article critique meaning essay

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Article Summaries, Reviews & Critiques

• Writing an article SUMMARY
• Writing an article REVIEW

Writing an article CRITIQUE

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A critique asks you to evaluate an article and the author’s argument. You will need to look critically at what the author is claiming, evaluate the research methods, and look for possible problems with, or applications of, the researcher’s claims.

Introduction

Give an overview of the author’s main points and how the author supports those points. Explain what the author found and describe the process they used to arrive at this conclusion.

Body Paragraphs

Interpret the information from the article:

• Does the author review previous studies? Is current and relevant research used?
• What type of research was used – empirical studies, anecdotal material, or personal observations?
• Was the sample too small to generalize from?
• Was the participant group lacking in diversity (race, gender, age, education, socioeconomic status, etc.)
• For instance, volunteers gathered at a health food store might have different attitudes about nutrition than the population at large.
• How useful does this work seem to you? How does the author suggest the findings could be applied and how do you believe they could be applied?
• How could the study have been improved in your opinion?
• Does the author appear to have any biases (related to gender, race, class, or politics)?
• Is the writing clear and easy to follow? Does the author’s tone add to or detract from the article?
• How useful are the visuals (such as tables, charts, maps, photographs) included, if any? How do they help to illustrate the argument? Are they confusing or hard to read?
• What further research might be conducted on this subject?

Try to synthesize the pieces of your critique to emphasize your own main points about the author’s work, relating the researcher’s work to your own knowledge or to topics being discussed in your course.

From the Center for Academic Excellence (opens in a new window), University of Saint Joseph Connecticut

Additional Resources

All links open in a new window.

Writing an Article Critique (from The University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center)

How to Critique an Article (from Essaypro.com)

How to Write an Article Critique (from EliteEditing.com.au)

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• Next: Citing Sources >>
• Last Updated: Mar 15, 2024 9:32 AM
• URL: https://libguides.randolph.edu/summaries

Writing a Critique

• About this Guide
• What Is a Critique?
• Getting Started
• Components of a Critique Essay

Further Reading

This article provides additional guidance for writing critiques:

Vance DE, Talley M, Azuero A, Pearce PF, & Christian BJ. (2013). Conducting an article critique for a quantitative research study: perspectives for doctoral students and other novice readers.  Nursing : Research and Reviews ,  2013 , 67–75.

Parts of a Critique Essay

There are 4 distinct components to a critique, and those are the:

Introduction

Each of these components is described in further detail in the boxes on this page of the guide.

An effective introduction:

• Provides a quick snapshot of background information readers may need in order to follow along with the argument
• Defines key terminology as needed
• Ends with a strong argument (thesis)

For additional guidance on writing introduction paragraphs, librarians recommend:

Need some extra help on thesis statements? Check out our Writing Effective Thesis Statements guide .

A summary is a broad overview of what is discussed in a source. In a critique essay, writers should always assume that those reading the essay may be unfamiliar with the work being examined. For that reason, the following should be included early in the paper:

• The name of the author(s) of the work
• The title of the work
• Main ideas presented in the work
• Arguments presented in the work
• Any conclusions presented in the work

Depending on the requirements of your particular assignment, the summary may appear as part of the introduction, or it may be a separate paragraph. The summary should always be included before the analysis, as readers need a base-level familiarity of the resource before you can effectively present an argument about what the source does well and where improvements are needed.

More information about summaries can be found on our Writing an Effective Summary guide .

The critique is your evaluation of the resource. A strong critique:

• Discusses the strengths of the resource
• Discusses the weaknesses of the resource
• Provides specific examples (direct quotes, with proper citation) as needed to support your evaluation
• The accuracy of the resource
• Any bias found within the resource
• The relevance of the resource
• The clarity of the resource

A critique is your opinion  of the text, supported by evidence from the text.

If you need further guidance on how to evaluate your source, you can also consult our Evaluating Your Sources guide .

Need help with citation?  

Compose papers in pre-formatted APA templates. Manage references in forms that help craft APA citations. Learn the rules of APA style through tutorials and practice quizzes.

Academic Writer will continue to use the 6th edition guidelines until August 2020. A preview of the 7th edition is available in the footer of the resource's site. Previously known as APA Style Central.

• APA Style Help Learn more about APA style through our research guide.

A conclusion has three main functions in an essay. A conclusion will:

• Summarize the main ideas presented in the essay
• Remind readers of the thesis (argument)
• Draw the paper to a close 

For additional guidance, the library recommends:

• << Previous: Getting Started
• Next: Examples >>
• Last Updated: May 22, 2023 10:46 AM
• URL: https://library.tiffin.edu/critique

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How To Critique An Article

The first query that strikes a beginner's mind is – What is an article critique? Now, there are many ways to say it but to put it in a simple way -

An article critique is a kind of essay writing in which the author should offers a thorough, objective evaluation of the subject topic.

Of course, it will include, at the very least, a synopsis of the material and the author's background data (if necessary). It need not, however, become a list of the contents!

Helping your audience understand all of the article's primary elements and the author's thoughts, objectives, or main purposes is part of knowing how to summarize and critique an article.

Now, the fundamental goal of every article critique is to point out the article's virtues and faults while maintaining a tone free of bias.

There are various types of article critiques that need in-depth investigation and ample time to develop persuasive essay arguments. As a result, you must thoroughly understand the subject by addressing theories, concepts, and research. For instance, an essay must be evaluated based on the components of its specific structure.

For further insights, follow this guide and learn more about article critique.

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The Purpose of an Article Critique

Before starting any writing task, the first thing you are instructed about is the purpose of doing it. Similarly, when you are assigned an article critique paper, you must understand areas like - what critique can provide. Is it all about criticizing a work? And so on.

And to make this understanding clear, below are mentioned points that clearly state the purpose of an article critique -

• The critique is written to explain the major points of the particular piece and the author's intentions in writing it.
• Secondly, every article critiqueis prepared to examine the significance and intriguing factor of a topic in the essay, and then develop an explanation for it.
• Thirdly, article critique summarizes and assesses the content by stating the agreement or disagreement with the author and providing evidence for the position.
• Fourth, the article critique shows both sides of the content; this means it looks more at the techniques, writing patterns, and devices included rather than focussing on the emotional aspects.

Read Also:  ASA Format

Types of Article Critiques

In a college course, there are three primary sorts of review articles that you could be required to write:

This kind necessitates researching the author's background. It is necessary to evaluate and contrast the theories and practices of the expert. Solid, logical justifications are the secret to creating an effective narrative essay review.

The students must study the topic to write an expert evidence paper. A student must obtain information to analyze such an essay. Discuss the author's proposal, its effect, and the investigation's findings.

Many research paper must be read and analyzed for this assignment to synthesize information on a certain subject. A systematic essay follows a set technique requiring the writer to respond to pertinent questions.

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What are the Essential Components of a Critique?

• Introduction

For a good introduction, you must do the following -

• Outlines the background details that readers need to know to follow the argument.
• Specify key terms as needed
• Finish with a strong argument (thesis)

Writers of critique essays should always presume that readers may not be familiar with the piece being discussed when crafting summaries. As a result, the following information ought to be presented early on in the paper:

• Identifying information for the work's authors
• The piece's title
• A summary of the key concepts in the work
• Arguments made in the piece
• Any findings that are stated in the work

The opening may include a synopsis, or it may be a distinct paragraph, depending on the specifications of your specific assignment.

Your assessment of the resource serves as the critique. A severe criticism must -

• Focus on the resource's advantages.
• Explains the resource's shortcomings
• When necessary, give particular instances (direct quotes with appropriate citation) to back up your analysis.

Further, discuss anything else related to your relevant judgment, such as -

• The reliability of the source
• Any prejudice identified in the source
• The resource's applicability
• The resource's clarity
• A critique is your assessment of the book, backed up by its examples.

In an essay, a conclusion serves three basic purposes. A summary will:

• Summarize the key points made in the essay.
• Educate readers about the thesis (argument)
• Bring the document to an end.

Read Also:  War Essay Topics for Your Research

The 101 of Article Critique Format & Structure

Maintain the following when you are assigned for an article critique -

Here, you should provide the author's primary points and supporting evidence.

• Analysis/interpretation

Discuss the creator's main objective and assess whether it was accomplished. Utilize the evidence you've obtained to defend or refute the author's or creator's claims as sufficiently convincing (remember there should be no personal bias in this discussion).

• Article's Goal/Purpose

In this section of the body paragraphs, you must rehearse the author's thoughts and compare them to accepted wisdom. Find out what works, what needs improvement, and which elements are crucial to attaining the author's goals.

• Further References

Before you clarify your position on a research piece, it can be required to include pertinent external research articles to demonstrate the publication's significance and methodology.

• Summary/Conclusion and Your Opinion

The hardest part of writing an article critique is typically the end. Here is where you must defend your position. The secret is to simply express how the piece affected you, how it benefited you, or what defects you discovered while always citing pertinent details.

You may need to present a different structure, but sticking to the one described above strikes the ideal balance between expressing your findings, your point of view, and the general variables.

Keep in mind that your article critique must include both the positive findings and the negative aspects you find.

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Important Steps to Write an Article Critique

• Spend sufficient time reading the article

Understanding every concept presented in your reading material requires this method. It could occasionally be difficult to comprehend. To see whether it makes more sense, review it once again or read it aloud. If you're unsure, look up related information or articles that go into more detail. As you critique the essay, remember how easy it is to read and understand.

• Write down your take on the topic

When the article is understandable to you, and you know (roughly!) what it is about, it is time to read it again in a new way and make notes to aid your progress. For instance, consider it something worth discussing if you come across anything intriguing or hear an argument that moves you. You can quote or argue from the passage to support your position.  

• Create an outline using your notes

There is a purpose for your notes. When you examine the crucial details, you may include them in your framework and use your points as the main sentences. As your article critique develops, add comments or your thoughts to help your audience comprehend your points.

When outlining, consider these points further -

• Briefly summarize the major ideas of the writing you are reviewing for the reader.
• As your thesis statement, state your general impression of the work. The ideal scenario is that you choose and apply a contentious thesis.
• Keep in mind that you will learn a lot of crucial details about the piece you are reviewing. You shouldn't use it all, giving the reader details that aren't vital for understanding your critique. For example, Wordsworth's works need not be read entirely if you are writing a piece about him.
• State Your Views

Here, you should succinctly express your opinions and say whether you liked the article or thought it had too many weak or ambiguous passages. Your arguments should, of course, be backed up by some convincing evidence.

Read Also: Health Essay Topics

How to Critique an Article? The Main Steps Are Here

• Read to understand the article's main message

You can't comment on a piece of writing you haven't read. Hence, when reading it for the first time, be sure you comprehend the subject and comprehend the main point the author is attempting to make.

It sounds more like you are looking for the article's thesis.

You should determine whether you concur with this thesis.

• Read the article again while you attempt the analysis

Try to do some analysis the next time you read the article.

Consider the following inquiries for yourself:

• Who was the article's intended readership?
• What was the article's purpose?
• What claim was the author of the piece attempting to support?
• Are there any gaps in the main arguments the author utilized to back them up?

Then use a pencil or marker to highlight anything you feel deserves special attention.

• Make an initial version of your article critique

Ensure you have a general impression of the article before gathering proof. After reading the article two to four times, you should have a preliminary analysis. Your evidence-gathering will be built upon this initial critique.

At this point, try to come up with some sources you'll use to evaluate the research paper you have in front of you. Consider any film or book you may have read that presents ideas that counter the study you are analyzing.

• Collect proof

You've probably already developed an opinion about the article at this time.

It's time to gather evidence to see if your claim can be supported.

• Check to see if the author's argument is sound.
• Analyzing the introduction and conclusion is the quickest approach to assessing the article's logic. Are you persuaded?
• Then, contrast the author's major point with other works in the same field.
• Check if the author did extensive research before writing it.
• Checking the works that, if any, were quoted in the text will help you with that.
• Take it a step further and confirm the applicability of the article's points as well.
• Examine the author's arguments for biased points

Not presenting evidence that refutes their claims is another blatant sign of bias.

Also, if the arguments are not properly stated, they are probably just personal beliefs and have no support.

People frequently exhibit prejudice due to having a limited point of view.

While evaluating an article, look for viewpoints that factors like politics, gender, color, ethnicity, or economic status might impact.

• Examine stylistic details (especially in literature critiques)

You should not simply consider the substance while analyzing a work of literature. You should examine the author's choice of formal and literary devices. The most important things to consider are your language and tone.

Stylistic details may highlight additional flaws in the article's justifications.

For instance, if a writer utilizes a passionate and enthusiastic tone, you can almost certainly assume they are biased and have ignored contrary information throughout the piece.

The only means of article criticism in non-scientific and non-sociological writings is through aesthetic components.

• Write the article critique

After you have developed your analysis, it is time to write the review. Begin with a captivating introduction.

An introduction for an article critique should:

• Add the author's name, the title of the piece, the publisher, the publication date, and the article's primary focus.
• Highlight the article's strong points and its obvious weaknesses.
• At most, keep the introduction to a paragraph or two.
• Support your analyses with evidence

Write more about your arguments and the reasons why you disagree with the article in the body of your article review. It would be beneficial if you had multiple arguments, each of which would be covered in a different paragraph.

Each paragraph should begin with a topic statement and then contain supporting sentences. The notion in your topic sentence should be supported by evidence from the article and outside sources in the supporting sentences.

Make sure that each paragraph builds on your analysis but goes in a new path if you do not have a single argument that contradicts the article.

• Finish by justifying your position

Recapitulate your critique's main arguments in the final sentence. But go a step further and let the reader know how your article critique is relevant.

Provide the reader with an overall, distinct image of your assessment.

Provide examples of how your criticism has affected your field of study.

Moreover, leave your reader with a rhetorical question, a call to action, or a question that necessitates further investigation to make a lasting impact.

Read Also: Exploratory Essay Topics And Ideas

How to Critique a Journal Article?

• Gather relevant data

Gathering the relevant data is the first stage in composing an article critique. This will consist of:

• The article is under review's title page.
• An explanation of the article's principal problem or issue.
• Title page of the journal where the paper was published, with the volume number, page range, and date and month of publication.
• Key findings, technique, hypothesis, and purpose of the study.
• Read the material to develop a perspective

The next step is to read the material thoroughly and understand its main points. You have to reread it critically, underlining any information that will help you write your paper to form informed criticism. A solid critique should include your knowledgeable assessment of the piece.

• Write your critique by analyzing the evidence

What are the most important inquiries to make when analyzing a journal article? The following are some of the most crucial queries that need to be answered:

• Are the strategies and research techniques used appropriately?
• Is there any content that is duplicated or repeated?
• Is the discussion worthwhile and pertinent?
• Do you think the essay needs to be expanded, shortened, or left out in some places?
• Do you think the article included any points that were either highlighted too much or too little?
• What are the main suppositions of the author?
• Has the article's author maintained objectivity throughout?
• Is the introduction's stated goal made clear?
• Are the author's facts and interpretations accurate?
• Has the author used reliable, credible sources?
• Are the statistical techniques suitable?
• Is the article's title appropriate and clear?
• Are all the claims the author makes understood?
• Is the abstract of the paper provided correctly, pertinent to the content of the piece, and specific?
• Highlight the usages of methodology
• Determine and describe the research strategy that allowed for the publication of the journal article that is being criticized.
• Verify the research methodology used and assess its suitability for the research question and context.

For instance, groups with low literacy rates may not be a good fit for surveys.

• Analyze the sampling technique and explain whether it is acceptable in light of the subject and demographic characteristics.
• Verify the possibility of sampling bias. If you are biased, explain why and what you could do to stop prejudices from happening.
• Consider the sample's size in proportion to the population and the desired significance level.
• Describe the methods utilized to acquire the data, the instruments that were used, and the validity, reliability, and correctness of the data collected.
• Verify the results and findings
• Briefly describe the research's principal conclusions.
• Examine the results display—is it done in a way that is clear and understandable?
• Verify that the authors addressed the original issue they pointed out in the introduction section with respect to the results.
• See if any consistencies or inconsistencies have been noted and/or explained in relation to the findings and the literature review.
• Add your final thoughts
• Verify that the conclusion adequately summarizes the entire investigation, beginning to end.
• Consider the type of conclusions offered and whether they address the research topic.
• Explain and analyze the study's primary points of strength and weakness.
• Describe the study's primary shortcomings, and note whether the authors mentioned any.
• Verify if the author(s) made recommendations for further study.

The Do's and Don'ts of Critiquing

How to Enhance Your Article Critique?

Here are approaches you can apply for writing a better article critique every time -

• Engage in active reading

Active reading is one method for learning how to write an article review. The first time you read the piece, you will have a clear comprehension of the author's major contention. You make a note of the author's thesis at this point. To highlight significant parts of the article that jump out, use a colored pen.

• Prepare extended notes while reading

You can make notes as you read further and have more ideas to add to your article evaluation legends. For instance, if you notice that a scientific study you read in the past can be used to dispute the author's assertion, you can make a note of it in the margins or on a separate piece of paper. Do not assume that you will recall the concept while writing your critique. Instead, write it down. When the time comes for you to incorporate everything into your article critique, you'll be glad you did it.

• Bookmark the striking points in the text

As you continue reading and preparing to write your article review, you can make a pattern of your annotations and use special symbols to denote passages that might be unclear, important, or inconsistent. This will help you annotate the content in less time.

• Create a base of your opinion

You could have a general opinion about the piece. Examine the author's main point two to three times, as well as the text's reactions. List potential sources of support for your article critique and attempt to recall any books or documentaries you may have read or watched.

• Be cautious when using evidence and reference

Even though the author may have done the research and cited reputable experts, you still need to consider the message's applicability in the actual world. Check the author's introduction and conclusion to ensure they are complementary and compelling. Check the work for any intentional or unintentional biases. In the end, check whether the author has used inaccurate information. Check to see if he references a book from 50 years ago that is irrelevant to the topic at hand. Unreliable sources can seriously damage the article's authenticity.

• Focus on the stylistic components and patterns

The article's content should be the focus of your article critique. But you shouldn't disregard the author's use of formal or literary devices. Pay attention to the author's use of esoteric language in the works. Also, seek the definitions of unknown words because they can change the meaning of a statement, particularly if they have multiple definitions.

• Use a neutral and well-informed tone

Avoid coming out as overly enthusiastic or excessively impassioned, as this may turn off your audience. Your ability to conduct in-depth research and express yourself clearly should allow your passion to shine through.

• Write an objective Conclusion

You might reiterate your main arguments from the article in the conclusion paragraph of your article critique. You should also explain to the audience what your article critique means for the field as a whole.

If there are significant ramifications for the field study that is being evaluated, let them know. Inform them if your article critique merely aims to disprove the flawed research of another academic.

Article Critique – An Example

Here is an example to give you a visual idea of how an article critique begins -

Reading through the introductory part, you can see that the goal is to clarify and illustrate the significance of the piece as well as its specific unique qualities. and find out how this piece of article proceeds towards the end.

That was all about writing an article critique. We have also answered some of the most common queries students send to us. Read on to know the answers.

Read Also:  Nursing Research Topics

FAQ Searches By Students:

The basics steps involved in writing an article critique includes -

• Explain the major points and the author's intentions.
• Examine each significant and intriguing element in the essay, and provide an explanation of it.
• Determine the author's goals.

Q.2. How is the formatting of the article critique done?

The introduction, the body, and the conclusion make the minimum three sections of the format for a critique paper. In fact, this methodical approach produces a smooth flow that readers can understand.

Q.3. Why is gathering evidence important in doing an article critique?

Evidence is used to support or disprove claims, and it aids in decision-making at work. However your article critique will come off as vague if you don't provide any supporting details.

Q.4. How to write an article critique in APA format?

When you write an article critique in APA format do this -

You should double space your essay and use Times New Roman 12 point type with 1-inch margins. Your critique should generally be organized as a title page, abstract, body, and references.

Q.5. How to critique a scientific article?

When writing a critique for a scientific paper, you should consider the strengths and weaknesses of the literature as well as their parallels and differences. You should also explain how the current study fits into the overall research framework or how it addresses a knowledge gap.

Q.6. How does article critique apply to coursework?

In your coursework, you will be assigned to write an article critique where you must critically study a piece of research for an article criticism in order to determine the article's strengths and shortcomings. Doing so, article critiques helps you grow your logical reasoning better.

Q.7. How to critique a research article on nursing?

Follow these steps to critique a research article on nursing -

• Reviewing Research Contents.
• Analysis of the facts.
• Compare the current results to those from other studies.
• You must be explicit about whether findings succeeded or failed.
• Discussions should include both clinical and statistical importance.

Q.8. How to write a thesis statement for an article critique?

Your thesis should assert anything regarding the writer's perspective and writing style. It ought to present an argument that you can later support with textual evidence.

Q.9. How to write step by step an article critique?

Follow these steps in order when you write an article critique -

• Thesis Statement
• Article Summary
• Your Analysis

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How to Critique a Research Article

Published: 01 October 2023

Let's briefly examine some basic pointers on how to perform a literature review.

If you've managed to get your hands on peer-reviewed articles, then you may wonder why it is necessary for you to perform your own article critique. Surely the article will be of good quality if it has made it through the peer-review process?

Unfortunately, this is not always the case.

Publication bias can occur when editors only accept manuscripts that have a bearing on the direction of their own research, or reject manuscripts with negative findings. Additionally,  not all peer reviewers have expert knowledge on certain subject matters , which can introduce bias and sometimes a conflict of interest.

Performing your own critical analysis of an article allows you to consider its value to you and to your workplace.

Critical evaluation is defined as a systematic way of considering the truthfulness of a piece of research, its results and how relevant and applicable they are.

How to Critique

It can be a little overwhelming trying to critique an article when you're not sure where to start. Considering the article under the following headings may be of some use:

Title of Study/Research

You may be a better judge of this after reading the article, but the title should succinctly reflect the content of the work, stimulating readers' interest.

Three to six keywords that encapsulate the main topics of the research will have been drawn from the body of the article.

Introduction

This should include:

• Evidence of a literature review that is relevant and recent, critically appraising other works rather than merely describing them
• Background information on the study to orientate the reader to the problem
• Hypothesis or aims of the study
• Rationale for the study that justifies its need, i.e. to explore an un-investigated gap in the literature.

Materials and Methods

Similar to a recipe, the description of materials and methods will allow others to replicate the study elsewhere if needed. It should both contain and justify the exact specifications of selection criteria, sample size, response rate and any statistics used. This will demonstrate how the study is capable of achieving its aims. Things to consider in this section are:

• What sort of sampling technique and size was used?
• What proportion of the eligible sample participated? (e.g. '553 responded to a survey sent to 750 medical technologists'
• Were all eligible groups sampled? (e.g. was the survey sent only in English?)
• What were the strengths and weaknesses of the study?
• Were there threats to the reliability and validity of the study, and were these controlled for?
• Were there any obvious biases?
• If a trial was undertaken, was it randomised, case-controlled, blinded or double-blinded?

Results should be statistically analysed and presented in a way that an average reader of the journal will understand. Graphs and tables should be clear and promote clarity of the text. Consider whether:

• There were any major omissions in the results, which could indicate bias
• Percentages have been used to disguise small sample sizes
• The data generated is consistent with the data collected.

Negative results are just as relevant as research that produces positive results (but, as mentioned previously, may be omitted in publication due to editorial bias).

This should show insight into the meaning and significance of the research findings. It should not introduce any new material but should address how the aims of the study have been met. The discussion should use previous research work and theoretical concepts as the context in which the new study can be interpreted. Any limitations of the study, including bias, should be clearly presented. You will need to evaluate whether the author has clearly interpreted the results of the study, or whether the results could be interpreted another way.

Conclusions

These should be clearly stated and will only be valid if the study was reliable, valid and used a representative sample size. There may also be recommendations for further research.

These should be relevant to the study, be up-to-date, and should provide a comprehensive list of citations within the text.

Final Thoughts

Undertaking a critique of a research article may seem challenging at first, but will help you to evaluate whether the article has relevance to your own practice and workplace. Reading a single article can act as a springboard into researching the topic more widely, and aids in ensuring your nursing practice remains current and is supported by existing literature.

• Marshall, G 2005, ‘Critiquing a Research Article’, Radiography , vol. 11, no. 1, viewed 2 October 2023, https://www.radiographyonline.com/article/S1078-8174(04)00119-1/fulltext

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Help with Article Critique Paper Writing

What is an article critique? An article critique, also commonly referred to as a response paper, requires you to evaluate scholarly, literary, or scientific works in a thoughtful, formal manner. A good article critique assignment discusses whether the author has built a solid case for their arguments.

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How to critique an article: an outline.

Before you begin writing an article critique, it is important to prepare yourself properly by following these initial steps:

• Select an article based on your instructor’s requirements.
• Carefully read through the article so that you understand its purpose.
• Read it again, but this time thinks critically about the content.

As you read, ask yourself the following questions and answer them:

• What makes the author a credible authority on the topic? What are their credentials and background?
• Regarding their research methods, are they appropriate for the research questions at hand?
• Can the results be applied in a broader context or are they narrow?
• Can you have confidence that the author demonstrates no biases?
• Is the article relevant and timely or is the information outdated?
• What is the basis of the author’s arguments or theories? Do they cite previous research on the topic?

How to Write an Article Critique: Further Elaboration

When you write your introduction, make sure to limit it to no more than two paragraphs. This will be more than enough to lay out your critique. Begin by stating the author’s name, the title of their work, and the publication date. As you briefly introduce the topic, you should discuss the author’s strengths as well as the ways in which their arguments are weak. Make sure you adhere to your instructor’s formatting requirements whether it is in APA, MLA or any other style.

Start your body paragraph with a topic sentence that summarizes what you will discuss. Do not merely express your opinion for the sake of it; you should always provide evidence to support it such as reputable sources that present a different view.

Keep in mind that you are not merely critiquing the article on its face, you also need to discuss what the findings mean for the particular field of study. For instance, you might state that this work is applicable to a different topic within the same discipline. Or you could even suggest that it is so weak or narrow that it cannot be applied. Finally, since your conclusion makes a final impression on the reader, it is important that you choose your words carefully as you discuss why your critique contributes to the discourse.

Article Critique Examples

If you need help with article critique paper writing, downloading an article critique example would be a good first step. These examples will provide you with a good general idea about how your assignment should look in terms of formatting, structure, and what information to include. Although not everything in the example will be applicable to your particular topic, at the very least you will have a better understanding over how to keep the paper concise and to the point, what keywords to use when making your case, and the proper way to conclude the article critique paper.

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How to Write an Article Critique Step-by-Step

Table of contents

• 1 What is an Article Critique Writing?
• 2 How to Critique an Article: The Main Steps
• 3 Article Critique Outline
• 4 Article Critique Formatting
• 5 How to Write a Journal Article Critique
• 6 How to Write a Research Article Critique
• 7 Research Methods in Article Critique Writing
• 8 Tips for writing an Article Critique

Do you know how to critique an article? If not, don’t worry – this guide will walk you through the writing process step-by-step. First, we’ll discuss what a research article critique is and its importance. Then, we’ll outline the key points to consider when critiquing a scientific article. Finally, we’ll provide a step-by-step guide on how to write an article critique including introduction, body and summary. Read more to get the main idea of crafting a critique paper.

What is an Article Critique Writing?

An article critique is a formal analysis and evaluation of a piece of writing. It is often written in response to a particular text but can also be a response to a book, a movie, or any other form of writing. There are many different types of review articles . Before writing an article critique, you should have an idea about each of them.

To start writing a good critique, you must first read the article thoroughly and examine and make sure you understand the article’s purpose. Then, you should outline the article’s key points and discuss how well they are presented. Next, you should offer your comments and opinions on the article, discussing whether you agree or disagree with the author’s points and subject. Finally, concluding your critique with a brief summary of your thoughts on the article would be best. Ensure that the general audience understands your perspective on the piece.

How to Critique an Article: The Main Steps

If you are wondering “what is included in an article critique,” the answer is:

An article critique typically includes the following:

• A brief summary of the article .
• A critical evaluation of the article’s strengths and weaknesses.
• A conclusion.

When critiquing an article, it is essential to critically read the piece and consider the author’s purpose and research strategies that the author chose. Next, provide a brief summary of the text, highlighting the author’s main points and ideas. Critique an article using formal language and relevant literature in the body paragraphs. Finally, describe the thesis statement, main idea, and author’s interpretations in your language using specific examples from the article. It is also vital to discuss the statistical methods used and whether they are appropriate for the research question. Make notes of the points you think need to be discussed, and also do a literature review from where the author ground their research. Offer your perspective on the article and whether it is well-written. Finally, provide background information on the topic if necessary.

When you are reading an article, it is vital to take notes and critique the text to understand it fully and to be able to use the information in it. Here are the main steps for critiquing an article:

• Read the piece thoroughly, taking notes as you go. Ensure you understand the main points and the author’s argument.
• Take a look at the author’s perspective. Is it powerful? Does it back up the author’s point of view?
• Carefully examine the article’s tone. Is it biased? Are you being persuaded by the author in any way?
• Look at the structure. Is it well organized? Does it make sense?
• Consider the writing style. Is it clear? Is it well-written?
• Evaluate the sources the author uses. Are they credible?
• Think about your own opinion. With what do you concur or disagree? Why?

Article Critique Outline

When assigned an article critique, your instructor asks you to read and analyze it and provide feedback. A specific format is typically followed when writing an article critique.

An article critique usually has three sections: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

• The introduction of your article critique should have a summary and key points.
• The critique’s main body should thoroughly evaluate the piece, highlighting its strengths and weaknesses, and state your ideas and opinions with supporting evidence.
• The conclusion should restate your research and describe your opinion.

You should provide your analysis rather than simply agreeing or disagreeing with the author. When writing an article review , it is essential to be objective and critical. Describe your perspective on the subject and create an article review summary. Be sure to use proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation, write it in the third person, and cite your sources.

Article Critique Formatting

When writing an article critique, you should follow a few formatting guidelines. The importance of using a proper format is to make your review clear and easy to read.

Make sure to use double spacing throughout your critique. It will make it easy to understand and read for your instructor.

Indent each new paragraph. It will help to separate your critique into different sections visually.

Use headings to organize your critique. Your introduction, body, and conclusion should stand out. It will make it easy for your instructor to follow your thoughts.

Use standard fonts, such as Times New Roman or Arial. It will make your critique easy to read.

Use 12-point font size. It will ensure that your critique is easy to read.

How to Write a Journal Article Critique

When critiquing a journal article, there are a few key points to keep in mind:

• Good critiques should be objective, meaning that the author’s ideas and arguments should be evaluated without personal bias.
• Critiques should be critical, meaning that all aspects of the article should be examined, including the author’s introduction, main ideas, and discussion.
• Critiques should be informative, providing the reader with a clear understanding of the article’s strengths and weaknesses.

When critiquing a research article, evaluating the author’s argument and the evidence they present is important. The author should state their thesis or the main point in the introductory paragraph. You should explain the article’s main ideas and evaluate the evidence critically. In the discussion section, the author should explain the implications of their findings and suggest future research.

It is also essential to keep a critical eye when reading scientific articles. In order to be credible, the scientific article must be based on evidence and previous literature. The author’s argument should be well-supported by data and logical reasoning.

How to Write a Research Article Critique

When you are assigned a research article, the first thing you need to do is read the piece carefully. Make sure you understand the subject matter and the author’s chosen approach. Next, you need to assess the importance of the author’s work. What are the key findings, and how do they contribute to the field of research?

Finally, you need to provide a critical point-by-point analysis of the article. This should include discussing the research questions, the main findings, and the overall impression of the scientific piece. In conclusion, you should state whether the text is good or bad. Read more to get an idea about curating a research article critique. But if you are not confident, you can ask “ write my papers ” and hire a professional to craft a critique paper for you. Explore your options online and get high-quality work quickly.

However, test yourself and use the following tips to write a research article critique that is clear, concise, and properly formatted.

• Take notes while you read the text in its entirety. Right down each point you agree and disagree with.
• Write a thesis statement that concisely and clearly outlines the main points.
• Write a paragraph that introduces the article and provides context for the critique.
• Write a paragraph for each of the following points, summarizing the main points and providing your own analysis:
• The purpose of the study
• The research question or questions
• The methods used
• The outcomes
• The conclusions were drawn by the author(s)
• Mention the strengths and weaknesses of the piece in a separate paragraph.
• Write a conclusion that summarizes your thoughts about the article.
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Research Methods in Article Critique Writing

When writing an article critique, it is important to use research methods to support your arguments. There are a variety of research methods that you can use, and each has its strengths and weaknesses. In this text, we will discuss four of the most common research methods used in article critique writing: quantitative research, qualitative research, systematic reviews, and meta-analysis.

Quantitative research is a research method that uses numbers and statistics to analyze data. This type of research is used to test hypotheses or measure a treatment’s effects. Quantitative research is normally considered more reliable than qualitative research because it considers a large amount of information. But, it might be difficult to find enough data to complete it properly.

Qualitative research is a research method that uses words and interviews to analyze data. This type of research is used to understand people’s thoughts and feelings. Qualitative research is usually more reliable than quantitative research because it is less likely to be biased. Though it is more expensive and tedious.

Systematic reviews are a type of research that uses a set of rules to search for and analyze studies on a particular topic. Some think that systematic reviews are more reliable than other research methods because they use a rigorous process to find and analyze studies. However, they can be pricy and long to carry out.

Meta-analysis is a type of research that combines several studies’ results to understand a treatment’s overall effect better. Meta-analysis is generally considered one of the most reliable type of research because it uses data from several approved studies. Conversely, it involves a long and costly process.

Are you still struggling to understand the critique of an article concept? You can contact an online review writing service to get help from skilled writers. You can get custom, and unique article reviews easily.

Tips for writing an Article Critique

It’s crucial to keep in mind that you’re not just sharing your opinion of the content when you write an article critique. Instead, you are providing a critical analysis, looking at its strengths and weaknesses. In order to write a compelling critique, you should follow these tips: Take note carefully of the essential elements as you read it.

• Make sure that you understand the thesis statement.
• Write down your thoughts, including strengths and weaknesses.
• Use evidence from to support your points.
• Create a clear and concise critique, making sure to avoid giving your opinion.

It is important to be clear and concise when creating an article critique. You should avoid giving your opinion and instead focus on providing a critical analysis. You should also use evidence from the article to support your points.

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E wayne ross, university of british columbia, writing an article critique.

A critique is not a matter of saying that things are not right as they are. It is a matter of pointing out on what kinds of assumptions, what kinds of familiar, unchallenged, unconsidered modes of thought, the practices that we accept rest … Criticism is a matter of flushing out that thought and trying to change it: to show that things are not as self-evident as one believed, to see that what is accepted as self-evident will no longer be accepted as such. Practicing criticism is a matter of making facile gestures difficult.

 —  Michel Foucault, 1988,  Politics, philosophy, culture . New York: Routledge (p. 154)

Remember that a book critique is not a summary, rather it is an evaluation of the work in relation to a particular set of issues or questions. For example:

Questions for Criticism

• What is the historical location of the text?
• Who is the author?
• Who are the author’s sponsors?
• What are their interests?
• What image do they portray?
• Who is the audience? What are their interests?
• What is the focal point of the piece?
• How is the focal point developed?
• What is the underlying ideology?
• What is omitted? What alternative views are silenced?
• What meaning is drawn by interactions of graphics and texts?
• What is being urged? What is the project here?
• Who gains? Who is hurt?
• Is this a closed system?
• Is it rational?
• Is it subject only to faith or analysis?

These questions are starting points and will likely raise further questions. I’m not suggesting that these questions be used as the explicit framework for writing of your critique, but they’re useful in terms of establishing a critical mindset as you read the book. Here are links to several different sets of guidelines for critical reading/writing critiques:

• Critical Reading Towards Critical Writing (U of Toronto)
• The Book Review or Article Critique: General Guidelines (U of Toronto)
• How to read a book to review it (U of Wisconsin)
• Writing a critical review of nonfiction works (U of Wisconsin)

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Critique Of A Research Article Nursing Essay

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Critical Thinking Paper, Article Critique Example

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Introduction

From the YouTube video uploaded by Eidos84, Peter Singer explores the context of applied ethics by describing how the interests of human beings should be and will be determined and weighed. Singer uses various examples to illustrate the instances where applied ethics and morality while challenging people on the importance of being more selfless and living for something that will be than themselves. In this regard, the thesis of Singer’s argument from his film is that the priority of reducing and preventing suffering is one of the most amazing things that would emerge when people put themselves in the position of others. He further continues to argue that ethics does not only entail what people actually do to impact others but also what they omit to do that will determine the impact that someone could be doing and their moral obligations to help and not to harm (Singer 6:58 – 8:04). In response to Singer’s argument, my thesis, which is in agreement with Singer, is structured around the development of meaning in the lives of human beings. By developing a sense of meaning in our lives, we will be able to live a life of purpose that would transcend our own individual desires, interests, and objectives. Furthermore, such a meaning would be based on connecting ourselves with some important issues or causes with the objective of developing a sense of self-fulfillment and satisfaction. This becomes a reality when one realizes that because they live, there is something that will become much better than it would have otherwise been, in whatever way or measure, with the goal of making the world a better place.

Explication

To further present and expound on his primary argument, Singer uses various premises in the film. One of these premises is that of the people who buy expensive clothes and shoes, yet they do not seem to have any moral problem with it (Singer 0:13 – 0:20). A discussion of such a premise is bound to erupt an array of controversial sentiments whether viewed subjectively or objectively. The reason is that people have the liberty to choose what they do with their money, and despite the moral issue of being philanthropic and helping others, it is imperative to consider the rationale behind making expensive purchases for each individual rather than generalizing the issue. Nevertheless, this does not exempt the individual from using the lump sum of money towards a greater cause, such as supporting organizations that target the poor and the sick in some of the underdeveloped and harsh environments across the globe.

The other premise that Singer uses is that of a person walking down the park, and they stumble upon a child drowning in a pond, and although the adult would not drown just by saving the child, since it is a shallow pool, the question remains whether they would risk ruining their expensive shoes for such a noble endeavor. When it comes to ethics and morality, they do not just emanate from individual definitions, perceptions, and feelings. They are derived from a deeply engraved conviction that comes from a belief in a higher purpose or even the existence of a Supreme Being that essentially transcends individuality. An individual who has reached such a higher level of living would not be moved by the dilemma of whether or not to compromise materialistic things over love, kindness, mercy, and empathy towards others. Therefore, the question of ruining expensive shoes in pursuit of saving a drowning child shows the lack of a deeply engraved moral conviction to live beyond one’s self.

Based on the video, Singer concludes by stating that we make our lives most meaningful when we connect ourselves with some really important causes or issues, and we contribute to that so that we feel that because we live; something has gone a little better than it would have otherwise; that we have contributed in however small or way towards making the world a better place. On this note, it is imperative for people to know that they do not have to necessarily do ‘big’ things such as investing huge amounts for a greater cause for them to develop a sense of meaning in their lives. Even a ‘small’ thing as donating a camping tent to a homeless individual could have a great impact not only on the first-hand beneficiary but also on their subsequent generation, and this is a considerably noble cause.

Based on my thesis, one of the most common premises is when people think of giving or prioritizing others’ needs before theirs, we of at thinking about what will happen to us or how we will survive. Such a perception is solely centered on self-preservation, and I believe that it is the root cause of all the issues of greed, injustice, corruption, and oppression. When people operate under such a belief system, it is difficult and almost impossible to consider others and be empathetic towards them. As such, it is important that we acknowledge our shortcomings in being selfish and begin to establish substantial and effective ways of becoming more selfless, thereby living a meaningful and purposeful life.

People have to begin working on the deeply engraved selfish mentality with the objective of living more substantially and fruitfully. Such an approach ought to begin at an early stage since most of us have learned it from the time we were children, and it continues to influence our decisions either consciously or subconsciously. To achieve this goal, society has to embrace and acknowledge the issue while exploring the most reliable ways to create awareness across the global society on the importance of being compassionate and empathetic towards others. Most importantly, the misconception of helping others detracts from the perpetrator and adds to the beneficiary ought to be eradicated with people being made to realize that prioritizing the needs of others serves more on the individual doing it than the one receiving the help.

Human beings should have attached their lives to something that is greater and bigger than themselves with the objective of ensuring that the suffering that had been so prevalent across the global society was reduced and prevented. That is the only way by which they would have been in a position to find meaning and purpose in their lives at an individual level. The issue of applied ethics could have been considered a philosophical one and determined as one that applies to the things that people omitted and committed at the same time. Conversely, the establishment of meaning and purpose across people’s lives ought to have been taught with a more critical approach across the global society. This would be a result of increasing the emphasis on prioritizing the needs and interests of others over their own. Since people have the liberty to choose what they do with their resources, time, and efforts, it is imperative to consider the rationale behind them making certain decisions such as expensive purchases rather than generalizing specific issues relating to applied ethics and morality. It is imperative for people to know that they do not have to necessarily do ‘big’ things such as investing huge amounts for a greater cause for them to develop a sense of meaning in their lives.

Singer, Peter. “Peter Singer’s Ethics.” YouTube , uploaded by Eidos84, 27 November 2010, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVViICWs4dM

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How To Write Article Critique

How to write article critique: review of original article.

Article critique definition: one of the main article types that every student is face with. The editorial board and the editorial committee will promote the critical reading of articles, preferably of recent publication.

We propose the following article critique example as a guide to make a correct presentation of this kind of paper. Remember that it is only a guide to help you in the realization of a scientific dissemination document, although we honestly believe that it is a good way of doing things.

1. Title of the article. Subtitle

It must be the title of your own manuscript, it must be original (do not repeat the same title of the article on which you are doing the critical reading). It must have a meaning and be related, obviously, to the topic you are going to deal with

Fundamental part of the writing article critique assignment (maximum 250 words). It is important to include in this summary the fundamental pillars that should have the critical reading of an article as well as we do while writing open thesis statement . Remember that it is a summary or abstract that will be collected by academic seekers, so it will be your letter of introduction to the world. The summary should include it in the manuscript itself and in the final process of uploading to the OJS system (Open Journal System) when it asks for it together with the metadata (name of the authors, affiliation …)

3. Introduction

Brief explanation of the problem faced by the article is a main feature article critique format.

4. Description of the Article

• A good way to start is to assign a score on the Jadad Scale, if it is a clinical trial.
• Describe the Type of design; cohorts, control cases, randomized clinical trial … etc
• General description of the intervention (experimental studies). What has been done and how it has been done.
• Define the most relevant variables to understand the work. What data was collected?
• Define inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria
• Defines the statistical tests used and the statistical program.
• Describe the results obtained. You must provide the main results in sufficient detail to be understood by the reader. You can use tables and figures (always referenced) but it is important to focus on the most relevant aspects.
• Describe the conclusions of the work and the authors

5. Critical analysis of the article:

Do not kid yourself; this is the body of the article critique rubric, the same as in reflective essay ,the most interesting part. In short, you must develop what is stated in the summary (internal and external validity and the importance or applicability of the article). To help you in this we offer you a series of key questions that you should answer to make a good scientific review of a publication. It is not necessary that you answer all, but surely, they will help you to order a good scientific review.

• Is the study oriented to a clearly defined question?
• Analyze the study population
• Were the groups similar at the beginning of the study?
• Is there a selection bias that could compromise the generalization of the findings?
• Make a list of the factors that you think are important and that the authors have omitted (genetic, environmental, and socioeconomic).
• Apart from the intervention under study, the groups were treated in the same way?
• How was the assignment of patients to the groups; was it randomized, masked?
• How did the authors measure results?
• Did the authors use objective or subjective variables?
• Do the variables adequately reflect what they are supposed to measure? (they have been validated)
• Was the measurement methods similar in the groups studied?
• Are the results obtained worth?
• Is the effect of the treatment great?
• What are your confidence intervals?
• Do you believe the results? Can it be due to chance, bias or confusion? Are the design and methods of this study defective enough to make the results unlikely?
• Do you think that the patients included in the trial are sufficiently similar to your patients?
• If not, in what does that affect the decision to be made?
• Can you apply the results to your environment? Consider whether the patients covered by the study may be sufficiently different from those in your area. Can you estimate the benefits and harms in your environment?
• Do the results of this study coincide with other available evidence?
• Do the benefits to obtain justify the risks and costs? It is unlikely that it can be inferred from the trial but, what do you think about it?

6. Conclusion

Here, again, express your opinions in line with article critique outline. You must be yourself, educated but not afraid to proclaim your conclusions. Do you believe in the results? Do not be afraid to create a healthy polemic.

Summary of the article critique activity

The spectacular increase in the amount of scientific information circulating, the difficulties in accessing it, the problems of understanding and critical analysis of scientific information and the scarcity of time for reading articles are making it difficult to disseminate the scientific knowledge of nurses. With the appearance of a new type of scientific article, the critical review (CR) or critical commentary of a study, also called structured and commented summary, some of these problems have been solved, since this type of article selects relevant researches carried out anywhere in the world, overcomes language barriers and critically analyzes the information, making it available to nurses in a summarized and extracted form.

In this work we intend to provide the reader with the necessary help to develop a CR, trying to define the characteristics that must be presented, especially the freest part, that of the comment, so that it has a minimum of quality elements, as well as the structure of the informative summary, which will be included in the databases for their indexing.

Thus, we distinguish the parts that make up a CR, which are: pre-elimination part (composed of title, informative summary, necessary for the information to be indexed in the databases, keywords, the question of nursing based on the evidence ( EBE) and the selection of the article), structured summary (which is composed of study design, place of performance, objectives, methods, main results and conclusions) and critical comment (composed of an introduction to the problem, validity of the study, relevance of the work and closing with answer to the question of type EBE).

• Open access
• Published: 30 April 2024

Definition and characteristics of climate-adaptive cities: a systematic review

• Arezoo Yari 1 , 7 ,
• Alireza Mashallahi 2 ,
• Hamidreza Aghababaeian 3 ,
• Mohsen Nouri 8 ,
• Nidhi Yadav 4 ,
• Arefeh Mousavi 5 ,
• Shiva Salehi 6 &
• Abbas Ostadtaghizadeh 9   nAff2  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1200 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Cities, as frontline responders to climate change, necessitate a precise understanding of climate-adaptive features. This systematic review aims to define and outline the characteristics of climate-adaptive cities, contributing vital insights for resilient urban planning.

This systematic review, initiated on March 6, 2018, and concluded on August 26, 2021, involved reviewing multiple electronic databases based on the study's objectives. The Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) tool was used for quality assessment and critical evaluation of articles retrieved through a comprehensive and systematic text search. Descriptive and thematic analyses were conducted to extract definitions, features, and characteristics of climate-adaptive cities.

Out of 6104 identified articles, 38 articles met the inclusion criteria. In total, 20 definitions and 55 features for climate-adaptive cities were identified in this review. Codes were categorized into two categories and ten subcategories. The categories included definitions and features or characteristics of climate-adaptive cities.

A climate-adaptive city, as derived from the findings of this study, is a city that, through effective resource management, future-oriented planning, education, knowledge utilization, innovation in governance and industry, decentralized management, and low-carbon economy, leads to the adaptability, resilience, sustainability, and flexibility of the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city against all climate change impacts and reduces their negative consequences.

Peer Review reports

Climate change imposes greater stress on urban areas [ 1 ]. Urban areas, encompassing metropolitan and suburban regions, accommodate the majority of the global population [ 1 , 2 ] and are accountable responsible for approximately 40% of greenhouse gas emissions [ 1 ] and over 70% of global CO 2 emissions [ 2 ]. These statistics are projected to rise in the future [ 1 ]. In addition to greenhouse gas emissions, urban areas face challenges such as excessive energy and resource consumption, waste generation, crime, social and cultural instability, and the ongoing global population growth, all contributing to the complexities of climate change impacts [ 3 ]. Consequently, cities are at the forefront of addressing climate change challenges [ 1 , 4 ], with many researchers considering them indispensable in this regard [ 5 ].

Modern human activities exacerbate various climate phenomena, including global warming, UHI (Urban Heat Island) effect, heatwaves, and droughts [ 6 ]. Climate change and its repercussions are among humanity's major concerns, posing significant challenges to global sustainable development [ 7 ]. The rapid pace of climate change, coupled with its pervasive and detrimental effects on the environment, economy, and public health, underscores the critical importance of addressing climate-related issues [ 8 ].

The recent escalation in temperatures, driven by global warming and intensified heat in urban centers due to the UHI effect, profoundly impacts urban life, especially during warmer seasons [ 6 ]. These climatic shifts not only pose significant health risks but also endanger vital necessities such as clean air, water, food, and shelter [ 9 ]. Moreover, climate change exacerbates poverty and marginalization, particularly among vulnerable populations [ 10 ]. The increasing global population further exacerbates climate-related challenges, including the UHI effect and urban heat issues [ 6 ]. The consensus on global warming's human-induced nature and the persistence of trends in energy consumption, development, and population growth emphasize the urgency of addressing climate change [ 10 ].

Climate change, urbanization, and aging populations in many regions are expected to heighten the risk of heat-related illnesses, particularly due to heat exposure [ 11 ]. Furthermore, climate change leads to more frequent and severe weather events, such as droughts, storms, precipitation, and heatwaves, contributing to social, economic, and environmental disruptions globally [ 12 ]. The anthropogenic nature of climate change underscores the need for adaptation efforts to mitigate its impacts [ 13 ]. Adaptation involves enhancing resilience and reducing vulnerability to observed or anticipated climate changes [ 14 , 15 ]. Urban adaptation capacity, influenced by economic, social, and environmental factors, plays a crucial role in determining cities' ability to respond effectively to climate change [ 16 ].

In this context, adaptation capacity refers to the ability of a system to adjust to climate change, including climate variability and temperature thresholds, in order to mitigate potential damages, seize opportunities, and cope with resulting consequences [ 17 ]. Enhancing adaptation to climate change in urban areas involves implementing various methods. Adaptation capacity encompasses the ability of stakeholders to absorb and recover from the effects of climate change while also leveraging new opportunities to increase adaptability. Factors influencing the capacity for adaptation to climate change include the economic, social, and environmental characteristics of each region. These characteristics may have general applicability across regions or be specific to certain areas facing distinct levels of risk from climate change [ 18 ].

Given the adverse impacts of climate change, efforts to develop practical adaptation strategies have gained traction, shifting the focus from understanding vulnerabilities to implementing actionable plans [ 19 ]. The aim of global adaptation agreements is to bolster resilience, reduce vulnerability, and support sustainable development [ 20 ]. Community-based adaptation initiatives, integrated into urban policies at local and national levels, foster public participation and enhance urban resilience [ 21 ]. Notably, some communities have initiated measures to mitigate global warming impacts, such as assessing the role of vegetation and water surfaces in mitigating thermal effects [ 22 ].

Urban areas face significant challenges in creating climate adaptation conditions for their residents, necessitating effective urban climate change programs [ 23 ]. Social, economic, governmental, and environmental factors play pivotal roles in driving or hindering the development of such programs [ 24 ]. While large and affluent cities actively engage in climate planning, vulnerable cities and individuals with high exposure to climate impacts often have limited involvement [ 1 ].

The introduction underscores the imperative of understanding urban adaptation to climate change and aims to establish a foundational understanding of climate-adaptive cities. Despite various definitions of climate adaptation, those specifically addressing climate-adaptive cities remain limited and lack comprehensiveness. Through this study, we seek to identify the distinctive features and characteristics that define cities adept at responding to climate change challenges.

The implications of this research extend beyond academia, offering practical insights for urban policy and planning. By elucidating climate adaptation intricacies in urban areas, this study contributes to the development of robust mitigation and adaptation strategies, ultimately enhancing urban resilience and safeguarding residents from the adverse impacts of climate change. Additionally, the findings are poised to guide policymakers and urban planners in formulating more effective strategies, fostering sustainable and resilient urban ecosystems amid evolving climate conditions.

Materials and methods

This study is part of a review that examines the concepts, characteristics, components, challenges, and implementation strategies of climate-adaptive cities. In this study, only the definition and characteristics of adaptive cities are presented. The following steps were taken for this study, which was then evaluated using the PRISMA checklist.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

This study encompassed published articles and books addressing the definition, characteristics, and features of climate-adaptive cities within the scope of the research questions. The inclusion of articles and documents was not restricted by time, covering works available until March 6, 2018. It is crucial to clarify that while there was no limitation on the publication date of included materials, the retrieval process and study focus encompassed documents available until the specified date. Following the collection of studies, the examination of entered studies commenced and persisted until August 26, 2021. Excluded were studies not addressing the definitions or characteristics of climate-adaptive cities, those solely examining other components, studies unrelated to events, disasters, accidents, or crises, and articles not related to a human population residing in a specific geography. Additionally, documents not available in full text and not relevant to our research topic, as well as studies not in English, were excluded.

Databases and search strategy

This systematic review utilized available books, manuals, guidelines, and scientific resources, as well as electronic searches on various websites and databases available on the Internet, including PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, without any limitations on the date or type of study. The language of the research in the above-mentioned databases was English. In addition to these databases, reputable international websites, such as those affiliated with the United Nations (UNDP, UN-HABITAT, UNISDR, UNEP), were also examined. Moreover, articles on Google Scholar were searched manually. Reading the articles' references and using the snowball mechanism were other methods used to find relevant articles. This study was conducted on March 6, 2018.

The following English keywords and their similar terms extracted from the MeSH database or the Tazaroos database, which is specifically designed to identify synonymous terms, were used. It should be noted that consultation and agreement with experts and stakeholders were carried out before the search regarding the keywords and types of terms. In general, only two groups of words were used to increase the study's sensitivity, which are:

Group 1 keywords: City, Urban, Municipal, Civil, Burgh

Group 2 keywords: Adapt*, Cop*, Resil*, Accommodat*

Study selection

Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the researchers (AY, AM, HA, MN, NY, AM, SHS) screened the titles and abstracts of the retrieved articles using the EndNote software to find relevant articles. Then, the full-text of the selected articles was independently reviewed by two researchers (AY, AM). In case of disagreement between the two researchers, a third researcher (AOT) resolved the differences and helped them make the best selection. The process of reviewing and selecting articles is shown in Fig.  1 .

Flow chart diagram of the screening process for included studies on the definitions and characteristics of climate-adaptive cities

Quality appraisal and data extraction

The quality of the articles was evaluated by the researchers using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP), which provides a systematic way to evaluate the overall quality, reliability, and quality of different study designs [ 25 , 26 ]. CASP provides a structured framework for assessing key aspects such as research methodology, sampling, data analysis, and result reporting.

Each article underwent a detailed evaluation based on specific parameters outlined in the CASP criteria. These parameters encompassed methodological rigor, validity of findings, appropriateness of statistical methods, and the clarity of reporting. The evaluation process resulted in the categorization of articles into three quality groups: low, moderate, and high. Documents and articles that were categorized in the low-quality group were excluded, and articles categorized in the moderate and high-quality groups were included in the study. This thorough quality appraisal process aimed to uphold the integrity and credibility of the included studies, ensuring that the findings synthesized in the systematic review are built upon a foundation of methodologically sound and reliable research.

Data extraction and analysis

The extracted data was recorded in two separate forms. The first form included general characteristics of the article, such as the article's identification number in this study, title of the study, first author of the article, year of the study, type of study, country or city where the study was conducted, the subject matter extracted from the article for the present review, and the study's objective. The second form was related to the extraction of definitions and features of climate-resilient cities. Then, descriptive and thematic analysis was performed for the selected articles and texts. In this study, the authors coded the extracted descriptive information, definitions, and features of climate-resilient cities. Then, similar codes were grouped together. Finally, the grouped findings were analyzed for categorizing these strategies. The accuracy and completeness of the extracted data were discussed by the research team in a group discussion.

During the research, in the first stage of the main review study, 6,104 articles and documents were identified through the search process. After removing 903 cases of duplicate articles, 5,201 articles remained and were reviewed and screened. In the second stage, after studying the titles and abstracts, 4,176 articles were excluded from the retrieved studies. Finally, the full-text of 1,025 articles was reviewed, and based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 987 articles were removed. In the end, 38 studies related to the definitions and features of climate-resilient cities were included in the main review study and were examined and analyzed. The results of evaluating the entered articles with the CASP tool showed that 70% of the studies had high quality, and 30% had moderate quality (Table  1 ) (Fig.  1 provides a quick overview of how data was collected).

Descriptive analysis

The reviewed articles were primarily from the United States, accounting for approximately 18.42% of the total. Canada contributed around 7.89%, both individually and as part of a joint article with Saudi Arabia. Australia and England followed closely, with approximately 15.78% and 10.52%, respectively. Thailand comprised about 5.26% of the articles. Other countries collectively contributed approximately 42.13% of the total. Regarding the types of articles, original articles constituted the majority at around 39.4%. Case studies followed, representing about 21.05%, and review articles accounted for 7.8%. Additionally, there was one mixed review and case study, making up approximately 2.6% of the total. Furthermore, two books, two surveys, and two theses were identified, each contributing approximately 5% to the overall distribution.

51.3% of the reviewed articles referred to the characteristics of climate-adaptive cities, 2.3% to the definition of resilience, 20.6% to the definition of adaptation, 10.4% to the definition of climate-adaptive city, 7.7% to the definition of adaption to climate change, and 7.7% to both the definition and characteristics of climate-adaptive cities. The specifications of the entered articles are shown in Table  1 .

Thematic analysis

Given that this study focuses on defining and outlining the characteristics of climate-adaptive cities, the thematic analysis begins by separating codes related to the definitions of adaptive cities from those related to their features. Following this division, codes within each category are further classified into relevant subcategories. Both categories are integral to our understanding, as the definitions aim to articulate what constitutes an adaptive city, while the characteristics elaborate on the specific attributes of such cities. In essence, characteristics serve as complementary elements, providing detailed insights into the nature of adaptive cities.

A total of 75 codes were extracted from 38 articles, including 55 codes related to the characteristics of climate-resilient cities and 20 codes related to definitions. The highest number of codes in the category of features of climate-resilient cities was related to the subcategory of effective resource management with 18 codes. In the category of definitions, the highest number of codes was related to the definition of resilience with 16 codes (Table  2 ). In this review, only four definitions of climate-resilient cities were extracted. It should also be noted that the subcategories of stakeholder participation and knowledge utilization had the lowest number of codes with only three codes among the subcategories in this review. Based on this study, many of the features of climate-resilient cities were extracted from the experiences of resilient cities or cities that have taken steps in this regard.

In none of the reviewed studies, comprehensive definitions and features of climate-resilient cities were thoroughly investigated. Introducing a novel and comprehensive definition of climate-resilient cities, along with categorizing their features and characteristics, holds significant potential for contributing to the existing body of literature. This contribution extends to enhancing the resilience of cities in diverse regions worldwide. Moreover, delineating the features and characteristics of climate-resilient cities in this study proves to be highly efficacious in evaluating the resilience level of cities and urban areas to climate change, while concurrently pinpointing prevailing weaknesses and challenges (Fig.  2 ).

Characteristics and features of climate-adaptive cities identified through systematic review

Definition of climate adaptation and climate-adaptive cities

According to definitions of climate adaptation, it is a multidimensional, location-based challenge [ 43 ]. In fact, adaptation to climate change is a process [ 65 ], and in another definition, it is the coordination between future climate change scenarios and current change strategies and programs [ 33 ]. Some definitions of climate adaptation refer to capacities, which are sustainable and the abilities of communities to cope with environmental changes [ 34 ], or the capacity of a system, society, or community to resist or adapt to a risk, to achieve and maintain a level of performance and structure [ 36 ]. However, the capacity for adaptation is more interpreted as the ability of stakeholders, individuals, groups, and systems [ 30 ]. In another definition, climate adaptation is defined as learning to live with severe weather events, changing weather patterns, and preparing for some unavoidable changes [ 44 ]. From the health perspective, adaptation is a responsive action for public health, which is necessary to prevent, reduce, and manage climate-related risks [ 42 ]. In fact, climate adaptation is the adjustment of natural or human systems to real or potential climate stimuli or their effects, mitigating damages and taking advantage of opportunities [ 35 ] and results in preventing or reducing vulnerability to climate change [ 28 ].

Although there are numerous definitions regarding adaptation to climate change, the definitions of climate-adapted cities are limited and very few. Moreover, none of these definitions are comprehensive, applying solutions to change and reducing the effects in a timely and effective manner before uncontrollable changes occur, and learning from non-adaptive ways used by other cities for defining climate-adapted cities [ 37 ]. In this definition, solutions are generally mentioned, while clarifying this issue is very important. Another definition mainly refers to reducing social vulnerability and emphasizes the importance of bottom-up adaptation [ 39 ], while ignoring other characteristics of climate-adapted cities.

In another definition, a climate-adapted city is defined as a city that can only maintain stability against heat islands [ 32 ]. Although this definition is in line with the global Paris Agreement aimed at global adaptation, it cannot be considered a comprehensive goal. This goal seeks to ensure sufficient adaptation response to the global temperature goal, ultimately leading to sustainable development [ 20 , 66 ]. Finally, a relatively better definition of urban resilience to climate change is as follows: the flexibility of the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city to survive, adapt, and grow regardless of the chronic stress and acute shocks they experience [ 39 ]. Therefore, based on the characteristics of climate-adapted cities and the texts reviewed in this study, it can be suggested that a climate-adapted city is a city that, through effective resource management, future-oriented planning, education, knowledge utilization, innovation in governance and industry, decentralized management, and low-carbon economy, leads to adaptation, resilience, sustainability, and flexibility of the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city, against all impacts of climate change and reducing the resulting consequences.

Characteristics of climate-adapted cities

In the literature review conducted in this study, no specific study was found to investigate the characteristics of climate-adapted cities. Nevertheless, determining the features, characteristics, and standards of adaptation can be highly effective in assessing its efficiency and categorizing the factors that foster adaptive capacity.

Identifying adaptation criteria is often challenging for development interventions, which can lead to difficulties in classifying whether anything that creates adaptive capacity can be called adaptation [ 67 , 68 ]. Therefore, in this review, all variables and factors that can be considered as characteristics of a climate-adapted city were extracted and categorized in a scientific and systematic manner.

Stakeholder participation

Based on the literature review and considering the effective role of social coordination in resilience [ 59 ], one of the characteristics of climate-adapted cities is the use of participatory techniques, including local stakeholders [ 50 ] and community participation [ 45 , 54 ]. Friend (2010) also considers community participation as a prominent feature of climate-adapted cities [ 54 ]. Although this participation should be comprehensive, Al-Zubari et al. (2018) only referred to the necessity of stakeholder participation in achieving proper water resources [ 45 ]. However, the community-based adaptation process in climate-adapted cities involves engaging other institutional elements in decision-making, ensuring the compatibility of top-down planning with local needs, and using participatory research to facilitate the participation of local communities in shaping adaptation planning processes [ 21 ]. Therefore, it can be said that community-based adaptation can provide an opportunity for people's participation in planning and adaptation activities in a comprehensive and proper manner. Facilitating people's participation leads to understanding and enhancing their awareness of their risk, vulnerability, and resilience to climate change [ 69 ].

Effective resource management

Effective resource management [ 45 , 47 ] and efficient use of limited resources [ 30 , 47 ] are among the most important characteristics of climate-adapted cities. Al-Zubari (2018) [ 45 ] emphasizes the need to create sustainable strategies by estimating the assessment of each household's contribution to global warming based on different lifestyles and climatic conditions in different parts of the world, as well as reducing energy consumption to control greenhouse gas emissions [ 45 ]. This highlights the importance of resource management for achieving effective adaptation. This adaptation strategy may vary across different climates, as individuals' thermal responses to a consistent thermal environment differ from one location to another [ 70 ].

Kilkis S (2016) [ 47 ] also highlights the importance of sustainability, resource management, and the judicious use of resources in climate-adapted cities. He argues that achieving sustainable development in cities requires attention to factors such as energy consumption, carbon dioxide emissions, transportation systems, waste management, water resources, socio-economic capacity, and inter-sectoral sustainability [ 47 ]. Although, the current global progress and sustainable initiatives, as outlined in international frameworks such as the Paris Climate Agreement and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), are not advancing rapidly or at the expected pace in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and addressing climate change. In other words, advancements in these areas are encountering challenges and obstacle [ 71 ].

In line with the focus on transportation systems, Garg (2001) writes in his article that since greenhouse gases SO2 and NOx in Indian cities are more emitted from industries, focusing on transportation systems as sources of greenhouse gas emissions will have a higher cost-effectiveness in reducing emissions [ 57 ]. Based on the above, it can be concluded that reducing greenhouse gas emissions from urban transportation systems is one of the characteristics of climate-adapted cities, which will also lead to economic benefits.

In his study, Quay R (2010) presents the characteristics of different cities based on a review of their experiences. For example, the city of Denver has developed a water adaptation planning process based on scenarios, while New York City has developed new strategies for water and sewage systems and flood control to enhance their resilience to climate change [ 63 ]. In addition to these, other solutions for effective resource management towards climate adaptation have been mentioned, including: effective energy use management through wind catchers, chimneys, summer spaces with dome or elevated ceilings, courtyards, basements, underground water tanks, and natural refrigerators [ 52 ]; access to vegetation coverage [ 62 ]; centralized sustainable water management [ 55 ]; lifestyle change and proper use of resources [ 30 ]; low-carbon technologies and new energy sources [ 56 ]; focusing on cost-effectiveness in reducing greenhouse gas emissions [ 57 ]; reducing energy consumption to control greenhouse gas emissions [ 45 ]; and the use of renewable energy sources [ 72 ] for climate adaptation in urban areas.

Foresight in planning

One of the most important characteristics of climate-adapted cities is foresight, future prediction, and planning for the future to achieve effective adaptation. In this regard, Alhashmi et al. (2017) emphasizes the need for planning to reduce the use of fossil fuels and use renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, nuclear, and biomass to reduce carbon emissions [ 46 ]. Nanos and Filion (2016) also point to the importance of foresight in climate adaptation planning, considering resilience and executive criteria to assess the flexibility and vulnerability of urban drainage networks in Kingstone. They argue that this can be achieved through forecasting and designing models for hard weather periods to assess how a storm will behave in the future [ 49 ]. Carrero et al. (2013) also mentions the characteristics of foresight, stakeholder participation, and resource management. In his article, he emphasizes considering the economic dimensions in climate change policy planning, identifying stakeholders and their participation, and having a future-oriented approach as effective factors for management [ 50 ]. Additionally, Keenan et al. (2016) includes foresight and collective response to current conditions as characteristics of resilience [ 29 ]. Therefore, foresight, resource efficiency, and proper resource management can be considered essential for cities to achieve climate adaptation.

One of the key characteristics of climate-adaptive cities is education, which involves teaching adaptation strategies at all levels. THP (2017) suggests using social media to increase local farmers' adaptability and learning to enhance resilience to climate change. Therefore, it can be concluded that education and capacity building on effective adaptation strategies and changes in lifestyle and resource use are critical for climate adaptation [ 30 ]. Geirsdóttir et al. (2014) emphasizes the importance of community awareness of their living conditions in climate adaptation. For example, knowledge of past communities in reading weather signs and sea changes had prepared them to react to hazards and raised their preparedness level [ 59 ]. In conclusion, numerous adaptation strategies and solutions can be taught to communities to enhance their participation in climate adaptation. Therefore, one of the characteristics of climate-adaptive communities is to pay attention to the following while teaching adaptation strategies: using learning methods and teaching techniques appropriate for the community's culture and awareness level, using social media capacity, using virtual spaces and modern teaching methods, and engaging local leaders and educators for education.

Utilizing knowledge

The gap between knowledge and action in the field of climate change has made it difficult to understand and establish a relationship with it [ 73 ]. Tapan Kumar Dhar (2016) [ 35 ] believes that using indigenous, interdisciplinary and community-based knowledge along with governmental collaborations, as well as integrating physical and socio-environmental characteristics, are necessary for successful adaptation [ 35 ]. Therefore, it seems that the use of indigenous knowledge and interdisciplinary research [ 35 ], is one of the necessities for achieving climate-adaptive cities. Community awareness of their living conditions can play a significant role in identifying and interpreting environmental changes, which can enhance their preparedness and response to climate change hazards [ 59 ]. In this regard, Odemerho emphasizes the importance of utilizing the experiences and human knowledge of flood-prone areas to adapt to floods and recognize the dominant type of flood and its root causes [ 74 , 75 ]. Overall, it can be inferred that utilizing knowledge, especially interdisciplinary, local, and indigenous knowledge, and utilizing past experiences are characteristics of climate-adaptive cities and can enhance their awareness, preparedness, and adaptation to climate change.

Innovation in governance and industry

Governance [ 30 ] and industry play a crucial role in enhancing the resilience of communities to climate change, and innovation in these areas is one of the key characteristics of climate-adaptive cities. For example, Guangkuo Gao (2015) [ 56 ] considers the development of low-carbon policies through industrial structure, innovation in governance, low-carbon technology, incentive mechanisms, and new energy supply as characteristics of climate-adaptive cities [ 56 ]. Based on the review conducted in this study, other examples of innovation in governance and industry include: increasing the resilience of local water resources with a bottom-up approach in decision-making [ 60 ], low-energy consumption through sustainable house design [ 61 ], attention to energy and carbon dioxide emissions, transportation systems, waste management, water, social-economic capacity, and intersectoral sustainability for achieving sustainable development in cities [ 47 ], and attention to resistance and capacity building [ 51 ]. Therefore, the adaptation of climate-adaptive cities requires the creation, expansion, or imitation of innovative strategies and plans for climate adaptation in governance and industry. This issue, including some insights on corporate social responsibility, should receive the attention and support of policymakers and industry leaders.

Decentralized climate change management

Another characteristic of climate-adaptive cities is decentralized management. One example of this is decentralized urban risk management [ 53 , 58 ]. For instance, decentralization of urban risk management in the central system in Vietnam is an example of decentralization [ 53 ]. One aspect of climate adaptation is decentralized planning based on local risk assessments. Moreover, decentralized management signifies the involvement and participation of communities in decision-making. In this regard, Gonzales (2017) argues that a bottom-up approach in decision-making can help increase the resilience of local water resources [ 60 ]. Furthermore, increasing the capacity of local governments to assist the adaptive growth of people, especially farmers, to environmental changes has been recommended [ 30 ].

• Low-carbon economy

One of the prominent features of climate-adaptive cities is a focus on a low-carbon economy [ 64 ]. Li (1995) identifies the creation of green jobs, the possibility of transforming existing jobs into green jobs, and the ability to continue working under lower consumption conditions as examples of a low-carbon economy [ 76 ]. In this regard, it is also possible to mention the imposition of taxes on carbon dioxide, its trading, and investment in wind, solar, water, biomass, and other types of renewable energy [ 56 ] should be promoted. Although recent studies on the transition to a global low-carbon economy or decarbonization are not encouraging, as both human and natural carbon dioxide emissions are increasing due to human factors [ 77 ], attention to this issue is essential for climate-adaptive cities. In summary, a low-carbon economy is critical for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and addressing climate change. Climate-adaptive cities must prioritize the development of a low-carbon economy to reduce their carbon footprint and promote sustainability.

The main limitations of this study were associated with the extended duration of the project. This study was part of a larger systematic review. Due to the substantial scale of the overarching project, the execution time of the work and its completion extended. While the implementation date is specified in the methodology, the prolonged duration can be justified to some extent given the significance of the climate change issue and the contemporary nature of the topic. Another limitation pertained to accessing articles. Some articles were not readily available, prompting researchers to attempt retrieval through contacting authors, purchasing articles, or utilizing accessible academic databases.

Based on the definitions and characteristics examined in this systematic review, a climate-adaptive city is a city that, through effective resource management, forward-thinking planning, education, knowledge utilization, innovation in governance and industry, decentralized management, and low-carbon economy, can adapt, be resilient, sustainable, and flexible in the face of all possible climate change impacts and minimize their negative consequences on the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city. It should be noted that all actions must be in line with the economic, social, cultural, and geographical characteristics of each region separately and must be based on sustainable development.

Forward-thinking planning in this regard must be community-based and resource management with a bottom-up approach in decision-making. In a climate-adaptive city, the participation of all stakeholders and local communities must be facilitated in a way that ultimately leads to reduced social vulnerability and economic efficiency.

Conclusively, future research in this field should prioritize the issue of carbon justice, a pivotal element in achieving sustainability and resilience in climate-adaptive cities. Additionally, we recommend conducting foundational studies to thoroughly explore decision-makers' attitudes, contributing to the development of appropriate protocols, principles, and urban plans. Subsequent research can extensively investigate the roles of corporate entities, academia, and industries in climate-adaptive city development. In conclusion, this study underscores the urgent need for a more comprehensive approach to climate change adaptation in urban planning.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This study was carried out with the support of the Department of Health in Emergencies and Disasters, Climate Change and Health Research Group at the Institute for Environmental Research, and School of Public Health at Tehran University of Medical Sciences.

The present study was funded by Tehran University of Medical Sciences. The funding sources did not participate in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or manuscript preparation.

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Abbas Ostadtaghizadeh

Present address: Department of Health in Emergencies and Disasters, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Poorsina Ave, Tehran, 14177-43578, I.R, Iran

Authors and Affiliations

Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medica Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran

Arezoo Yari

Department of Health in Emergencies and Disasters, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Poorsina Ave, Tehran, 14177-43578, I.R, Iran

Alireza Mashallahi

Center for Climate Change and Health Research (CCCHR), Dezful University of Medical Sciences, Dezful, Iran

Hamidreza Aghababaeian

International Institute of Health Management Research, Delhi, India

Nidhi Yadav

Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran

Arefeh Mousavi

Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Shiva Salehi

Department of Health in Emergencies and Disasters, School of Medicine, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran

Spiritual Health Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Mohsen Nouri

Climate Change and Health Research Center (CCHRC), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

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AH, and AOT researched the background for the project and AY, HA, MN, AM, SHS, and AOT contributed to performing the study. AM, HA, AY, NY, and AOT analyzed and interpreted the data. AY, AOT, and NY. wrote and edited the main manuscript. AY prepared Figures 1 and 2. All the authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Abbas Ostadtaghizadeh .

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Yari, A., Mashallahi, A., Aghababaeian, H. et al. Definition and characteristics of climate-adaptive cities: a systematic review. BMC Public Health 24 , 1200 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18591-x

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Writing Critiques

Writing a critique involves more than pointing out mistakes. It involves conducting a systematic analysis of a scholarly article or book and then writing a fair and reasonable description of its strengths and weaknesses. Several scholarly journals have published guides for critiquing other people’s work in their academic area. Search for a  “manuscript reviewer guide” in your own discipline to guide your analysis of the content. Use this handout as an orientation to the audience and purpose of different types of critiques and to the linguistic strategies appropriate to all of them.

Types of critique

Article or book review assignment in an academic class.

Text: Article or book that has already been published Audience: Professors Purpose:

• to demonstrate your skills for close reading and analysis
• to show that you understand key concepts in your field
• to learn how to review a manuscript for your future professional work

Published book review

Text: Book that has already been published Audience: Disciplinary colleagues Purpose:

• to describe the book’s contents
• to summarize the book’s strengths and weaknesses
• to provide a reliable recommendation to read (or not read) the book

Manuscript review

Text: Manuscript that has been submitted but has not been published yet Audience: Journal editor and manuscript authors Purpose:

• to provide the editor with an evaluation of the manuscript
• to recommend to the editor that the article be published, revised, or rejected
• to provide the authors with constructive feedback and reasonable suggestions for revision

Language strategies for critiquing

For each type of critique, it’s important to state your praise, criticism, and suggestions politely, but with the appropriate level of strength. The following language structures should help you achieve this challenging task.

Offering Praise and Criticism

A strategy called “hedging” will help you express praise or criticism with varying levels of strength. It will also help you express varying levels of certainty in your own assertions. Grammatical structures used for hedging include:

Modal verbs Using modal verbs (could, can, may, might, etc.) allows you to soften an absolute statement. Compare:

This text is inappropriate for graduate students who are new to the field. This text may be inappropriate for graduate students who are new to the field.

Qualifying adjectives and adverbs Using qualifying adjectives and adverbs (possible, likely, possibly, somewhat, etc.) allows you to introduce a level of probability into your comments. Compare:

Readers will find the theoretical model difficult to understand. Some readers will find the theoretical model difficult to understand. Some readers will probably find the theoretical model somewhat difficult to understand completely.

Note: You can see from the last example that too many qualifiers makes the idea sound undesirably weak.

Tentative verbs Using tentative verbs (seems, indicates, suggests, etc.) also allows you to soften an absolute statement. Compare:

This omission shows that the authors are not aware of the current literature. This omission indicates that the authors are not aware of the current literature. This omission seems to suggest that the authors are not aware of the current literature.

Offering suggestions

Whether you are critiquing a published or unpublished text, you are expected to point out problems and suggest solutions. If you are critiquing an unpublished manuscript, the author can use your suggestions to revise. Your suggestions have the potential to become real actions. If you are critiquing a published text, the author cannot revise, so your suggestions are purely hypothetical. These two situations require slightly different grammar.

Unpublished manuscripts: “would be X if they did Y” Reviewers commonly point out weakness by pointing toward improvement. For instance, if the problem is “unclear methodology,” reviewers may write that “the methodology would be more clear if …” plus a suggestion. If the author can use the suggestions to revise, the grammar is “X would be better if the authors did Y” (would be + simple past suggestion).

The tables would be clearer if the authors highlighted the key results. The discussion would be more persuasive if the authors accounted for the discrepancies in the data.

Published manuscripts: “would have been X if they had done Y” If the authors cannot revise based on your suggestions, use the past unreal conditional form “X would have been better if the authors had done Y” (would have been + past perfect suggestion).

The tables would have been clearer if the authors had highlighted key results. The discussion would have been more persuasive if the authors had accounted for discrepancies in the data.

Note: For more information on conditional structures, see our Conditionals handout .

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How Pew Research Center will report on generations moving forward

Journalists, researchers and the public often look at society through the lens of generation, using terms like Millennial or Gen Z to describe groups of similarly aged people. This approach can help readers see themselves in the data and assess where we are and where we’re headed as a country.

Pew Research Center has been at the forefront of generational research over the years, telling the story of Millennials as they came of age politically and as they moved more firmly into adult life . In recent years, we’ve also been eager to learn about Gen Z as the leading edge of this generation moves into adulthood.

But generational research has become a crowded arena. The field has been flooded with content that’s often sold as research but is more like clickbait or marketing mythology. There’s also been a growing chorus of criticism about generational research and generational labels in particular.

Recently, as we were preparing to embark on a major research project related to Gen Z, we decided to take a step back and consider how we can study generations in a way that aligns with our values of accuracy, rigor and providing a foundation of facts that enriches the public dialogue.

A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations.

We set out on a yearlong process of assessing the landscape of generational research. We spoke with experts from outside Pew Research Center, including those who have been publicly critical of our generational analysis, to get their take on the pros and cons of this type of work. We invested in methodological testing to determine whether we could compare findings from our earlier telephone surveys to the online ones we’re conducting now. And we experimented with higher-level statistical analyses that would allow us to isolate the effect of generation.

What emerged from this process was a set of clear guidelines that will help frame our approach going forward. Many of these are principles we’ve always adhered to , but others will require us to change the way we’ve been doing things in recent years.

Here’s a short overview of how we’ll approach generational research in the future:

We’ll only do generational analysis when we have historical data that allows us to compare generations at similar stages of life. When comparing generations, it’s crucial to control for age. In other words, researchers need to look at each generation or age cohort at a similar point in the life cycle. (“Age cohort” is a fancy way of referring to a group of people who were born around the same time.)

When doing this kind of research, the question isn’t whether young adults today are different from middle-aged or older adults today. The question is whether young adults today are different from young adults at some specific point in the past.

To answer this question, it’s necessary to have data that’s been collected over a considerable amount of time – think decades. Standard surveys don’t allow for this type of analysis. We can look at differences across age groups, but we can’t compare age groups over time.

Another complication is that the surveys we conducted 20 or 30 years ago aren’t usually comparable enough to the surveys we’re doing today. Our earlier surveys were done over the phone, and we’ve since transitioned to our nationally representative online survey panel , the American Trends Panel . Our internal testing showed that on many topics, respondents answer questions differently depending on the way they’re being interviewed. So we can’t use most of our surveys from the late 1980s and early 2000s to compare Gen Z with Millennials and Gen Xers at a similar stage of life.

This means that most generational analysis we do will use datasets that have employed similar methodologies over a long period of time, such as surveys from the U.S. Census Bureau. A good example is our 2020 report on Millennial families , which used census data going back to the late 1960s. The report showed that Millennials are marrying and forming families at a much different pace than the generations that came before them.

Even when we have historical data, we will attempt to control for other factors beyond age in making generational comparisons. If we accept that there are real differences across generations, we’re basically saying that people who were born around the same time share certain attitudes or beliefs – and that their views have been influenced by external forces that uniquely shaped them during their formative years. Those forces may have been social changes, economic circumstances, technological advances or political movements.

When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

The tricky part is isolating those forces from events or circumstances that have affected all age groups, not just one generation. These are often called “period effects.” An example of a period effect is the Watergate scandal, which drove down trust in government among all age groups. Differences in trust across age groups in the wake of Watergate shouldn’t be attributed to the outsize impact that event had on one age group or another, because the change occurred across the board.

Changing demographics also may play a role in patterns that might at first seem like generational differences. We know that the United States has become more racially and ethnically diverse in recent decades, and that race and ethnicity are linked with certain key social and political views. When we see that younger adults have different views than their older counterparts, it may be driven by their demographic traits rather than the fact that they belong to a particular generation.

Controlling for these factors can involve complicated statistical analysis that helps determine whether the differences we see across age groups are indeed due to generation or not. This additional step adds rigor to the process. Unfortunately, it’s often absent from current discussions about Gen Z, Millennials and other generations.

When we can’t do generational analysis, we still see value in looking at differences by age and will do so where it makes sense. Age is one of the most common predictors of differences in attitudes and behaviors. And even if age gaps aren’t rooted in generational differences, they can still be illuminating. They help us understand how people across the age spectrum are responding to key trends, technological breakthroughs and historical events.

Each stage of life comes with a unique set of experiences. Young adults are often at the leading edge of changing attitudes on emerging social trends. Take views on same-sex marriage , for example, or attitudes about gender identity .

Many middle-aged adults, in turn, face the challenge of raising children while also providing care and support to their aging parents. And older adults have their own obstacles and opportunities. All of these stories – rooted in the life cycle, not in generations – are important and compelling, and we can tell them by analyzing our surveys at any given point in time.

When we do have the data to study groups of similarly aged people over time, we won’t always default to using the standard generational definitions and labels. While generational labels are simple and catchy, there are other ways to analyze age cohorts. For example, some observers have suggested grouping people by the decade in which they were born. This would create narrower cohorts in which the members may share more in common. People could also be grouped relative to their age during key historical events (such as the Great Recession or the COVID-19 pandemic) or technological innovations (like the invention of the iPhone).

By choosing not to use the standard generational labels when they’re not appropriate, we can avoid reinforcing harmful stereotypes or oversimplifying people’s complex lived experiences.

Existing generational definitions also may be too broad and arbitrary to capture differences that exist among narrower cohorts. A typical generation spans 15 to 18 years. As many critics of generational research point out, there is great diversity of thought, experience and behavior within generations. The key is to pick a lens that’s most appropriate for the research question that’s being studied. If we’re looking at political views and how they’ve shifted over time, for example, we might group people together according to the first presidential election in which they were eligible to vote.

With these considerations in mind, our audiences should not expect to see a lot of new research coming out of Pew Research Center that uses the generational lens. We’ll only talk about generations when it adds value, advances important national debates and highlights meaningful societal trends.

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Kim Parker is director of social trends research at Pew Research Center .

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• Personal Essay

Why the Puerto Rican Day Parade Matters This Summer More Than Ever

New York City's annual Puerto Rican Day Parade is almost upon us, and it's incredible that almost seven decades have passed since the parade's inception. But it's also hard for me to imagine a time without it — the Puerto Rican community's contributions to New York are that intrinsic. In every neighborhood, in every barrio, on every block in this city of 18 million people, if you look hard enough, you'll see our influence — from the corner bodegas to the salsa blaring from passing cars to the flags hanging from power lines or draped from windows. We're a prideful people, and the parade celebrates that pride.

But I have to be honest: I can count on one hand the amount of times I've actually attended the parade, which falls on Puerto Rican weekend. That doesn't mean the parade has become less important to me. On the contrary, I think the Puerto Rican Day Parade might just be more meaningful than ever — for me and most Boricuas.

The Puerto Rican parade has always been political in nature. In fact, it originated with a different parade altogether, the Hispanic Day Parade. However, in 1958, buoyed by the waves of Puerto Rican immigration to New York City and the burgeoning desire among the community to have the unique aspects of their culture represented and celebrated, the Puerto Rican Day Parade was born. The impact of this cannot be understated. After the collapse of the island's agricultural infrastructure in the aftermath of World War II, many Boricuas were forced to leave the island in search of employment and a better life. Instead, they found themselves crammed into NYC tenement apartments in crime-addled neighborhoods where poverty abounded. The parade not only gave the community an opportunity to focus on the positive and inspiring aspects of Puerto Rican culture, but it also forced city officials to acknowledge the rapidly growing social and political power of Puerto Ricans.

My grandparents were a part of that influx. My mother still remembers how the elders would get the kids up at the crack of dawn on that second Sunday in June to make the trip over to Fifth Avenue. They would line up along the curb with pots of food and snacks and wait hours for the parade to begin. It was that important to Puerto Rican communities living in NYC.

But for me, the parade has never been the main event, at least not the Fifth Avenue one. Instead, I have always viewed it as a fixed center that takes place every second weekend of June, from which all kinds of events and celebrations of Puerto Rican culture radiate. There's my personal favorite, the festival on 116th, the Saturday before the parade, where the streets are closed to traffic and pedestrians can take in the sounds, smells, and tastes that are unique to the island, complete with local Boricuas putting on impromptu stoop-side jam sessions. Then, of course, there's the club scene, where NYC-based artists and island-bred performers get a chance to rock stages across the five boroughs.

As a kid, the promise of all these options had me looking forward to Puerto Rican weekend all year round. I remember going to the Fifth Avenue parade with cousins, decked out in flags and bandanas — one cousin even used markers to turn a plain white tank into a celebration of our pride. As I got older, the parade on Knickerbocker Avenue in Bushwick became my preferred destination. You could usually catch me standing on the corner of Bleecker Street in a pair of limited-edition Air Force 1s that featured the Puerto Rican flag, an alcapurria from La Isla Cuchifrito in hand. Meanwhile, back in the apartment, my parents would have the main parade playing on the TV while they ate breakfast, sipped coffee, and beamed with pride. From the streets below, flags mounted on car antennas would wave proudly in the breeze, and car horns would blare in acknowledgment as cries of "Boricua" rose high above the traffic. This was the real main event, the energy reverberating on every city corner. If you didn't go to the parade — and even if you didn't watch it on TV — the parade would find you. You would know that you were a part of something so much bigger — that even if you didn't speak Spanish, even if you didn't dance salsa, you were still a part of a people that had crossed oceans to find a better life and, through the merit of their culture, enriched the lives and the city around them.

But as time passed, the number of Puerto Rican flags in my neighborhood began to dwindle. The noise that once accompanied our raucous celebrations of Puerto Rican pride became fainter, the parties fewer and further between. The cement stoops that had once been host to our barbecues became condos, silent towers of glass and steel that no longer told our story. The city even tried to remove the "Avenue of Puerto Rico" sign that has proudly hung on Graham Avenue in Brooklyn for decades. This is the aftermath of gentrification, which is all too often marketed under the banner of urban renewal to divert attention away from the true displacement and cultural erosion that are its byproducts. It's also not a new phenomenon. The San Juan Hill neighborhood of Manhattan once gave rise to a hotbed of Black and Puerto Rican talent, including Thelonious Monk and Arturo Alfonso Schomburg. Today, the neighborhood is no more. Instead, we call it Lincoln Center.

So, as rents rise and more Puerto Ricans pack up and move away, the Puerto Rican Day Parade and the many accompanying celebrations serve as an important reminder — not only of how far we've come and what we've achieved, but that we're still here. Sure, maybe there aren't as many of us. But our voices are still powerful when raised in unison. And they don't get any louder than during that second weekend in June when we get to remind the world of everything our little island has done, pa' que tú lo sepa.

Miguel Machado is a journalist with expertise in the intersection of Latine identity and culture. He does everything from exclusive interviews with Latin music artists to opinion pieces on issues that are relevant to the community, personal essays tied to his Latinidad, and thought pieces and features relating to Puerto Rico and Puerto Rican culture.

Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Jonathan Swan ,  Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

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• Artificial intelligence

The potential of AI technology has been percolating in the background for years. But when ChatGPT, the AI chatbot, began grabbing headlines in early 2023, it put generative AI in the spotlight. This guide is your go-to manual for generative AI, covering its benefits, limits, use cases, prospects and much more.

• Amanda Hetler, Senior Editor

What is ChatGPT?

ChatGPT is an artificial intelligence ( AI ) chatbot that uses natural language processing to create humanlike conversational dialogue. The language model can respond to questions and compose various written content, including articles, social media posts, essays, code and emails.

ChatGPT is a form of generative AI -- a tool that lets users enter prompts to receive humanlike images, text or videos that are created by AI.

ChatGPT is similar to the automated chat services found on customer service websites, as people can ask it questions or request clarification to ChatGPT's replies. The GPT stands for "Generative Pre-trained Transformer," which refers to how ChatGPT processes requests and formulates responses. ChatGPT is trained with reinforcement learning through human feedback and reward models that rank the best responses. This feedback helps augment ChatGPT with machine learning to improve future responses.

Who created ChatGPT?

OpenAI -- an artificial intelligence research company -- created ChatGPT and launched the tool in November 2022. It was founded by a group of entrepreneurs and researchers including Elon Musk and Sam Altman in 2015. OpenAI is backed by several investors, with Microsoft being the most notable. OpenAI also created Dall-E , an AI text-to-art generator.

How does ChatGPT work?

ChatGPT works through its Generative Pre-trained Transformer, which uses specialized algorithms to find patterns within data sequences. ChatGPT originally used the GPT-3 large language model, a neural network machine learning model and the third generation of Generative Pre-trained Transformer. The transformer pulls from a significant amount of data to formulate a response.

This article is part of

What is generative AI? Everything you need to know

• Which also includes:
• 8 top generative AI tool categories for 2024
• Will AI replace jobs? 9 job types that might be affected
• 19 of the best large language models in 2024

ChatGPT now uses the GPT-3.5 model that includes a fine-tuning process for its algorithm. ChatGPT Plus uses GPT-4 , which offers a faster response time and internet plugins. GPT-4 can also handle more complex tasks compared with previous models, such as describing photos, generating captions for images and creating more detailed responses up to 25,000 words.

ChatGPT uses deep learning , a subset of machine learning, to produce humanlike text through transformer neural networks . The transformer predicts text -- including the next word, sentence or paragraph -- based on its training data's typical sequence.

Training begins with generic data, then moves to more tailored data for a specific task. ChatGPT was trained with online text to learn the human language, and then it used transcripts to learn the basics of conversations.

Human trainers provide conversations and rank the responses. These reward models help determine the best answers. To keep training the chatbot, users can upvote or downvote its response by clicking on thumbs-up or thumbs-down icons beside the answer. Users can also provide additional written feedback to improve and fine-tune future dialogue.

What kinds of questions can users ask ChatGPT?

Users can ask ChatGPT a variety of questions, including simple or more complex questions, such as, "What is the meaning of life?" or "What year did New York become a state?" ChatGPT is proficient with STEM disciplines and can debug or write code. There is no limitation to the types of questions to ask ChatGPT. However, ChatGPT uses data up to the year 2021, so it has no knowledge of events and data past that year. And since it is a conversational chatbot, users can ask for more information or ask it to try again when generating text.

How are people using ChatGPT?

ChatGPT is versatile and can be used for more than human conversations. People have used ChatGPT to do the following:

• Code computer programs and check for bugs in code.
• Compose music.
• Draft emails.
• Summarize articles, podcasts or presentations.
• Script social media posts.
• Create titles for articles.
• Solve math problems.
• Discover keywords for search engine optimization .
• Create articles, blog posts and quizzes for websites.
• Reword existing content for a different medium, such as a presentation transcript for a blog post.
• Formulate product descriptions.
• Play games.
• Assist with job searches, including writing resumes and cover letters.
• Ask trivia questions.
• Describe complex topics more simply.
• Write video scripts.
• Research markets for products.
• Generate art.

Unlike other chatbots, ChatGPT can remember various questions to continue the conversation in a more fluid manner.

What are the benefits of ChatGPT?

Businesses and users are still exploring the benefits of ChatGPT as the program continues to evolve. Some benefits include the following:

• Efficiency. AI-powered chatbots can handle routine and repetitive tasks, which can free up employees to focus on more complex and strategic responsibilities.
• Cost savings. Using AI chatbots can be more cost-effective than hiring and training additional employees.
• Improved content quality. Writers can use ChatGPT to improve grammatical or contextual errors or to help brainstorm ideas for content. Employees can take ordinary text and ask to improve its language or add expressions.
• Education and training. ChatGPT can help provide explanations on more complex topics to help serve as a virtual tutor. Users can also ask for guides and any needed clarification on responses.
• Better response time. ChatGPT provides instant responses, which reduces wait times for users seeking assistance.
• Increased availability. AI models are available around the clock to provide continuous support and assistance.
• Multilingual support. ChatGPT can communicate in multiple languages or provide translations for businesses with global audiences.
• Personalization. AI chatbots can tailor responses to the user's preferences and behaviors based on previous interactions.
• Scalability. ChatGPT can handle many users simultaneously, which is beneficial for applications with high user engagement.
• Natural language understanding. ChatGPT understands and generates humanlike text, so it is useful for tasks such as generating content, answering questions, engaging in conversations and providing explanations.
• Digital accessibility. ChatGPT and other AI chatbots can assist individuals with disabilities by providing text-based interactions, which can be easier to navigate than other interfaces.

What are the limitations of ChatGPT? How accurate is it?

Some limitations of ChatGPT include the following:

• It does not fully understand the complexity of human language. ChatGPT is trained to generate words based on input. Because of this, responses might seem shallow and lack true insight.
• Lack of knowledge for data and events after 2021. The training data ends with 2021 content. ChatGPT can provide incorrect information based on the data from which it pulls. If ChatGPT does not fully understand the query, it might also provide an inaccurate response. ChatGPT is still being trained, so feedback is recommended when an answer is incorrect.
• Responses can sound like a machine and unnatural. Since ChatGPT predicts the next word, it can overuse words such as the or and . Because of this, people still need to review and edit content to make it flow more naturally, like human writing.
• It summarizes but does not cite sources. ChatGPT does not provide analysis or insight into any data or statistics. ChatGPT might provide statistics but no real commentary on what these statistics mean or how they relate to the topic.
• It cannot understand sarcasm and irony. ChatGPT is based on a data set of text.
• It might focus on the wrong part of a question and not be able to shift. For example, if you ask ChatGPT, "Does a horse make a good pet based on its size?" and then ask it, "What about a cat?" ChatGPT might focus solely on the size of the animal versus giving information about having the animal as a pet. ChatGPT is not divergent and cannot shift its answer to cover multiple questions in a single response.

Learn more about the pros and cons of AI-generated content .

What are the ethical concerns associated with ChatGPT?

While ChatGPT can be helpful for some tasks, there are some ethical concerns that depend on how it is used, including bias , lack of privacy and security, and cheating in education and work.

Plagiarism and deceitful use

ChatGPT can be used unethically in ways such as cheating, impersonation or spreading misinformation due to its humanlike capabilities. Educators have brought up concerns about students using ChatGPT to cheat, plagiarize and write papers. CNET made the news when it used ChatGPT to create articles that were filled with errors.

To help prevent cheating and plagiarizing, OpenAI announced an AI text classifier to distinguish between human- and AI-generated text. However, after six months of availability, OpenAI pulled the tool due to a "low rate of accuracy."

There are online tools, such as Copyleaks or Writing.com, to classify how likely it is that text was written by a person versus being AI-generated. OpenAI plans to add a watermark to longer text pieces to help identify AI-generated content.

Because ChatGPT can write code, it also presents a problem for cybersecurity. Threat actors can use ChatGPT to help create malware. An update addressed the issue of creating malware by stopping the request, but threat actors might find ways around OpenAI's safety protocol.

ChatGPT can also be used to impersonate a person by training it to copy someone's writing and language style. The chatbot could then impersonate a trusted person to collect sensitive information or spread disinformation .

Bias in training data

One of the biggest ethical concerns with ChatGPT is its bias in training data . If the data the model pulls from has any bias, it is reflected in the model's output. ChatGPT also does not understand language that might be offensive or discriminatory. The data needs to be reviewed to avoid perpetuating bias, but including diverse and representative material can help control bias for accurate results.

Replacing jobs and human interaction

As technology advances, ChatGPT might automate certain tasks that are typically completed by humans, such as data entry and processing, customer service, and translation support. People are worried that it could replace their jobs, so it's important to consider ChatGPT and AI's effect on workers.

Rather than replacing workers, ChatGPT can be used as support for job functions and creating new job opportunities to avoid loss of employment. For example, lawyers can use ChatGPT to create summaries of case notes and draft contracts or agreements. And copywriters can use ChatGPT for article outlines and headline ideas.

Privacy issues

ChatGPT uses text based on input, so it could potentially reveal sensitive information. The model's output can also track and profile individuals by collecting information from a prompt and associating this information with the user's phone number and email. The information is then stored indefinitely.

How can you access ChatGPT?

To access ChatGPT, create an OpenAI account. Go to chat.openai.com and then select "Sign Up" and enter an email address, or use a Google or Microsoft account to log in.

After signing up, type a prompt or question in the message box on the ChatGPT homepage. Users can then do the following:

• Enter a different prompt for a new query or ask for clarification.
• Regenerate the response.
• Share the response.
• Like or dislike the response with the thumbs-up or thumbs-down option.
• Copy the response.

What to do if ChatGPT is at capacity

Even though ChatGPT can handle numerous users at a time, it reaches maximum capacity occasionally when there is an overload. This usually happens during peak hours, such as early in the morning or in the evening, depending on the time zone.

If it is at capacity, try using it at different times or hit refresh on the browser. Another option is to upgrade to ChatGPT Plus, which is a subscription, but is typically always available, even during high-demand periods.

Is ChatGPT free?

ChatGPT is available for free through OpenAI's website. Users need to register for a free OpenAI account. There is also an option to upgrade to ChatGPT Plus for access to GPT-4, faster responses, no blackout windows and unlimited availability. ChatGPT Plus also gives priority access to new features for a subscription rate of $20 per month.

Without a subscription, there are limitations. The most notable limitation of the free version is access to ChatGPT when the program is at capacity. The Plus membership gives unlimited access to avoid capacity blackouts.

What are the alternatives to ChatGPT?

Because of ChatGPT's popularity, it is often unavailable due to capacity issues. Google announced Bard in response to ChatGPT . Google Bard will draw information directly from the internet through a Google search to provide the latest information.

Microsoft added ChatGPT functionality to Bing, giving the internet search engine a chat mode for users. The ChatGPT functionality in Bing isn't as limited because its training is up to date and doesn't end with 2021 data and events.

There are other text generator alternatives to ChatGPT, including the following:

• Article Forge.
• DeepL Write.
• Google Bard.
• Magic Write.
• Open Assistant.
• Peppertype.
• Perplexity AI.

Coding alternatives for ChatGPT include the following:

• Amazon CodeWhisperer.
• CodeStarter.
• Ghostwriter.
• GitHub Copilot.
• Mutable.ai.
• OpenAI Codex.

Learn more about various AI content generators .

ChatGPT updates

In August 2023, OpenAI  announced  an enterprise version of ChatGPT. The enterprise version offers the higher-speed GPT-4 model with a longer context window , customization options and data analysis. This model of ChatGPT does not share data outside the organization.

In September 2023, OpenAI announced a new update that allows ChatGPT to speak and recognize images. Users can upload pictures of what they have in their refrigerator and ChatGPT will provide ideas for dinner. Users can engage to get step-by-step recipes with ingredients they already have. People can also use ChatGPT to ask questions about photos -- such as landmarks -- and engage in conversation to learn facts and history.

Users can also use voice to engage with ChatGPT and speak to it like other voice assistants . People can have conversations to request stories, ask trivia questions or request jokes among other options.

The voice update will be available on apps for both iOS and Android. Users will just need to opt-in to use it in their settings. Images will be available on all platforms -- including apps and ChatGPT’s website.

In November 2023, OpenAI announced the rollout of GPTs, which let users customize their own version of ChatGPT for a specific use case. For example, a user could create a GPT that only scripts social media posts, checks for bugs in code, or formulates product descriptions. The user can input instructions and knowledge files in the GPT builder to give the custom GPT context. OpenAI also announced the GPT store, which will let users share and monetize their custom bots.

In December 2023, OpenAI partnered with Axel Springer to train its AI models on news reporting. ChatGPT users will see summaries of news stories from Bild and Welt, Business Insider and Politico as part of this deal. This agreement gives ChatGPT more current information in its chatbot answers and gives users another way to access news stories. OpenAI also announced an agreement with the Associated Press to use the news reporting archive for chatbot responses.

Continue Reading About ChatGPT

• 12 key benefits of AI for business
• GitHub Copilot vs. ChatGPT: How do they compare?
• Exploring GPT-3 architecture
• How to detect AI-generated content
• ChatGPT vs. GPT: How are they different?

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How to Write an Article Critique

Tips for Writing a Psychology Critique Paper

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Cultura RM / Gu Cultura / Getty Images

• Steps for Writing a Critique

Evaluating the Article

• How to Write It
• Helpful Tips

An article critique involves critically analyzing a written work to assess its strengths and flaws. If you need to write an article critique, you will need to describe the article, analyze its contents, interpret its meaning, and make an overall assessment of the importance of the work.

Critique papers require students to conduct a critical analysis of another piece of writing, often a book, journal article, or essay . No matter your major, you will probably be expected to write a critique paper at some point.

For psychology students, critiquing a professional paper is a great way to learn more about psychology articles, writing, and the research process itself. Students will analyze how researchers conduct experiments, interpret results, and discuss the impact of the results.

At a Glance

An article critique involves making a critical assessment of a single work. This is often an article, but it might also be a book or other written source. It summarizes the contents of the article and then evaluates both the strengths and weaknesses of the piece. Knowing how to write an article critique can help you learn how to evaluate sources with a discerning eye.

Steps for Writing an Effective Article Critique

While these tips are designed to help students write a psychology critique paper, many of the same principles apply to writing article critiques in other subject areas.

Your first step should always be a thorough read-through of the material you will be analyzing and critiquing. It needs to be more than just a casual skim read. It should be in-depth with an eye toward key elements.

To write an article critique, you should:

• Read the article , noting your first impressions, questions, thoughts, and observations
• Describe the contents of the article in your own words, focusing on the main themes or ideas
• Interpret the meaning of the article and its overall importance
• Critically evaluate the contents of the article, including any strong points as well as potential weaknesses

The following guidelines can help you assess the article you are reading and make better sense of the material.

Read the Introduction Section of the Article

Start by reading the introduction . Think about how this part of the article sets up the main body and how it helps you get a background on the topic.

• Is the hypothesis clearly stated?
• Is the necessary background information and previous research described in the introduction?

In addition to answering these basic questions, note other information provided in the introduction and any questions you have.

Read the Methods Section of the Article

Is the study procedure clearly outlined in the methods section ? Can you determine which variables the researchers are measuring?

Remember to jot down questions and thoughts that come to mind as you are reading. Once you have finished reading the paper, you can then refer back to your initial questions and see which ones remain unanswered.

Read the Results Section of the Article

Are all tables and graphs clearly labeled in the results section ? Do researchers provide enough statistical information? Did the researchers collect all of the data needed to measure the variables in question?

Make a note of any questions or information that does not seem to make sense. You can refer back to these questions later as you are writing your final critique.

Read the Discussion Section of the Article

Experts suggest that it is helpful to take notes while reading through sections of the paper you are evaluating. Ask yourself key questions:

• How do the researchers interpret the results of the study?
• Did the results support their hypothesis?
• Do the conclusions drawn by the researchers seem reasonable?

The discussion section offers students an excellent opportunity to take a position. If you agree with the researcher's conclusions, explain why. If you feel the researchers are incorrect or off-base, point out problems with the conclusions and suggest alternative explanations.

Another alternative is to point out questions the researchers failed to answer in the discussion section.

Begin Writing Your Own Critique of the Paper

Once you have read the article, compile your notes and develop an outline that you can follow as you write your psychology critique paper. Here's a guide that will walk you through how to structure your critique paper.

Introduction

Begin your paper by describing the journal article and authors you are critiquing. Provide the main hypothesis (or thesis) of the paper. Explain why you think the information is relevant.

Thesis Statement

The final part of your introduction should include your thesis statement. Your thesis statement is the main idea of your critique. Your thesis should briefly sum up the main points of your critique.

Article Summary

Provide a brief summary of the article. Outline the main points, results, and discussion.

When describing the study or paper, experts suggest that you include a summary of the questions being addressed, study participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study design.

Don't get bogged down by your summary. This section should highlight the main points of the article you are critiquing. Don't feel obligated to summarize each little detail of the main paper. Focus on giving the reader an overall idea of the article's content.

Your Analysis

In this section, you will provide your critique of the article. Describe any problems you had with the author's premise, methods, or conclusions. You might focus your critique on problems with the author's argument, presentation, information, and alternatives that have been overlooked.

When evaluating a study, summarize the main findings—including the strength of evidence for each main outcome—and consider their relevance to key demographic groups.  

Organize your paper carefully. Be careful not to jump around from one argument to the next. Arguing one point at a time ensures that your paper flows well and is easy to read.

Your critique paper should end with an overview of the article's argument, your conclusions, and your reactions.

More Tips When Writing an Article Critique

• As you are editing your paper, utilize a style guide published by the American Psychological Association, such as the official Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association .
• Reading scientific articles can be challenging at first. Remember that this is a skill that takes time to learn but that your skills will become stronger the more that you read.
• Take a rough draft of your paper to your school's writing lab for additional feedback and use your university library's resources.

What This Means For You

Being able to write a solid article critique is a useful academic skill. While it can be challenging, start by breaking down the sections of the paper, noting your initial thoughts and questions. Then structure your own critique so that you present a summary followed by your evaluation. In your critique, include the strengths and the weaknesses of the article.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

What does 'From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free' mean?

Here is what palestinian and jewish groups have to say about the slogan.

Social Sharing

"From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free" has been a popular refrain in pro-Palestinian protests and online discussion across North America in the wake of the Israel-Hamas war. 

It has also been the subject of criticism and, in some cases, institutional backlash.

Hamilton MPP Sarah Jama was recently criticized for  using the slogan at a pro-Palestinian rally, two weeks after she was kicked out of the NDP caucus after calling for a ceasefire , characterizing the Israeli occupation as "apartheid" and taking what the party called "unilateral actions" that "contributed to unsafe work environments for staff." 

In the U.S., Democratic Rep. Rashida Tlaib — the only Palestinian member of Congress — was censured for using the phrase in a video on social media, while in the U.K., senior Labour MP Andy McDonald was suspended from the party after echoing a version of the slogan at a rally.

In Calgary, a protester was arrested after using the slogan, although charges against him have since been stayed. 

Israel advocacy groups in Canada and the U.S., such as the Anti-Defamation League, the Centre for Israel and Jewish Affairs and B'nai Brith, say the slogan is an antisemitic call for the ethnic cleansing of Jewish people.

"When someone says from the river to the sea, Palestine will be free, I question, 'Where do you see the Jews going?'" said Yair Szlak, president and CEO of Montreal-based Federation CJA. "That is hate speech, right, because it is into the sea that they seek to send the Jews."

Meanwhile, Palestinians and some Jewish academics say the slogan is not inherently threatening or hateful. 

Yousef Munayyer, head of the Palestine-Israel program at the Arab Center Washington D.C., has written extensively about the meaning of the slogan before and since Hamas's attacks on Oct. 7, which led to Israel's current bombardment of the Gaza Strip. 

Munayyer says today, the phrase is used to reference the lack of freedoms Palestinians have in the territory between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea, which includes the state of Israel as well as the Gaza Strip and the occupied territories of the West Bank and East Jerusalem. 

"That's what has to change. That doesn't mean that there should be any violence against Israelis," Munayyer said.

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Hamas's Oct. 7 assault, which killed an estimated 1,200 people in Israel, according to Israeli authorities, and included the kidnapping of an additional 240 people, has been followed by a month-long Israeli siege and ground offensive that has killed more than 12,000 Palestinians, according to health officials in Gaza, which is controlled by Hamas. 

A call for Palestinian freedom

Dov Waxman, a professor and director of the Nazarian Center for Israel Studies at the University of California, Los Angeles, does not perceive the slogan to be "inherently threatening" and believes that is not what many Palestinians and their supporters mean when repeating it.

"It's an expression of Palestinian nationalism and it's an expression of a demand for Palestinian freedom or self-determination," said Waxman. "I think Palestinian self-determination need not come at the expense of Jewish self-determination. Nor do I think Palestinian freedom has to be considered a threat to Jewish rights."

According to Waxman, many Jewish people hear the chant as a call for "the violent destruction of Israel," which is how Hamas and its supporters use the phrase.

Waxman said that "From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free" originated in the 1960s as an expression of Palestinian nationalism and has been co-opted by various groups over time, including Hamas when the group formed in 1987.

He noted that Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and his Likud Party believe that "Jews had the rightful claim to this entire territory." 

"They still would like to have Jewish sovereignty, essentially, from the river to the sea," Waxman said.

Some Palestinians say the slogan refers to a single state within which Palestinians and Israelis could live together. Some Jewish groups and Palestinian extremists see the slogan as a call to remove Israelis from the region in order to form a single Palestinian state.

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Waxman says the idea of a state in which Palestinians and Israelis live harmoniously is "unrealistic" but not "inherently problematic."

The alternative is a two-state solution, which would create separate states of Israel and Palestine, an idea that originated in 1947. U.S. President Joe Biden has been touting it in recent weeks, and in a statement on Monday evening, so did Canadian Foreign Minister Mélanie Joly.

"Canada continues to recognize the Palestinian right to self-determination and remains committed to the goal of a comprehensive, just and lasting peace in the region, of a two-state solution, including the creation of an independent, viable Palestinian state living side by side in peace and security with Israel," reads the statement from Joly's office .

'75 years of occupation'

Rama Al Malah, an organizer with the Palestinian Youth Movement in Canada, said the chant has been repeated over the past six weeks as a call for Palestinian "liberation from 75 years of occupation."

"My great-grandmother on my mom's side was kicked out of Haifa in 1948," Al Malah said, referring to the Nakba, or catastrophe, in which hundreds of thousands of Palestinians were driven from their homes or fled during the war over the creation of Israel .

Al Malah says the chant also calls for "the return of refugees who have been kicked out of their homes from 1948 till now."

WATCH | What 'From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free' means to different people:

What ‘from the river to the sea’ chant means to different people

According to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees, there are currently 5.9 million Palestinian refugees, a third of whom live in refugee camps across Gaza, West Bank, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon. Various human rights groups and the United Nations have documented that Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank "continue to be deprived of their freedom, dignity and rights by Israel."

Al Malah said the slogan is a response to this situation and doesn't call "for the killing of Jewish people at all. It's basically a way for us to say that we want freedom," she said.

The lack of freedoms for Palestinians is well documented by human rights groups, said Sheryl Nestel, a retired University of Toronto professor and member of advocacy group Independent Jewish Voices Canada. 

"Palestinians both under occupation and living inside Israel face enormous discrimination, enormous differences in the rights that they enjoy, and the infrastructure that they live under," said Nestel, who lived in Israel for 15 years, where she said she advocated against illegal Jewish settlements in the West Bank.

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For Nestel, criticism of the slogan is tantamount to anti-Palestinian racism. 

"One of the problems with the criticism of the slogan is that it imputes genocidal intent to Palestinians, and there's no evidence that the majority of Palestinians want to eliminate Jews from historical Palestine," Nestel said. 

Different characterizations of the slogan

For Munayyer, the backlash against the use of the chant "From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free" is comparable to those who objected to the slogan "Black lives matter" during the protests sparked by the police killing of George Floyd in 2020.

"People were saying Black Lives Matter, not because they didn't think white lives mattered, but because they were objecting to a set of policies and practices that [meant] for many Black people that their lives didn't matter as much," he said. "There were some people who thought that it was racist against white people to say that Black lives matter."

Waxman said that "From the river to the sea…" has different meanings depending on the context in which it is used. 

"If it's invoked by supporters of Hamas, for example, [the chant] has a very different meaning, and I would understand that as much more threatening than if it was advocated by, say, Rashida Tlaib," Waxman said. 

Waxman says the vision of a single state in which Israeli and Palestinian people live with equal rights is "utopian," but "I don't think we should necessarily see [the slogan] as a call for ethnic cleansing or genocide, which is how many Jews do hear it."

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According to Waxman, the backlash against the slogan is a result of an "effort to essentially insist that any form of anti-Zionism, any opposition to Israel's continued existence as a Jewish state, is inherently antisemitic, so even when that statement is now [said] by a college student who might favour just granting of equal rights [to] Palestinians in the West Bank, in Gaza, there are those who want to insist that that is inherently antisemitic."

For Munayyer, Islamophobia is also a factor. 

"There is a deep history of racism and Islamophobia in the West towards Palestinians and Arabs and Muslims more broadly, which always throws upon them the worst of intentions and interpretations of their words," Munayyer said. 

"The way that they are increasingly responding to protests against this is by trying to criminalize [the slogan] and shut it down."

Clarifications

• The deck of the story has been updated to reflect the points of view cited in the article. Nov 21, 2023 3:47 PM ET

Corrections

• A previous version of this article stated that charges against a Calgary protester had been dropped. In fact, they have been stayed. The previous version also said Ontario MPP Sarah Jama was kicked out of the NDP caucus after using the phrase "From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free." In fact, she was criticized for using the phrase, but her dismissal from caucus was linked to a statement that characterized the Israeli occupation as "apartheid" and to what the party called "unilateral actions" that "contributed to unsafe work environments for staff." Nov 21, 2023 10:59 AM ET

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Senior writer

Brishti Basu is a senior writer with CBCNews.ca. Before joining CBC, her in-depth coverage of health care, housing and sexual violence at Capital Daily was nominated for several national and provincial journalism awards. She was deputy editor at New Canadian Media and has been a freelance journalist for numerous publications including National Geographic, VICE, The Tyee, and The Narwhal. Send story tips to [email protected].

With files from CBC's Thomas Daigle