critical thinking questions about diversity

• 7Park Data, Inc.
• Adobe Systems Incorporated
• Aetna, a CVS Health Company
• AMC Networks
• American Express Company
• Apartment Therapy Media
• AppNexus, a Xandr Company
• Arch Insurance
• Arrow Electronics
• Art Processors
• Attune Insurance Services, LLC
• Aurora Solar
• Back Market
• Bank of America
• Better Companies
• Better Mortgage
• Black Community
• Bloomberg LP
• Blue Cross and Blue Shield North Carolina
• Bluecore Inc
• Bridgewater Associates
• Bristol Myers Squibb
• Cable News Network, Inc.
• Capital One
• Carbon Direct
• Career and Interview Tips
• CB Insights
• CenturyLink Inc.
• Chainalysis Inc.
• CHG Healthcare
• Cisco Meraki
• Clarus Commerce
• CloudBees, Inc.
• Cockroach Labs
• Collective Insights
• Collins Aerospace
• Comlinkdata
• Companies That Care
• Contrast Security
• Costar Group
• CoverMyMeds
• Crowdstreet
• Culture Amp
• Dassault Systemes
• Dell Technologies
• Deutsche Bank AG
• DigitalOcean
• Dishcraft Robotics
• Diversity Reboot Newsletter
• Diversity Reboot Summit 2020 Product Expo
• Diversity Reboot Summit 2021 Virtual Booths
• Diversity Reboot Summit Speakers
• Dow Jones Company
• DreamSpring
• Duck Creek Technologies
• Energy Impact Partners
• Expedia Group
• Featured Post
• Featured Talks
• Flatiron Health Inc
• Flexport, Inc.
• Flocabulary
• Folsom Labs
• For Employers
• Forbes Media
• Freddie Mac
• FTI Consulting
• Gainsight, Inc.
• Gamechanger
• General Assembly
• GoEuro Travel GmbH
• Goldman Sachs
• Greenhouse Software
• Halliburton
• Healthfirst Inc
• Hitachi Energy
• Homecare Homebase
• In Person Events
• insightsoftware
• Jama Software
• Johnson & Johnson
• Juniper Networks, Inc.
• Katharine Zaleski's Blog
• Kensho Technologies
• Kin + Carta
• Knotel, Inc.
• L3 Technologies
• LendingClub
• LetsGetChecked
• Liberty Hill Foundation
• Light & Wonder
• Lockheed Martin
• Managed By Q Inc
• Manifold.co
• McMaster-Carr Supply
• Meredith Corporation
• Metromile, Inc.
• Microsoft Corporation
• Millennium Management
• Moody's
• Moov Financial
• Morgan Stanley
• Morning Consult
• MyFitnessPal
• National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
• National Security Agency (NSA)
• NBCUniversal
• New York Life Insurance Company
• Nextdoor.com, Inc.
• Northrop Grumman
• Novelis Inc.
• One Medical
• OneLogin, Inc.
• Oscar Insurance Corp
• OUTFRONT Media Inc.
• Pacific Western Bank
• Partnership on AI to Benefit People and Society
• Pax Labs Inc
• Pitney Bowes Inc.
• PlayStation
• Plenty Of Fish
• Pluralsight
• Polis, Inc.
• PowerToFly Hires
• PowerToFly VIP
• Previous Event
• Procore Technologies Inc
• Product Updates
• PromptWorks
• Quicken Loans
• Raytheon Technologies
• Realtor.com
• RebelMouse Test
• Reddit, Inc.
• Reference Point
• Remote Hiring
• Rest Of World
• Riot Games Inc
• Rockstar Games
• S&P Global Inc
• Sapient Consulting
• Schneider Electric
• ScienceLogic
• Sentropy Technologies
• Shopify Inc.
• Slack Technologies, LLC, a Salesforce company
• Smartsheet Inc.
• SoftwareOne
• Solo Brands
• SoundCloud Inc.
• Spoiler Alert
• Stack Overflow
• State Listings Inc.
• Stem Disintermedia
• Sun Life US
• Surescripts LLC
• T Rowe Price
• Talent Sourcing Trends
• Tandem Diabetes
• Teachers Pay Teachers
• Testimonials
• Thales Usa Inc.
• The Recycling Partnership
• The Walt Disney Company
• Thornburg Investment Management
• Thrive Global
• Trail of Bits
• Trending Topics
• TrussWorks, Inc
• UiPath, Inc.
• United Technologies
• UnitedHealth Group
• Unstoppable Domains
• Upcoming Event
• uShip, Inc.
• Verizon Communications
• Viacom Inc.
• VICE Media Group
• Virtu Financial
• Vouch Insurance
• Waters Corporation
• Wayfair Inc.
• Wells Fargo Company
• Wolters Kluwer
• Women at Work
• Work & Co
• Work-Life Integration
• WW (Formerly Weight Watchers)
• YouCanBook.me
• Zendesk, Inc.
• Zeta Global

16 thought-provoking questions about diversity and inclusion

“Only the one who does not question is safe from making a mistake.” – Albert Einstein

Thought-provoking questions about diversity and inclusion are important to every DEIB conversation . Questions help us define the problem, brainstorm answers, anticipate challenges, envision goals, and more. Research indicates that the majority of workers ( 80% ) want to work for a company that values DEIB. On the other hand, research from Gartner shows that 42% of employees say their colleagues see DEIB efforts as divisive. Asking thought-provoking questions about diversity and inclusion is a way to engage people in authentic DEIB conversations, generate empathy, and establish agreement that a problem exists. From there, answering thought-provoking questions about diversity and inclusion can help guide an organization in creating solutions. Here are 16 questions your organization should be discussing.

Why ask thought-provoking questions about diversity and inclusion?

Self-reflection is a critical part of problem-solving and decision-making. As Greek philosopher Plato said, “The right question is usually more important than the right answer.”

Determining values. Broad, philosophical questions like “what is equity?” can help us determine moral and ethical opinions. Questions about society help delineate where problems and imbalances of power exist.

Driving empathy. Asking questions about individual feelings and experiences regarding DEIB ( without forcing marginalized groups to speak to sensitive areas) can open the conversation. It can create connection and empathy. Understanding a group or individual's experience can also help to identify where specific injustices occur for them.

Defining the problem. For leaders and experts, asking thought-provoking questions about diversity and inclusion is all about leadership strategy. These questions help with setting goals, determining policy, understanding progress, and maintaining accountability. Perhaps most important of all, they help leaders define the boundaries of the problem. There is an adage attributed to General Motors’ head of research between 1920 and 1947, Charles Kettering, that says: “A problem well-put is half solved.”

Challenging bias. Asking diversity and inclusion questions is a key way to challenge our biases. Bias doesn’t disappear overnight. Nor can we command people to simply “stop being biased!” Asking questions about diversity and inclusion helps us to identify, understand, and begin the process of eliminating bias.

Diversity and Inclusion discussion questions

Notice all the quotes from philosophers, scientists, and historical business leaders today? Wisdom, self-reflection, and evidence-based data all play an important part in addressing issues of DEIB. Here are some questions to ask that get at the core of what it takes to build inclusive spaces.

1. What is equity?

It’s important to establish a baseline understanding of key concepts in DEIB . Equity is a common and easily recognizable word that is often conflated with equality. But in the world of DEIB in the workplace, as well as social justice in general, it has a very specific meaning.

Equity occurs when each person is allocated the resources and opportunities based on their circumstances to reach an equal outcome. It begins with the acknowledgement that the playing field is not equal and that some people begin the race far behind the start line.

In asking, we get the opportunity to envision what equity looks like within our organizations. Consider your future vision for staff at all levels of the company.

2. What is belonging?

Belonging is another important concept that needs defining in order to achieve it. Belonging is a person’s perception of acceptance within a given group, including a work environment. Fostering belonging means that people of all backgrounds get a seat at the table and feel heard, seen, and recognized for their contributions.

Belonging is critical for friend groups, family, and especially at work. There is a near-universal desire for individuals to feel genuinely welcome to participate, secure in their role, and connected to their colleagues.

3. What happens when someone is excluded from society?

Sometimes concepts like “inclusion” can be hard to grasp, so it’s fruitful to define the opposite: exclusion. With this question, there is no right or wrong answer. The goal of this thought-provoking question about diversity and inclusion is to kick-start a conversation that considers both empathy and actionable steps towards a better future.

4. Isn’t DEIB “reverse discrimination”?

With this question, we’re really addressing the elephant in the room. The concept of “reverse racism” is a powerful way that some try to resist DEIB efforts . Reverse discrimination is a long-standing myth. Discrimination occurs within a power dynamic. Those who hold power in society and the workplace cannot be discriminated against. Unfortunately, equality can look like discrimination to those who are used to unfair privilege.

Still, legal rulings like California’s 1996 ban on affirmative action give this concept some weight.

Realistically, if there was successful “reverse discrimination” in DEIB efforts, demographic data over the last decade would show a drastic decrease in White management, CEOs, and board members. This is not the case. Instead, White people maintain most positions of power at work, in politics, and in society as a whole. Traditional power dynamics are changing, but not drastically .

5. What is challenging about achieving DEIB?

To anticipate barriers to DEIB, understand the challenges and motivations related to these barriers. Come up with solutions that properly address every stakeholder.

6. Have you ever been discriminated against?

With the next few questions, we’re getting to the heart of people’s personal experiences. Talking about your personal experience with discrimination is a way to engage in honest conversation without generalizing or “watering down” reality. This question helps people to feel heard.

7. Where do you feel included? Excluded?

We are already familiar with the key DEIB concept of inclusion . We experience this feeling in our daily lives, even outside of work. Use that tacit knowledge and apply it to DEIB.

8. What does it feel like not to belong?

Generate empathy from everyone for those that experience marginalization. What does it feel like in life and what does it look like at work? Drive personal connections by identifying common ground amongst employees.

Questions for interrogating policy

When deciding on any policy or course of action, it’s important to interrogate the policy before you roll it out. Take a step outside of your own shoes and invite reaction to the policy from a different perspective.

9. Who is missing here?

“Nothing for us without us” is a common slogan in DEIB work. Who you forget in a policy is just as important as who is included. Particularly when it comes to decision-making bodies (committees and leadership) or expert panels. Always ask “who is missing?” to eliminate potential bias in any workplace discussion.

10. How would someone on the periphery view this?

It can be eye-opening to challenge organizational processes through the perspective of someone from an underrepresented group. When we ask “who is missing?”, go one step further to imagine how those missing people would view the resulting decisions made without them.

Imagine an application process that asks for marital status and gives two options: single or married. How might someone in a domestic partnership or long-term dating relationship feel? What about if it’s illegal for them to marry? Perhaps company ID badges have sex and date of birth. Might this be problematic for some groups of people?

Diversity and inclusion panel questions

If you have the opportunity to ask questions of a panel of DEIB experts, these will help you make the most of their insight.

11. Why is DEIB so important right now?

Experts know the history and trends of your industry. They also understand how external factors influence organizational decisions. Listen to their expertise.

12. What are some challenges diverse groups have faced in your organization?

Don’t be afraid to ask about specific groups, too. For example, if you are confronted with the prospect of a faith-based ERG and don’t know how to proceed, likely the expert panel has seen this before.

13. Where is your organization in its DEIB journey?

Something that we all want to know is the industry standard. Unfortunately, a litmus test for DEIB progress doesn’t exist. Experts will have a sense of what the beginning, middle, and end of DEIB looks like for companies of all shapes and sizes. Get an expert opinion from a DEIB consultant .

14. What are some key obstacles that prevent us from achieving DEIB?

Experts are the best guides for avoiding real-world mistakes. Ask questions to avoid common mistakes , obstacles, challenges, and pitfalls.

15. What has influenced your approach to DEIB?

Tease out some resources from the experts. Whether it’s sociologists, marketers, social media gurus, or HR professionals, experts know the best resources for learning.

Diversity and inclusion questions for leaders

Those responsible for or leading DEIB initiatives need to ask the right questions, as well. These next questions can help organizations figure out where their leadership gaps are and what to do about them.

11. How will we know we’ve arrived?

This is a fantastic question for the C-suite and board members to brainstorm. What does a diverse, equitable, and inclusive workplace where everyone belongs look like? Think big and positive.

12. What do our employees want?

Always remember that leadership starts with stakeholder input. Survey your staff. Ask them what they want and how they feel things are going with company DEIB efforts.

13. What do our customers want?

Inclusion is also about understanding who your customer base is and what they want. What are customer demographics? What areas of DEIB are important to them?

14. Is what we’re doing working?

Every DEIB plan needs goals and progress indicators; otherwise, you're flying blind. Part of these indicators can be subjective measurements like employee perceptions, but they also need to include objective indicators. There are plenty of KPIs to track your success.

15. How transparent should we be?

It’s increasingly common for organizations to publish their diversity data, sometimes in the format of a DEIB statement . We see companies like Google, Apple, and Salesforce putting their numbers out there for everyone to see. But transparency can be scary. How will your company manage that?

16. What do we not know about DEIB in our organization right now?

Find and address your gaps. Are you missing KPIs? Are you publishing your data? Do you have solid demographic and survey information about your staff? Customer base? Suppliers? How about salary gap information? Data should drive our DEIB initiatives.

Asking questions can lead you to a checklist of knowledge. The more information you have, the more successful your DEIB efforts will be.

Dig Deeper with thought-provoking questions about diversity and inclusion

Powertofly can help unlock your organization's deib hiring, retention, and education potential. learn more., diversity and inclusion acronyms: a 2024 glossary, 17 professional development b​ooks to read in 2024, 8 best diversity conferences to attend in 2024.

Greater Good Science Center • Magazine • In Action • In Education

How Diversity Makes Us Smarter

The first thing to acknowledge about diversity is that it can be difficult.

In the U.S., where the dialogue of inclusion is relatively advanced, even the mention of the word “diversity” can lead to anxiety and conflict. Supreme Court justices disagree on the virtues of diversity and the means for achieving it. Corporations spend billions of dollars to attract and manage diversity both internally and externally, yet they still face discrimination lawsuits, and the leadership ranks of the business world remain predominantly white and male.

It is reasonable to ask what good diversity does us. Diversity of  expertise confers benefits that are obvious—you would not think of building a new car without engineers, designers, and quality-control experts—but what about social diversity? What good comes from diversity of race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation? Research has shown that social diversity in a group can cause discomfort, rougher interactions, a lack of trust, greater perceived interpersonal conflict, lower communication, less cohesion, more concern about disrespect, and other problems. So, what is the upside?

The fact is that if you want to build teams or organizations capable of innovating, you need diversity. Diversity enhances creativity. It encourages the search for novel information and perspectives, leading to better decision making and problem solving. Diversity can improve the bottom line of companies and lead to unfettered discoveries and breakthrough innovations. Even simply being exposed to diversity can change the way you think.

This is not just wishful thinking: It is the conclusion I draw from decades of research from organizational scientists, psychologists, sociologists, economists, and demographers.

Informational diversity fuels innovation

The key to understanding the positive influence of diversity is the concept of informational diversity. When people are brought together to solve problems in groups, they bring different information, opinions, and perspectives.

This makes obvious sense when we talk about diversity of disciplinary backgrounds—think again of the interdisciplinary team building a car. The same logic applies to social diversity. People who are different from one another in race, gender, and other dimensions bring unique information and experiences to bear on the task at hand. A male and a female engineer might have perspectives as different from one another as an engineer and a physicist—and that is a good thing.

“We need diversity if we are to change, grow, and innovate”

Research on large, innovative organizations has shown repeatedly that this is the case.

For example, business professors Cristian Deszö of the University of Maryland and David Ross of Columbia University studied the effect of gender diversity on the top firms in Standard & Poor’s Composite 1500 list, a group designed to reflect the overall U.S. equity market. First, they examined the size and gender composition of firms’ top management teams from 1992 through 2006. Then they looked at the financial performance of the firms. In their words, they found that, on average, “female representation in top management leads to an increase of $42 million in firm value.” They also measured the firms’ “innovation intensity” through the ratio of research and development expenses to assets. They found that companies that prioritized innovation saw greater financial gains when women were part of the top leadership ranks.

Racial diversity can deliver the same kinds of benefits. In a study conducted in 2003, Orlando Richard, a professor of management at the University of Texas at Dallas, and his colleagues surveyed executives at 177 national banks in the U.S., then put together a database comparing financial performance, racial diversity, and the emphasis the bank presidents put on innovation. For innovation-focused banks, increases in racial diversity were clearly related to enhanced financial performance.

Of course, not all studies get the same results. Even those that haven’t found benefits for racially diverse firms suggest that there is certainly no negative financial impact—and there are benefits that may go beyond the short-term bottom line. For example, in a paper published in June of this year , researchers examined the financial performance of firms listed in  DiversityInc ’s list of Top 50 Companies for Diversity. They found the companies on the list did outperform the S&P 500 index—but the positive impact disappeared when researchers accounted for the size of the firms. That doesn’t mean diversity isn’t worth pursuing, conclude the authors:

In an age of increasing globalization, a diverse workforce may provide both tangible and intangible benefits to firms over the long run, including increased adaptability in a changing market. Also, as the United States moves towards the point in which no ethnic majority exists, around 2050, companies’ upper management and lower-level workforce should naturally be expected to reflect more diversity. Consequently, diversity initiatives would likely generate positive reputation effects for firms.

Evidence for the benefits of diversity can be found well beyond the U.S. In August 2012, a team of researchers at the Credit Suisse Research Institute issued a report in which they examined 2,360 companies globally from 2005 to 2011, looking for a relationship between gender diversity on corporate management boards and financial performance. Sure enough, the researchers found that companies with one or more women on the board delivered higher average returns on equity, lower gearing (that is, net debt to equity), and better average growth.

How diversity provokes new thinking

More on diversity.

Read about the meaning and benefits of diversity .

Discover how students benefit from school diversity .

Learn about the neuroscience of prejudice .

Explore the top ten strategies for reducing prejudice .

Large data-set studies have an obvious limitation: They only show that diversity is correlated with better performance, not that it causes better performance. Research on racial diversity in small groups, however, makes it possible to draw some causal conclusions. Again, the findings are clear: For groups that value innovation and new ideas, diversity helps.

In 2006, I set out with Margaret Neale of Stanford University and Gregory Northcraft of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign to examine the impact of racial diversity on small decision-making groups in an experiment where sharing information was a requirement for success.

Our subjects were undergraduate students taking business courses at the University of Illinois. We put together three-person groups—some consisting of all white members, others with two whites and one nonwhite member—and had them perform a murder mystery exercise. We made sure that all group members shared a common set of information, but we also gave each member important clues that only they knew. To find out who committed the murder, the group members would have to share all the information they collectively possessed during discussion. The groups with racial diversity significantly outperformed the groups with no racial diversity. Being with similar others leads us to think we all hold the same information and share the same perspective. This perspective, which stopped the all-white groups from effectively processing the information, is what hinders creativity and innovation.

Other researchers have found similar results. In 2004, Anthony Lising Antonio, a professor at the Stanford Graduate School of Education, collaborated with five colleagues from the University of California, Los Angeles, and other institutions to examine the influence of racial and opinion composition in small group discussions. More than 350 students from three universities participated in the study. Group members were asked to discuss a prevailing social issue (either child labor practices or the death penalty) for 15 minutes. The researchers wrote dissenting opinions and had both black and white members deliver them to their groups. When a black person presented a dissenting perspective to a group of whites, the perspective was perceived as more novel and led to broader thinking and consideration of alternatives than when a white person introduced  that same dissenting perspective .

The lesson: When we hear dissent from someone who is different from us, it provokes more thought than when it comes from someone who looks like us. It’s a result echoed by a longitudinal study published last year, which tracked the moral development of students on 17 campuses who took a class on diversity in their freshman year. The analysis led the researchers to a robust conclusion: Students who were trained to negotiate diversity from the beginning showed much more sophisticated moral reasoning by the time they graduated. This was especially true for students who entered with lower academic ability.

Active Listening

Connect with a partner through empathy and understanding.

This effect is not limited to race and gender. For example, last year professors of management Denise Lewin Loyd of the University of Illinois, Cynthia Wang of Oklahoma State University, Robert B. Lount, Jr., of Ohio State University, and I asked 186 people whether they identified as a Democrat or a Republican, then had them read a murder mystery and decide who they thought committed the crime. Next, we asked the subjects to prepare for a meeting with another group member by writing an essay communicating their perspective. More important, in all cases, we told the participants that their partner disagreed with their opinion but that they would need to come to an agreement with the other person. Everyone was told to prepare to convince their meeting partner to come around to their side; half of the subjects, however, were told to prepare to make their case to a member of the opposing political party, and half were told to make their case to a member of their own party.

The result: Democrats who were told that a fellow Democrat disagreed with them prepared less well for the discussion than Democrats who were told that a Republican disagreed with them. Republicans showed the same pattern. When disagreement comes from a socially different person, we are prompted to work harder. Diversity jolts us into cognitive action in ways that homogeneity simply does not.

For this reason, diversity appears to lead to higher-quality scientific research.

In 2014, two Harvard University researchers examined the ethnic identity of the authors of 1.5 million scientific papers written between 1985 and 2008 using Thomson Reuters’s Web of Science, a comprehensive database of published research. They found that papers written by diverse groups receive more citations and have higher impact factors than papers written by people from the same ethnic group. Moreover, they found that stronger papers were associated with a greater number of author addresses; geographical diversity, and a larger number of references, is a reflection of more intellectual diversity.

What we believe makes a difference

Diversity is not only about bringing different perspectives to the table. Simply adding social diversity to a group makes people  believe  that differences of perspective might exist among them and that belief makes people change their behavior.

Members of a homogeneous group rest somewhat assured that they will agree with one another; that they will understand one another’s perspectives and beliefs; that they will be able to easily come to a consensus.

But when members of a group notice that they are socially different from one another, they change their expectations. They anticipate differences of opinion and perspective. They assume they will need to work harder to come to a consensus. This logic helps to explain both the upside and the downside of social diversity: People work harder in diverse environments both cognitively and socially. They might not like it, but the hard work can lead to better outcomes.

In a 2006 study of jury decision making, social psychologist Samuel Sommers of Tufts University found that racially diverse groups exchanged a wider range of information during deliberation about a sexual assault case than all-white groups did. In collaboration with judges and jury administrators in a Michigan courtroom, Sommers conducted mock jury trials with a group of real selected jurors. Although the participants knew the mock jury was a court-sponsored experiment, they did not know that the true purpose of the research was to study the impact of racial diversity on jury decision making.

Sommers composed the six-person juries with either all white jurors or four white and two black jurors. As you might expect, the diverse juries were better at considering case facts, made fewer errors recalling relevant information, and displayed a greater openness to discussing the role of race in the case.

These improvements did not necessarily happen because the black jurors brought new information to the group—they happened because white jurors changed their behavior in the presence of the black jurors. In the presence of diversity, they were more diligent and open-minded.

Consider the following scenario: You are a scientist writing up a section of a paper for presentation at an upcoming conference. You are anticipating some disagreement and potential difficulty communicating because your collaborator is American and you are Chinese. Because of one social distinction, you may focus on other differences between yourself and that person, such as their culture, upbringing and experiences—differences that you would not expect from another Chinese collaborator. How do you prepare for the meeting? In all likelihood, you will work harder on explaining your rationale and anticipating alternatives than you would have otherwise—and you might work harder to reconcile those differences.

This is how diversity works : by promoting hard work and creativity; by encouraging the consideration of alternatives even before any interpersonal interaction takes place. The pain associated with diversity can be thought of as the pain of exercise. You have to push yourself to grow your muscles. The pain, as the old saw goes, produces the gain. In just the same way, we need diversity—in teams, organizations, and society as a whole—if we are to change, grow, and innovate.

This essay was originally published in 2014 by Scientific American. It has been revised and updated to include new research.

About the Author

Katherine W. Phillips

Katherine W. Phillips, Ph.D. , is the Paul Calello Professor of Leadership and Ethics Management at Columbia Business School.

You May Also Enjoy

How to Close the Gap Between Us and Them

Three Lessons from Zootopia to Discuss with Kids

Can Diversity Make You a Better Communicator?

Does Neurodiversity Have a Future?

Four Ways Teachers Can Reduce Implicit Bias

How to Help Diverse Students Find Common Ground

Cognitive Diversity: What It Is and Why It Matters

A naturalistic investigation into the different ways people think..

Posted August 16, 2023 | Reviewed by Davia Sills

• Cognitive diversity (CD) is different from demographic diversity in important ways (e.g., race, gender, age).
• CD refers to differences in the ways that team members think about important tasks.
• A naturalistic study identified five important dimensions of CD.
• Researchers found that CD can improve performance on some tasks but interfere with others.

This essay was co-authored by Gary Klein, Emily Newsome, Kari Hoy, Wendy Jephson, and Malcolm MacColl.

How much do we want team members to offer divergent perspectives? Organizations that can harness cognitive diversity (CD) may become more productive and competitive.

CD is different from demographic diversity (e.g., gender , race, and age). We define CD as differences in how team members think about important tasks and activities.

That all sounds good, but there isn’t much consensus from the literature. Researchers have studied cognitive diversity by measuring differences in a wide variety of psychological factors, including personality , values, preferences, thinking styles, education , experience, and problem-solving strategies.

Even worse, Sulik et al. (2021) have argued that there’s not much evidence that CD makes a difference.

My colleagues and I got involved in the issues surrounding CD when a client in one of the major financial investment firms asked us to explore the topic to see if there was a way to improve performance.

So we had an opportunity for a fresh look, using a naturalistic perspective. We reviewed 22 articles and noted that most of these studies relied on small groups of college students performing tasks that didn’t have any direct relevance to their lives.

In contrast, we performed eight cognitive interviews with the client’s team to learn how CD played out in their decision-making .

Relevant Tasks

We identified four primary tasks that would be affected by CD within this client’s financial services work:

• Identifying investment opportunities
• Building mental pictures of the companies they are considering
• Embracing the clash of views and ideas
• Managing meetings and coordinating with each other (an enabling task for the first three).

We predicted that CD might play out differently for these tasks.

Major Dimensions of Cognitive Diversity

Then we identified five dimensions of CD. Previous researchers have already mentioned some of these dimensions, but others, to our knowledge, were unique to our study.

Dimension 1: Reactions to novel ideas

Some people are excited and enthusiastic when they hear about a new approach, whereas others are inherently skeptical, thinking about the weaknesses of that approach. Of course, few people are always extreme on one end of this dimension or the other. Nevertheless, we suggest that people generally fall into one of these camps.

And that helps a team. You don’t want everyone jumping on the bandwagon with no critical thinking, and you don’t want everyone shooting down every unfamiliar concept. You want both types.

Dimension 2: General mindset or stance

People have general tendencies about how they approach new ideas. For the team we studied, we distinguished three general mindsets: contrarian, trend analyst, and disruptor. These three contrasting approaches worked for the organization in the past. The downside is that different mindsets can interfere with common ground and team cohesion unless the team is united by shared goals and mutual respect.

Dimension 3: Knowledge and experience

Perhaps the most obvious difference between team members is the various types of knowledge and experience people have acquired. Longevity, variety of experiences, and previous decisions can all influence how people think today. The research literature has also emphasized the importance of having a variety of knowledge and experience.

While there is little disagreement about the value of diverse knowledge and experience, there are some caveats. Experts often respond negatively to new ideas, claiming that they’ve seen them tried in the past, and they haven’t worked.

Perhaps the strategy should be to draw on expertise to understand an opportunity's potential and limitations but not to rely too heavily on experts in making decisions based on what has been tried in the past.

Dimension 4: Preference for working collaboratively vs. independently

This dimension also seems related to the way people prefer to meet—open-ended discussions or with a clear agenda.

CD may have some downside here. People who relish collaboration may enjoy opportunities for group debate much more than people who like to pursue independent analysis and are impatient for the debates to end so they can return to work. It is usually hard to find a good balance.

Dimension 5: Tolerance for uncertainty

Everyone believes they have a high tolerance for uncertainty, but in practice, some people are prepared to take action without the thorough due diligence that others expect.

Tolerance for uncertainty includes a need for closure, a need for structure, and reactions to loose ends. Some people strive to reach closure, whereas others embrace the value of messiness. This dimension links to the idea of adaptors vs. innovators from the literature. Adaptors prefer more structure when solving problems, whereas innovators are comfortable making discoveries in less structured environments.

This dimension poses the potential for interfering with performance. Differences in styles can create frustration rather than synergy.

We speculated that the five dimensions would have different effects on the financial management tasks of the team. We prepared strategies and criteria for assessing critical tasks and dimensions. And we developed a self-test for CD that clients could use.

Counter to beliefs about cognitive diversity

Our small project raised questions about some of the standard beliefs:

We found that CD is not always a good thing. Its benefits depend on the task. And sometimes CD can get in the way.

We also raised questions about the value of CD research in artificial tasks with non-engaged participants.

Implications

Our study left us excited about the potential for cognitive diversity to contribute to team effectiveness. Teams can use CD to assess themselves, to see if they have CD where it matters, and if they have it, see where it can interfere with their work. Teams can apply strategies to try to do a better job of taking advantage of CD and to reduce the downsides. Teams might also consider CD during recruitment. Further, team members may want to expand their stance on one or more dimensions.

Sulik, J., Bahrami, B., & Deroy, O. (2021). The Diversity Gap: when diversity matters for knowledge. Perspectives on Psychological Science , 17456916211006070.

Gary Klein, Ph.D., is a senior scientist at MacroCognition LLC. His most recent book is Seeing What Others Don't: The remarkable ways we gain insights.

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Therapy Center NEW
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

Understanding what emotional intelligence looks like and the steps needed to improve it could light a path to a more emotionally adept world.

• Emotional Intelligence
• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

BUS605: Strategic Project Management

Multicultural Teams

As more and more project teams face global configurations, this chapter discusses techniques for working with multicultural teams.

Critical Thinking Case

Diverse teams hold court.

Diverse teams have been proven to be better at problem-solving and decision-making for a number of reasons. First, they bring many different perspectives to the table. Second, they rely more on facts and use those facts to substantiate their positions. What is even more interesting is that, according to the Scientific American article "How Diversity Makes Us Smarter," simply "being around people who are different from us makes us more creative, diligent, and harder-working".

One case in point is the example of jury decision-making, where fact-finding and logical decision-making are of utmost importance. A 2006 study of jury decision-making, led by social psychologist Samuel Sommers of Tufts University, showed that racially diverse groups exchanged a wider range of information during deliberation of a case than all-white groups did. The researcher also conducted mock jury trials with a group of real jurors to show the impact of diversity on jury decision-making.

Interestingly enough, it was the mere presence of diversity on the jury that made jurors consider the facts more, and they had fewer errors recalling the relevant information. The groups even became more willing to discuss the role of race cases, when they hadn't before with an all-white jury. This wasn't the case because the diverse jury members brought new information to the group - it happened because, according to the author, the mere presence of diversity made people more open-minded and diligent. Given what we discussed on the benefits of diversity, it makes sense. People are more likely to be prepared, to be diligent, and to think logically about something if they know that they will be pushed or tested on it. And who else would push you or test you on something, if not someone who is different from you in perspective, experience, or thinking. "Diversity jolts us into cognitive action in ways that homogeneity simply does not".

So, the next time you are called for jury duty, or to serve on a board committee, or to make an important decision as part of a team, remember that one way to generate a great discussion and come up with a strong solution is to pull together a diverse team.

Critical Thinking Questions

• If you don't have a diverse group of people on your team, how can you ensure that you will have robust discussions and decision-making? What techniques can you use to generate conversations from different perspectives?
• Evaluate your own team at work. Is it a diverse team? How would you rate the quality of decisions generated from that group?

Advertisement

Racial Inequality in Critical Thinking Skills: The Role of Academic and Diversity Experiences

• Published: 01 July 2016
• Volume 58 , pages 119–140, ( 2017 )

Cite this article

• Josipa Roksa 1 ,
• Teniell L. Trolian 2 ,
• Ernest T. Pascarella 3 ,
• Cindy A. Kilgo 4 ,
• Charles Blaich 5 &
• Kathleen S. Wise 5  

3722 Accesses

14 Citations

2 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

While racial inequalities in college entry and completion are well documented, much less is known about racial disparities in the development of general collegiate skills, such as critical thinking. Using data from the Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Education, we find substantial inequality in the development of critical thinking skills over four years of college between African American and White students. The results indicate that these inequities are not related to students’ academic experiences in college but are substantially related to their experiences with diversity. These findings have important implications for understanding racial inequality in higher education and considering strategies for addressing observed disparities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Centering Race, Racism, and Black Learners in Mathematics Education: A Critical Race Theory Perspective

Critical Examination of the Role of STEM in Propagating and Maintaining Race and Gender Disparities

Beyond White: The Emotional Complexion of Critical Research on Race

Critical thinking is a term that is often used but rarely clearly defined. In essence, it aims to reflect one’s ability to analyze, synthesize, and/or evaluate information. To date, two standardized assessments of critical thinking most commonly used in published research are the Critical Thinking Test from the Collegiate Assessment of Academic Proficiency (CAAP) developed by the ACT and the collegiate learning assessment (CLA) developed by the Council for Aid to Education. CAAP includes three components: analyzing, evaluating, and extending an argument. CLA similarly includes an analysis and critique of an argument as well as critical reading and evaluation. Although CAAP and CLA are designed very differently, they produce similar results in terms of the overall gains in student performance (Pascarella et al.  2011a ). Moreover, a recent validity study of three different tests—CAAP, CLA and MAPP (Measure of Academic Proficiency and Progress, developed by the ETS)—supported the measures’ construct validity (Klein et al. 2009 ).

Three institutions participated in multiple waves of the study. A dummy variable for those institutions is included in analysis.

Although the number of students in different racial categories is low, it is important to note that the sample examined in this study includes students who entered higher education through four-year institutions and persisted through four years of college. Authors’ calculations indicate that the proportion of African American students in the WNS sample is similar to a comparable sample in the Education Longitudinal Study (ELS), which is a nationally representative sample. The proportion of Asian students is lower in the WNS sample and the comparison cannot be made for Hispanic students because ELS uses different racial/ethnic categories.

For a list of studies using the Wabash National Study data, see: http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/research-and-publications/ .

We include 0.10 statistical significance level in the table given the small number of students in different racial groups.

Some studies of cognitive development estimate conditional effects by race. However, that is rarely the focus of their inquiry. The focus is typically on understanding how specific experiences facilitate student development, and conditional effects are reported as a complement to the overall analysis.

American College Testing (ACT) Program. (1991). CAAP Technical Handbook, Iowa City, IA, Author.

antonio, A. L. (2001). The role of interracial interaction in the development of leadership skills and cultural knowledge and understanding. Research in Higher Education, 42 , 593–617.

Article   Google Scholar  

Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011). Academically adrift: Limited learning on college campuses . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Google Scholar  

Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2014). Aspiring adults adrift: Tentative transitions to adulthood . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U). (2008). How should colleges assess and improve student learning? Employers’ views on the accountability challenge . Washington, DC: AAC&U.

Astin, A. (1993). What matters in college . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 (6), 1173–1182.

Bok, D. (2006). Our underachieving colleges: A candid look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Bowman, N. A. (2010). College diversity experiences and cognitive development: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 80 (1), 4–33.

Bowman, N. A. (2012). Promoting sustained engagement with diversity: The reciprocal relationships between informal and formal college diversity experiences. Review of Higher Education, 36 (1), 1–24.

Bowman, N. A. (2013). How much diversity is enough? The curvilinear relationship between college diversity interactions and first-year student outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 54 (8), 874–894.

Bowman, N. A., Brandenberger, J. W., Hill, P. L., & Lapsley, D. K. (2011). The long-term effects of college diversity experiences: Well-being and social concerns 13 years after graduation. Journal of College Student Development, 52 (6), 729–739.

Bowman, N. A., & Brandenberger, J. W. (2012). Toward a model of college diversity experiences and attitude change. The Review of Higher Education, 35 (2), 179–205.

Bray, G., Pascarella, E. T., & Pierson, C. (2004). Postsecondary education and some dimensions of literacy development: An exploration of longitudinal evidence. Reading Research Quarterly, 39 , 306–330.

Blaich C., & Wise, K. (2014). Clear and organized teaching . Center for Inquiry, Wabash College. Accessed http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/practitioners-corner/2014/4/15/clear-and-organized-teaching.html .

Cabrera, A. F., & Nora, A. (1994). College students’ perceptions of prejudice and discrimination and their feelings of alienation: A construct validation approach. Review of Education Pedagogy and Cultural Studies, 16 (3–4), 387–409.

Cabrera, A. F., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., Pascarella, E. T., & Hagedorn, L. S. (1999). Campus racial climate and the adjustment of students to college: A comparison between White students and African-American students. The Journal of Higher Education, 70 (2), 134–160.

Cacioppo, J., Petty, R., & Kao, C. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48 (3), 306–307.

Carini, R. M., Kuh, G. D., & Klein, S. P. (2006). Student engagement and student learning: Testing the linkages. Research in Higher Education, 47 (1), 1–32.

Chang, M. J., Astin, A. W., & Kim, D. (2004). Cross-racial interaction among undergraduates: Some consequences, causes, and patterns. Research in Higher Education, 45 (5), 529–553.

Chickering, A., & Gamson, Z. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, 39 , 3–7.

Chickering, A., & Gamson, Z. (1991). Applying the seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Cruce, T. M., Wolniak, G. C., Seifert, T. A., & Pascarella, E. T. (2006). Impacts of good practices on cognitive development, learning orientations, and graduate degree plans during the first year of college. Journal of College Student Development, 47 , 365–383.

Dee, J. R., & Daly, C. J. (2012). Engaging faculty in the process of cultural change in support of diverse student populations. In S. D. Museus & U. M. Jayakumar (Eds.), Creating campus cultures: Fostering success among racially diverse student populations (pp. 168–188). New York, NY: Routledge.

Deil-Amen, R., & Lopez-Turley, R. (2007). A review of the transition to college literature in sociology. Teachers College Record, 109 (10), 2324–2366.

Dorans, N. J. (2004). Freedle’s Table 2: Fact or fiction? Harvard Educational Review, 74 , 62–72.

Fischer, M. J. (2007). Settling into campus life: Differences by race/ethnicity in college involvement and outcomes. The Journal of Higher Education, 78 (2), 125–156. doi: 10.1353/jhe.2007.0009 .

Fischer, C. S., Hout, M., Jankowski, M. S., Luca, S. R., Swidler, A., & Voss, K. (1996). Inequality by Design . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Flowers, L. A., & Pascarella, E. T. (2003). Cognitive effects of college: Differences between African American and Caucasian students. Research in Higher Education, 44 (1), 21–49.

Freedle, R. O. (2003). Correcting the SAT’s ethnic and social class bias: a method for reestimating SAT scores. Harvard Educational Review, 73 , 1–43.

Goldrick-Rab, S., & Roksa, J. (2008). A federal agenda for promoting student success and degree completion . Washington, DC: Center for American Progress.

Greene, T. G., Marti, C. N., & McClenney, K. (2008). The effort-outcome gap: Differences for African American and Hispanic community college students in student engagement and academic achievement. The Journal of Higher Education, 79 (5), 513–539. doi: 10.1353/jhe.0.0018 .

Grodsky, E., & Felts, E. (2009). Social stratification in higher education. Teachers College Record, 111 (10), 2347–2384.

Grodsky, E., Warrant, J. R., & Felts, E. (2008). Testing and social stratification in American education. Annual Review of Sociology, 34 , 385–404.

Gurin, P., Dey, E., Hurtado, S., & Gurin, G. (2002). Diversity and higher education: Theory and impact on educational outcomes. Harvard Educational Review, 72 (3), 330–366.

Harper, S. R. (2012). Foreword. In S.D. Museus & U.M. Jayakumar (Eds.), Creating campus cultures: Fostering success among racially diverse student populations (pp. ix-xi). New York, NY: Routledge.

Harper, S. R., & Hurtado, S. (2007). Nine themes in campus racial climates and implications for institutional transformation. New Directions for Student Services, 120 , 7–24.

Heck, R. H., & Thomas, S. L. (2008). An introduction to multilevel modeling techniques (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Hout, M. (1996). The politics of mobility. In A. C. Kerckhoff (Ed.), Generating social stratification: Toward a new research agenda (pp. 293–316). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Hu, S., & Kuh, G. D. (2003). Diversity experiences and college student learning and personal development. Journal of College Student Development, 44 (3), 320–334.

Hurtado, S. (2001). Linking diversity and educational purpose: How diversity affects the classroom environment and student development. In G. Orfield (Ed.), Diversity challenged: Evidence on the impact of affirmative action (pp. 187–203). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Publishing Group.

Hurtado, S. (2005a). The next generation of diversity and intergroup relations research. Journal of Social Issues, 61 , 595–610.

Hurtado, S. (2005b). Diversity and learning for a pluralistic democracy. In W. R. Allen, M. Bonous-Hammarth, R. T. Teranishi, & O. C. Dano (Eds.), Higher education in a global society: Achieving diversity, equity and excellence (pp. 249–267). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Hurtado, S., & Carter, D. (1997). Effects of college transition and perceptions of the campus racial climate on Latina/o college students’ sense of belonging. Sociology of Education, 70 , 324–345.

Hurtado, S., Milem, J., Clayton-Pedersen, A., & Allen, W. (1998). Enhancing campus climates for racial/ethnic diversity: Educational policy and practice. The Review of Higher Education, 21 , 279–302.

Kim, M. M. (2002). Cultivating intellectual development: Comparing women-only colleges and coeducational colleges for educational effectiveness. Research in Higher Education, 43 (4), 447–481.

Klein, S., Liu, O. L, & Sconing, J. (2009). Test validity study report. Washington DC: Fund for the Improvement of postsecondary education. Accessed http://www.voluntarysystem.org/docs/reports/TVSReport_Final.pdf .

Kugelmass, H., & Ready, D. D. (2011). Racial disparities in collegiate cognitive gains: A multilevel analysis of institutional influences on learning and its equitable distribution. Research in Higher Education, 52 (4), 323–348.

Kuh, G. D., Cruce, T. M., Shoup, R., Kinzie, J., & Gonyea, R. M. (2008). Unmasking the effects of student engagement on first-year college grades and persistence. The Journal of Higher Education, 79 (5), 540–563. doi: 10.1353/jhe.0.0019 .

Kuh, G. D., & Pascarella, E. T. (2004). What does institutional selectivity tell us about educational quality? Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 36 (5), 52–59.

Lahmers, A. G., & Zulauf, C. R. (2000). Factors associated with academic time use and academic performance of college students: A recursive approach. Journal of College Student Development, 41 (5), 544–556.

Loes, C., Pascarella, E. T., & Umbach, P. (2012). Effects of diversity experiences on critical thinking skills: Who benefits? The Journal of Higher Education, 83 (1), 1–25.

Lundberg, C. A. (2012). Predictors of learning for students from five different racial groups. Journal of College Student Development, 53 (5), 636–655. doi: 10.1353/csd.2012.0071 .

Museus, S. D. (2014). The Culturally Engaging Campus Environments (CECE) Model: A new theory of college success among racially diverse student populations. In M. B. Paulsen (Ed.), Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research (pp. 189–227). New York: Springer.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Museus, S. D., & Jayakumar, U. M. (Eds.). (2012). Creating campus cultures: Fostering success among racially diverse student populations . New York, NY: Routledge.

National Research Council (NRC). (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21 st century . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Nelson Laird, T. F. (2005). College students’ experiences with diversity and their effects on academic self-confidence. Research in Higher Education, 46 (4), 365–387.

Nora, A., & Cabrera, A. F. (1996). The role of perceptions of prejudice and discrimination on the adjustment of minority students to college. The Journal of Higher Education, 67 (2), 119–148.

Pascarella, E. T. (1985). College environmental influences on learning and cognitive development: A critical review and synthesis. In J. Smart (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (Vol. 1). New York: Agathon.

Pascarella, E. T., Blaich, C., Martin, G. L., & Hanson, J. M. (2011a). How robust are the findings of academically adrift? Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 43 (3), 20–24.

Pascarella, E., Bohr, L., Nora, A., & Terenzini, P. (1995). Cognitive effects of 2-year and 4-year colleges: New evidence. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 17 (1), 83–96.

Pascarella, E. T., Cruce, T., Umbach, P. D., Wolniak, G. C., Kuh, G. D., Carini, R. M., et al. (2006). Institutional selectivity and good practices in undergraduate education: How strong is the link? The Journal of Higher Education, 77 (2), 251–285.

Pascarella, E. T., Edison, M., Nora, A., Hagedorn, L., & Braxton, J. (1996). Effects of teacher organization/preparation and teacher skill/clarity on general cognitive skills in college. Journal of College Student Development, 37 , 7–19.

Pascarella, E. T., Martin, G. L., Hanson, J. M., Trolian, T. L., Gillig, B., & Blaich, C. (2014). Effects of diversity experiences on critical thinking skills over four years of college. Journal of College Student Development, 55 (1), 86–92. doi: 10.1353/csd.2014.0009 .

Pascarella, E. T., Palmer, B., Moye, M., & Pierson, C. T. (2001). Do diversity experiences influence the development of critical thinking? Journal of College Student Development, 42 (3), 257–271.

Pascarella, E., Salisbury, M., & Blaich, C. (2011b). Exposure to effective instruction and college student persistence: A multi-institutional replication and extension. Journal of College Student Development, 52 , 4–19.

Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. (1991). How college affects students . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. (2005). How college affects student(Vol. 2): A third decade of research . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Pascarella, E. T., Wang, J., Trolian, T. L., & Blaich, C. (2013). How the instructional and learning environments of liberal arts colleges enhance cognitive development. Higher Education, 66 (5), 569–583.

Pascarella, E. T., Wolniak, G. C., Pierson, C. T., & Flowers, L. A. (2004). The role of race in the development of plans for a graduate degree. The Review of Higher Education, 27 (3), 299–320.

Plant, E. A., Ericsson, K. A., Hill, L., & Asberg, K. (2005). Why study time does not predict grade point average across college students: Implications of deliberate practice for academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30 (1), 96–116.

Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Roksa, J., & Arum, R. (2015). Inequality in skill development on college campuses. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 39 , 18–31.

Roksa, J., Kilgo, C. A., Trolian, T. L., Pascarella, E. T., Blaich, C., Wise, K. S. (In press). Engaging with diversity: How positive and negative diversity interactions shape students’ cognitive outcomes. Journal of Higher Education .

Saenz, V. B., Ngai, H. N., & Hurtado, S. (2007). Factors influencing positive interactions across race for African-American, Asian-American, Latino, and White college students. Research in Higher Education, 48 (1), 1–38.

Strayhorn, T. L. (2010). When race and gender collide: Social and cultural capital’s influence on the academic achievement of African-American and Latino males. The Review of Higher Education, 33 (3), 307–332.

Terenzini, P. T., Springer, L., Pascarella, E. T., & Nora, A. (1995). Influences affecting the development of students’ critical thinking skills. Research in Higher Education, 36 (1), 23–39.

Tierney, W. G. (1992). An anthropological analysis of student participation in college. Journal of Higher Education, 63 (6), 603–618.

Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

Trolian, T. L., Kilgo, C. A., Pascarella, E. T., Roksa, J., Blaich, C., Wise, K. (2014, November). Race and exposure to good teaching during college. Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Washington, D.C.

Umbach, P. D., & Kuh, G. D. (2006). Student experiences with diversity at liberal arts colleges: Another claim for distinctiveness. Journal of Higher Education, 77 (1), 169–192.

United States Department of Education. (2006). A test of leadership: Charting the future of U.S. higher education . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Download references

Acknowledgments

Research on this project is supported by a grant from the Spencer Foundation. Moreover, data collection and preparation is supported by a grant from the Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts at Wabash College to the Center for Research on Undergraduate Education at The University of Iowa.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Sociology, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 400766, Charlottesville, Virginia, VA, 22904, USA

Josipa Roksa

Department of Educational Administration and Policy Studies, University at Albany, State University of New York, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY, 12222, USA

Teniell L. Trolian

Educational Policy and Leadership Studies, University of Iowa, N491 Lindquist Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA

Ernest T. Pascarella

Department of Educational Leadership, Policy, and Technology Studies, University of Alabama, 302 Graves Hall, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA

Cindy A. Kilgo

Center of Inquiry, Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana, IN, 47933, USA

Charles Blaich & Kathleen S. Wise

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Josipa Roksa .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Roksa, J., Trolian, T.L., Pascarella, E.T. et al. Racial Inequality in Critical Thinking Skills: The Role of Academic and Diversity Experiences. Res High Educ 58 , 119–140 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-016-9423-1

Download citation

Received : 20 June 2015

Published : 01 July 2016

Issue Date : March 2017

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-016-9423-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Critical thinking
• Academic experiences
• College student development
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Grades 6-12
• School Leaders

Free printable Mother's Day questionnaire 💐!

100+ Critical Thinking Questions for Students To Ask About Anything

Critical thinkers question everything.

In an age of “fake news” claims and constant argument about pretty much any issue, critical thinking skills are key. Teach your students that it’s vital to ask questions about everything, but that it’s also important to ask the right sorts of questions. Students can use these critical thinking questions with fiction or nonfiction texts. They’re also useful when discussing important issues or trying to understand others’ motivations in general.

“Who” Critical Thinking Questions

Questions like these help students ponder who’s involved in a story and how the actions affect them. They’ll also consider who’s telling the tale and how reliable that narrator might be.

• Is the protagonist?
• Is the antagonist?
• Caused harm?
• Is harmed as a result?
• Was the most important character?

• Is responsible?
• Is most directly affected?
• Should have won?
• Will benefit?
• Would be affected by this?

• Makes the decisions?

“What” Critical Thinking Questions

Ask questions that explore issues more deeply, including those that might not be directly answered in the text.

• Background information do I know or need to know?
• Is the main message?
• Are the defining characteristics?

• Questions or concerns do I have?
• Don’t I understand?
• Evidence supports the author’s conclusion?
• Would it be like if … ?
• Could happen if … ?
• Other outcomes might have happened?
• Questions would you have asked?
• Would you ask the author about … ?
• Was the point of … ?
• Should have happened instead?
• Is that character’s motive?
• Else could have changed the whole story?

• Can you conclude?
• Would your position have been in that situation?
• Would happen if … ?
• Makes your position stronger?
• Was the turning point?
• Is the point of the question?
• Did it mean when … ?
• Is the other side of this argument?
• Was the purpose of … ?
• Does ______ mean?
• Is the problem you are trying to solve?
• Does the evidence say?
• Assumptions are you making?
• Is a better alternative?
• Are the strengths of the argument?

• Are the weaknesses of the argument?
• Is the difference between _______ and _______?

“Where” Critical Thinking Questions

Think about where the story is set and how it affects the actions. Plus, consider where and how you can learn more.

• Would this issue be a major problem?
• Are areas for improvement?
• Did the story change?
• Would you most often find this problem?

• Are there similar situations?
• Would you go to get answers to this problem?
• Can this be improved?
• Can you get more information?
• Will this idea take us?

“When” Critical Thinking Questions

Think about timing and the effect it has on the characters or people involved.

• Is this acceptable?
• Is this unacceptable?

• Does this become a problem?
• Is the best time to take action?
• Will we be able to tell if it worked?
• Is it time to reassess?
• Should we ask for help?
• Is the best time to start?
• Is it time to stop?
• Would this benefit society?

• Has this happened before?

“Why” Critical Thinking Questions

Asking “why” might be one of the most important parts of critical thinking. Exploring and understanding motivation helps develop empathy and make sense of difficult situations.

• Is _________ happening?
• Have we allowed this to happen?
• Should people care about this issue?

• Is this a problem?
• Did the character say … ?
• Did the character do … ?
• Is this relevant?
• Did the author write this?
• Did the author decide to … ?
• Is this important?

• Did that happen?
• Is it necessary?
• Do you think I (he, she, they) asked that question?
• Is that answer the best one?
• Do we need this today?

“How” Critical Thinking Questions

Use these questions to consider how things happen and whether change is possible.

• Do we know this is true?
• Does the language used affect the story?
• Would you solve … ?
• Is this different from other situations?

• Is this similar to … ?
• Would you use … ?
• Does the location affect the story?
• Could the story have ended differently?
• Does this work?
• Could this be harmful?
• Does this connect with what I already know?
• Else could this have been handled?
• Should they have responded?

• Would you feel about … ?
• Does this change the outcome?
• Did you make that decision?
• Does this benefit you/others?
• Does this hurt you/others?
• Could this problem be avoided?

More Critical Thinking Questions

Here are more questions to help probe further and deepen understanding.

• Can you give me an example?

• Do you agree with … ?
• Can you compare this with … ?
• Can you defend the actions of … ?
• Could this be interpreted differently?
• Is the narrator reliable?
• Does it seem too good to be true?

• Is ______ a fact or an opinion?

What are your favorite critical thinking questions? Come exchange ideas on the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook .

Plus, check out 10 tips for teaching kids to be awesome critical thinkers ., you might also like.

5 Critical Thinking Skills Every Kid Needs To Learn (And How To Teach Them)

Teach them to thoughtfully question the world around them. Continue Reading

Copyright © 2024. All rights reserved. 5335 Gate Parkway, Jacksonville, FL 32256

"resources/articles/diversity.shtml" not found

Sorry the page you are looking for is not found.

• Critical Thinking Online Courses
• The Center for Critical Thinking Community Online
• Critical Thinking Blog
• Online Courses for Your Students
• Guided Study Groups
• Critical Thinking Channel on YouTube
• CT800: Spring 2024

Chapter 1. Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 1. Critical Thinking Questions

• Why do you think psychology courses like this one are often requirements of so many different programs of study?
• Why do you think many people might be skeptical about psychology being a science?
• Given the incredible diversity among the various areas of psychology that were described in this chapter, how do they all fit together?
• Why is an undergraduate education in psychology so helpful in a number of different lines of work?
• Other than a potentially greater salary, what would be the reasons an individual would continue on to get a graduate degree in psychology?

Introduction to Psychology (A critical approach) Copyright © 2021 by Jill Grose-Fifer; Rose M. Spielman; Kathryn Dumper; William Jenkins; Arlene Lacombe; Marilyn Lovett; and Marion Perlmutter is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Critical thinking definition

Critical thinking, as described by Oxford Languages, is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement.

Active and skillful approach, evaluation, assessment, synthesis, and/or evaluation of information obtained from, or made by, observation, knowledge, reflection, acumen or conversation, as a guide to belief and action, requires the critical thinking process, which is why it's often used in education and academics.

Some even may view it as a backbone of modern thought.

However, it's a skill, and skills must be trained and encouraged to be used at its full potential.

People turn up to various approaches in improving their critical thinking, like:

• Developing technical and problem-solving skills
• Engaging in more active listening
• Actively questioning their assumptions and beliefs
• Seeking out more diversity of thought
• Opening up their curiosity in an intellectual way etc.

Is critical thinking useful in writing?

Critical thinking can help in planning your paper and making it more concise, but it's not obvious at first. We carefully pinpointed some the questions you should ask yourself when boosting critical thinking in writing:

• What information should be included?
• Which information resources should the author look to?
• What degree of technical knowledge should the report assume its audience has?
• What is the most effective way to show information?
• How should the report be organized?
• How should it be designed?
• What tone and level of language difficulty should the document have?

Usage of critical thinking comes down not only to the outline of your paper, it also begs the question: How can we use critical thinking solving problems in our writing's topic?

Let's say, you have a Powerpoint on how critical thinking can reduce poverty in the United States. You'll primarily have to define critical thinking for the viewers, as well as use a lot of critical thinking questions and synonyms to get them to be familiar with your methods and start the thinking process behind it.

Are there any services that can help me use more critical thinking?

We understand that it's difficult to learn how to use critical thinking more effectively in just one article, but our service is here to help.

We are a team specializing in writing essays and other assignments for college students and all other types of customers who need a helping hand in its making. We cover a great range of topics, offer perfect quality work, always deliver on time and aim to leave our customers completely satisfied with what they ordered.

The ordering process is fully online, and it goes as follows:

• Select the topic and the deadline of your essay.
• Provide us with any details, requirements, statements that should be emphasized or particular parts of the essay writing process you struggle with.
• Leave the email address, where your completed order will be sent to.
• Select your prefered payment type, sit back and relax!

With lots of experience on the market, professionally degreed essay writers , online 24/7 customer support and incredibly low prices, you won't find a service offering a better deal than ours.

• Online Degree Explore Bachelor’s & Master’s degrees
• MasterTrack™ Earn credit towards a Master’s degree
• University Certificates Advance your career with graduate-level learning
• Top Courses
• Join for Free

What Are Critical Thinking Skills and Why Are They Important?

Learn what critical thinking skills are, why they’re important, and how to develop and apply them in your workplace and everyday life.

We often use critical thinking skills without even realizing it. When you make a decision, such as which cereal to eat for breakfast, you're using critical thinking to determine the best option for you that day.

Critical thinking is like a muscle that can be exercised and built over time. It is a skill that can help propel your career to new heights. You'll be able to solve workplace issues, use trial and error to troubleshoot ideas, and more.

We'll take you through what it is and some examples so you can begin your journey in mastering this skill.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the ability to interpret, evaluate, and analyze facts and information that are available, to form a judgment or decide if something is right or wrong.

More than just being curious about the world around you, critical thinkers make connections between logical ideas to see the bigger picture. Building your critical thinking skills means being able to advocate your ideas and opinions, present them in a logical fashion, and make decisions for improvement.

Build job-ready skills with a Coursera Plus subscription

• Get access to 7,000+ learning programs from world-class universities and companies, including Google, Yale, Salesforce, and more
• Try different courses and find your best fit at no additional cost
• Earn certificates for learning programs you complete
• A subscription price of $59/month, cancel anytime

Why is critical thinking important?

Critical thinking is useful in many areas of your life, including your career. It makes you a well-rounded individual, one who has looked at all of their options and possible solutions before making a choice.

According to the University of the People in California, having critical thinking skills is important because they are [ 1 ]:

Crucial for the economy

Essential for improving language and presentation skills

Very helpful in promoting creativity

Important for self-reflection

The basis of science and democracy 

Critical thinking skills are used every day in a myriad of ways and can be applied to situations such as a CEO approaching a group project or a nurse deciding in which order to treat their patients.

Examples of common critical thinking skills

Critical thinking skills differ from individual to individual and are utilized in various ways. Examples of common critical thinking skills include:

Identification of biases: Identifying biases means knowing there are certain people or things that may have an unfair prejudice or influence on the situation at hand. Pointing out these biases helps to remove them from contention when it comes to solving the problem and allows you to see things from a different perspective.

Research: Researching details and facts allows you to be prepared when presenting your information to people. You’ll know exactly what you’re talking about due to the time you’ve spent with the subject material, and you’ll be well-spoken and know what questions to ask to gain more knowledge. When researching, always use credible sources and factual information.

Open-mindedness: Being open-minded when having a conversation or participating in a group activity is crucial to success. Dismissing someone else’s ideas before you’ve heard them will inhibit you from progressing to a solution, and will often create animosity. If you truly want to solve a problem, you need to be willing to hear everyone’s opinions and ideas if you want them to hear yours.

Analysis: Analyzing your research will lead to you having a better understanding of the things you’ve heard and read. As a true critical thinker, you’ll want to seek out the truth and get to the source of issues. It’s important to avoid taking things at face value and always dig deeper.

Problem-solving: Problem-solving is perhaps the most important skill that critical thinkers can possess. The ability to solve issues and bounce back from conflict is what helps you succeed, be a leader, and effect change. One way to properly solve problems is to first recognize there’s a problem that needs solving. By determining the issue at hand, you can then analyze it and come up with several potential solutions.

How to develop critical thinking skills

You can develop critical thinking skills every day if you approach problems in a logical manner. Here are a few ways you can start your path to improvement:

1. Ask questions.

Be inquisitive about everything. Maintain a neutral perspective and develop a natural curiosity, so you can ask questions that develop your understanding of the situation or task at hand. The more details, facts, and information you have, the better informed you are to make decisions.

2. Practice active listening.

Utilize active listening techniques, which are founded in empathy, to really listen to what the other person is saying. Critical thinking, in part, is the cognitive process of reading the situation: the words coming out of their mouth, their body language, their reactions to your own words. Then, you might paraphrase to clarify what they're saying, so both of you agree you're on the same page.

3. Develop your logic and reasoning.

This is perhaps a more abstract task that requires practice and long-term development. However, think of a schoolteacher assessing the classroom to determine how to energize the lesson. There's options such as playing a game, watching a video, or challenging the students with a reward system. Using logic, you might decide that the reward system will take up too much time and is not an immediate fix. A video is not exactly relevant at this time. So, the teacher decides to play a simple word association game.

Scenarios like this happen every day, so next time, you can be more aware of what will work and what won't. Over time, developing your logic and reasoning will strengthen your critical thinking skills.

Learn tips and tricks on how to become a better critical thinker and problem solver through online courses from notable educational institutions on Coursera. Start with Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking from Duke University or Mindware: Critical Thinking for the Information Age from the University of Michigan.

Article sources

University of the People, “ Why is Critical Thinking Important?: A Survival Guide , https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/why-is-critical-thinking-important/.” Accessed May 18, 2023.

Keep reading

Coursera staff.

Editorial Team

Coursera’s editorial team is comprised of highly experienced professional editors, writers, and fact...

This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

Critical Thinking Questions

If a person scatters a handful of plant seeds from one species in an area, how would natural selection work in this situation?

Explain the Hardy-Weinberg principle of equilibrium.

Describe natural selection and give an example of natural selection at work in a population.

Why do scientists consider vestigial structures evidence for evolution?

Why do island chains provide ideal conditions for adaptive radiation to occur?

Two species of fish had recently undergone sympatric speciation. The males of each species had a different coloring through which females could identify and choose a partner from her own species. After some time, pollution made the lake so cloudy it was hard for females to distinguish colors. What might take place in this situation?

How does the scientific meaning of “theory” differ from the common, everyday meaning of the word?

Explain why the statement that a monkey is more evolved than a mouse is incorrect.

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Samantha Fowler, Rebecca Roush, James Wise
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: Concepts of Biology
• Publication date: Apr 25, 2013
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/11-critical-thinking-questions

© Jan 8, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.