates claims about large macroeconomic implications of new advances in AI. It starts from a task-based model of AI’s effects, working through automation and task complementarities. So long as AI’s microeconomic effects are driven by cost savings/productivity improvements at the task level, its macroeconomic consequences will be given by a version of Hulten’s theorem: GDP and aggregate productivity gains can be estimated by what fraction of tasks are impacted and average task-level cost savings. Using existing estimates on exposure to AI and productivity improvements at the task level, these macroeconomic effects appear nontrivial but modest—no more than a 0.66% increase in total factor productivity (TFP) over 10 years. The paper then argues that even these estimates could be exaggerated, because early evidence is from easy-to-learn tasks, whereas some of the future effects will come from hard-to-learn tasks, where there are many context-dependent factors affecting decision-making and no objective outcome measures from which to learn successful performance. Consequently, predicted TFP gains over the next 10 years are even more modest and are predicted to be less than 0.53%. I also explore AI’s wage and inequality effects. I show theoretically that even when AI improves the productivity of low-skill workers in certain tasks (without creating new tasks for them), this may increase rather than reduce inequality. Empirically, I find that AI advances are unlikely to increase inequality as much as previous automation technologies because their impact is more equally distributed across demographic groups, but there is also no evidence that AI will reduce labor income inequality. Instead, AI is predicted to widen the gap between capital and labor income. Finally, some of the new tasks created by AI may have negative social value (such as design of algorithms for online manipulation), and I discuss how to incorporate the macroeconomic effects of new tasks that may have negative social value.

Paper prepared for Economic Policy. I am grateful to Can Yeşildere for phenomenal research assistance, and to Leonardo Bursztyn, Mert Demirer, Lauren Fahey, Roberto Galbiati, Isabelle Méjean, Shakked Noy, Sida Peng, Julia Regier, and Whitney Zhang as well as participants in the MIT Solow Memorial conference and the Economic Policy conference for useful comments. I am especially grateful to my discussants, David Hémous and Benoît Coeuré, for insightful comments and suggestions. I thank Pamela Mishkin and Daniel Rock for generously sharing their data on AI exposure. I am also heavily indebted to my collaborators on several projects related to these topics, David Autor, Simon Johnson and Pascual Restrepo, from whom I learned a great deal and who have also given me very useful comments on the current draft. Financial support from the Hewlett Foundation is gratefully acknowledged. All remaining errors are mine. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Research funding in the Middle East and North Africa: analyses of acknowledgments in scientific publications indexed in the Web of Science (2008–2021)

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Published: 28 May 2024

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Jamal El-Ouahi ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3458-7503 1 , 2

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Funding acknowledgments are important objects of study in the context of science funding. This study uses a mixed-methods approach to analyze the funding acknowledgments found in 2.3 million scientific publications published between 2008 and 2021 by authors affiliated with research institutions in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). The aim is to identify the major funders, assess their contribution to national scientific publications, and gain insights into the funding mechanism in relation to collaboration and publication. Publication data from the Web of Science is examined to provide key insights about funding activities. Saudi Arabia and Qatar lead the region, as about half of their publications include acknowledgments to funding sources. Most MENA countries exhibit strong linkages with foreign agencies, mainly due to a high level of international collaboration. The distinction between domestic and international publications reveals some differences in terms of funding structures. For instance, Turkey and Iran are dominated by one or two major funders whereas a few other countries like Saudi Arabia showcase multiple funders. Iran and Kuwait are examples of countries where research is mainly funded by domestic funders. The government and academic sectors mainly fund scientific research in MENA whereas the industry sector plays little or no role in terms of research funding. Lastly, the qualitative analyses provide more context into the complex funding mechanism. The findings of this study contribute to a better understanding of the funding structure in MENA countries and provide insights to funders and research managers to evaluate the funding landscape.

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Introduction

Funding organizations play a significant role in the advancement of science (Braun, 1998 ). In addition to funding provided to public universities and research institutions, they also fund researchers on specific and selective programs. Latour and Woolgar ( 1986 ) argue that scientific facts are not simply “discovered” but actively constructed through social processes in the laboratory. Funding acknowledgments in scientific papers are part of these processes. They give credit to individuals and organizations that contributed to the research. They are also used for self-promotion by researchers to show their connections to prestigious organizations, influential colleagues and well-funded projects (Latour & Woolgar, 1986 ). Analyzing funding acknowledgments can reveal hidden networks of scientific collaborations, social dynamics within and between research teams but also the social context and the dynamics that shaped the research reported in scientific publications (Cronin & Weaver, 1995 ). Since 2008, funding acknowledgments found in scientific publications have been captured in the Web of Science (Clarivate, 2022 ). Such data enables researchers to conduct analyses on funding sources (Alvarez-Bornstein & Montesi, 2021 ; Giles & Councill, 2004 ; Paul-Hus et al., 2016 ). Early research on funding acknowledgments analyzed the coverage by country, disciplines, and document types as well as methods to unify funding organizations (Álvarez-Bornstein et al., 2017 ; Costas & van Leeuwen, 2012 ; Sirtes & Riechert, 2014 ). Later, research analyzing funding acknowledgments focused on funding mechanisms. Möller ( 2019 ) identified the major funders and their contribution to the nationwide performance in five European countries. Wang et al. ( 2012 ) compared the research funding systems in ten countries and found that China is dominated by a single funder whereas the United Kingdom has more funding sources. Other studies focused on specific groups of countries such as the G9 countries (Huang & Huang, 2018 ), the Global South (Chankseliani, 2023 ), the BRICS (Shueb & Gul, 2023 ), or specific countries (Alvarez & Caregnato, 2018 , 2021 ; Álvarez-Bornstein et al., 2018 ; Costas & Yegros-Yegros, 2013 ; Díaz-Faes & Bordons, 2014 ; Gao et al., 2019 ; Gök et al., 2016 ). More recently, Chataway et al. ( 2019 ) analyzed the trends in science funding support in Sub-Saharan Africa and found that the levels of funding and cross-country engagement were low and that there was a need for capacity building. They also noted that there was a growing interest towards science funding in Sub-Saharan Africa at the national, regional, and international levels.

Traditionally, economies in MENA have been dependent and centralized around natural resources (World Bank, 2019 ). In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), nations have been looking to become knowledge-based economies (OECD, 1996 ). For example, oil-exporting countries established research funds and new universities as part of their transition to knowledge economies (Currie-Alder, 2019 ). A report from UNESCO ( 2015 ) provides some insights into the funding of science in MENA. At that time, the investment in Research and Development reported by UNESCO was reported as low in the region. However, some changes were already taking place in terms of funding allocation, priority setting and promotion of collaboration to address large-scale societal challenges (Currie-Alder, 2019 ). Considerable investments in science and technology capacity have been made recently in MENA countries to promote research and innovation (Schmoch et al., 2016 ; Shin et al., 2012 ; Siddiqi et al., 2016 ). These investments resulted in the expansion of research funds over the past two decades in several Arabic-speaking countries (Currie-Alder, 2015 ; Currie-Alder et al., 2018 ) with research assessments privileging “collaboration with distant, scientifically proficient partners abroad, in order to connect with global networks and rise in international rankings of academic quality”.

To the best of my knowledge, no analysis of funding acknowledgments found in scientific publications has been conducted to better understand the structure and the trends of scientific funding for this specific region. This study aligns with a larger framework of scholarly communication where acknowledgments are used along authorship and citations as the “reward triangle” (Cronin & Weaver, 1995 ). This framework allows “a more nuanced understanding of scholarly communication and interaction” (Cronin, 1995 ). Analyses of funding acknowledgments reveal the broader research science ecosystem that sustains research activities. In this broader ecosystem, Cronin’s concept of “subauthors” encompasses the significant contributions and roles played by people and organizations in both the development of research and the writing of scientific papers (Cronin et al., 2003 ). Acknowledgments have also been frequently considered as “super citations” (Cronin et al., 1993 ). Acknowledgments and citations show a high level of cultural consensus, and both describe networks of interactions and influence (Cronin & Weaver, 1995 ). Since funding acknowledgments “provide a revealing window onto trends in collaboration beyond co-authorship” (Cronin & Weaver, 1995 ), their study may also inform research managers and policy makers by guiding funding strategies or by unveiling hidden synergies and influence that cannot be identified through regular co-authorship or citation analyses.

In the context of recent investments made in science and technology in MENA countries, this study compares the contribution of their research funders from the research publications perspective. This article explores the structure and the recent trends in science funding in MENA with reflections at the regional and national levels. This study also aims to better understand the funding mechanism in science with regard to collaboration and publishing.

More specifically, in this study, I address the following research questions:

To what extent has the funding structure evolved over the past few years in MENA?

What are the characteristics of the major funders in MENA, in terms of type and location?

These aspects provide insights into the landscape of funders in MENA. These insights are also particularly helpful for policymakers to better understand the funding structures in various national science systems.

This paper is organized as follows. “Data and methods” Section describes the data and the methods used to analyze the funding acknowledgments in the MENA region. Then, the results of the analyses are presented in “Findings” Section Finally, the findings of this study are briefly discussed in “Discussion and conclusions” Section .

Data and methods

Geographic coverage.

According to the World Bank ( 2019 ), MENA consists of the following countries: Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia (KSA), Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Yemen. Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Turkey are also considered in this study as they are commonly included in the MENA region (MENAP and MENAT).

Data source

This analysis is based on the scientific publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS) which contains greater coverage of funding acknowledgments than other data sources such as Scopus or PubMed (Kokol & Vošner, 2018 ; Liu, 2020 ; Mugabushaka et al., 2022 ; Sterligov et al., 2020 ). All document types published between 2008 and 2021 with at least one author affiliated with an institution in MENA and indexed in one of the citation indexes of WoS are considered in this study. 2.3 M publications satisfy these criteria as of 31 October 2022.

Table 1 lists the number of publications (P) indexed in WoS for all the countries in MENA between 2008 and 2021 along with the proportion of international co-authorship (%Int). Countries with similar output levels in terms of scientific publications are shaded in Table 1 with the same color.

As also shown in Table 1 , it is worth reminding that these countries have different sizes in terms of population, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Research and Development Expenditure (RDE as % of GDP) (World Bank, 2023 ), and funding structures that we aim to better understand in this study.

Data unification

WoS contains four fields with funding information (Clarivate, 2023 ):

Funding Text (FT): funding acknowledgments of the authors.

Funding Details (FD): descriptive grant data acquired from external grant repositories.

Grant Number (FG)

Funder (FO): name of the funding organization.

This study is based on the Funder names found in the Funding Text. Out of the 2.3 M publications in the dataset under study, close to 1.6 M (68%) do not contain funding data. A semi-automated process with human and manual quality checks was used to unify the non-unified FO names found in the remaining publications. This process is represented in Fig. 1 .

Semi-automated process of the standardization of funders names

There are many different variant names for each funding organization with many linked to only one or two publications. During this unification process, the objective was to identify and unify all the funders for each MENA country which contribute to at least 1% of the publications at the national level.

The first step of this unification process consists of extracting the FO variant names from the publications of the dataset under study. The frequency of occurrence is calculated for each variant. Next, the FO variant names are preprocessed by removing duplicates resulting in 41,182 unique variant names. A key step in the unification process is to create a controlled vocabulary of variant names by considering the most frequently used ones as proposed by Wang and Shapira ( 2011 ) and Sirtes ( 2013 ). The most frequent variants are then clustered by using fuzzy matching techniques provided by the Dataiku platform (Dataiku, 2023 ). 5,242 initial clusters are obtained as a result. These clusters are manually verified, and the incorrectly matched variant names are excluded from their initial clusters. The fuzzy matching algorithm is then reapplied on the labels of the obtained clusters, until no more clusters are created. The clustering is manually checked after each iteration.

The full names of the funders, found by searching the labels of the clusters on the web, were preferred as the unified names over their acronyms to avoid confusion between funders sharing the same acronyms across different countries. For example: “Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research” was preferred over “MOHESR”. When possible, based on the funding text, the country of origin of the funder is added for clarity to such ambiguous names. Also, in many cases, authors only mention the names of the funding programs in their acknowledgments. In such instances, the program names were searched on the Internet and linked to the preferred name of the corresponding FO in the controlled vocabulary.

For each unified name a country was assigned. The country of the funder is not always mentioned in the acknowledgments. Based on the funder’s name, a search on the internet allowed to find the relevant country of the funder. This information is used in the analyses to classify a funder as either domestic or foreign , from the perspective of the country of the related publications, but also as a funder located in or outside the MENA region. It is worth noting that some funders or programs are international. In such case, the relevant region or group of countries’ names were assigned (e.g. Europe, Arabia, South Asia…).

Then, a type was assigned to each funder by using the existing classification of funders defined by Clarivate and available in WoS and InCites (Clarivate, 2023 ): Academic, Academic System, Corporate, Global Corporate, Government, Health, National Academy, Nonprofit, Partnership, Research Council, and Research Institute. In most cases, applying this typology to funders was done as follows. For instance, if the name of a funder contained the string “Universi”, then the Academic type was assigned to this agency. Similarly, when “Minist” was found, the Government type was assigned. If “Hospital” or “hopit” was found in the agency name, the funder was classified as Health . Similarly, “council”, “conseil”, “conselho”, “consejo” were searched to assign the relevant type. Names of funders containing “Assoc” or “Foundation” or “Fondation” were classified as Nonprofit unless related to the government. Other strings such as “Inc”, “Corp”, “GMBH”, “LLC”, “Co Ltd” were evidence of a Corporate type, with the Global Corporate type defined as a company that operates in two or more countries. For the rest, similarly to the location assignment, web searches were used to assign the relevant type to the remaining funders.

As a simple example, “University Mohammed VI Polytechnic” is the official name of a university located in Morocco acknowledged as a funder and the preferred name of the following variant names:

Mohammed VI Polytechnic University

Mohammed VI Polytechnic University at Ben Guerir Morocco

Mohammed VI Polytechnic University de Benguerir Morocco

Mohammed VI Polytechnic University Morocco

Mohammed VI Polytechnic University of Benguerir

Mohammed VI Polytechnic University of Benguerir Morocco

Mohammed VI Polytechnic University UM6P of Ben Guerir Morocco

Mohammed VI Polytechnic University UM6P of Benguerir Morocco

University of Mohammed VI Polytechnic

University of Mohammed VI Polytechnic Ben Guerir Morocco

Welcome Grant From The Mohammed VI Polytechnic University UM6P of Ben Guerir Morocco

Welcome Grant of The Mohammed VI Polytechnic University UM6P

Mohammed VI Polytechnic University UM6P

University Mohammed VI Polytechnic

The following variant names could not be unified nor assigned to a single funder and a single country as there are multiple entities with the same name located in different countries around the world:

Deanship of the Scientific Research

Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology

Department of Scientific Research

Ministry of Public Health

Ministry of Science and Education

University of Technology

These variants were not included in the dataset under study.

Unified funders in MENA

Table 2 lists the number of unified funders in MENA before and after the unification process along with the share they represent across the region. 1,254 names of funders from 69 countries were already unified in WoS as of 31 October 2022, with 236 of them located in 8 MENA countries, mainly in Turkey and to a lesser extent in Egypt. After the unification, the dataset under study contains 1,039 unified names of funders from the 22 MENA countries as of 16 March 2023. The list of unified funders with their type and country is available in a data repository (El-Ouahi, 2023 ).

After the unification process, the unified names of the funders cover now all the MENA countries with Iran and Turkey dominating the region in terms of number of funders, followed by Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Egypt. The number of funders varies between countries, reflecting differences in the size of countries in terms of funding capacity or publication level (as shown in Table 1 ) and also in funding structures.

Counting method and proportion of papers with funding acknowledgments

Various analyses were conducted using WoS data. A full counting method was used in this study, i.e., co-authored publications at the country level are fully counted as a publication of each country. Similarly, publications with acknowledgments of multiple funders at the country level were fully counted for each funder.

The number of funders and their contribution to each country’s publications depends also on the presence of foreign funding organizations which have provided funds to international co-authors. The foreign funding agencies acknowledged in scientific publications of MENA countries might have been acknowledged by international co-authors who collaborated with researchers based in MENA. Hence, in this study, an important distinction is made between the contribution of funders to international publications (IP, i.e., a country publication with at least one international co-author) and the contribution the funders have when considering only domestic publications (DP, i.e., a country publication without international co-authors).

The proportion of papers with funding acknowledgments (PWFAs) for a given country is defined as the number of papers from this country with funding acknowledgments divided by the total number of papers counted for that same country. The proportion of papers with funding acknowledgments is calculated for domestic publications (%DPWFA) and for international publications (%IPWFA).

Limitations

The analysis of funding acknowledgments is a complex task because such data is usually included in a separate section of a scientific paper in a non-structured way along with other types of acknowledgments (Cronin, 1995 ). Thus, analyzing funding acknowledgments from raw data and unifying the names of funders with a proper typology is not a straightforward task. Such analysis comes with certain limitations that one needs to be aware of when analyzing funding acknowledgments (Aagaard et al., 2021 ; Paul-Hus et al., 2016 ; Sirtes & Riechert, 2014 ; Tang et al., 2017 ; Wang & Shapira, 2015 ). There might be a certain impact of cultural factors on what authors acknowledge in their papers (Rigby, 2011 ); funding acknowledgments may focus on external funding bodies and may tend to significantly ignore internal resources received from the researchers’ own institutions. It has been shown that authors do not always acknowledge their funders (Costas & Yegros-Yegros, 2013 ) and that acknowledgment practices vary depending on research areas (Grassano et al., 2017 ). Hence, the analysis of funding acknowledgments may offer only a partial view on the landscape of funding organizations. Last, this study is limited to scientific papers published only in journals indexed in Web of Science. Álvarez-Bornstein et al. ( 2017 ) explored the completeness and accuracy of funding acknowledgments in the Web of Science and found that some funding information was lost in 12% of the articles of their dataset. Figure 2 shows the proportion of publications with funding acknowledgments that present complete funding information (FO, FT and FG) in the current study’s dataset.

Percentage of PWFAs with complete funding information (FO, FT and FG) in MENA countries and the World (2008–2021)

About 60% of the PWFAs from MENA published between 2008 and 2021 present complete funding information, i.e., the publications contain the FO, FT and FG information in their related records. This proportion varies by country. Turkey, Qatar and Saudi Arabia lead the region with more than 70% of their PWFAs containing complete funding information. By contrast, PWFAs from Djibouti, Syria and Iran show a proportion of about 40% of records with complete funding information.

All these caveats must be kept in mind when analyzing and interpreting funding data. Also, the specific funding level or the project types supported by the funders are not considered in this study. Despite all these limitations, the funding acknowledgments available in WoS provide an important information resource to answer questions related to research funding. More specifically, this data offers some opportunities to explore the source of the funding received by researchers in terms of location and type of funder. Also, the large scale of data availability allows for country comparisons.

Proportion of PWFAs by country

Before analyzing the unified funders, the proportion of papers with funding acknowledgments (PWFAs) is examined for each country in MENA. These proportions are shown in Fig. 3 , which also includes the share of PWFAs at the MENA and World levels as benchmarks. Here a distinction is made between the international publications of a country and its domestic publications, i.e., publications without international co-authors.

When looking at the international publications, the proportion of PWFAs is 61% for the World and 49% for the MENA region. Figure 3 shows that Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Pakistan and Djibouti lead the region in terms of proportion of IPWFAs. It is worth reminding that the countries in MENA have different levels of scientific output. For example, Yemen, Palestine, Libya, Syria, Bahrain, Afghanistan and Djibouti are countries with fewer than 7,500 WoS-indexed papers published between 2008 and 2021 and with a relatively high level of international co-authorship, as shown in Table 1 . Djibouti counts the lowest output with only 256 publications during the same period and has an international co-authorship rate of 92%. These countries show a much lower proportion of PWFAs for their domestic publications than for all their international publications. This suggests that a relatively high share of funders found in PWFAs of such countries might have been acknowledged by international co-authors who collaborated with researchers from these specific countries. In contrast, some other countries such as Iran, Kuwait show small differences in terms of proportions of PWFAs when comparing their publications with and without international co-authors.

Percentage of PWFAs for international (%IPWFA) and domestic publications (%DPWFA) in MENA countries and the World (2008–2021)

The trend of the proportion of the PWFAs for each MENA country over the study period is shown in Fig. 4 , with a distinction between the international publications of a country (%IPWFA) and its domestic publications (%DPWFA). The trends for the World and the MENA region are also included as benchmarks with dotted lines. This figure provides some additional insights into the evolution of the funding of scientific publications in MENA.

Trends of the percentage of publications with funding acknowledgments for domestic and international publications in MENA countries and the World (2008–2021)

One can notice the upward trends across most countries as well as in the World and MENA. These uptrends of the proportion of PWFAs can be observed in the international publications as well as in the domestic publications of each country. It is worth noting that the MENA countries as well as the world started from a relatively low level of PWFAs in 2008 (approximately 10% on average), which might be due to low coverage of funding acknowledgments in publications in WoS in 2008. Another reason could be a lack of funding acknowledgments made by researchers in their publications in the early years of the study period. Acknowledging funders explicitly in scientific publications might have been less common in the past than it is currently.

The countries are shown in Fig. 4 from the highest average proportion of PWFAs between 2008 and 2021 (top left) to the lowest (bottom right) when considering the international publications of the country. Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Pakistan lead the region. The high growth of the proportion of PWFAs in Saudi Arabia, Qatar and the UAE may also reflect the investment in research and funding policies recently set in these countries. In the early 2000s, according to its Seventh Development Plan, Saudi Arabia increased its total amount of spending on research and development activities with the goal to reach 2% of its GDP by 2025 (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ministry of Economy & Planning, 2000 ). This level of investment in research brought Saudi Arabia from being the 50th largest spender in the world in 2009 to the 16th rank in 2016; one example of such spending on research in Saudi Arabia consisted of the establishment of King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) in 2009, which currently has a 20-billion-dollar endowment (Research Professional, 2020 ). This increase is also highlighted in the recent Saudi National Transformation Program 2020 (Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030, 2020 ). Similarly, the Ministry of Education in the UAE set a target of 1.5% of its GDP for 2021 for the expenditure on research and development. In addition to internal funding for research provided by Higher Education Institutions in the UAE, a few national sources of funding are available, such as the Abu Dhabi Department of Education and Knowledge Award, the Sheikh Hamdan Award for Medical Sciences and more recently the National Fund or Sandooq Al Watan (Al Marzouqi et al., 2019 ). In Qatar, the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) was established in 2006 as a national organization with the mission to fund and promote research in Qatar as well as scientific research cooperation. As a result of such development, QNRF awarded $650 million in grants in the first 7 years of its existence (Weber, 2014 ).

For most countries, the trends in the proportion of PWFAs for domestic and international publications are similar, but some countries stand out. For instance, the differences between the proportion of PWFAs in international and domestic publications is relatively small for Iran, and Kuwait throughout the study period and for Qatar in recent years. The differences between the share of PWFAs in domestic and international publications are relatively constant for several countries such as Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Jordan, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Morocco, Algeria and Bahrain. However, these differences are increasing for Yemen, Libya, Egypt and more specifically Pakistan and Tunisia, which both show a slight decrease of the share of PWFAs in its domestic publications in recent years.

Syria, and Afghanistan show downtrends in the share of PWFAs in recent years, which might be due to the recent conflicts or unrest in these countries. Figure 4 also reveals a decrease of the share of PWFAs around 2013 for some countries, such as Tunisia, Libya, or Yemen. It is unclear what caused these decreases. One reason could be the so-called Arab Spring which impacted several countries in the region. Then, the share of PWFAs increased in these countries in the following years. Science systems are particularly vulnerable to wars, social and political unrests, which limit the availability of funding granted to scientists or may even damage the national science systems.

Major funders in MENA

The unified data allows the identification of the major funders for each MENA country. Table 3 lists the number of major agencies for each country in MENA with the distinction between the publications of the country with and without international co-authors. Major funders are defined as agencies which contribute to at least 1% of a country’s total number of publications with and without international co-authors indexed in WoS.

These results suggest that MENA countries seem to have different structures of research funding systems. Several dozen funders appear in at least 1% of the national number of international publications in countries such as Palestine, Qatar and Morocco. It appears that these countries have more diversified funding sources than countries dominated by one or two major agencies like Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Bahrain. Other countries such as Djibouti, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, or Egypt show a few funders. However, when considering only domestic publications, there is a clear decrease in the number of funders for all the countries in MENA. This decrease is particularly greater for the countries with a relatively high rate of international co-authorship. Table 3 also allows to make a distinction between countries in MENA with only one or more funders based on their contributions to domestic publications. Saudi Arabia shows the highest number of funders acknowledged in domestic publications than any other country in MENA. Then Jordan, Lebanon, Iran, Qatar and the UAE follow. Then, several countries such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia or Pakistan count only one major funder contributing to domestic publications.

Overall, Table 3 provides a snapshot of the number of funders in the MENA countries. It provides some useful information about the potential funding support available for each country.

To better understand the structure of research funding in MENA, when available, Table 4 lists the three main funders for each country (CU) in MENA based on the related number of domestic publications with funding acknowledgments (DPWFAs), the proportion these publications represent over the total number of domestic publications (%DP) over the study period, the country of the funder (FCU) and its type.

Unsurprisingly, Table 4 lists almost exclusively domestic funders, except for Afghanistan, Djibouti and Syria. For some countries like Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Bahrain, and Turkey it was not possible to find three funders because they are dominated by a single funder. Then, the countries dominated by double funders include Iran, Iraq, Libya, and Tunisia. The academic sector is the most prominent contributor across MENA with 24 universities contributing more than 1% of the total number of domestic publications in their countries. Then, the government institutions, mainly ministries of higher education and research, national research centers, foundations, or funds. Libya and Yemen are not listed in Table 5 since there is no major funder acknowledged in their domestic publications.

When available, the top three funders of international publications are listed in Table 5 along with the number of publications with funding acknowledgments (IPWFAs), the related proportion (%IP) for the corresponding country of publication (CU) over the study period, the country of the funder (FCU) and its type. This table also provides some information in terms of source of funding support received. For most countries in MENA, the funders are government organizations or organizations related to government entities. One can also see that, for some countries, the academic sector appears as the major contributing funders type since the main universities of these countries contribute to a large proportion of the national output and are acknowledged in their scientific publications. These findings also show that most important funders in Middle East countries such as Saudi Arabia, UAE, Oman, Bahrain, and Jordan are universities by contrast to North African countries. Universities in the Middle East are granted direct government funds to support research initiatives in an independent way, however research funding is regulated through national calls for research projects in North Africa as confirmed previously by Currie-Alder ( 2015 ) and Hanafi and Arvanitis ( 2015 ).

Also, the location of the funders allows to distinguish countries dominated by domestic or foreign funders. Most countries in MENA have at least one major domestic funder contributing to international publications. Afghanistan, UAE, Bahrain, Egypt, Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Yemen are the exceptions. In the case of Egypt and Yemen, King Saud University in Saudi Arabia appears as a main funder. This might be due to non-Saudi researchers who are affiliated to Saudi institutions and list them as affiliations (Bhattacharjee, 2011 ) but also as funders. The United States of America, the United Kingdom, China, Japan, South Korea. Malaysia and some European countries such as France, Germany or Spain, are the locations of the main foreign funders. This suggests some relatively strong funding ties between specific countries and the MENA region. Saudi Arabia and Iran are the only countries in MENA appearing as a foreign location of one funder: King Saud University is the main funder in the case of Egypt and Yemen. Similarly, the National Institute of Health Research of Iran appears as a main funder located in MENA for Bahrain.

Location and type of major funders

To characterize further the funding landscape in MENA, the analysis of the location of all the major funders allows us to determine the geographical source of the funding granted to research projects in which researchers in the MENA region participated. Several distinctions can be made between domestic and foreign funders, but also between MENA and non-MENA funders. The contribution of all the funders by location is shown in Fig. 5 for each country in MENA based on the share of publications where their name appears in the funding acknowledgments.

Share of PWFAs of major funders in WoS with international co-authors (top) and only domestic authors (bottom) broken down by location type for each country in MENA (2008–2021)

When considering the international publications, Fig. 5 shows that several countries in MENA, such as Palestine, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Algeria, Morocco and Bahrain have a significant share of contribution of foreign funders not located in MENA (top chart in Fig. 5 ). This might be due to the presence of foreign funders acknowledged by international co-authors in the related publications. It is also possible that some foreign funders have specific funding programs focused on collaboration with researchers located in MENA.

Countries like Tunisia, Oman, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Yemen show a higher involvement of both domestic and foreign funders (top chart). Turkey and Iran are dominated by one domestic funder as listed previously in Table 4 .

When focusing only on domestic publications, most MENA countries show an exclusive contribution of domestic funders (bottom chart). However, researchers located in a few MENA countries such as Djibouti, Syria and Afghanistan acknowledged foreign funders in a substantial share of their publications. Also, it is worth noting that Libya and Yemen do not show any major contribution of funders in their domestic publications.

It seems the distribution of funders by location has become diverse in recent years for specific countries in MENA. However, the level of diversity in funding sources varies between MENA countries. These findings partially reveal that some differences exist between countries in MENA in terms of domestic funding capabilities and funding structures with some science systems relying more on foreign funding support than other economies especially when considering their international co-publications.

Another characteristic of funders considered in this section is their type. In Fig. 6 , the contribution of funders based on the share of publications where they are acknowledged is broken down by type for each country in MENA. As for the top 3 funders shown in Table 4 , the government agencies seem to be the most active in the region in terms of research funding. Then, the academic funders, the nonprofit funding organizations and the research councils follow. Figure 6 also shows that some countries with a relatively high number of funders such as Qatar, Palestine, and Morocco have a contribution to international publications from a diverse range of agency types (right of the top chart). The chart also highlights the strong presence of government funders in all MENA countries and academic funders in most countries.

Share of PWFAs of major funders in WoS with international co-authors (top) and only domestic authors (bottom) broken by agency type for each country in MENA (2008–2021)

However, when focusing only on the domestic publications (bottom chart), the types of the funders are less diverse than in the international publications. The government and academic sectors appear to be the major contributors in terms of publications with funding acknowledgments. In most countries in MENA, the government and/or academic sector are even the sole major source of funding acknowledged in domestic publications. However, a few countries such as Oman, Kuwait, Qatar but also Egypt and Lebanon still show other types of funders including research institutes, nonprofit and research councils being also main domestic sources of funding.

These results are aligned with statistics reported by UNESCO ( 2015 ). The bulk of Global Expenditure on Research and Development (GERD) in many countries in MENA is reported to be performed mainly by the government sector, followed by the higher education sector. At the time of the report, the UNESCO also highlights that the private sector plays a small or no role in the research activities. However, some exceptions such as Jordan, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Tunisia and the UAE where the private sector did contribute on average 25% of GERD. But such contribution is not necessarily reflected in the funding acknowledgments found in scientific publications as per the results of this study. This may suggest that these funding contributions are directly not visible in the scientific publications as the final outputs but may support other purposes such as funding of patenting activities or commercialization efforts. Also, the funding support provided to research and development activities may also simply be reflected in the affiliations of the authors of a scientific publication.

Qualitative analyses of funding acknowledgments in international publications

To complement the previous results, several qualitative analyses of funding acknowledgments found in distinct random samples of international publications were conducted.

Based on the previous scientometric analyses, the clarity of research funding remains a challenge when acknowledged in international publications. It is not very clear who the funding recipient is. The first random sample (S1) is composed of 100 random international papers with funding acknowledgments. The purpose of analyzing this sample is to gain deeper insights into the context of the funding reported in such international publications.

Tables 4 and 5 highlight the significant presence of universities in funding acknowledgments. In many instances, universities seem to play a funder role. Notably, in domestic publications (Table 4 ), universities appear to be prominent funding contributors. The second random sample (S2) contains 25 random papers with at least one university acknowledged as a funder. The aim of the analysis of this sample is to clarify the funding structure when a university is acknowledged in the funding statement of a scientific publication.

These two random samples were extracted from the in-house version of the Web of Science T-SQL database held at the Centre for Science and Technology Studies-CWTS (Leiden University). Random sampling SQL queries with relevant clauses were run to obtain the random samples (S1: 100 IPWFAs with at least an author from MENA. S2: 25 IPWFAs with at least one university acknowledged as a funder). The MENA countries these two random samples correspond to are shown in Fig. 7 .

Number of publications by MENA country for each random sample

The funding acknowledgments found in the papers of these two random samples were analyzed manually. The data was structured based on groups of recurring themes relevant to the research questions of this study.

A qualitative analysis of funding acknowledgments in 100 random international publications

Several elements were analyzed in the first random sample. Findings are reported in Table 6 . The first element of this analysis consists of analyzing whether the funding is attributed to specific author(s). 30% of the international publications with funding acknowledgments of this random sample contain information about the attribution of the reported funding support. In most cases, authors simply juxtaposition the funders from which they receive funding and do not mention who received the funding. In about two thirds of publications with attributable funding, the funding is granted to the international co-author.

Then, the second aspect of the manual analysis concerns the acknowledgment of the authors affiliations. About half of the publications show an acknowledgment of at least one of the affiliations of the authors, i.e., the employers of the researchers, and 46% of the publications contain the grant details of the funding support received by the authors.

Next, the locations of the acknowledged funders were also analyzed from the perspective of the MENA country for which the publication is counted. It is worth reminding that the IPWFAs are fully counted against the location of each acknowledged funder that can be of mixed origin, with a distinction between domestic funding (the funder shares the same location as the MENA country for which the publication is counted) and foreign funding (the funder is located in a foreign country in MENA or Non-MENA). The full counting of IPWFAs by funder location explains why the total percentage by funder location exceeds 100%. In this first random sample, the share of foreign funders from MENA and non-MENA countries is 79% and 9% respectively. However, the proportion of domestic funders is 42%.

Similarly, funders acknowledged in publications can be of mixed type and IPWFAs are fully counted towards each type. This also explains why the total percentage of IPWFAs by funder type exceeds 100%. This first random sample shows a relatively high variety of funders in terms of types. Government funders represent the highest share (64%), followed by academic (47%) and nonprofit ones (20%).

Overall, these findings confirm the results of “Major funders in MENA” Section found with regards to the locations and types of the acknowledged funders. Additionally, a substantial share of publications contains funding acknowledgments to the authors’ employers. However, the funding is attributed to specific authors in a lesser extent. In these international publications with attributable funding, about two thirds of them show that the funding is granted to the international co-author.

A qualitative analysis of 25 random publications with at least one university acknowledged as a funder

Like Table 6 , Table 7 lists the different elements analyzed in the second random sample consisting of 25 random publications with at least one university acknowledged as a funder. In this sample, the funding is explicitly attributed to a specific author in 24% of the publications. In most cases, authors simply juxtaposition the funders from which they receive funding without explicit attribution. Nevertheless, all the publications in this sample contain an acknowledgment of the university with which at least one of the authors is affiliated.

This sample consists of publications which mention at least one university as a funder which explains the 100% value for the proportion of publications with a funder of academic type. About one third of the publications of this sample also acknowledge a government funder. Global corporates are also acknowledged but in a much lesser extent (4%).

In terms of locations of the acknowledged funders, the share of foreign funders (MENA and non-MENA) in the first and second random samples are similar. However, the proportion of domestic funders is substantially higher in the second sample than in the first one, respectively 72% and 42%. In fact, in the second random sample, all the MENA authors acknowledge their employers, i.e., the universities where they work, as their funding providers. In most cases, the acknowledgments found in that sample consist of giving credit to the authors’ employers without specific details. In such instances, the authors may simply refer to the salaries they receive from their employers to conduct research. However, other funding acknowledgments provide more details in terms of received funding support (awards of grants with grant details, purchase of equipment, travel exchange programs, special projects, etc.).

Survey of 220 corresponding authors of IPWFAs

In order to contextualize the previous results, this section presents the findings of the survey of 220 corresponding authors of 220 IPWFAs constituting the third random sample (10 publications for each country in MENA). The corresponding authors of these papers were contacted by email with a series of open and closed questions related to the funding reported in their publications. Each email was personalized, featuring title and a direct link to the related IPWFA but also the list of acknowledged funders. The primary objectives of these questions were to determine whether:

The reported funding was dedicated to a specific research project, or if the funding was internal (e.g., salaried research time),

The funding was shared among co-authors,

And whether there were any requirements regarding international collaboration with specific countries.

28 responses were received, representing a response rate of 12.7%. Response rates of surveys vary based on multiple factors such as the employed survey method, the demographics of the surveyed population, or the field (Langfeldt et al., 2023 ). However, 12.7% is higher than what is observed in a similar online email survey of researchers (Ni & Waltman, 2023 ).

The countries of affiliation of the 28 corresponding authors of the IPWFAs, at the time of publication, are listed in Table 8 . MENA countries are marked with an asterisk symbol. It is worth reminding that the corresponding authors of international publications were not necessarily from MENA at the time of publication of the IPWFAs under study and that some corresponding authors had multiple affiliations from different countries.

Quotes are reported in this section to illustrate the findings. These responses were grouped under three topics:

The distinction between funding received for a dedicated research project and the internal funding or salary received from the author’s employer to do research,

The distinction between research projects where the funding is shared among all co-authors and the juxtaposition of research funding acknowledged in publications,

And requirements in terms of international collaboration.

Dedicated funding versus salaried research time

Out of the 28 responses, 10 authors clarified that the funding support they received was dedicated to the research reported in their paper. Several answers provide insights into the distinction between research funding dedicated to specific projects and the internal funding or salary received from the authors’ employers to conduct research. The authors’ statements emphasize the source and purpose of the funding they received, clarifying the nature of financial support for their research activities.

In the first two quotes below, the funding is explicitly described as being provided for dedicated research projects. The mention of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the University Grants Commission highlights the origin of these funds, which were granted for specific research initiatives. This indicates that the research was intentionally supported by external and specific entities, underlining the clear distinction between these funds and internal resources. Here, the funding is attributed through PhD programs.

The first author was a PhD student at that time and these funds were granted from the French ministry of foreign affairs.

In the second quote below, the author also mentions specific programs with the pharmaceutical industry. This may suggest a close collaboration between the author’s university and the pharmaceutical company which funds specific research projects.

Yes, it was a funded project. I was a Ph.D. student on this project. This project was granted by UGC [University Grants Commission] to my supervisor. This research was funded through pharmaceutical research programs.

The following quote illustrates how dedicated funding was provided for investigating a specific topic, in this case, waterpipe tobacco smoking. The grant was awarded by a major funder, the US National Institutes of Health, aligning the financial support directly with the research subject. This quote also emphasizes the targeted nature of funding for research purposes.

The two US National Institutes of Health grants (one from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and the other from the National Cancer Institute) that were cited in the publication were both awarded for the investigative team to study waterpipe tobacco smoking, which is the subject of the publication. So, yes, this funding was provided (in part) and "dedicated" for the purpose of studying the questions that were addressed in this publication. We were also funded to address other questions on the same topic (waterpipe tobacco smoking)

The final quote provides an example where the research did not receive dedicated funding. Instead, the authors’ institutions were contracted to provide technical support, leading to collaborative publications resulting from this collaboration. This scenario demonstrates how research outputs can arise from support work, even when the funding is not explicitly dedicated to the research at hand. The author also clearly mentions that, in some cases, scientific publications are expected to be produced from certain types of technical and research works.

We did not receive dedicated funding for the research in this paper. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (JHSPH) and the Indian Institute of Health Management Research (IIHMR) were contracted by the Ministry of Public Health of Afghanistan as a third party to support monitoring and evaluation of their basic and hospital package of services. However, this work resulted in many joint publications between JHSPH and IIHMR researchers and MoPH officials. Institutions such as Hopkins pretty much expect publications to result from all technical support work.

Overall, these quotes clarify the significance of understanding the source, purpose, and intentions behind research funding. The distinction between funding dedicated to specific projects and internal resources is crucial for accurately assessing the financial landscape of scientific research.

Shared funding among co-authors or juxtaposition of research funding?

Out of 28 responses, 4 authors mentioned that the received funding was shared among the co-authors. Several answers from the corresponding authors allows to make the distinction between research projects where funding is shared among all co-authors and projects where each researcher reports their individual funding. Their answers emphasize how funding is allocated, acknowledged, and used within collaborative research efforts.

The first two quotes are instances where the funding is distributed among co-authors. In the first quote, the authors highlight that some co-authors received salaries from the reported funding, underscoring the shared nature of the financial support.

A couple of co-authors received salary from the reported funding to carry out the studies.

The second quote indicates that salaries for multiple authors were drawn from the combined funding sources, reinforcing the collaborative aspect of the project.

This paper was the result of a collaboration that was supported by a grant that I received from the Swiss National Science Foundation, as well as funding from the Leenards and Jeantet Foundations. Salaries for 7 of the authors were drawn from these fundings.

In contrast, the acknowledged funding is not shared by co-authors in most cases. The authors tend to mention and use independently the funding they receive. The subsequent quotes reveal situations where acknowledged funding is not shared among co-authors. Authors simply mention and utilize individual funding independently, indicating a non-shared funding approach.

Maziak, Rastam, Ibrahim and Ward were funded by (and salary supported by) DA024876, while Shihadeh was funded by (and salary supported by) CA120142). Eissenberg was funded by (and salary supported by) both DA024786 and CA120142.

This approach seems more frequent in cases where co-authors have distinct funding sources, as showcased in quotes where different co-authors used different funding sources based on their country of origin.

Different co-authors used different funding sources. Netherlands’ and Turkish funding was granted to the authors from The Netherlands and Turkey.

The two quotes below provide context into projects where external funding is not the primary factor behind collaboration. In one case, the research was not externally funded, and the authors leveraged their own affiliations for acknowledgment.

This was not externally funded. The study was run by a PhD student (who was externally funded by the Libyan government to do her PhD) and myself (fully funded by the University of Liverpool). We could have described it as ‘Funded by the Libyan Government’ – but they funded the student to do the PhD, not the clinical trial. So, we just used University of Liverpool as that is my university and the place of the PhD.

In another, the collaboration is driven by shared research interests rather than shared funding.

I knew Victor and Wissem much earlier than the time when we wrote the paper. The fact we share mathematical research interest is the only reason why we collaborated. There is no special shared funding relating to this article/work. The mentioned grants were used by the specified authors only.

These quotes collectively highlight the diverse approaches to acknowledging and sharing research funding among co-authors. While some collaborations involve shared financial resources, others rely on individual funding sources. This variability reflects the complexity of funding dynamics within collaborative research projects, where both shared and non-shared funding models play a role in driving scientific research activities.

International collaboration requirements

The survey of the corresponding authors also offers insights into the requirements imposed by funders for international collaborations in specific research projects. Their answers illustrate how the support provided by funders can influence the nature and extent of collaboration between researchers from different countries.

The first quote below points to a collaboration facilitated by the supervisor of a PhD student. This suggests that the collaboration was likely influenced by the co-author’s institutional connection, showcasing how affiliations with specific organizations can drive international collaboration.

The co-author was my PhD advisor who worked in Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Djibouti

In the following quote, the mention of a postdoctoral funded by the Higher Education Commission in Pakistan and completed in Japan highlights the role of funding from a specific country in fostering international scientific mobility and collaborations for advanced research positions.

This was a Pakistan HEC post doc funding which was completed in Japan.

The third quote below reveals a certain commitment and intentions to geographical diversity and capacity building. For instance, the following quote is related to a project funded by internal budgets that emphasizes the importance of Global North–South scientific collaboration.

It [the funding] was only used for the PhD grant and the PhD student travels between the two involved countries, France and Tunisia. The reason for [my] collaboration with a colleague from Tunisia was to promote North-South scientific collaboration, training young south countries students. As a French researcher, I am particularly involved in such cooperations.

The subsequent quotes point to instances where internal budgeting and affiliations drive collaborations. In these cases, the funding sources may not be tied to external expectations for international collaboration but enable opportunities for researchers to engage across borders.

This research projected was supported by the Center’s internal budget. It was internal research funding. The colleague at the time of the research was affiliated to our institution and had assumed a position at Qatar University.

Another example specifies that temporary or visiting positions also play a critical role in funding support and funding acknowledgment:

I visited the biology department at Sultan Qaboos university [which funded the research project], there was an opportunity to collaborate on a small project.

In a different scenario described below, collaboration arises informally due to shared interests and complementary scientific disciplines. The collaboration is driven by the mutual benefits each researcher brings to the project, highlighting how rigor in research is promoted through transdisciplinary teamwork.

We are all close friends working from complementary scientific disciplines (Engineering, Epidemiology, Medicine, Psychology). We continue to work together in a collegial and transdisciplinary fashion today. We work together because each of us makes the work more rigorous, more revealing scientifically, and more fun.

In addition to specific required expertise, the facilities or equipment available in some research institutions also play a role in shaping collaborations and support acknowledged by authors. For instance, in the following quote, the author mentions that the co-author was instrumental in doing specific sample analyses that the corresponding author would not have been able to do in his own institution.

The funding was provided by the university [Izmir Institute of Technology], and it was used solely to finance the required chemicals and sample analysis. There were no conditions in terms of international collaboration. The colleague from Germany was helpful in some key sample analysis.

Finally, a corresponding author explains that the international collaboration with researchers from specific countries was a requirement from a funder supporting the research project.

Yes, this funding was dedicated to this research project. EURAPMON and Greater Los Angeles Zoo Association are the funders. And this funding was also used by co-authors. It was required from ERAPMON to collaborate with colleagues from specific countries [Djibouti, Oman] but there was no such a requirement from GLAZA.

Overall, these quotes showcase a range of international collaborations driven by various funding sources and motivations. Whether it is funders’ requirements, institutional affiliations, specific funding programs, or personal connections, funders also play a crucial role in shaping the global collaborative landscape in scientific research.

Discussion and conclusions

The aim of this study was to better understand the funding structure of scientific research in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region based on the funding acknowledgments found in scientific publications. An important element to consider when analyzing funding acknowledgments is the distinction between domestic publications and international publications. The recent increase of international co-authorship in scientific publications likely explains why some countries in MENA show a relatively high level of contribution of foreign funders. These foreign funders may have financially supported researchers who have co-authored scientific publications with researchers located in MENA. Also, the analysis of domestic publications reveals the contribution of the main domestic funders but also the role some foreign funders play in funding domestic research.

First, this study shows that the proportions of publications with funding acknowledgments vary greatly across MENA countries. Overall, countries in MENA have lower proportions of publications with funding acknowledgments than the World. Saudi Arabia and Qatar top the list with about half of their publications containing a funding acknowledgment. This may demonstrate the high level of funding available at a country level, but one needs to remember that some factors might impact what authors acknowledge in their publications. There are many reasons that influence the inclusion or exclusion of acknowledgments in scientific publications. For example, the presence of funding acknowledgments might be a requirement of the funder which supported financially the authors (Alvarez & Caregnato, 2018 ). In collaborations for multicentric medical research, minor contributors who do not qualify for authorship are often recognized with acknowledgments because of some journals’ editorial policies limiting the number of authors per article (Alvarez & Caregnato, 2021 ). Researchers paid by their employer such as a public university to do research, may be considered to be funded by the government but this would not necessarily be reported as a funding acknowledgment in their publications. In this case, the researcher’s affiliation may better reflect the support of their research institution as a funder.

The share of publications with funding acknowledgments follows an uptrend across all MENA countries except in countries which have witnessed conflicts or unrests in the recent years. Next, the names of the funding organizations found in the funding acknowledgments of scientific publications indexed in Web of Science (WoS) were unified. This unification process reveals a diverse funding landscape with Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Egypt having the largest number of domestic funding organizations in the region. The difference in terms of number of funders might be explained by the size of the respective country but also by the different national funding structures.

Three groups of countries in MENA can be distinguished as per their number of funders: when considering all their publications, some countries like Qatar, Palestine and Morocco are dominated by several dozen funders contributing to at least 1% of the total number of national publications; then other countries such as Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Kuwait or Pakistan rely mainly on a few funders. Finally, countries like Turkey or Iran are dominated by one or two funders. However, when analyzing only the domestic publications, then the findings reveal only a few major domestic funders for most countries in MENA.

The findings also show the contribution of domestic and foreign funders to the scientific output of each country. Some countries, like Turkey, Iran, Oman, Kuwait, Jordan and Saudi Arabia, have a relatively high level of contribution of domestic funders mentioned in their scientific papers. In contrast, other countries in MENA seem to rely more on foreign funding sources.

The main funders found in scientific publications in MENA are government and academic organizations. This is not surprising since most of the scientific research in MENA is conducted by public universities funded by the governments and more specifically by the Ministry of Higher Education and Research or equivalent national institutions. Nevertheless, this study also shows the funding contributions of other sectors or types such as nonprofit institutions, research councils or national academies. Corporations appear as funders mainly in international scientific publications, but their contribution is much less visible. Public–private partnerships, and more specifically collaboration between the public and the private sector, have gained traction in scientific research funding in recent years and help to accelerate the translation of research into practical applications.

The different qualitative analyses allow a better understanding of the funding reported by authors in funding publications. More specifically, they clarified when the funding was attributed to specific authors, whether the funding was internal or external, and if it was dedicated to a specific project. Furthermore, the responses received from the surveyed corresponding authors shed light on collaborations observed in international co-authored publications. These analyses contribute to the limited body of qualitative studies on acknowledgments in science from the perspective of researchers (Alvarez & Caregnato, 2020 ; Cronin & Overfelt, 1994 ; Roa‐Atkinson & Velho, 2005 ). They confirm the important role played by acknowledgments in the primary communication process and also contribute to the literature about the operationalization of funding (Aagaard et al., 2021 ). The attribution and the amalgamation (fusion or juxtaposition) of funding are revealed by the employed qualitative methods and provide context on the collaboration between co-authors (Alvarez & Caregnato, 2020 ).

This study also contributes to a growing literature on research funding (Gök et al., 2016 ) which concerns various stakeholders: governments, public and private funding institutions, universities, research managers, and researchers. Several MENA countries have made investments in science and technology capacity to promote research and innovation (Schmoch et al., 2016 ; Shin et al., 2012 ; Siddiqi et al., 2016 ). Policy makers also changed their research governance (Currie-Alder, 2019 ). For instance, Arab countries have set national research priorities and changed the way to access public funding. Research funds expanded over the past two decades (Currie-Alder, 2015 ) and incentives were set to collaborate with distant and scientifically proficient foreign partners to connect with global scientific networks and improve the rank or Arab research organizations in international rankings of academic quality (Currie-Alder, 2019 ; Currie-Alder et al., 2018 ).

This present study sheds light on the recent trends on the landscape of funding in scientific research conducted in MENA. While the findings are significant, the analysis of funding acknowledgments comes with limitations which may underestimate the role of institutional funding which researchers do not always mention explicitly in their acknowledgments. In fact, researchers also mention the institutional funding their received by reporting their institutional affiliations in their scientific publications. Although some limitations exist, this study provides insights into the structure of scientific funding in MENA especially in terms of funding source, type and funding trends. These insights can be used by policy makers to monitor and design their research funding programs (Alvarez-Bornstein & Montesi, 2021 ; Paul-Hus et al., 2016 ; Wang & Shapira, 2015 ). For instance, from a funding policy and research evaluation perspective, policymakers could examine whether researchers in specific countries who received funding have produced any scientific publications (Albrecht et al., 2009 ; Alvarez & Caregnato, 2018 , 2021 ; Álvarez-Bornstein et al., 2018 ; Costas & Yegros-Yegros, 2013 ; Díaz-Faes & Bordons, 2014 ; Gao et al., 2019 ; Gök et al., 2016 ). Another example may consist of determining the trends in financing a specific subject or research area has received (Dorsey et al., 2006 ). Other works using funding acknowledgments have involved the mapping of funders to specific fields (Lewison & Dawson, 1998 ; Lewison et al., 2001 ) or specific funding programs (Boyack & Börner, 2003 ). Rangnekar ( 2005 ) also conducted an analysis of the mention of the Multiple Sclerosis Society, as a funder, within multiple sclerosis-related publications to analyze its visibility, its research orientations as well as its impact.

Finally, the results of this study open doors to new research opportunities. This study also reveals that funding acknowledgments data is a valuable starting point to understand funding structures and funding mechanisms. For instance, future work could focus on transnational research funding and how different forms of funding are used and reported by researchers. More specifically, future research may seek to analyze the collaboration and co-funding networks by country at the research area level, which may provide useful insights into the structures of funding mechanisms with regards to collaboration and research fields. The recent expansion of grant data coverage through the integration of Pivot-RP data in WoS Footnote 1 means that more records in WoS will have funding information for the first time and may also open doors to more granular analyses including the funding types (e.g. research, training, awards, collaboration agreement, travel, postdoctoral award, etc.). However, this study also reveals the complexity hidden in funding acknowledgments and the importance of both quantitative and qualitative methods to reveal information not explicitly communicated in funding acknowledgments. Ideally, to use funding acknowledgments quantitatively, authors will need to be more explicit about the funding context of their research. Scientific journals, conferences, books editors and preprint servers may have an important role to play in streamlining the funding information communicated by authors. Achieving a complete standardization of funding acknowledgments may not be feasible, necessitating an enduring need for qualitative analyses. Such quantitative and qualitative analyses are expected to better inform the policy makers on the funding structure of national science systems in MENA. They are also expected to provide insights on how the national science systems can best be funded in the near future.

Data availability

The research presented in this paper uses Web of Science data made available by Clarivate. The author is not allowed to share this data. However, the list of unified funders with their type and country is available in a data repository (El-Ouahi, 2023 ).

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I would like to thank Ludo Waltman and Thomas Franssen for their insightful comments and valuable suggestions that greatly improved the quality of this paper. I extend my gratitude to two anonymous reviewers whose comments enhanced the quality of this article.

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Technology’s Profound Influence on Modern Society

This essay is about the profound impact technology has had on modern society. It explores how technological advancements have revolutionized communication, transforming how we connect and share information globally. The essay also examines the changes in the workplace, highlighting the shift towards automation, AI, and remote work. In education, technology has democratized access to knowledge while also exposing the digital divide. The entertainment industry has been reshaped by streaming services and immersive technologies like VR and AR. Additionally, the essay discusses the advancements in healthcare brought about by telemedicine and wearable health devices. It underscores the importance of balancing innovation with ethical considerations to ensure technology’s benefits are accessible and equitable for all.

How it works

The inexorable march of technology has profoundly shaped our world, imprinting its influence across myriad facets of modern existence. From modes of communication to occupational paradigms and avenues of leisure, technology has seamlessly woven itself into the fabric of our quotidian lives. Its societal ramifications are unequivocal, yielding both prodigious benefits and conspicuous challenges.

Foremost among technology’s transformative impacts is its redefinition of communication norms. The advent of cyberspace, handheld computing devices, and virtual social forums has revolutionized interpersonal connectivity.

The protracted delivery timelines of traditional correspondence have yielded to instantaneous messaging and real-time video conferencing, collapsing geographical chasms. Social media platforms afford us the means to disseminate experiences, ideologies, and knowledge on a global scale, fostering an unprecedented sense of communal interlinkage. Yet, this amplified interconnectedness is not devoid of complexity, engendering quandaries such as misinformation dissemination and encroachments upon privacy. The digital epoch has engendered an era where personal data is commodified, giving rise to ethical quandaries regarding surveillance and data integrity.

In the realm of labor, technology has wrought tectonic shifts in employment dynamics and productivity paradigms. Automation and artificial intelligence have streamlined operational workflows, augmenting efficiency and diminishing the exigency for manual labor in select sectors. This metamorphosis has engendered new vocational vistas within technology-centric domains, while rendering erstwhile conventional roles obsolete. Remote labor, facilitated by digital communication infrastructures and collaborative platforms, has proliferated, particularly in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. This newfound flexibility proffers employees augmented equilibrium between professional obligations and personal pursuits but concurrently blurs the demarcations between these spheres, occasioning instances of burnout and stress.

Education stands as another bastion wherein technology has exerted substantial influence. Digital pedagogical platforms and virtual repositories have democratized the accessibility of erudition, enabling learners from disparate milieus to peruse knowledge at their own tempo and convenience. E-learning modules and virtual lecture halls have rendered education more attainable, particularly for cohorts situated in outlying or underserved locales. Nonetheless, this digital metamorphosis has accentuated extant chasms in digital access, exacerbating extant socio-economic disparities. Alleviating these discrepancies in technological access stands as an imperative societal challenge, requisite for the comprehensive realization of the benefits inherent to technology-facilitated education.

Entertainment and media consumption have undergone a metamorphosis in the wake of technological proliferation. Streaming amenities, internet-based gaming platforms, and digital content creation repositories have transmuted consumption and creation modalities within the entertainment sphere. On-demand content availability has wrested control from conventional broadcasters, vesting it within the purview of consumers, thereby facilitating bespoke viewing experiences. Moreover, the ascendancy of virtual reality and augmented reality holds promise in enhancing immersive experiences, amalgamating digital and corporeal realms in innovative configurations. Whilst these strides furnish unprecedented convenience and innovation, they concurrently raise apprehensions regarding the psychological ramifications of protracted screen exposure and its effects on communal interactions.

The healthcare domain has witnessed commensurate technological advancements. Medical research, diagnostic modalities, and therapeutic interventions have undergone a paradigm shift, propelled by telemedicine, electronic health records, and sophisticated medical imaging modalities. Wearable health apparatuses and mobile healthcare applications empower individuals to proactively monitor their well-being, culminating in ameliorated health outcomes. However, the integration of technology within healthcare purveys attendant challenges, encompassing data privacy concerns and the ethical ramifications of AI-driven medical prognostications.

The societal impact of technology is a multifaceted tableau, evoking both laudable and lamentable repercussions. While technology has indisputably ameliorated our standard of living and broadened our horizons, it has concurrently engendered novel quandaries and ethical conundrums. As we perpetuate our technological march, it behooves us to adopt a judicious approach, embracing innovation whilst cognizant of its attendant implications. Society must diligently harness the potential of technology, ensuring its equitable dissemination whilst assiduously mitigating prospective risks. Through deliberate contemplation and proactive initiatives, we can navigate the complexities of a technology-driven milieu and inaugurate a future that is equitable and sustainable.

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How To Write A Research Paper (FREE Template + Examples)
Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature. As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question.More specifically, that's called a research question, and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What's important to understand though is that you'll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources - for ...
20+ Research Paper Example
The following examples show research papers for different subjects. History Research Paper Sample. Preparing a history research paper involves investigating and presenting information about past events. This may include exploring perspectives, analyzing sources, and constructing a narrative that explains the significance of historical events ...
Research Paper Examples
Research paper examples are of great value for students who want to complete their assignments timely and efficiently. If you are a student in the university, your first stop in the quest for research paper examples will be the campus library where you can get to view the research sample papers of lecturers and other professionals in diverse fields plus those of fellow students who preceded ...
How to Write a Research Paper
A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, ... This impact is particularly obvious in light of the various critical review articles that have recently referenced the essay. For example, consider Mark Falcoff's 2009 article in The National Review Online, "The Perversion of Language; or, Orwell ...
Writing a Research Paper Introduction
Table of contents. Step 1: Introduce your topic. Step 2: Describe the background. Step 3: Establish your research problem. Step 4: Specify your objective (s) Step 5: Map out your paper. Research paper introduction examples. Frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.
Writing a Research Paper Conclusion
Table of contents. Step 1: Restate the problem. Step 2: Sum up the paper. Step 3: Discuss the implications. Research paper conclusion examples. Frequently asked questions about research paper conclusions.
Research Essay
The goal of this book has been to help demystify research and inquiry through a series of genres that are part of the research process. Each of these writing projects—the annotated bibliography, proposal, literature review, and research essay—builds on each other. Research is an ongoing and evolving process, and each of these projects help ...
Research Paper
Research Paper Example. Note: The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors.
Free Research Essay Examples. Best Topics, Titles GradesFixer
For instance, a research paper example might employ words like 'however,' 'moreover,' and 'consequently' to ensure smooth navigation. Ensure Proper Formatting. Consistency in formatting - be it APA, MLA, or Chicago - is essential. A polished research essay example adheres strictly to formatting rules, enhancing readability.
Writing a Research Paper
The pages in this section cover the following topic areas related to the process of writing a research paper: Genre - This section will provide an overview for understanding the difference between an analytical and argumentative research paper. Choosing a Topic - This section will guide the student through the process of choosing topics ...
Research Essay Examples PapersOwl
Research Essays. 261 essay samples found. A research essay combines critical thinking, source analysis, argumentation, and a structured narrative. It is an academic endeavor that challenges students to not only gather and interpret information but also to take a stance on a topic and defend it with evidence.
How to Write a Research Essay (with Pictures)
Download Article. 1. Break up your essay into sub-topics. You will probably need to address several distinct aspects of your research topic in your essay. This is an important tactic for producing a well-organized research essay because it avoids 'stream of consciousness' writing, which typically lacks order.
How to Write a Research Paper
1. Create an outline to map out your paper's structure. Use Roman numerals (I., II., III., and so on) and letters or bullet points to organize your outline. Start with your introduction, write out your thesis, and jot down your key pieces of evidence that you'll use to defend your argument.
APA Style
APA Sample Papers. Annotated Bibliography. Argumentative Essay From a Beginning Writing Class (traditional style) Argumentative Essay From a Psychology Class. Aristotelian Argumentative Essay. Cause and Effect Essay From a Beginning Writing Class. Cause and Effect Essay From an Educational Psychology Class.
Writing Research Essays
This essay requires one to use the knowledge that he or she has gained from a particular case study situation, for example, a poem or work of art, or material from business and psychology fields. This paper requires using learned theoretical knowledge to write the paper and using supporting information for the thesis statement and findings.
Free Essay Examples
Free Essay Examples Database by PapersOwl. Find relevant and credible information for your specific topic in our free essay samples. FIND ESSAY. Get inspired with 55000+ essay examples or order unique paper. 150,000 students trusted PapersOwl.
Research Paper Example
A study of infant feeding practices was carried out on a sample of 100 mother and infant pairs. The results revealed that only 20% of mothers in the study currently exclusively breastfeed their babies. It also shows that socio-economic factors like mother's work status, marital status and educational attainment had direct bearing on these ...
Research Paper Format
Formatting a Chicago paper. The main guidelines for writing a paper in Chicago style (also known as Turabian style) are: Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman. Use 1 inch margins or larger. Apply double line spacing. Indent every new paragraph ½ inch. Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center.
All Free Essay, Research Papers Samples by Subject
Check our 100% free essays, term papers, research papers submitted by A+ students and sorted by subjects and topics. Get ideas and inspiration for your own paper. Writing Help Login ... This is IvyPanda's free database of academic paper samples. It contains thousands of paper examples on a wide variety of topics, all donated by helpful students ...
Understanding the Side Effects of Birth Control: A Comprehensive
Essay Example: Contraception, also referred to as birth control, has transformed the landscape of reproductive health, empowering individuals to exert greater autonomy over their fertility and family planning endeavors. Nevertheless, akin to any pharmaceutical intervention, birth control methodologies
How to Write an Explanatory Essay
Here's how to create a thesis: Find the main idea: Start by pinpointing the key concept or question you want to explain. Develop a clear purpose for the essay. This will guide your research and writing process for your explanatory paper. Use other reputable explanatory essay examples to guide your ideas.
How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline
Example: BODY PARAGRAPH 1. First point. Sub-point. Sub-point of sub-point 1. Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points. Example: First body paragraph of the research paper. First point of evidence to support the main argument.
Assessing the Justification of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings: A
Essay Example: In the vast expanse of human history, few events are as entangled and contentious as the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These events, shrouded in a moral labyrinth, compel us to wade through layers of historical context, ethical considerations, and geopolitical complexities
NeurIPS 2024 Call for Papers
Call For Papers. Abstract submission deadline: May 15, 2024. Full paper submission deadline, including technical appendices and supplemental material (all authors must have an OpenReview profile when submitting): May 22, 2024. Author notification: Sep 25, 2024. Camera-ready, poster, and video submission: Oct 30, 2024 AOE.
The Simple Macroeconomics of AI
DOI 10.3386/w32487. Issue Date May 2024. This paper evaluates claims about large macroeconomic implications of new advances in AI. It starts from a task-based model of AI's effects, working through automation and task complementarities. So long as AI's microeconomic effects are driven by cost savings/productivity improvements at the task ...
The Evolution and Impact of Sony: a Comprehensive Historical Overview
Essay Example: Sony's trajectory from a modest post-war startup to a global powerhouse is a compelling saga of continuous innovation, strategic pivots, and remarkable resilience. Founded in Tokyo in 1946 by Masaru Ibuka and Akio Morita, the company initially operated under the name Tokyo Tsushin
How to Write a Literature Review
Examples of literature reviews. Step 1 - Search for relevant literature. Step 2 - Evaluate and select sources. Step 3 - Identify themes, debates, and gaps. Step 4 - Outline your literature review's structure. Step 5 - Write your literature review.
Research funding in the Middle East and North Africa ...
Funding acknowledgments are important objects of study in the context of science funding. This study uses a mixed-methods approach to analyze the funding acknowledgments found in 2.3 million scientific publications published between 2008 and 2021 by authors affiliated with research institutions in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). The aim is to identify the major funders, assess their ...
Technology's Profound Influence on Modern Society
This essay is about the profound impact technology has had on modern society. It explores how technological advancements have revolutionized communication, transforming how we connect and share information globally. The essay also examines the changes in the workplace, highlighting the shift towards automation, AI, and remote work.
Sources of prey availability data alter interpretation of outputs from
The choice of method should reflect the research hypotheses and study system being investigated. Ultimately, survey methods should emulate the foraging mode of the focal predator as closely as possible, informed by the known ecology, natural history and behaviour of the predator. ... we used prey abundance (suction sample) and activity density ...