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Ethics Ethics Case Studies

The SPJ Code of Ethics is voluntarily embraced by thousands of journalists, regardless of place or platform, and is widely used in newsrooms and classrooms as a guide for ethical behavior. The code is intended not as a set of "rules" but as a resource for ethical decision-making. It is not — nor can it be under the First Amendment — legally enforceable. For an expanded explanation, please follow this link .

For journalism instructors and others interested in presenting ethical dilemmas for debate and discussion, SPJ has a useful resource. We've been collecting a number of case studies for use in workshops. The Ethics AdviceLine operated by the Chicago Headline Club and Loyola University also has provided a number of examples. There seems to be no shortage of ethical issues in journalism these days. Please feel free to use these examples in your classes, speeches, columns, workshops or other modes of communication.

Kobe Bryant’s Past: A Tweet Too Soon? On January 26, 2020, Kobe Bryant died at the age of 41 in a helicopter crash in the Los Angeles area. While the majority of social media praised Bryant after his death, within a few hours after the story broke, Felicia Sonmez, a reporter for The Washington Post , tweeted a link to an article from 2003 about the allegations of sexual assault against Bryant. The question: Is there a limit to truth-telling? How long (if at all) should a journalist wait after a person’s death before resurfacing sensitive information about their past?

A controversial apology After photographs of a speech and protests at Northwestern University appeared on the university's newspaper's website, some of the participants contacted the newspaper to complain. It became a “firestorm,” — first from students who felt victimized, and then, after the newspaper apologized, from journalists and others who accused the newspaper of apologizing for simply doing its job. The question: Is an apology the appropriate response? Is there something else the student journalists should have done?

Using the ‘Holocaust’ Metaphor People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, or PETA, is a nonprofit animal rights organization known for its controversial approach to communications and public relations. In 2003, PETA launched a new campaign, named “Holocaust on Your Plate,” that compares the slaughter of animals for human use to the murder of 6 million Jews in WWII. The question: Is “Holocaust on Your Plate” ethically wrong or a truthful comparison?

Aaargh! Pirates! (and the Press) As collections of songs, studio recordings from an upcoming album or merely unreleased demos, are leaked online, these outlets cover the leak with a breaking story or a blog post. But they don’t stop there. Rolling Stone and Billboard often also will include a link within the story to listen to the songs that were leaked. The question: If Billboard and Rolling Stone are essentially pointing readers in the right direction, to the leaked music, are they not aiding in helping the Internet community find the material and consume it?

Reigning on the Parade Frank Whelan, a features writer who also wrote a history column for the Allentown, Pennsylvania, Morning Call , took part in a gay rights parade in June 2006 and stirred up a classic ethical dilemma. The situation raises any number of questions about what is and isn’t a conflict of interest. The question: What should the “consequences” be for Frank Whelan?

Controversy over a Concert Three former members of the Eagles rock band came to Denver during the 2004 election campaign to raise money for a U.S. Senate candidate, Democrat Ken Salazar. John Temple, editor and publisher of the Rocky Mountain News, advised his reporters not to go to the fundraising concerts. The question: Is it fair to ask newspaper staffers — or employees at other news media, for that matter — not to attend events that may have a political purpose? Are the rules different for different jobs at the news outlet?

Deep Throat, and His Motive The Watergate story is considered perhaps American journalism’s defining accomplishment. Two intrepid young reporters for The Washington Post , carefully verifying and expanding upon information given to them by sources they went to great lengths to protect, revealed brutally damaging information about one of the most powerful figures on Earth, the American president. The question: Is protecting a source more important than revealing all the relevant information about a news story?

When Sources Won’t Talk The SPJ Code of Ethics offers guidance on at least three aspects of this dilemma. “Test the accuracy of information from all sources and exercise care to avoid inadvertent error.” One source was not sufficient in revealing this information. The question: How could the editors maintain credibility and remain fair to both sides yet find solid sources for a news tip with inflammatory allegations?

A Suspect “Confession” John Mark Karr, 41, was arrested in mid-August in Bangkok, Thailand, at the request of Colorado and U.S. officials. During questioning, he confessed to the murder of JonBenet Ramsey. Karr was arrested after Michael Tracey, a journalism professor at the University of Colorado, alerted authorities to information he had drawn from e-mails Karr had sent him over the past four years. The question: Do you break a confidence with your source if you think it can solve a murder — or protect children half a world away?

Who’s the “Predator”? “To Catch a Predator,” the ratings-grabbing series on NBC’s Dateline, appeared to catch on with the public. But it also raised serious ethical questions for journalists. The question: If your newspaper or television station were approached by Perverted Justice to participate in a “sting” designed to identify real and potential perverts, should you go along, or say, “No thanks”? Was NBC reporting the news or creating it?

The Media’s Foul Ball The Chicago Cubs in 2003 were five outs from advancing to the World Series for the first time since 1945 when a 26-year-old fan tried to grab a foul ball, preventing outfielder Moises Alou from catching it. The hapless fan's identity was unknown. But he became recognizable through televised replays as the young baby-faced man in glasses, a Cubs baseball cap and earphones who bobbled the ball and was blamed for costing the Cubs a trip to the World Series. The question: Given the potential danger to the man, should he be identified by the media?

Publishing Drunk Drivers’ Photos When readers of The Anderson News picked up the Dec. 31, 1997, issue of the newspaper, stripped across the top of the front page was a New Year’s greeting and a warning. “HAVE A HAPPY NEW YEAR,” the banner read. “But please don’t drink and drive and risk having your picture published.” Readers were referred to the editorial page where White explained that starting in January 1998 the newspaper would publish photographs of all persons convicted of drunken driving in Anderson County. The question: Is this an appropriate policy for a newspaper?

Naming Victims of Sex Crimes On January 8, 2007, 13-year-old Ben Ownby disappeared while walking home from school in Beaufort, Missouri. A tip from a school friend led police on a frantic four-day search that ended unusually happily: the police discovered not only Ben, but another boy as well—15-year-old Shawn Hornbeck, who, four years earlier, had disappeared while riding his bike at the age of 11. Media scrutiny on Shawn’s years of captivity became intense. The question: Question: Should children who are thought to be the victims of sexual abuse ever be named in the media? What should be done about the continued use of names of kidnap victims who are later found to be sexual assault victims? Should use of their names be discontinued at that point?

A Self-Serving Leak San Francisco Chronicle reporters Mark Fainaru-Wada and Lance Williams were widely praised for their stories about sports figures involved with steroids. They turned their investigation into a very successful book, Game of Shadows . And they won the admiration of fellow journalists because they were willing to go to prison to protect the source who had leaked testimony to them from the grand jury investigating the BALCO sports-and-steroids. Their source, however, was not quite so noble. The question: Should the two reporters have continued to protect this key source even after he admitted to lying? Should they have promised confidentiality in the first place?

The Times and Jayson Blair Jayson Blair advanced quickly during his tenure at The New York Times , where he was hired as a full-time staff writer after his internship there and others at The Boston Globe and The Washington Post . Even accusations of inaccuracy and a series of corrections to his reports on Washington, D.C.-area sniper attacks did not stop Blair from moving on to national coverage of the war in Iraq. But when suspicions arose over his reports on military families, an internal review found that he was fabricating material and communicating with editors from his Brooklyn apartment — or within the Times building — rather than from outside New York. The question: How does the Times investigate problems and correct policies that allowed the Blair scandal to happen?

Cooperating with the Government It began on Jan. 18, 2005, and ended two weeks later after the longest prison standoff in recent U.S. history. The question: Should your media outlet go along with the state’s request not to release the information?

Offensive Images Caricatures of the Prophet Muhammad didn’t cause much of a stir when they were first published in September 2005. But when they were republished in early 2006, after Muslim leaders called attention to the 12 images, it set off rioting throughout the Islamic world. Embassies were burned; people were killed. After the rioting and killing started, it was difficult to ignore the cartoons. Question: Do we publish the cartoons or not?

The Sting Perverted-Justice.com is a Web site that can be very convenient for a reporter looking for a good story. But the tactic raises some ethical questions. The Web site scans Internet chat rooms looking for men who can be lured into sexually explicit conversations with invented underage correspondents. Perverted-Justice posts the men’s pictures on its Web site. Is it ethically defensible to employ such a sting tactic? Should you buy into the agenda of an advocacy group — even if it’s an agenda as worthy as this one?

A Media-Savvy Killer Since his first murder in 1974, the “BTK” killer — his own acronym, for “bind, torture, kill” — has sent the Wichita Eagle four letters and one poem. How should a newspaper, or other media outlet, handle communications from someone who says he’s guilty of multiple sensational crimes? And how much should it cooperate with law enforcement authorities?

A Congressman’s Past The (Portland) Oregonian learned that a Democratic member of the U.S. Congress, up for re-election to his fourth term, had been accused by an ex-girlfriend of a sexual assault some 28 years previously. But criminal charges never were filed, and neither the congressman, David Wu, nor his accuser wanted to discuss the case now, only weeks before the 2004 election. Question: Should The Oregonian publish this story?

Using this Process to Craft a Policy It used to be that a reporter would absolutely NEVER let a source check out a story before it appeared. But there has been growing acceptance of the idea that it’s more important to be accurate than to be independent. Do we let sources see what we’re planning to write? And if we do, when?

SPJ News –  SPJ calls for action by journalists against gag rules after key legal win –  SPJ Foundation awards over $45,000 in grants to seven initiatives and journalism programs –  SPJ announces 2023 Mark of Excellence National Winners

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Case Studies

More than 70 cases pair ethics concepts with real world situations. From journalism, performing arts, and scientific research to sports, law, and business, these case studies explore current and historic ethical dilemmas, their motivating biases, and their consequences. Each case includes discussion questions, related videos, and a bibliography.

A Million Little Pieces

James Frey’s popular memoir stirred controversy and media attention after it was revealed to contain numerous exaggerations and fabrications.

Abramoff: Lobbying Congress

Super-lobbyist Abramoff was caught in a scheme to lobby against his own clients. Was a corrupt individual or a corrupt system – or both – to blame?

Apple Suppliers & Labor Practices

Is tech company Apple, Inc. ethically obligated to oversee the questionable working conditions of other companies further down their supply chain?

Approaching the Presidency: Roosevelt & Taft

Some presidents view their responsibilities in strictly legal terms, others according to duty. Roosevelt and Taft took two extreme approaches.

Appropriating “Hope”

Fairey’s portrait of Barack Obama raised debate over the extent to which an artist can use and modify another’s artistic work, yet still call it one’s own.

Arctic Offshore Drilling

Competing groups frame the debate over oil drilling off Alaska’s coast in varying ways depending on their environmental and economic interests.

Banning Burkas: Freedom or Discrimination?

The French law banning women from wearing burkas in public sparked debate about discrimination and freedom of religion.

Birthing Vaccine Skepticism

Wakefield published an article riddled with inaccuracies and conflicts of interest that created significant vaccine hesitancy regarding the MMR vaccine.

Blurred Lines of Copyright

Marvin Gaye’s Estate won a lawsuit against Robin Thicke and Pharrell Williams for the hit song “Blurred Lines,” which had a similar feel to one of his songs.

Bullfighting: Art or Not?

Bullfighting has been a prominent cultural and artistic event for centuries, but in recent decades it has faced increasing criticism for animal rights’ abuse.

Buying Green: Consumer Behavior

Do purchasing green products, such as organic foods and electric cars, give consumers the moral license to indulge in unethical behavior?

Cadavers in Car Safety Research

Engineers at Heidelberg University insist that the use of human cadavers in car safety research is ethical because their research can save lives.

Cardinals’ Computer Hacking

St. Louis Cardinals scouting director Chris Correa hacked into the Houston Astros’ webmail system, leading to legal repercussions and a lifetime ban from MLB.

Cheating: Atlanta’s School Scandal

Teachers and administrators at Parks Middle School adjust struggling students’ test scores in an effort to save their school from closure.

Cheating: Sign-Stealing in MLB

The Houston Astros’ sign-stealing scheme rocked the baseball world, leading to a game-changing MLB investigation and fallout.

Cheating: UNC’s Academic Fraud

UNC’s academic fraud scandal uncovered an 18-year scheme of unchecked coursework and fraudulent classes that enabled student-athletes to play sports.

Cheney v. U.S. District Court

A controversial case focuses on Justice Scalia’s personal friendship with Vice President Cheney and the possible conflict of interest it poses to the case.

Christina Fallin: “Appropriate Culturation?”

After Fallin posted a picture of herself wearing a Plain’s headdress on social media, uproar emerged over cultural appropriation and Fallin’s intentions.

Climate Change & the Paris Deal

While climate change poses many abstract problems, the actions (or inactions) of today’s populations will have tangible effects on future generations.

Cover-Up on Campus

While the Baylor University football team was winning on the field, university officials failed to take action when allegations of sexual assault by student athletes emerged.

Covering Female Athletes

Sports Illustrated stirs controversy when their cover photo of an Olympic skier seems to focus more on her physical appearance than her athletic abilities.

Covering Yourself? Journalists and the Bowl Championship

Can news outlets covering the Bowl Championship Series fairly report sports news if their own polls were used to create the news?

Cyber Harassment

After a student defames a middle school teacher on social media, the teacher confronts the student in class and posts a video of the confrontation online.

Defending Freedom of Tweets?

Running back Rashard Mendenhall receives backlash from fans after criticizing the celebration of the assassination of Osama Bin Laden in a tweet.

Dennis Kozlowski: Living Large

Dennis Kozlowski was an effective leader for Tyco in his first few years as CEO, but eventually faced criminal charges over his use of company assets.

Digital Downloads

File-sharing program Napster sparked debate over the legal and ethical dimensions of downloading unauthorized copies of copyrighted music.

Dr. V’s Magical Putter

Journalist Caleb Hannan outed Dr. V as a trans woman, sparking debate over the ethics of Hannan’s reporting, as well its role in Dr. V’s suicide.

East Germany’s Doping Machine

From 1968 to the late 1980s, East Germany (GDR) doped some 9,000 athletes to gain success in international athletic competitions despite being aware of the unfortunate side effects.

Ebola & American Intervention

Did the dispatch of U.S. military units to Liberia to aid in humanitarian relief during the Ebola epidemic help or hinder the process?

Edward Snowden: Traitor or Hero?

Was Edward Snowden’s release of confidential government documents ethically justifiable?

Ethical Pitfalls in Action

Why do good people do bad things? Behavioral ethics is the science of moral decision-making, which explores why and how people make the ethical (and unethical) decisions that they do.

Ethical Use of Home DNA Testing

The rising popularity of at-home DNA testing kits raises questions about privacy and consumer rights.

Flying the Confederate Flag

A heated debate ensues over whether or not the Confederate flag should be removed from the South Carolina State House grounds.

Freedom of Speech on Campus

In the wake of racially motivated offenses, student protests sparked debate over the roles of free speech, deliberation, and tolerance on campus.

Freedom vs. Duty in Clinical Social Work

What should social workers do when their personal values come in conflict with the clients they are meant to serve?

Full Disclosure: Manipulating Donors

When an intern witnesses a donor making a large gift to a non-profit organization under misleading circumstances, she struggles with what to do.

Gaming the System: The VA Scandal

The Veterans Administration’s incentives were meant to spur more efficient and productive healthcare, but not all administrators complied as intended.

German Police Battalion 101

During the Holocaust, ordinary Germans became willing killers even though they could have opted out from murdering their Jewish neighbors.

Head Injuries & American Football

Many studies have linked traumatic brain injuries and related conditions to American football, creating controversy around the safety of the sport.

Head Injuries & the NFL

American football is a rough and dangerous game and its impact on the players’ brain health has sparked a hotly contested debate.

Healthcare Obligations: Personal vs. Institutional

A medical doctor must make a difficult decision when informing patients of the effectiveness of flu shots while upholding institutional recommendations.

High Stakes Testing

In the wake of the No Child Left Behind Act, parents, teachers, and school administrators take different positions on how to assess student achievement.

In-FUR-mercials: Advertising & Adoption

When the Lied Animal Shelter faces a spike in animal intake, an advertising agency uses its moral imagination to increase pet adoptions.

Krogh & the Watergate Scandal

Egil Krogh was a young lawyer working for the Nixon Administration whose ethics faded from view when asked to play a part in the Watergate break-in.

Limbaugh on Drug Addiction

Radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh argued that drug abuse was a choice, not a disease. He later became addicted to painkillers.

U.S. Olympic swimmer Ryan Lochte’s “over-exaggeration” of an incident at the 2016 Rio Olympics led to very real consequences.

Meet Me at Starbucks

Two black men were arrested after an employee called the police on them, prompting Starbucks to implement “racial-bias” training across all its stores.

Myanmar Amber

Buying amber could potentially fund an ethnic civil war, but refraining allows collectors to acquire important specimens that could be used for research.

Negotiating Bankruptcy

Bankruptcy lawyer Gellene successfully represented a mining company during a major reorganization, but failed to disclose potential conflicts of interest.

Pao & Gender Bias

Ellen Pao stirred debate in the venture capital and tech industries when she filed a lawsuit against her employer on grounds of gender discrimination.

Pardoning Nixon

One month after Richard Nixon resigned from the presidency, Gerald Ford made the controversial decision to issue Nixon a full pardon.

Patient Autonomy & Informed Consent

Nursing staff and family members struggle with informed consent when taking care of a patient who has been deemed legally incompetent.

Prenatal Diagnosis & Parental Choice

Debate has emerged over the ethics of prenatal diagnosis and reproductive freedom in instances where testing has revealed genetic abnormalities.

Reporting on Robin Williams

After Robin Williams took his own life, news media covered the story in great detail, leading many to argue that such reporting violated the family’s privacy.

Responding to Child Migration

An influx of children migrants posed logistical and ethical dilemmas for U.S. authorities while intensifying ongoing debate about immigration.

Retracting Research: The Case of Chandok v. Klessig

A researcher makes the difficult decision to retract a published, peer-reviewed article after the original research results cannot be reproduced.

Sacking Social Media in College Sports

In the wake of questionable social media use by college athletes, the head coach at University of South Carolina bans his players from using Twitter.

Selling Enron

Following the deregulation of electricity markets in California, private energy company Enron profited greatly, but at a dire cost.

Snyder v. Phelps

Freedom of speech was put on trial in a case involving the Westboro Baptist Church and their protesting at the funeral of U.S. Marine Matthew Snyder.

Something Fishy at the Paralympics

Rampant cheating has plagued the Paralympics over the years, compromising the credibility and sportsmanship of Paralympian athletes.

Sports Blogs: The Wild West of Sports Journalism?

Deadspin pays an anonymous source for information related to NFL star Brett Favre, sparking debate over the ethics of “checkbook journalism.”

Stangl & the Holocaust

Franz Stangl was the most effective Nazi administrator in Poland, killing nearly one million Jews at Treblinka, but he claimed he was simply following orders.

Teaching Blackface: A Lesson on Stereotypes

A teacher was put on leave for showing a blackface video during a lesson on racial segregation, sparking discussion over how to teach about stereotypes.

The Astros’ Sign-Stealing Scandal

The Houston Astros rode a wave of success, culminating in a World Series win, but it all came crashing down when their sign-stealing scheme was revealed.

The Central Park Five

Despite the indisputable and overwhelming evidence of the innocence of the Central Park Five, some involved in the case refuse to believe it.

The CIA Leak

Legal and political fallout follows from the leak of classified information that led to the identification of CIA agent Valerie Plame.

The Collapse of Barings Bank

When faced with growing losses, investment banker Nick Leeson took big risks in an attempt to get out from under the losses. He lost.

The Costco Model

How can companies promote positive treatment of employees and benefit from leading with the best practices? Costco offers a model.

The FBI & Apple Security vs. Privacy

How can tech companies and government organizations strike a balance between maintaining national security and protecting user privacy?

The Miss Saigon Controversy

When a white actor was cast for the half-French, half-Vietnamese character in the Broadway production of Miss Saigon , debate ensued.

The Sandusky Scandal

Following the conviction of assistant coach Jerry Sandusky for sexual abuse, debate continues on how much university officials and head coach Joe Paterno knew of the crimes.

The Varsity Blues Scandal

A college admissions prep advisor told wealthy parents that while there were front doors into universities and back doors, he had created a side door that was worth exploring.

Providing radiation therapy to cancer patients, Therac-25 had malfunctions that resulted in 6 deaths. Who is accountable when technology causes harm?

Welfare Reform

The Welfare Reform Act changed how welfare operated, intensifying debate over the government’s role in supporting the poor through direct aid.

Wells Fargo and Moral Emotions

In a settlement with regulators, Wells Fargo Bank admitted that it had created as many as two million accounts for customers without their permission.

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• “Ad”mission of guilt
• “Do I stop him?”
• Newspaper joins war against drugs
• Have I got a deal for you!
• Identifying what’s right
• Is “Enough!” too much?
• Issues of bench and bar
• Knowing when to say “when!”
• Stop! This is a warning…
• Strange bedfellows
• Gambling with being first
• Making the right ethical choice can mean winning by losing
• Playing into a hoaxster’s hands
• “They said it first”
• Is it news, ad or informercial?
• Letter to the editor
• Games publishers play
• An offer you can refuse
• An oily gift horse
• Public service . . . or “news-mercials”
• As life passes by
• Bringing death close
• A careless step, a rash of calls
• Distortion of reality?
• Of life and death
• Naked came the rider
• “A photo that had to be used”
• A picture of controversy
• Freedom of political expression
• Brother, can you spare some time?
• Columnist’s crusade OK with Seattle
• Kiss and tell
• The making of a govenor
• Past but not over
• Of publishers and politics
• To tell the truth
• Truth & Consequences
• “Truth boxes”
• When journalists become flacks
• A book for all journalists who believe
• The Billboard Bandit
• Food for thought
• Grand jury probe
• Judgement on journalists
• Lessons from an ancient spirit
• Lying for the story . . .
• Newspaper nabs Atlanta’s Dahmer
• One way to a good end
• Over the fence
• “Psst! Pass it on!”
• Rules aren’t neat on Crack Street
• “Someone had to be her advocate”
• Trial by Fire
• Trial by proximity
• Using deceit to get the truth
• When advocacy is okay
• Witness to an execution
• Are we our brother’s keeper? . . . You bet we are!
• Betraying a trust
• Broken promise
• “But I thought you were . . . ”
• “Can I take it back?”
• Competitive disadvantage
• Getting it on tape
• The great quote question
• How to handle suicide threats
• Let’s make a deal!
• A phone-y issue?
• The source wanted out
• The story that died in a lie
• Thou shalt not break thy promise
• Thou shalt not concoct thy quote
• Thou shalt not trick thy source
• Too good to be true
• Vulnerable sources and journalistic responsibility
• The way things used to be . . .
• When a story just isn’t worth it
• When a story source threatens suicide
• When public should remain private
• The ethics of “outing”
• “For personal reasons”
• Intruding on grief
• Intruding on private pain
• Privacy case settled against TV station
• Seeing both sides
• Two views on “outing”
• Unwanted spotlight
• Whose right is it anyway?
• Other views on the Christine Busalacchi case
• The death of a soldier
• Firing at Round Rock
• A kinder, gentler news media
• Operation: Buy yourself a parade
• Rallying ’round the flag
• “Salute to military” ads canceled
• Tell the truth, stay alive
• The windbags of war
• Absent with no malice
• Anonymity for rape victims . . .
• An exception to the rule
• The boy with a broken heart
• Civilly suitable
• Creating a victim
• “Everyone already knew”
• An exceptional case
• Innocent victims
• Minor infraction
• Names make news
• Naming a victim
• Naming “johns”
• Profile of controversy
• What the media all missed
• Punishing plagiarizers
• Sounding an alarm on AIDS
• Suffer the children
• Anchor’s away
• The day the earth stood still
• Doing your own ethics audit
• Good guys, bad guys and TV news
• Is it just me, or . . . ?
• The Post’s exam answer story
• TV station “teases” suicide
• Yanking Doonesbury
• The year in review
• Colorado media’s option play
• Deadly lesson
• Deciding which critically ill person gets coverage
• When journalists play God . . .
• A delicate balance
• The Fallen Servant
• Handle with care
• It’s the principle, really
• Killing news
• Maybe what seems so right is wrong
• On the line
• Protest and apology after Daily Beacon story
• Red flag for badgering
• Sharing the community’s grief
• The “super-crip” stereotype
• “And then he said *&%*!!!”
• When big is not better
• When the KKK comes calling
• Not the straight story
• Agreeing to disagree
• All in the family
• Family feud
• Author! Author!
• The Bee that roared
• Brewing controversy
• Building barriers
• Other views from librarians
• The ethics of information selling
• Close to home
• Family ties
• How now, sacred cow?
• The ties that bind
• “Like any other story”
• When your newspaper is the news
• Not friendly fire
• Overdraft on credibility?
• The problem is the writing
• Written rules can be hazardous
• Project censored, sins of omission and the hardest “W” of all – “why”
• Risking the newsroom’s image
• The Media School

Ethics Case Studies

Ethics cases online.

This set of cases has been created for teachers, researchers, professional journalists and consumers of news to help them explore ethical issues in journalism. The cases raise a variety of ethical problems faced by journalists, including such issues as privacy, conflict of interest, reporter- source relationships, and the role of journalists in their communities.

The initial core of this database comes from a series of cases developed by Barry Bingham, Jr., and published in his newsletter, FineLine. The school is grateful to Bingham for his permission to make these cases available to a wider audience.

You may download cases for classes, research or personal use. Permission is granted for academic use of these cases, including inclusion in course readers for specific college courses. This permission does not extend to the republication of the cases in books, journals or electronic form.

Note: We are indebted to Professor Emeritus David Boeyink, who developed this project several years ago.

Aiding law enforcement

• “Ad”mission of guilt: Court-ordered ads raise ethical questions
• “Do I stop him?”: Reporter’s arresting question is news
• Fairness: A casualty of the anti-drug crusade
• Newspaper joins war against drugs: Standard-Times publishes photos of all suspected drug offenders
• Have I got a deal for you!: The line between cooperation and collusion
• Identifying what’s right: Photographer’s ID used in hostage release
• Is “Enough!” too much?: Editors split on anti-drug coupons
• Issues of bench and bar: In this case, a TV reporter is the judge
• Knowing when to say “when!”: Drawing the line at cooperating with authorities
• Stop! This is a warning . . . : Suppressing news at police request
• Strange Bedfellows: Federal agents in a TV newsroom

Being first

• Gambling with being first: The media drive to score on the Isiah Thomas story
• Playing into a hoaxster’s hands: How the Virginia media got suckered
• “They said it first”: Is that reason for going for the story?

Bottom-line decisions

• Is it news, ad or infomercial?: The line between news and advertising is going, going . . .
• Games publishers play: Allowing an advertiser to call the shots
• An offer you can refuse: The selling of Cybill to the Enquirer
• An oily gift horse: saying “No!” to Exxon
• Public service. . .or “news-mercials”: The blending of television news and advertising

Controversial photos

• As life passes by: A journalist’s role: watch and wait
• Bringing death close: Publishing photographs of human tragedy
• A careless step, a rash of calls: “Unusual” photo of AIDS walkathon raises hackles” 
• Distortion of reality?: “Punk for Peace” photograph draws fire
• Of life and death: Photos capture woman’s last moments
• “A photo that had to be used”: Anatomy of a newspaper’s decision
• A picture of controversy: Pulitzer photos show diverse editorial standards

Covering politics

• Freedom of political expression: Do journalists forfeit their right?
• Brother, can you spare some time?: TV stations give candidates air time
• Columnist’s crusade OK with Seattle Times
• Kiss and tell: Publishing details of a mayor’s personal life
• The making of a governor: How media fantasy swayed an election
• Past but not over: When history collides with the Present
• Of publishers and politics: Byline protest threatened at Star Tribune
• To tell the truth: Why I didn’t; why I regret it
• Truth & Consequences: The public’s right to know . . . at what cost?
• “Truth boxes”: Media monitoring of TV campaign ads
• When journalists become flacks: Two views on what to do and when to do it

Getting the story

• A book for all journalists who believe: Accuracy is our highest ethical debate
• The Billboard Bandit: Did the newspaper get graffiti on its reputation
• Food for thought: You are what you eat . . . and do
• Grand jury probe: TV journalists indicted for illegal dogfight
• Judgment on journalists: Do they defiantly put themselves “above the law?”
• Lessons from an ancient spirit: Why I participated in a peyote ritual
• Lying for the story . . . :Or things they don’t teach in journalism school
• Newspaper nabs Atlanta’s Dahmer: Another predator who should’ve been stopped: Was it homophobia?
• One way to a good end: Reporter cuts corners to test capital drug program
• Over the fence: A case of crossing the line for a story
• “Psst! Pass it on!”: Why are journalists spreading rumors?
• Rules aren’t neat on Crack Street: Journalists know the rules; they also know that the rules don’t always apply when confronted with life-threatening situations
• “Someone had to be her advocate”: A newspaper’s crusade to keep a child’s death from being forgotten
• Trial by Fire: Boy “hero” story tests media
• Trial by proximity: How close is too close for a jury and a reporter?
• Using deceit to get the truth: When there’s just no other way
• When advocacy is okay: Access is an acceptable journalist’s cause
• White lies: Bending the truth to expose injustice
• Witness to an execution: KQED sues to videotape capital punishment

Handling sources

• Are we our brother’s keeper? . . . You bet we are!
• Betraying a trust: Our story wronged a naive subject
• Broken Promise: Breaching a reporter-source confidence
• “But I thought you were . . .”: When a source doesn’t know you are a reporter
• “Can I take it back?”: Why we told our source ‘yes’
• Competitive disadvantage: Business blindsided by unnamed sources
• Getting it on tape: What if you don’t tell them?
• The great quote question: How much tampering with quotations can journalists ethically do?
• Let’s make a deal!: The dangers of trading with sources
• A phone-y issue?: Caller ID raises confidentiality questions
• The source wanted out: Why our decision was ‘no’
• The story that died in a lie: Questions about truthfulness kill publication
• Thou shalt not break thy promise: Supreme Court rules on betraying sources’ anonymity 
• Thou shalt not concoct thy quote: Supreme Court decides on the rules of the quotation game
• Thou shalt not trick thy source: Many a slip twixt the promise and the page
• Too good to be true: Blowing the whistle on a lying source
• Vulnerable sources and journalistic responsibility: Are we our brother’s keeper?
• The way things used to be . . . : Who says this new “objectivity” is better?
• When a story just isn’t worth it: Holding information to protect a good source
• When a story source threatens suicide: “I’m going to kill myself!”

Invading privacy

• The ethics of “outing”: Breaking the silence code on homosexuality
• “For personal reasons”: Balancing privacy with the right to know
• Intruding on grief: Does the public really have a “need to know?”
• Intruding on private pain: Emotional TV segment offers hard choice
• Seeing both sides: A personal and professional dilemma
• Two views on “outing”: When the media do it for you
• Two views on “outing”: When you do it yourself
• Unwanted Spotlight: When private people become part of a public story
• Whose right is it anyway?: Videotape of accident victim raises questions about rights to privacy

Military Issues

• The death of a soldier: Hometown decision for hometown hero
• Firing at Round Rock: Editor says “unpatriotic” story led to dismissal  
• A kinder, gentler news media?: Post-war coverage shows sensitivity to families
• Operation: Buy yourself a parade: New York papers pitch in for hoopla celebrating hide-and-seek war
• Rallying ’round the flag: The press as U.S. propagandists
• “Salute to military” ads canceled
• Tell the truth, stay alive: In covering a civil war, honesty is the only policy
• The windbags of war: Television’s gung-ho coverage of the Persian Gulf situation

Naming newsmakers

• Absent with no malice: Omitting part of the story for a reason
• Anonymity for rape victims . . . : should the rules change?
• An exception to the rule: a decision to change names
• The boy with a broken heart: Special problems when juveniles are newsmakers
• Civilly suitable: If law requires less, should media reveal more?
• Creating a victim: Plot for a fair story may not be foolproof
• “Everyone already knew”: A weak excuse for abandoning standards
• An exceptional case: Hartford Courant names rape victim
• Innocent victims: Naming the guilty . . . but guiltless
• Minor infraction: A newspaper’s case for breaking the law
• Names make news: One newspaper debates when and why
• Naming a victim: When do you break your own rule?
• Naming “johns”: Suicide raises ethical questions about policy
• Profile of controversy: New York Times reporter defends story on Kennedy rape claimant 
• What the media all missed: Times reporter finally sets record straight on Palm Beach rape profile
• Punishing plagiarizers: Does public exposure fit the sin?
• Sounding an alarm on AIDS: Spreading the word about someone who’s spreading the disease
• Suffer the Children: Journalists are guilty of child misuse

Other topics

• Anchor’s away: Where in the world is she? Or does it matter?
• The day the earth stood still: How the media covered the “earthquake”
• Good guys, bad guys and TV news: How television and other media promote police violence
• The Post’s exam answer story
• TV station “teases” suicide
• The year in review: 1990’s biggest ethical headaches and journalistic bloopers

Sensitive news topics

• Colorado media’s option play: Most passed; did they also fumble?
• Deadly lesson: Warning about sexual asphyxiation
• A delicate balance: Mental breakdowns & news coverage
• The Fallen Servant: When a hero is not a hero
• Handle with care: Priest murder story required extra sensitivity
• It’s the principle, really: Timing and people’s money matter, too
• Killing news: Responsible coverage of suicides
• Maybe what seems so right is wrong: A medical condition media-generated money can’t cure
• On the line: A reporter’s job vs. human decency
• Red flag for badgering: Ombudsman takes sportswriter to task
• Sharing the community’s grief: Little Rock news coverage of three teen-age suicides
• Suffer the children: Was story on molestation worth the human cost?
• The “super-crip” stereotype: Press victimization of disabled people
• “And then he said *&%*!!!”: When sexist and vulgar remarks are new
• When big is not better: Playing down a story for the community good
• When the KKK comes calling: What’s the story?
• Not the straight story: Can misleading readers ever be justified?

Workplace issues

• Agreeing to disagree: How one newspaper handles off-hour activities
• All in the family: When a journalist’s spouse creates a conflict of interests
• Family feud: Handling conflicts between journalists and partners
• Author! Author!: Ethical dilemmas when reporters turn author
• The Bee that roared: Taking a stand for editorial independence
• Brewing controversy: The commercialization of Linda Ellerbee
• Building barriers: The case against financial involvement
• Other views from librarians: When interests of client and newsroom conflict
• The ethics of information selling: Problems for library reference services
• Close to home: When your newsroom is part of the story
• Family Ties: When are relationships relationships relevant?
• How now, sacred cow?: United Way’s favored treatment by the media
• The ties that bind: Publisher’s link to United Way raises questions
• “Like any other story”: Can it be when it’s your union vs. your paper?
• When your newspaper is the news: Editors discuss their experiences
• Not friendly fire: News director at odds with CBS over story
• Overdraft on credibility?: Reporter faces conflict-of-interest charges
• Written rules can be hazardous: A lawyer views ethics codes
• Project censored, sins of omission and the hardest “W” of all – “why”
• Risking the newsroom’s image: How editors, in a good cause, can strain independence

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Case Studies in Organizational Communication Ethical Perspectives and Practices

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The course including ethical decision-making has to be reshuffled for now, but in the future I will definitely use the book as a source for supporting material.

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Matched with course design- practical and applied pedagogy for studying ethical issues and communication in everyday life.

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• Emerging issues in the workplace, explored in several case studies, include work/family balance, sexual harassment, outsourcing, personal privacy, bribery, new technologies, social networking, corporate social responsibility, and other issues.
• International case studies examine the ethical behavior of non-American organizations, providing a more thorough understanding of ethics in a global business environment.
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3.1: Ethics Case Study

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• Jasmine Roberts
• The Ohio State University

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The issue of ethics is important in the strategic communication profession. Creators of content should heavily rely on a code of ethics when carrying out various tasks. Using ethical reasoning, whether you’re designing a campaign or writing a newspaper article, demonstrates basic understanding of the influence of messages on audiences. Ethical communication also helps an organization avoid dilemmas and compromising situations.

Several cases covered in the press highlight the ramifications of failure to use ethical and honest standards in communication efforts. The case study below demonstrates this.

Case study: Ryan Holiday, media manipulation, and the rise of the Tucker Max brand

Media strategist Ryan Holiday made a career of controlling the media to achieve public relations goals. A few years ago, he became a PR specialist for Tucker Max, a controversial blogger and author who garnered attention for his lewd writing and explicit discussions of his sexual adventures with countless women. Holiday played an essential role in a campaign for Max’s book I Hope They Serve Beer in Hell. Pretending to be someone who hated Max’s writings, Holiday contacted influencers, bloggers, and television stations about the social controversy caused by the brand. Soon Max’s book received widespread attention from national media outlets and writers all over the blogosphere (Ariely & Melamede, 2015).

Filmmakers later created a movie based on the book. Holiday used some of the same tactics to promote the film. He emailed college organizations across the country, again pretending to be someone who was disgusted with the Tucker Max brand. He included photos of fake advertisements that were offensive to women (which Holiday himself had created), and said that the advertisements were used to promote the film (Ariely & Melamede, 2015). He told campus leaders, bloggers, and other influencers to urge people not to see the film.

Holiday was intentionally trying to create protests to generate media coverage and public awareness about the film and the Tucker Max brand in general (Ariely & Melamede, 2015). He used deceptive measures and some aspects of controversy—strong opinions on a topic, social backlash, and a hated public figure—as leverage. And he was very successful: organized groups across the country held protests against the film, furthering the widespread attention on Tucker Max. In this situation, the saying “any press is good press” worked to his advantage.

Cases such as this raise several concerns related to the field of strategic communication. Most important, the Tucker Max situation calls into question the ethics Holiday used to control the media. How far should one go to promote an organization or brand? The perception exists that strategic communication professionals, specifically those in public relations, are expert spin doctors and media manipulators; because of this, the profession’s credibility has been damaged. In order to reclaim the trustworthiness of the field, strategic communication professionals must abide by strong ethics in their decision-making processes.

The majority of strategic communication professionals promote their client or organization in an honest and straightforward manner. One case study that demonstrates this comes from a Columbus-based public relations agency, Geben Communication. In 2014, the agency helped promote a small catering business, Two Caterers. It used a targeted media relations strategy and pitched to several local publications and news stations (Geben Communication, 2016) in order to enhance brand awareness. The pitches contained factual information, and those working on the account did not use manipulative tactics to achieve their goal.

Geben Communication’s promotional effort had positive results. Local publications wrote several articles on Two Caterers, and a television station invited the small business to do a cooking demonstration for a morning segment. Furthermore, Two Caterers received accolades and recognition from small business associations and magazines.

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Case studies in organizational communication : ethical perspectives and practices

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• List of Tables and Figures Preface Acknowledgments Introduction: Ethical Perspectives and Practices - Steve May Part I: Alignment Case Study
• 1. Ethical Dilemmas in the Financial Industry - Katherine Russell, Megan Dortch, Rachel Gordon, and Charles Conrad Case Study
• 2. The Ethics of the "Family Friendly" Organization: The Challenge of Policy Inclusiveness - Caryn E. Medved and David R. Novak Case Study
• 3. Managing the Ethical Implications of the Big Box: The Walmart Effect - Edward C. Brewer Case Study
• 4. Just Window Dressing? The Gap (RED) Campaign - Michelle Amazeen Part II: Dialogic Communication Case Study
• 5. Ethical Contradictions and E-Mail Communication at Enron Corporation - Anna Turnage and Joann Keyton Case Study
• 6. Toyota - Oh, What a Feeling, or Oh, What a Mess? Ethics at the Intersection of Industry, Government, and Publics - Rebecca J. Meisenbach and Sarah B. Feldner Case Study
• 7. Sanlu's Milk Contamination Crisis: Organizational Communication in Conflicting Cultural, Economic, and Ethical Context - Shari R. Veil and Aimei Yang Case Study
• 8. What About the People in the "People's Car"? Tata Motors Limited and the Nano Controversy - Rahul Mitra Part III. Participation Case Study
• 9: Resistance and Belonging: The Chicago Blackhawks and the 2010 Chicago Annual Pride Parade - Dean E. Mundy Case Study
• 10: Is Agriculture Spinning Out of Control? A Case Study of Factory Farms in Ohio: Environmental Communication, News Frames, and Social Justice - Jeanette Wenig Drake Case Study
• 11: Ethical Storm or Model Workplace? - Joann Keyton, Paula Cano, Teresa L. Clounch, Carl E. Fischer, Catherine Howard, and Sarah S. Topp Case Study
• 12: Gaming the System: Ethical Challenges in Innovative Organizations - Natalie Nelson-Marsh Part IV: Transparency Case Study
• 13. Reward, Identity and Autonomy: Ethical Issues in College Athletics - John Llewellyn Case Study
• 14. The Case of Wyeth, DesignWrite, and Premarin: The Ethics of Ghostwriting Medical Journal Articles - Alexander Lyon and Mark Ricci Case Study
• 15. Fired Over Facebook: Issues of Employee Monitoring and Personal Privacy on Social Media Websites. - Loril M. Gossett Case Study
• 16. Daimler's Bribery Case - Roxana Maiorescu Part V: Accountability Case Study
• 17. The Deepwater Horizon Disaster: Challenges in Ethical Decision Making - Elaine M. Brown Case Study
• 18. Outsourcing U.S. Intelligence - Hamilton Bean Case Study
• 19. Silence in the Turmoil of Crisis: Peanut Corporation of America's Response to Its Sweeping Slamonella Outbreak - Alyssa Grace Millner and Timothy L. Sellnow Case Study
• 20. Patrolling the Ethical Borders of Compassion and Enforcement - Kendra Dyanne Rivera and Sarah J. Tracy Part VI: Courage Case Study
• 21. Google?s Dilemma in China - Jane Stuart Baker and Lu Tang Case Study
• 22. Speaking Up Is Not an Easy Choice: Boatrocking as Ethical Dilemma - Ryan S. Bisel and Joann Keyton Case Study
• 23. The Aftermath of Scandal: Picking Up the Pieces of a Shattered Identity - Elizabeth A. Williams Afterword - Casework and Communication About Ethics: Toward a Broader Perspective on Our Lives, Our Careers, Our Happiness, and Our Common Future - George Cheney Author Index Subject Index About the Editor About the Contributors.
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40 Case: Business communication ethics

Case authors: Jerred Flynn, James Hills, and Ravneel Prasad

This case/scenario is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 International license.

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Enron was a multibillion-dollar energy company who, through dishonest accounting practices, was able to hide their losses till the point where their next major merger fell through. They did this with shell companies that they would off load their losses to, to make their own financials look pristine. At the point of the failed merger, they filed for bankruptcy as their liabilities were too much for them to stay afloat. This resulted in tens of thousands of people to lose millions, both in pensions and shares of the company they could not sell.

Questions before the case

1) Is it alright to exaggerate anything when submitting official documents? Be it a resume, timesheet, or something else.

2) Back when all of this happened, the incentivization for people who came forward with information (whistleblowers) was almost non-existent. Should there be incentives beyond the social recognition of “doing the right thing” for whistleblowers?

3) If you are a manager, is it ever right to bend the truth so that you and those under you can keep your jobs or tell the truth and possibly lose them?

Revenue Recognition: Why Doing Something Different Isn’t Always Better.

In the case of Enron, they, like most of their competition, had a system of “historical cost” principles they had to follow when they booked their revenue. Basically, they bought the natural gas they sold at a given price, and when they sold it at whatever price they could get for it, they took the costs off and reported that as profit. This was how it worked in any given year to account for fluctuations in the selling price; they had to wait until they sold the gas before they could record revenues.

However, their executives lobbied for, and got, the permission from the SEC to change the way they reported their revenues. Instead of following the “historical cost” model, they switched to a “mark-to-market” model, which allowed them to record the profits on their contracts before the contracts were fulfilled. This led to several concerning outcomes. They were booking hypothetical profits as actual profits before they had sold their natural gas, based on forecasts of what the market would do. But they were booking this profit on contracts that had 20 years to fulfil, in some cases. The first concern is what they would do if they couldn’t continue signing these contracts, and revenues dropped off. The second is what would happen if they wound up having to sell the gas at lower prices than forecasted.

In short, they switched from a system of recognizing revenue after the transaction happened to a system where they recognized revenue at some value which they thought they would get for it at some time in the future. By using this “fair-value” system, it became a system that was almost entirely dependent on manager forecasting, which is almost impossible for managers to accurately calculate and even closer to impossible for anyone else to check (Benston, 2003).

Insider Trading: Making Sure the Boss Gets His…Money, That Is

Alongside the issues Enron was beginning to face from their CEO’s resignation for “personal reasons,” both internal and external sources began to realize that there were issues with the accounting processes at Enron (Healy, 2003). An Enron VP began to raise concerns about the issues with some of the reporting happening, and as such, got both internal and external auditors involved. The external auditors, Arthur Andersen LLP, had their lawyer contact Enron to “remind” them that the official action to take with old documentation was to shred it. All of this eventually led to October 2001.

On October 16, 2001, Enron filed their quarterly earnings statements. When they did this, it came to light that they had incurred their first (recognized) loss in four years. Also included in this figure is the write-down, or loss of income, of more than $1 billion. Finally, one of their subsidiaries which they were using to hide debt was terminated before Enron would be called on to exercise 58 million share options, which caused Enron to have to clear another $1.2 billion dollars from their balance sheet (Thomas, 2002). At this point, the Securities and Exchange Commission began to get involved. However, this isn’t where the insider trading began.

At this point, many of the Enron employees had been compelled to use their company pensions to buy Enron stock. More importantly, many of them had wanted to: the company was doing phenomenally well up to this point, and they saw opportunities for massive returns. However, on October 17, the day after the damning earnings statements, the company announced that their pension plan administrators had changed. This meant, by law, that no trading could happen with Enron’s pension plan assets for 30 days (Healy). So, in the wake of the most terrible earnings statement Enron had released, the employees had their pensions frozen and were unable to do anything about it. The worst aspect of this, however, was that the executives were still free to exercise their stock options and sell the stocks in the open market: this ban on trading only meaningfully affected the rank-and-file employees.

So, not only did Enron’s employees wind up by losing their jobs when Enron filed for bankruptcy in December 2001, they also wound up by losing their entire pension as well (Healy).

There were no good outcomes to the Enron saga; millions of investors lost billions of dollars, the employees wound up unemployed with their life savings wiped out, many of the executives spent years in jail, and two major corporate entities wound up bankrupted. But the conclusions to be learned are quite simple: in the absence of truthful, good faith communication, it doesn’t matter how good you engineer yourself to look. If you lie, cheat, falsify, you will wind up losing everything in the end.

With this information discuss with your group how Enron’s exaggeration of their financials and other unethical dealings led to their bankruptcy. Also discuss the questions posed at the beginning of the case, and if any of your perspectives have changed after reading this case.

Benston, G., Bromwich, M., & Litan, R. E. (2003). Following the money : The Enron failure and the state of corporate disclosure. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com

Healy, Paul and Krishna Palepu (2003). The Fall of Enron, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 17, No. 2. Retrieved from http://www-personal.umich.edu/~kathrynd/JEP.FallofEnron.pdf

Thomas, C. William (2002). The Rise and Fall of Enron, Journal of Accountancy. Retrieved from https://www.journalofaccountancy.com/issues/2002/apr/theriseandfallofenron.html

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Case: Business communication ethics Copyright © 2020 by Melissa Ashman; Arley Cruthers; Sarah Duncan; John Grant; Karen Inkster Vance; and Panteli Tritchew is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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An Ethical Stakeholder Approach to Crisis Communication: A Case Study of Foxconn’s 2010 Employee Suicide Crisis

• Published: 26 October 2012
• Volume 117 , pages 371–386, ( 2013 )

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• Kaibin Xu 2 &
• Wenqing Li 1  

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We have conducted a case study of Foxconn’s suicide crisis when 12 Foxconn employees committed suicide during the first 5 months of 2010. In this case study, we have examined Foxconn’s crisis communication strategies during the critical period and explored the failure in crisis communication in terms of the stakeholder approach. Our findings show that Foxconn adopted a mixed response strategy by trying to address the concerns of various stakeholders while refusing to take responsibility for the suicides. Foxconn’s failure in the crisis was due to its imbalanced stakeholder relations that failed to recognize employees as important stakeholders, resulting in the failure to provide the ethics of care and justice that was warranted. Our findings suggest that an ethical stakeholder approach can complement Benoit’s and Coombs’ crisis communication theories and strategies.

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Xu, K., Li, W. An Ethical Stakeholder Approach to Crisis Communication: A Case Study of Foxconn’s 2010 Employee Suicide Crisis. J Bus Ethics 117 , 371–386 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1522-0

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Ethical challenges in an evolving digital communication era: coping resources and ethics trainings in corporate communications

Corporate Communications: An International Journal

ISSN : 1356-3289

Article publication date: 1 March 2022

Issue publication date: 30 June 2022

This study is motivated to investigate the ethical challenges facing public relations professionals in today's digital communication environment. Specifically, the authors focused the research on the new ethical challenges in digital practice, the resources relied on when encountering ethical challenges and public relations professionals' efforts in seeking trainings on communication ethics.

Design/methodology/approach

An international online survey was designed and conducted in Canada and the USA. The final sample includes 1,046 respondents working full time in the profession of public relations and communication. In addition, the authors prespecified several demographic quotas in sampling design in order to recruit a more representative sample.

The research found nearly 60% of surveyed professionals reported that they faced ethical challenges in their day-to-day work, and there is a wide range of ethical challenges in digital practices. Results also revealed that professionals use various resources to deal with ethical issues. Those resources include ethical codes of practice of professional associations, ethical guidelines of their organizations and their personal values and beliefs. As common as experiencing ethical challenges, over 85% of surveyed professionals reported that they have participated in communication ethics training. However, only 30% of participants indicated that their ethics training took place in the past year.

Originality/value

The research provides solid evidence that the digital communication environment generates more ethical challenges, while it creates new ways of delivering content in corporate communications. Professional associations and organizations shall dedicate efforts in providing timely ethics training to PR professionals at all levels of leadership within and beyond corporate communications.

• Digital communication
• Ethics training
• Public relations

Meng, J. , Kim, S. and Reber, B. (2022), "Ethical challenges in an evolving digital communication era: coping resources and ethics trainings in corporate communications", Corporate Communications: An International Journal , Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 581-594. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCIJ-11-2021-0128

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2022, Emerald Publishing Limited

Introduction

Given the fact that many recent scandals happened in corporate America and the political realm, human beings have been concerned with the ethics of leaders and their moral development. Under the combined influence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the racial unrest, the need and the interest in exploring the multifaceted ethics viewpoints have continued to grow with an emphasis on the notions of care and respect for others through proactive social engagement. On the academic front, there has been a strong interest in communication management in exploring how ethical leadership and practice could be used to achieve professional duty and build a more caring and just society. Previous research indicates that organizational leaders are one of the key sources of ethical guidance for employees ( Brown  et al. , 2005 ; Schauster, 2014 ). It is critical for organizational leaders to demonstrate principled ethical behaviors through personal actions, communication and interpersonal relationships in order to reinforce the importance of ethical conduct to followers ( Brown and Trevino, 2006 ).

Research on ethics in communication and public relations has urged both industry leaders and scholars in public relations to advocate for the important ethical role public relations professionals demonstrate and set to guide ethical decision-making and actions (e.g. Bowen, 2008 ; Neill, 2016 ). Public relations scholars stress that public relations professionals are the active agents to carry a critical role to provide ethics counseling to senior organizational leaders in their organizations, which is a role sometimes referred to as an “ethical conscience” (e.g. Bowen, 2008 , 2009 ; Fitzpatrick and Gauthier, 2001 ; Neill and Drumwright, 2012 ). This stream of ethics research in public relations has developed the strong argument that in the workplace public relations, professionals should be a central source of ethical conduct and guidance. Furthermore, communication leaders' ethical behaviors reinforce followers' confidence in providing ethical counseling when facing ethical challenges ( Meng and Neill, 2022 ). Research has suggested that public relations professionals' role in demonstrating ethical leadership and proving ethics counsel shall encompass both the concerns of various stakeholders and communication about values ( Bowen, 2008 ; Neill and Drumwright, 2012 ; Neill, 2016 ).

Although the issues related to ethical conduct and practice are discussed often in public relations and communication management, these discussions have not been fully incorporated into programs in training and development designed to cope with emerging ethical challenges for communication professionals and organizations in today's digital communication environment. It is obvious that the industry has experienced a rapid change and accelerated evolvement as digital technology continues transforming our way of living. This fast-paced transformation is further deepened by the COVID-19 pandemic when our daily life is packed with various social media platforms, digital tools and services. Since ethical perspectives change quickly under the influence of digital technology, empirical ethics research in public relations has struggled to be up-to-date and relevant. Therefore, our research is motivated to investigate the ethical challenges facing public relations professionals in today's rapidly evolving digital communication environment. By conducting an international survey of communication professionals in Canada and the USA, we investigated several key topics related to ethical challenges, including the new ethical challenges in an evolving digital communication era, the resources to get support when encountering ethical challenges, and their efforts in seeking trainings on communication ethics. Findings of our research provide more discussion on ethical practice in a digital communication environment for communication and public relations professionals. We hope our research will help professionals and organizations better understand the intertwined relationships between digital communication and ethical challenges and strengthen their ethical practice.

Literature review

Ethical theories in public relations research.

Ethics is one of the key components of public relations that garners significant attention, interest and continued discussion on ethics in research, practice and education ( Leeper, 1996 ). For the purpose of studying ethics and public relations, several theories have been applied, including theories of attorney adversary, enlightened self-interest, community/social responsibility, Sullivan's (1965) partisan values vs mutual values and two-way symmetrical model ( Fitzpatrick and Gauthier, 2001 ).

To understand the foundation of different approaches, Fawkes (2012) categorized public relations theories into excellence, advocacy, relationship management and critical theory and discussed how ethics was studied in public relations in each perspective. For excellence theory ( Grunig et al. , 1992 ), public relations is ethical when the structure of communication is two-way symmetric between organizations and their publics. For advocacy models ( Fitzpatrick and Bronstein, 2006 ; Heath, 2007 ), equal access to structures and debates is deemed crucial for ethical public relations. For relationship management ( Ledingham and Bruning, 2001 ), dialogue or dialogic communication is considered as essential for ethical public relations. From the critical theory perspectives ( Curtin and Gaither, 2005 , 2007 ; L'Etang, 2005 ), scholars used a variety of postmodern and feminist approaches to discuss public relations ethics.

However, some scholars ( Bowen, 2008 ) argued that ethics in public relations needs more support and interests from not only organizations but also communication professionals. Whereas ethics is organizations' responsiveness and responsibilities to stakeholders ( Bowen, 2008 ; Dando and Swift, 2003 ), many public relations professionals do not “enact the role of ethics counselor themselves or to push for its adoption” ( Bowen, 2008 , p. 290). The reasons for this neglect included the complexity of this role, lack of ethics training experience, lack of access to decision-making and other job responsibilities ( Bowen, 2008 ). Despite these challenges that professionals experience, Bowen (2008) predicted that ethics will play an important role in public relations because the public will demand higher levels of ethical behaviors, transparent communication and accountability from organizations.

The diverse theoretical frameworks on ethics in public relations yet the lack of academic consensus on how to approach professional ethics reflect the complexity of the topic ( Tilley, 2005 ). Public relations scholars continue to study how to understand, analyze and manage ethical challenges ( Bowen, 2007 ). According to Frankena (1973) as cited in Smudde (2005) , moral philosophizing follows three paths: (1) descriptive empirical inquiry, (2) judgment and (3) analytical and critical thinking. In public relations, this moral philosophizing process is relevant to professionals' day-to-day work ( Smudde, 2005 ).

To respond to moral challenges that professionals face, trade associations such as the Public Relations Society of America and the International Public Relations Association developed codes of ethics and encourage ethical practices ( Ki et al. , 2012 ). Some organizations develop their own to complement the lack of enforcement and effectiveness of those codes of ethics developed by professional associations ( Ki et al. , 2012 ). Often, public relations ethics also relies on personal ethics or good character in professionals ( Tilley, 2005 ), which reinforces the role of communication professionals as ethical counselors and corporate consciences.

The integration of digital and social media and ethical challenges in today's communication

The role of digital communication and social media has tremendously reshaped public relations practice since the emergence of various digital tools and platforms. Scholars have increasingly focused on this digitization and the use of social and “new” media in public relations practice in recent decades ( Hagelstein et al. , 2021 ). Social media became the “number one use of the Internet,” and this has brought many changes to day-to-day public relations practice ( Wright and Hinson, 2009 , p. 2). Professionals deal with a series of digital tools and practices such as sponsored content, social media influencer communication, public wikis, social bots and big data ( Hagelstein et al. , 2021 ). Byrum (2017) argued that it is crucial to understand the intersection between public relations ethics and practice in light of the digital age because dialogue in the online environment can be considered as a virtual marketplace of ideas.

Studies and industry reports revealed that new technologies and emerging media impacted public relations practice in many ways ( Wright and Hinson, 2015 ). For example, new communication technologies changed the business of relationship management ( Argenti and Barnes, 2009 ) and roles and functions of communication leaders ( Arthur W. Page Society, 2007 ). Studies also revealed that corporations and other organizations use social networking sites, Wikis and websites for investor relations, advocacy and stakeholder management ( Wright and Hinson, 2015 ). Furthermore, studies discussed how organizations use social media during crises and campaigns ( Wright and Hinson, 2015 ).

In today's “changing and emerging practices of persuasive communication,” there are rising ethical concerns “including native advertising, blurring of paid strategies with earned media, consumer privacy, and digital ad fraud” ( Schauster and Neill, 2017 , p. 48). For instance, Internet and social media platforms collect a substantial amount of user information and public relations professionals use this information to communicate with their organizations' stakeholders ( White and Boatwright, 2020 ). These rising concerns were present among European communication professionals; they reported that they experience more ethical challenges today than eight years ago ( Hagelstein et al. , 2021 ). Interestingly, a third of those indicated that social media is the primary cause for ethical challenges ( Hagelstein et al. , 2021 ). In a different study conducted in Europe in 2016 although only 14% of communication professionals in Europe reported ethical concerns as one of the top three challenges ( Wiesenberg et al. , 2017 ), almost three-quarters of them (74.5%) reported that “social bots present ethical challenges for them” ( Wiesenberg and Tench, 2020 , p. 6). These studies in Europe provided valuable insights into perceptions about ethical challenges and resources to tackle them, but they also addressed the importance of the replication of the study at a global level because perceptions can vary based on various factors ( Hagelstein et al. , 2021 ).

Despite the wide use of new media, however, scholars ( Duhé, 2015 ; Verčič et al. , 2014 ; White and Boatwright, 2020 ) found that there is a lack of discussion on new media ethics in public relations scholarship. Whereas professionals encounter ethical challenges, little research is conducted on professionals' perceptions and assessments of those challenges and resources to tackle them ( Duhé, 2015 ; Hagelstein et al. , 2021 ). Schauster and Neill (2017) argued that situational ethics training and ethical leadership are key to respond to changing, emerging and blurring practices. In the same study, they also addressed the need for conducting a survey about ethical challenges with a bigger sample of strategic communication executives for the purpose of generalization. In addition, research suggested that more studies on the topic are needed to provide insights of reliable resources when tackling ethical challenges ( Hagelstein et al. , 2021 ).

How frequently do public relations professionals experience ethical challenges in their day-to-day work?

What types of ethical challenges do public relations professionals feel concerned about in today's digital communication environment?

What are the most and the least relied upon resources for public relations professionals when encountering ethical challenges in their day-to-day work?

What kind of ethics trainings have public relations professionals participated in and what is the frequency of the ethics training?

Research method

Survey design and recruitment procedure.

To best capture public relations professionals' answers to the above-proposed research questions, we designed a series of questions related to ethical practice and embedded them in a comprehensive online questionnaire addressing a number of topics related to today's communication practice. The method of an online survey by using Qualtrics, a leading online survey research firm, and its audience database was used to program the questionnaire and recruit targeted participants. As part of the research design, we specified the targeted sample to be full-time public relations professionals working in Canada and the USA. In addition, we designed a series of filter and qualification questions at the beginning of the online survey to ensure the quality and diversity of our sample. Participants who did not meet our sampling criteria were removed from our final sample. A stratified sampling strategy was used to recruit participants based on three prespecified demographic parameters (i.e. geographic location, gender and years of experience) to enhance the quality of the final sample.

The online survey was active for about three months, from mid-August to late November in 2020. Over the period of sample recruitment, we had recorded a total of 12,738 valid clicks from the audience panels at Qualtrics based on the survey invitations. As mentioned earlier, unqualified respondents were excluded if they failed to pass our screening questions or did not meet our sampling criteria. In total, 1,046 respondents completed the questionnaire and met our sampling requirements. Therefore, our data analysis was based on the final sample of 1,046 full-time public relations professionals in Canada and the USA.

Demographics

The key demographic variables in the survey include geographic location, gender, age, years of experience, type of organization, hierarchical reporting level and ethnicity. The sample consisted of 778 respondents in the USA (74.4%) and 268 in Canada (25.6%). The sample had 545 women (52.1%) and 499 men (47.7%). The descriptive analysis indicated that the average age of respondents is 41.2 years (SD = 11.33). Respondents in our sample work for different types of organizations, including private companies ( n  = 427; 40.8%), public companies ( n  = 234; 22.4%), PR/communication agencies ( n  = 166; 15.9%), governmental organizations ( n  = 136; 13.0%) and nonprofit organizations ( n  = 83; 7.9%).

The sample had 447 respondents (42.7%) confirming they have more than 10 years of professional experience, followed by 340 respondents having 6–10 years of experience (32.5%) and 259 having up to five years of experience in communication (24.8%). Related to years of professional experience, descriptive analysis confirmed that we had 323 respondents indicating they are head of their communication department or agency CEO ( n  = 323; 30.9%). For the rest of the sample, we had 47.2% of respondents ( n  = 494), indicating they are at the level of team leader or unit leader and 21.9% indicating they are team member ( n  = 229).

As for ethnicity, a vast majority of respondents ( n  = 753, 72.0%) are white. Other ethnic groups included Black/African American ( n  = 95; 9.1%), Asian/Asian American ( n  = 94; 9.0%), Hispanic ( n  = 57; 5.4%) and other minorities ( n  = 47; 4.5%). While we admitted that the racial representation in our sample remains skewed, we would argue that the ethnic makeup of our sample reflects the PR industry in the USA ( Chitkara, 2018 ). Other demographic profile analyses found respondents in our sample have various affiliations and membership with professional associations. Almost half of them ( n  = 495; 47.3%) joined one professional association. While 34.8% of them ( n  = 364) currently do not have membership with any professional associations, 17.9% ( n  = 187) indicated they joined more than one.

To answer the proposed research questions, we used the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (Version 27) for data analysis. Some specific tests that have been applied in this study included frequency distribution and analysis, Pearson's chi-square test, the independent t -test and the analysis of variance (ANOVA) test in a general linear model to compare means. Detailed results of statistical analyses are presented in the following paragraphs.

The frequency of experiencing ethical challenges

Our RQ1 aims at exploring how frequently public relations professionals experience ethical challenges in their day-to-day work. The measurement for this question was adapted from Bentele's (2015) research on public relations ethics. On the one hand, results found more than half of professionals ( n  = 622; 59.4%) indicated they have experienced ethical challenges over the past 12 months with 32.0% ( n  = 335) encountered multiple times of ethical issues and 27.4% experienced such issues once. On the other hand, 384 respondents (36.7%) reported having no ethical incidents within the past 12 months. When comparing the answers between professionals in Canada and the USA, we found a significantly high percentage among the US professionals reporting two or more ethical issues (34.8 vs 23.9%, χ 2  = 14.97, df  = 3, p  < 0.01). Gender comparisons also found a significant difference at the statistical level: More men ( n  = 181; 36.3%) reported encountering two or more ethical challenges, if compared to their female colleagues ( n  = 153; 28.1%) ( χ 2  = 10.60, df  = 3, p  < 0.01).

Ethical issues present a challenge especially for professionals in two age groups (i.e. 30–39 and 40–49). Professionals in both age brackets (i.e. 33.9% for those in the range of 30–39 and 36.3% for those between 40 and 49) reported a significantly higher level of possibility to encounter ethical issues, if compared to younger (i.e. 29 or younger) and older (i.e. 50–59 and 60 or older) professionals ( χ 2  = 68.53, df  = 12, p  < 0.01). Furthermore, responsibilities along the leadership line played a significant role in experiencing ethical challenges. Our results confirmed that PR professionals who take a leadership role, no matter at the team level or the organizational level, reported the highest possibility of encountering two or more ethical issues ( χ 2  = 10.20, df  = 3, p  < 0.05) (see Table 1 for detailed comparative results).

Types of ethical challenges concerning PR professionals in today's digital communication

Our RQ2 explores the specific ethical challenges PR professionals have encountered in today's 24/7 digital communication environment. The measurement of this question was adapted from some recent research on ethics ( Schauster et al. , 2016 ), digital advertising ( Glasser et al. , 2019 ) and big data ( Wiesenberg et al. , 2017 ). Based on previous research on digital tools, the use of social media, and other forms of digital communication in today's public relations practice (e.g. Hagelstein et al. , 2021 ), the research team generated a list of potential digital communication practice as new ways of communicating with stakeholders and asked our respondents to evaluate to what extent such practice presents ethical challenges in their daily work. The rating is based on a five-point Likert scale.

The rating results indicated that paying social media influencers to communicate favorably presents the biggest ethical challenge ( M  = 3.23, SD = 1.28), followed by using bots to generate feedback and followers on social media ( M  = 3.21, SD = 1.33) and mining audiences' personal data by applying big data analyses ( M  = 3.17, SD = 1.24). PR professionals also feel concerned about using sponsored social media posts and sponsored articles on news websites ( M  = 3.07, SD = 1.28) and motivating employees to spread organizational messages on their private social media accounts ( M  = 3.05, SD = 1.30). They are least concerned about editing entries about their organization on public wikis ( M  = 2.99, SD = 1.31) and profiling audiences based on their age, gender, ethnicity, job or interests ( M  = 2.96, SD = 1.32).

When comparing respondents' assessment of ethical challenges in digital communication practices by country, we found a consistent pattern that professionals in the USA consider several digital communication practices present a significantly higher challenge for them, if compared to their colleagues in Canada. Those practices include: (1) paying social media influencers to communicate favorably (3.31 vs 3.01, t -value = 3.21, df  = 1,004, p  = 0.001); (2) mining audiences' personal data by applying big data analyses (3.23 vs 2.98, t -value = 2.72, df  = 1,004, p  = 0.007); (3) using bots to generate feedback and followers on social media (3.28 vs 3.02, t -value = 2.72, df  = 1,004, p  = 0.007) and (4) motivating employees to spread organizational messages on their private social media accounts (3.10 vs 2.88, t -value = 2.43, df  = 1,004, p  = 0.015).

Gender comparison also found significant differences between women and men on their assessment of ethical challenges in digital communication practices. Men perceived almost all items presenting a significantly higher level of ethical challenge except for two practices: using bots to generate feedback and followers on social media and paying social media influencers to communicate favorably.

Similarly, we compared PR professionals' assessment of ethical concerns on digital communication practice based on their leadership responsibilities. Significant differences were confirmed based on one-way ANOVA analyses. Communication leaders expressed the highest concerns about all digital communication tools and practices, followed by team members. It is interesting to find that professionals taking the leadership role at the team or unit level are least concerned about listed digital communication practice. Please see Table 2 for details.

The most and least relied-upon resources to manage ethical challenges

After exploring types of digital communication practices that present ethical challenges to PR professionals, we further investigated the resources professionals actually used to manage ethical issues at three levels: the macro (i.e. the profession), the meso (i.e. the organization) and the micro (i.e. the individual) levels. The measurement of this question was also adapted from Wiesenberg and associates' research on big data in 2017. Despite the various ethical challenges PR professionals have encountered in their daily work, results indicated the ethical guidelines of their organization were the most relevant resource for them to manage ethical issues. We had 88.0% of respondents found the resources at the meso level (i.e. the ethical guidelines of their organization) important or very important when dealing with ethical challenges ( M  = 4.24, SD = 0.99). A substantial percentage of respondents (76.5%) also found the ethical codes of conduct advocated by the professional associations (i.e. the macro level) the second relevant resource for them to use ( M  = 4.24, SD = 1.02). Finally, personal values and beliefs based on family tradition, education and religion were least relevant ( M  = 4.22, SD = 1.01).

For resources at all three levels, country comparison did not reveal significant differences even though Canadian professionals valued ethical codes of conduct of professional associations more. Meanwhile, gender comparison confirmed some significant differences at the macro and the meso levels. Men considered the ethical code of conduct of professional associations significantly more important than women did (4.38 vs 4.09, t- value = 3.54, df  = 619, p  < 0.01). Men also considered the ethical guidelines of their organization significantly more relevant (4.33 vs 4.15, t- value = 2.25, df  = 619, p  < 0.05). Both men and women held similar perceptions of personal values and beliefs (4.27 vs 4.16, t- value = 1.45, df  = 619, p  = 0.15).

Consistently, a significant difference on this assessment is confirmed across the various hierarchical levels of our surveyed respondents. Communication leaders relied on resources at all three levels to manage ethical issues, with the ethical codes of conduct of professional associations being the most relevant one while the personal values and beliefs the least relevant one. Table 3 displays the results based on ANOVA analyses.

Types and frequency of communication ethics training

Our last research question investigated the types of ethics training in which PR professionals have participated, as well as the frequency of the training. Of the participants, 42.2% indicated they have participated in communication ethics training(s) offered by a professional association ( n  = 441). The second largest category is ethics training(s) offered by their organization ( n  = 401; 38.3%). Less than 30% of respondents indicated they took a communication ethics class during their studies ( n  = 275; 26.3%). However, we still had 13.2% reporting they never had any type of ethics training ( n  = 138) and 4.0% indicating they do not remember ( n  = 42).

When analyzing the types of ethics training by hierarchical level, we found that PR professionals holding a leadership role, either as a top communication leader or as a team leader, are more likely to participate in ethics training offered by a professional association, if compared to team members at a lower hierarchical level. The findings also revealed that the vast majority of professionals who participated in ethics training offered by the organization are team leaders ( n  = 233; 58.1%). On the other hand, general team members received less ethics training at both macro and meso levels. Of the team members, 25.1% reported they took a communication ethics course during their studies (please see Table 4 for details).

When asked to recall the last time they participated in communication ethics training, 30.3% had their ethics training over the past year ( n  = 317) and 32.3% within up to three years ( n  = 338). Of the participants, 20.9% indicated that their ethics training took place more than three years ago. Overall, 83.6% of surveyed professionals confirmed having ethics training in the past.

We found the frequency of ethics training varied between PR professionals in Canada and their colleagues in the USA. A significantly higher percentage of US professionals (38.4%) received ethics training within the past year, if compared to Canadian professionals (29.7%). On the other hand, 31.6% of the Canadian professionals reported having ethics training more than three years ago, which is 8.6% higher compared to the results reported by their US colleagues (23.0%) ( χ 2  = 8.10, df  = 2, p  < 0.05).

It is important to find that membership with a professional association presents a strong and significant correlation with frequency of communication ethics training ( χ 2  = 9.35, df  = 4, p  < 0.05). We found those PR professionals who joined one professional association are more likely to have some fresh ethics training, e.g. in less than one year or up to three years ago. While those who do not have membership in any professional association have stretched their ethics training over a longer period of time (see Table 5 ).

Discussion and implications

Data from this survey of public relations professionals in the USA and Canada provide some findings that may affect professional practice. More than half of the respondents reported encountering ethical challenges within the past 12 months. Of those, nearly one-third encountered ethical challenges more than once during that year. US respondents and male respondents reported significantly more ethical challenges than their demographic counterparts (i.e. Canadian professionals and women). Mid-career professionals and those in positions of leadership also reported significantly more ethical challenges than did those earlier or later in their careers or lower in the organizational hierarchy.

Ethical challenges are a reality in public relations practice. Most respondents reported dealing with ethical challenges within the past year. The above suggests the profile of the respondent in most need of ethical resources is a mid-career male leader in the USA. Is this profile of most-challenged-professional an artifact of gender? According to our data, most professionals reported receiving ethics training from professional organizations. However, 70% of the membership of professional organizations like the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) are women. Where are the men receiving their ethics training? The first implication of our findings is that ethics training specifically targeted at men is needed. The most effective place for this to occur, since men are disproportionately absent from the rolls of professional organizations, is in the workplace. In-house PR departments and PR agencies should engage external ethics trainers to conduct mandatory ethics education on at least an annual basis.

Digitally related ethics challenges were also important. Respondents reported digital ethical challenges as being: (1) paying social media influencers to communicate favorably, (2) using bots to generate feedback and followers on social media and (3) mining audiences' personal data via big data analyses. Respondents also noted concerns about using sponsored social media posts, sponsored articles on news websites and employees to spread organizational messages on their private social media accounts. PR professionals are uniquely affected by the ethical challenges related to these media because of the need to embrace these media as valuable tools in the PR toolbox. This is an area in need of more research. How can these challenges be addressed? Is there a need to profession-wide guidelines on some of these sources of ethical quandaries? We need to know more in order to develop best practices guidelines.

The resources that respondents most commonly tapped to manage ethical issues were organizational guidelines, followed by membership groups' codes of ethics and personal values. No differences were found in the use of ethics resources between countries, but men reported the importance of professional codes of ethical conduct and ethical guidelines of their organization significantly more than did women. Communication leaders relied on resources at all three levels to manage ethical issues with significantly more frequency compared to respondents in lower levels of organizational hierarchy. These findings reinforce the initial implications mentioned earlier that ethics training needs to happen at the organizational level ( Ki et al. , 2012 ). If the organization is the first place respondents in this survey turned for ethical resources and guidance, it needs to step up to the challenge of embracing ethics training.

Despite the recommendations of the Commission on Public Relations Education's recommendation that ethics be a required part of every public relations curriculum and the required professional values and competencies of the Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (ACEJMC), ethics education seems to be sparse. For accredited public relations programs, ACEJMC requires that graduates “demonstrate an understanding of professional ethical principles and work ethically in pursuit of truth, accuracy, fairness and diversity”. Renewed emphasis on this competency should be communicated to those in charge of public relations curricula at the college level.

Training programs are essential in conveying ethical expectations ( Ki et al. , 2012 ) with up-to-date and relevant content and cases. Nearly one-third of respondents reported receiving ethics training within the past year. Even more reported training within the past three years. One in five said they had ethics training more than three years ago. More than four of five professionals surveyed reported having ethics training at some time. A significantly higher percentage of US professionals reported having ethics training within the past year when compared to the percentage of Canadian practitioners. Organizations like PRSA require accredited members keep up with continuing education. However, accreditation is not required and only a fraction of members are accredited. This may, once again, put the onus on employers to ensure that regular opportunities for ethics training are available in-house and that participation is incentivized.

PR professionals who reported membership in at least one professional organization were more likely to have recent ethics training, compared to respondents who were not members of a membership group. This provides an opportunity for employers beyond in-house training as well as for professionals to discuss their ethical concerns particularly when their organizations have its own issues ( Place, 2019 ). Membership in professional organizations may be encouraged through a dues reimbursement or group membership program ( Boynton, 2006 ). Knowing that there is a strong correlation between professional organization membership and more frequent ethics training provides an opportunity for employers to efficiently encourage ethics training off-site.

Understanding that ethics in public relations is complex, the present study provides the importance and development of ethics at the individual, organizational and professional levels. Place (2019) suggested that moral development can progress with time and experience in the workplace. Through education and professional trainings and experience can help practitioners navigate often nuanced moral gray areas ( Coleman and Wilkins, 2009 ; Place, 2019 ). With emerging ethical issues due to integration of social and digital media in public relations and communication practice, providing resources to guide professionals at multiple levels is critical to the conscientious advancement of the profession and the industry.

Limitations and future research

As with all research, limitations were present in this paper. The primary concerns relate to respondent demographics. Survey respondents were both underrepresented by ethnic group (i.e. Caucasians were overrepresented) and by seniority (i.e. employees with fewer with 10 years' experience were dominant). While we do not believe these weaknesses affected findings in any substantial way, we do acknowledge them as a weakness.

Some recommendations for future research were noted in the discussion section of this paper. First, it is necessary to do a deeper dive into understanding why certain digital and social media tactics are identified as ethically dubious by many respondents. This may require a return to qualitative research such as focus groups or depth interviews to understand why editing wikis, for example, is ethically fraught. Second, review of public relations college curricula would be beneficial. Where do discussions of ethics take place? Is the subject related to a unit within a course, an entire course or sprinkled throughout the curriculum?

In addition, we found significantly more Canadians reported taking training more than three years ago, compared to US respondents. More research needs to be conducted to determine why ethics training is less frequent among Canadian practitioners. A survey of Canadian practitioners focusing on time and type of ethics training would be valuable to identify different needs of ethics training.

Finally, as addressed at the beginning of our research, ethical perspectives can change quickly in this evolving digital communication environment. Thus, it will be critical for the profession and the organizations to be up-to-date not only in digital technology but also in relevant ethical practice. Future research can explore the specific types of ethical training that communication professionals are looking for and how the profession and the organization can support such a need by providing relevant trainings and courses.

Number of ethical challenges experienced by PR professionals in their day-to-day work along the leadership line

Note(s): N  = 874. Pearson's chi-square value is 9.35 ( df  = 4, p  < 0.05). Respondents were asked to recall the last time they participated in communication ethics training

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank The Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations for the funding support to conduct this research.

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• Business Ethics Cases
• Markkula Center for Applied Ethics
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Find ethics case studies on bribery, sourcing, intellectual property, downsizing, and other topics in business ethics, corporate governance, and ethical leadership. (For permission to reprint articles, submit requests to [email protected] .)

In this business ethics case study, Swedish multinational company IKEA faced accusations relating to child labor abuses in the rug industry in Pakistan which posed a serious challenge for the company and its supply chain management goals.

A dog may be humanity’s best friend. But that may not always be the case in the workplace.

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What responsibility does an employee have when information they obtained in confidence from a coworker friend may be in conflict with the needs of the company or raises legal and ethical questions.

A manager at a prominent multinational company is ethically challenged by a thin line between opportunity for economic expansion in a deeply underserved community, awareness of child labor practices, and cultural relativism.

A volunteer providing service in the Dominican Republic discovered that the non-profit he had partnered with was exchanging his donor money on the black market, prompting him to navigate a series of complex decisions with significant ethical implications.

The CFO of a family business faces difficult decisions about how to proceed when the COVID-19 pandemic changes the business revenue models, and one family shareholder wants a full buyout.

An employee at an after-school learning institution must balance a decision to accept or decline an offered gift, while considering the cultural norms of the client, upholding the best interests of all stakeholders, and following the operational rules of his employer. 

A senior vice president for a Fortune 500 savings and loan company is tasked with the crucial responsibility of representing the buyer in a multi-million dollar loan purchase deal and faces several ethical challenges from his counterpart representing the seller.

Extensive teaching note based on interviews with Theranos whistleblower Tyler Shultz. The teaching note can be used to explore issues around whistleblowing, leadership, the blocks to ethical behavior inside organizations, and board governance.

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Chapter 3: Strategic Communication Ethics

11 Ethics case study

The issue of ethics is important in the strategic communication profession. Creators of content should heavily rely on a code of ethics when carrying out various tasks. Using ethical reasoning, whether you’re designing a campaign or writing a newspaper article, demonstrates basic understanding of the influence of messages on audiences. Ethical communication also helps an organization avoid dilemmas and compromising situations.

Several cases covered in the press highlight the ramifications of failure to use ethical and honest standards in communication efforts. The case study below demonstrates this.

Case study: Ryan Holiday, media manipulation, and the rise of the Tucker Max brand

Media strategist Ryan Holiday made a career of controlling the media to achieve public relations goals. A few years ago, he became a PR specialist for Tucker Max, a controversial blogger and author who garnered attention for his lewd writing and explicit discussions of his sexual adventures with countless women. Holiday played an essential role in a campaign for Max’s book I Hope They Serve Beer in Hell. Pretending to be someone who hated Max’s writings, Holiday contacted influencers, bloggers, and television stations about the social controversy caused by the brand. Soon Max’s book received widespread attention from national media outlets and writers all over the blogosphere (Ariely & Melamede, 2015).

Filmmakers later created a movie based on the book. Holiday used some of the same tactics to promote the film. He emailed college organizations across the country, again pretending to be someone who was disgusted with the Tucker Max brand. He included photos of fake advertisements that were offensive to women (which Holiday himself had created), and said that the advertisements were used to promote the film (Ariely & Melamede, 2015). He told campus leaders, bloggers, and other influencers to urge people not to see the film.

Holiday was intentionally trying to create protests to generate media coverage and public awareness about the film and the Tucker Max brand in general (Ariely & Melamede, 2015). He used deceptive measures and some aspects of controversy—strong opinions on a topic, social backlash, and a hated public figure—as leverage. And he was very successful: organized groups across the country held protests against the film, furthering the widespread attention on Tucker Max. In this situation, the saying “any press is good press” worked to his advantage.

Cases such as this raise several concerns related to the field of strategic communication. Most important, the Tucker Max situation calls into question the ethics Holiday used to control the media. How far should one go to promote an organization or brand? The perception exists that strategic communication professionals, specifically those in public relations, are expert spin doctors and media manipulators; because of this, the profession’s credibility has been damaged. In order to reclaim the trustworthiness of the field, strategic communication professionals must abide by strong ethics in their decision-making processes.

The majority of strategic communication professionals promote their client or organization in an honest and straightforward manner. One case study that demonstrates this comes from a Columbus-based public relations agency, Geben Communication. In 2014, the agency helped promote a small catering business, Two Caterers. It used a targeted media relations strategy and pitched to several local publications and news stations (Geben Communication, 2016) in order to enhance brand awareness. The pitches contained factual information, and those working on the account did not use manipulative tactics to achieve their goal.

Geben Communication’s promotional effort had positive results. Local publications wrote several articles on Two Caterers, and a television station invited the small business to do a cooking demonstration for a morning segment. Furthermore, Two Caterers received accolades and recognition from small business associations and magazines.

Writing for Strategic Communication Industries Copyright © 2016 by Jasmine Roberts is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Master of Advanced Studies in INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Case Studies in Intercultural Communication

Welcome to the MIC Case Studies page.

Here you will find more than fifty different case studies, developed by our former participants from the Master of Advanced Studies in Intercultural Communication. The richness of this material is that it contains real-life experiences in intercultural communication problems in various settings, such as war, family, negotiations, inter-religious conflicts, business, workplace, and others. 

Cases also include renowned organizations and global institutions, such as the United Nations, Multinationals companies, Non-Governmental Organisations, Worldwide Events, European, African, Asian and North and South America Governments and others.

Intercultural situations are characterized by encounters, mutual respect and the valorization of diversity by individuals or groups of individuals identifying with different cultures. By making the most of the cultural differences, we can improve intercultural communication in civil society, in public institutions and the business world.

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These case studies were made during the classes at the Master of Advanced Studies in Intercultural Communication. Therefore, they used the most updated skills, tools, theories and best practices available.   They were created by participants working in the field of public administration; international organizations; non-governmental organizations; development and cooperation organizations; the business world (production, trade, tourism, etc.); the media; educational institutions; and religious institutions. Through these case studies, you will be able to learn through real-life stories, how practitioners apply intercultural communication skills in multicultural situations.

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Home > Books > Conflict Management - Organizational Happiness, Mindfulness, and Coping Strategies

Ethical Considerations in Organizational Conflict

Submitted: 29 July 2023 Reviewed: 03 August 2023 Published: 20 September 2023

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1002645

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Conflict Management - Organizational Happiness, Mindfulness, and Coping Strategies

Francisco Manuel Morales-Rodríguez

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Ethical considerations are critical to decision-making in any organization. Decisions that impact internal and external stakeholders carry implications that account for employee conduct, personal values, institutional policies, and obligations to customers. Conflicts within an organization present a particularly unique set of dynamics and tensions that require ethical assessment to ensure a fair, equitable, and ethically acceptable work environment. Recognizing these ethical challenges, and ultimately addressing and resolving them, is incumbent upon all stakeholders to ensure the success of the organization and its stated mission to employees, clients, and the community it serves. This chapter explores commonly encountered forms of organizational conflicts with respect to ethical concerns, and the considerations for navigating such conditions through theoretical foundations and a practical lens. The discussion is then followed by a framework for advancing ethical conduct through institutional codes and policies. We conclude with a case study that examines the ethical challenge of fair resource allocation and just distribution of goods.

• organizational conflict
• conflict of interest

Author Information

Josh hyatt *.

• Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

Jeffrey Gruenglas

• Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

How does one successfully approach organizational challenges in a fair and just manner? This question remains a moral and political concern of every manager who has had to ponder, “what is the right thing to do?” The question takes an even more complex turn when multiple stakeholders are involved in the decision. Consider a simple job promotion. Is the promotion of one employee fair to other employees who may be equally deserving of the same recognition? How does this decision affect the manager’s obligation to the organization and its fiduciary responsibility to cost-saving-minded investors? To what extent is the manager unduly influenced by an existing relationship with the rewarded employee? These questions only the scratch the very surface of ethically appropriate decisions and beckon any organization to examine relationships among stakeholders, corporate values, and personal morals that make ethical decision-making complex and worthy of careful deliberation.

In the current climate of constant organizational change, ethical decisions are fundamental to the challenge that each of us face daily both in our personal and professional lives. Change in organizations is inevitable but also embodies complexities of navigating ethical and moral boundaries. Ethical conflicts in the workplace have profound effects on morals, code of conduct, and norms among stakeholders, which can ultimately undermine an organizational mission and its articulated values.

There is no one-size-fits-all approach to arriving at the ideal ethical resolution to every problem, and this contributes to the daunting task of exacting decisions that at best are fair and minimize harm to others. Knowing how to navigate situations as they arise within the organization is vital to the health and wellbeing of the company; but it is equally important to know and understand how the change and ethical practices will impact the stakeholders involved. In a professional setting it is our collective responsibility to understand what is needed to invoke positive change within an organization, and in turn making an impact for the greater good.

This chapter explores ethical considerations within organizations and defines the ethical challenges and their manifestation in the general work environment. We present various accepted ethical models and paradigms for addressing such challenges and propose practical approaches for addressing these barriers. We further describe theories and moral concepts to help effectively navigate change processes and ethical dilemmas and conclude by presenting and unpacking a real-world case study within industry to challenge the reader with how ethical challenges manifest and are addressed through a systematic process.

2. Manifestations of ethical conflict

Organizational change often introduces uncertainties and ambiguities, which can breed conflicts. When employees face uncertainty about their future, roles, or the impact of changes on their job security, conflicts can arise from fear, resistance, or frustration. Power struggles may surface as individuals vie for influence or attempt to safeguard their positions amidst the shifting organizational landscape. Furthermore, conflicts can stem from conflicting priorities that emerge during organizational change [ 1 ]. Different stakeholders may have varying interests and visions for the organization, leading to disagreements and conflicts over resource allocation, decision-making authority, or the overall direction the organization should take.

Organizational change can be met with resistance to change, particularly when stakeholders have a narrow interest, misunderstanding and lack of trust, apply different evaluations, and have a low tolerance for change itself. It is critical for any decision-maker to recognize that such variances may manifest as conflict but also reflect on the possibility that competing interests can be equally valid and compelling with respect to the employee. Such interests can be guided by indirect profit, gain, collective benefits, or the benefits for the individual—all of which may be valid and real. Likewise, the inevitability of conflict can be a product of differing attitudes, beliefs, levels of knowledge, and life experiences. Not surprisingly, opposing values often lead to self-centeredness and barriers to understanding other perspectives, and in more severe forms, protectionism and self-preservation [ 2 ].

2.1 Organizational conflict

Conflict is a natural consequence of communication, and organizational conflict is an inherent aspect of any complex system. It arises due to the diverse nature of individuals, their varied perspectives, interests, goals, and complex interactions between different parts of the organization. Conflicts are not inherently harmful or destructive; they can serve as catalysts for growth, innovation, and positive change when managed effectively by bringing different viewpoints to the table, challenging existing assumptions, and fostering creative problem-solving. Conflicts in organizations often stem from differences in values, priorities, or resources. As individuals work together towards common goals, their perspectives may clash, resulting in tensions or disagreements. These conflicts can occur at various organizational levels, including individuals, teams, departments, or even between organizational units [ 3 ].

2.1.1 Types of organizational conflicts

Interpersonal conflicts occur between individuals or groups within the organization and are driven by differences in personalities, communication styles, or personal values. They may arise due to misunderstandings, conflicting goals, power struggles, or competition for resources or recognition.

Conflicts of interest occur when individuals or groups have competing personal or professional interests that may compromise their ability to act objectively and, in the organization’s, best interest. Examples include situations where personal relationships, financial gain, or external affiliations influence decision-making. Ethical conflicts arise when disagreements or dilemmas are related to ethical principles, values, or behaviors within the organization. These conflicts may occur when there are competing ethical standards, differing interpretations of ethical guidelines, or conflicts between personal and organizational ethics.

Organizational conflict and ethical decision-making are closely linked because conflicts often involve ethical dilemmas requiring thoughtful consideration and analysis.

Role conflicts emerge when individuals or groups have conflicting expectations or demands placed upon them. These conflicts can arise from unclear job responsibilities, overlapping roles, conflicting priorities, or organizational or departmental goals differences.

Structural conflicts stem from organizational structures, processes, or systems. These conflicts often arise when there are conflicting goals or interests between different departments, units, or hierarchical levels within the organization. Inadequate communication channels, lack of coordination, or resource allocation issues can contribute to structural conflicts.

Cultural conflicts emerge when there are differences in values, norms, beliefs, or expectations among individuals or groups within the organization. These conflicts may arise due to diversity, such as different ethnic or cultural backgrounds, or from clashes between subcultures within the organization.

Conflicts between strategy and execution occur when there is a disconnect between the strategic goals or objectives of the organization and the ability to implement or execute those strategies effectively. Misalignment between strategic decisions and operational realities can lead to conflicts and inefficiencies.

2.1.2 Reasons for organizational conflict

Communication. Organizational conflict often arises due to a communication breakdown attributed to several factors. Poor communication channels, characterized by ineffective or insufficient means of information exchange, play a significant role in fostering conflicts within an organization. When the channels fail to facilitate clear and timely communication, this creates an environment where misunderstandings and misinterpretations of messages can occur.

Misinterpretation of messages further compounds the problem. Individuals may perceive and understand information differently based on their filters, biases, and interpretations. Nonverbal cues, such as body language or tone of voice, can be easily misread or misinterpreted, adding complexity to the communication process. Cultural and language differences can also contribute to misinterpretations, as people may ascribe different meanings to words or expressions.

Lack of clarity in communication. Unclear messages, vague instructions, or undefined roles and responsibilities can create employee confusion and uncertainty. When individuals are unsure about what is expected of them or have conflicting perceptions of their roles, this increases the likelihood of misunderstandings and disagreements that can in turn escalate into conflict.

Power dynamics. Power imbalances stemming from hierarchical structures, formal authority, or informal influence can create tensions and fuel conflicts. Individuals who feel marginalized, unheard, or unfairly treated may resist or challenge authority, leading to strained relationships and communication breakdowns. Power struggles and competition for dominance can impede effective communication, as individuals may hesitate to express their opinions or concerns openly.

Competition for limited resources. When resources such as funding, staffing, or time are scarce, individuals or teams may vie for their fair share, leading to heightened tensions and conflicts. Communication breakdowns related to resource allocation decisions or perceived inequities in distribution can intensify these conflicts.

Varying levels of authority. Conflicts can arise when decision-making processes need more transparency and clarity in roles and responsibilities. Individuals may feel excluded from decision-making processes, perceive favoritism, or resist top-down directives, resulting in communication gaps and disagreements.

Diverse groups often consist of individuals with contrasting perspectives, beliefs, and ways of approaching tasks. Varying work styles, such as those who prefer structure and adherence to processes versus those who thrive in a more flexible and innovative environment, can lead to conflicts over preferred methods and approaches. Differences in personalities, such as introverts versus extroverts or risk-averse versus risk-takers, can further exacerbate conflicts as contrasting working styles and communication preferences come into play. Moreover, conflicts can emerge during times of organizational change. Restructuring efforts, mergers, or shifts in strategic direction inherently disrupt established norms, power dynamics, and relationships within the organization. Changes in reporting lines, team composition, or job roles can trigger conflicts as individuals adjust to new responsibilities or perceive a threat to their status or authority. Conflicts may also arise when individuals resist or struggle to adapt to the changes, leading to clashes between those embracing and resisting the change.

Addressing these contributing factors requires organizations to prioritize effective communication. Approaches include improving communication channels, promoting clarity in messaging, encouraging active listening, and addressing power imbalances. Organizations can also foster a culture of collaboration, teamwork, and shared goals to minimize conflicts stemming from competition for resources or discrepancies in authority. Organizations can mitigate conflicts and create a more harmonious work environment by recognizing the impact of communication breakdown and proactively working to enhance communication processes. Encouraging open dialog, fostering an inclusive culture that respects diverse perspectives, providing support and resources during change, and promoting collaboration can help mitigate conflicts. Leaders play a crucial role in managing conflicts by facilitating discussions, mediating disputes, and promoting a shared vision that unifies individuals and aligns their efforts towards organizational goals.

3. Navigating ethical conflict

The ethical approach to addressing organizational conflict may be as varied as the complexity of the situation itself. The multiple perspectives allow professionals to leverage a toolkit from which to apply a systematic approach to ethical decision-making. Any change in an organization brings about concerns of inequities, fairness, and conflict of interest. Coupled with perceptions of the influence of power dynamics and personal agenda, it is not surprising that organizations and their managers struggle to operate under an ethical code of conduct. Such decisions may be driven by factors across multiple levels. These include developmental, to improve on a singular approach, process, or project; transitional, to allow organizations to shift or evolve towards new processes or goals; and transformational, a complete rethinking of an organization’s vision, culture, behavior, dynamic, business model, management approach, or personnel.

3.1 Multiple theories, multiple permutations

Designing an ethical organization is hard work but a worthwhile and often necessary endeavor. Ethics are not just a belief problem but a design problem. Given the range of stakeholder values, thoughts with judgment, incentives, and cultural norms, organizations must act on principles that satisfy core tenets that align with stakeholder values. All moral theories from which ethical applications are derived can be positioned between two opposing yet non-mutually exclusive tenets: the obligation of one’s duty and the act of promoting happiness as a consequence. These moral perspectives, philosophically termed Deontology and Consequentialism, respectively, each carry a unique set of characteristics for how we act as individuals and with one another. Generally described, the Deontological reasoning asserts that a theory of duty holding that some features of actions other than or in addition to consequences make actions right or wrong, whereas a utilitarian model advocates for actions are right or wrong according to the balance of their good and bad consequences.

3.1.1 Ethics and values-based decision making

Within a professional atmosphere, broad-stroke fundamental theories are rarely sufficient to guide ethical considerations in complex decisions that affect employees with varying values, cultural leanings, religious and ideological affiliations, and personal morals. In this context, rather, one needs to extend beyond normative ethics and consider an additional layer of ethical attributes that help guide the complex dynamics of organizational hierarchy and interpersonal dynamics. These include stewardship, loyalty, and fidelity. Finally, we examine the concept and application of principlism, an ethical approach to decision-making that embodies a set of principles and standards that can be universally applied to moral challenges with the workplace.

Values are not necessarily universal; they reflect the relative morals and personal codes that individuals assign to their conduct in society. They are also embedded in political and societal cultures. Social norms are principles or guidelines that guide action and decisions. These may present tension with normative practices (conventions, customs and ideals). Moral authority and relativism embody emotion and experiential factors that may contribute to one’s normative approach to ethics. Cultural values and international differences may also contribute to a social and cultural environment governed by laws, rules and regulations, formal values and norms, codes of conduct, and policies.

3.1.2 Integrating morals and values

When we discuss morality and values, what does this mean in a practical sense? The terms are “loaded,” meaning they mean different things to different people. Some may see morals as personal beliefs shaped by upbringing and experience, and values are what shape our actions and behaviors. Though morals and values are fundamental concepts in ethics and play a significant role in shaping an individuals’ beliefs, attitudes, and behavior, they are different yet closely related.

Morals are principles or standards of conduct, deeply ingrained from cultural, social, religious, and personal factors, that guide individuals in distinguishing right from wrong. Morals typically encompass ethical principles and judgments about what is morally good or bad, right or wrong, virtuous or vicious. They serve as a foundation for ethical decision-making and provide a framework for individuals to navigate their actions and interactions with others.

From this foundational perspective comes moral theory, a vast range of philosophical frameworks that aim to understand ethics and guide human behavior systematically. Moral theory encompasses two fundamental components: the theory of right conduct (provide guidelines for determining what actions are morally right or wrong by exploring the concepts of moral obligations and duties) and the theory of value (most traditionally accepted that the value of any object or service is transient and correlated by the work input and cost of resources). By examining these moral foundations, principles, and practical implications, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities involved in ethical decision-making.

Whereas morals focus more on distinguishing right from wrong, values are broader and encompass a more comprehensive range of beliefs and ideals that individuals consider significant in shaping their lives and decision-making. Morals are often derived from, and aligned with, one’s values, but they specifically address ethical conduct and decision-making. Values are individuals’ fundamental beliefs or ideals, which influence their attitudes, choices, and behaviors. They assist in prioritizing and making choices that align with their core beliefs and principles. They reflect what individuals consider important, desirable, or worthwhile in life. Values encompass various domains such as personal, social, professional, or spiritual aspects and often include principles like honesty, integrity, respect, compassion, fairness, loyalty, freedom, equality, and justice.

3.1.3 Moral injury and conflict

Morals and values vary among individuals, cultures, and societies. They are also subject to interpretation and context; what is considered morally acceptable or valuable in one situation may differ in another. Additionally, individuals may prioritize and interpret morals and values differently based on their experiences, upbringing, and cultural background.

Honesty vs. loyalty: Imagine a situation where a person discovers that a close friend has committed a serious offense. They face a moral conflict between being honest about their friend’s actions, which may result in severe consequences, or remaining loyal and protecting their friend from potential harm.

Autonomy vs. paternalism: In healthcare there may be a conflict between respecting a patient’s autonomy (their right to make decisions about their healthcare) and acting in their best interest. For example, a doctor might recommend a specific treatment they believe is best for the patient’s health, but the patient refuses it based on their beliefs or values.

Utilitarianism vs. individual rights: The ethical theory of utilitarianism promotes maximizing overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people. However, conflicts can arise when the pursuing of the greater good clashes with individual rights or freedoms. For instance, a government might implement a policy restricting certain civil liberties for public safety, leading to a conflict between promoting the common good and respecting individual rights.

Environmental preservation vs. economic development: This conflict arises when decisions regarding using natural resources or land clash with the moral value of preserving the environment for future generations or the economic interests or immediate benefits of exploiting those resources for development or profit.

3.1.4 Implicit bias and prejudice

Implicit bias and moral injury are two distinct concepts that relate to different aspects of human behavior and experience. Implicit bias refers to the unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that individuals hold towards certain groups of people, which can influence their judgments and actions [ 5 ]. These biases are often formed through socialization and cultural factors and may contradict an individual’s explicit beliefs or values. Implicit biases can manifest in various domains, such as race, gender, age, or socioeconomic status, affect decision-making processes, and contribute to systemic inequalities and discrimination. While implicit bias and moral injury are separate concepts, some connections may exist between them in specific contexts. For example, individuals who hold implicit biases against certain groups may experience moral injury if their biased attitudes lead them to act in ways that contradict their explicit moral values. Being the target of implicit bias can contribute to moral injury if individuals feel devalued or morally violated by the discriminatory treatment they receive.

It is essential to address both implicit bias and moral injury to promote fairness, justice, and well-being. Strategies such as awareness training, education, and creating inclusive environments can help mitigate the effects of implicit bias. Addressing moral injury requires support and interventions that foster healing, moral resilience, and restoring a sense of meaning and purpose in individuals who have experienced moral harm and/or conflict.

3.1.5 Risk-taking behaviors

Risk-taking behaviors are a typical response to coping with or mitigating moral injury’s effects. These behaviors can take various forms and span a wide range of actions. People may engage in substance abuse, self-destructive behaviors, impulsive decision-making, aggression, thrill-seeking activities, or even isolate themselves to deal with the distressing emotions associated with moral injury. These behaviors serve as maladaptive coping mechanisms that temporarily escape the overwhelming feelings. Risk-taking or impulsive actions allow individuals to regain a sense of control or reclaim lost identity and meaning.

When staff members exhibit risk-taking behaviors within an organizational context, it can have significant impact. The consequences may vary depending on the nature and severity of the behaviors and the specific industry and circumstances involved. It may have legal and compliance concerns, such as involving illegal activities or violations of company policies that can expose the organization to legal and compliance risks. This may trigger legal recourse, regulatory penalties, damage to the company’s reputation, and potential loss of business opportunities. Decreased productivity and performance are noted when staff members engage in risk-taking behaviors; their focus may shift away from work responsibilities, resulting in decreased productivity, missed deadlines, poor decision-making, and overall reduced performance. It can also affect team dynamics and collaboration. Employee morale and retention may further suffer when staff members engage in behaviors that can negatively impact overall employee morale and job satisfaction. Co-workers may feel demoralized, lose trust in their colleagues, or perceive a lack of fairness within the organization, contributing to increased turnover and difficulties attracting and retaining talented employees.

3.1.6 Culture impact and psychological safety

Organizations and communities are vital to fostering ethical cultures promoting accountability and integrity. By implementing ethical codes that outline expected conduct, providing moral education and training to employees, and establishing mechanisms for ethical decision-making and oversight, organizations can create an environment that minimizes moral disengagement and encourages individuals to uphold their moral values.

Building a culture of psychological safety is essential in this context. When individuals feel safe to voice their concerns, ask questions, and express their moral perspectives without fear of reprisal or judgment, it facilitates open dialog and constructive discussions about ethical dilemmas. Psychological safety nurtures trust and respect, allowing individuals to openly reflect on their experiences and engage in collaborative problem-solving to address moral challenges. Furthermore, organizations can support employees in their moral growth by offering resources for moral development, such as workshops, mentoring programs, or opportunities for shared moral reflection. By actively investing in the ethical development of their workforce, organizations demonstrate a commitment to fostering an ethical culture that prioritizes moral decision-making and integrity.

The cultural impact of promoting ethical decision-making extends beyond the organization itself. Communities can also nurture an ethical environment by encouraging dialog and reflection on moral issues and creating spaces for shared understanding and growth. Collaborative efforts involving organizations, educational institutions, and community leaders can promote ethical behavior and moral development on a broader scale. By embracing the importance of psychological safety, actively supporting individuals in their moral growth, and fostering ethical cultures at both the organizational and community levels, society can create an environment that encourages principled decision-making, accountability, and integrity in the face of moral challenges.

The impact of moral injury on moral decision-making is not static. While moral injury can initially disrupt decision-making processes, individuals can heal and grow from moral injuries over time. Seeking support, engaging in moral reflection, and actively working towards personal growth and repair can restore individuals’ confidence in their moral judgment and enhance their ability to make principled decisions. At the systemic level, organizations and communities can foster ethical cultures that promote accountability and integrity. Implementing ethical codes, providing moral education and training, and establishing ethical decision-making and oversight mechanisms can help prevent moral disengagement and encourage individuals to uphold their moral values.

4. Advancing adherence to ethical codes

Vision. A well-defined vision sets the tone for ethical behavior by articulating the organization’s goals, purpose, and values. It also serves as a powerful tool for setting the tone of ethical behavior within an organization by providing a framework for decision-making that aligns with its ethical standards. A clear vision ensures that all stakeholders, including employees, understand ethical expectations and work towards achieving common goals. The vision statement encapsulates the long-term aspirations and direction of the organization. It communicates the desired impact the organization aims to achieve and the values that underpin its actions. When explicitly stated in the vision, these values become a guiding light for ethical behavior. Employees and stakeholders can refer to the vision to understand the organization’s overarching objectives and the ethical principles governing their actions. It provides a common language and a reference point for discussions and decision-making about ethical dilemmas. When employees have a clear vision to guide them, they can make choices consistent with the organization’s values, even in complex situations where ethical dilemmas may arise.

Communication plan. Effective communication is not just a beneficial aspect of organizational functioning but a cornerstone supporting transparency, trust, and accountability within the organization. Through effective communication, ethical concerns and guidelines can be clearly and consistently communicated to all employees and stakeholders. Disseminating ethical codes and standards is crucial in fostering an organizational culture. A communication plan provides a roadmap for sharing these codes and standards with employees at various levels and departments. By establishing a communication plan that outlines channels, protocols, and expectations, the organization can ensure that ethical concerns and guidelines are effectively communicated and understood by everyone involved. It would include disseminating the ethical codes and standards throughout the organization to ensure employees are aware of its values, principles, and guidelines that govern their behavior. This clarity reduces the likelihood of misunderstandings, misinterpretations, or ethical lapses due to ignorance. By establishing open lines of communication, organizations can foster an environment where employees feel comfortable expressing concerns and seeking guidance regarding ethical dilemmas. Transparent communication practices ensure that information about ethical issues, decisions, and processes is shared openly with employees and stakeholders. When employees access relevant information, they can make more informed ethical choices and understand the broader context of their actions.

Accountability. A communication plan sets clear expectations and protocols for reporting ethical violations and breaches. It establishes mechanisms to hold individuals accountable for their actions and ensures that the consequences of unethical behavior are communicated effectively. By doing so, organizations demonstrate their commitment to upholding ethical standards and show that unethical behavior is unacceptable. Transparency and accountability are also enhanced through effective communication, as it ensures that relevant information is shared, and individuals are held responsible for their actions. Ultimately, a culture of ethical behavior is nurtured when communication practices prioritize transparency, trust, and accountability.

Mitigating conflicts of interest. An organization has a fundamental obligation to address conflicts of interest to uphold its integrity and maintain the trust of its stakeholders. Conflicts of interest occur when an individual’s interests or obligations interfere with their ability to act in the organization’s best interests. By addressing conflicts of interest proactively and transparently, organizations can mitigate the risks associated with such conflicts and ensure fair and ethical decision-making processes.

Policies and guidelines . Establishing clear policies and guidelines regarding conflicts of interest is critical for an organization to address and manage such conflicts effectively. These policies serve as a roadmap that outlines the organization’s expectations and procedures for identifying, disclosing, and resolving conflicts of interest. Clearly communicating these policies to employees establishes a foundation for addressing conflicts systematically and fairly. The effective communication of these policies and guidelines is crucial. To achieve this, an organization should consider training programs, regular communication channels, and integrating the policies into the organization’s code of conduct or employee handbook. By providing specific examples and scenarios, employees better understand what circumstances might give rise to conflicts of interest.

Transparency and disclosure. Organizations must promote and require transparency and disclosure. Employees should be encouraged and required to disclose any actual or potential conflicts of interest, including financial interests, personal relationships, or other external affiliations that could compromise their objectivity or impartiality. Organizations can effectively identify and manage conflicts of interest by creating an environment where disclosure is valued and protected. When conflicts of interest are identified, organizations have a duty to assess and manage them appropriately. For example, employees with a conflict are asked to recuse themselves from this decision-making process.

Education. Proactive and ongoing education programs about conflicts of interest and their potential consequences are critical. Training programs and workshops can raise awareness about the ethical implications of conflicts and guide how to identify and manage them effectively. Fostering a culture of ethical awareness empowers employees to make informed decisions and act in the organization’s best interests.

Fairness and equity. These critical concepts pertain to treating individuals justly and ensuring equal opportunities, access, and treatment for all organization members. Organizations prioritizing fairness and equity create an ethical environment that promotes inclusivity, diversity, and respect. Fairness refers to the fair and unbiased treatment of individuals within an organization. It entails making decisions and allocating resources free from favoritism, discrimination, or bias. Fairness ensures that individuals are treated equitably based on objective criteria and relevant qualifications. This principle extends to various aspects of organizational life, such as hiring and promotion processes, compensation and benefits, performance evaluations, and disciplinary actions. Conversely, equity focuses on ensuring that individuals have equal access to opportunities, resources, and benefits. It recognizes that individuals may have diverse needs, circumstances, and backgrounds. Moreover, fairness and equity align with legal and ethical standards. Organizations are responsible for complying with laws and regulations that promote equal employment opportunities and prevent discrimination. Ethically, fairness and equity reflect principles of justice, human rights, and social responsibility. By incorporating fairness and equity into their ethical framework, organizations demonstrate their commitment to upholding these principles and contributing to a just and inclusive society.

Psychological safety. Fostering an environment of psychological safety is closely intertwined with organizational ethics. Psychological safety exists in an environment where individuals feel safe to express their opinions, ideas, and concerns and can take interpersonal risks without fear of retaliation or punishment. Nurturing psychological safety can significantly contribute to upholding ethical principles and practices because employees feel empowered to raise questions, share their perspectives, and challenge unethical practices without fear of judgment. Conversely, an environment that allows for psychological fear is likely to see an increase in stress, anxiety, and fear levels in the workplace.

5. Conclusion

Establishing a culture that promotes ethical decision-making is another crucial aspect of managing conflicts effectively. Organizations must provide employees with the necessary tools, resources, and training to navigate ethical dilemmas. This includes developing and disseminating a comprehensive code of conduct, establishing clear policies and procedures, and fostering a supportive environment encouraging ethical behavior and open discussions about moral challenges and dilemmas. Furthermore, creating environments that prioritize ethical conduct, open dialog, and supportive structures can restore moral decision-making capacities. Organizations and communities can foster a culture that encourages reflection, provides opportunities for moral development, and offers spaces for individuals to discuss and process their moral struggles. Such environments are bound to support individuals in rebuilding their moral decision-making capabilities and mitigate the risk of future moral injury. By actively nurturing a culture that promotes psychological safety, values diverse perspectives, encourages ethical behavior, and provides the necessary support structures, organizations create an environment where conflicts are approached constructively. This culture facilitates open dialog, collaborative problem-solving, and the resolution of conflicts in a manner that upholds the well-being of individuals and the organization as a whole.

While conflict in the workplace cannot be eliminated entirely, organizations can adopt strategies to manage and resolve them effectively. Encouraging open and honest communication, active listening, and respectful dialog can facilitate understanding and empathy among conflicting parties. Conflict resolution techniques such as negotiation, mediation, and compromise can help find mutually acceptable solutions. It is essential for organizations to proactively address these underlying factors and implement effective conflict management strategies to minimize the negative impact of conflicts and foster a healthy and productive work environment.

Morals and values serve as guiding principles that shape individual and organizational ethical perspectives, influence their behavior, and contribute to the formation of integrity that is rooted in the mission, vision, and perception of stakeholders. Practically they provide a framework for individuals and organizations to evaluate actions, make moral judgments, and strive for a meaningful and virtuous impact on one another and society as a whole.

6. Case study: “Who gets the vaccine?”

The following case study presents a real-world illustration of an organizational issue surrounding fair and equitable distribution of services within a public health context. Although identifiers have been removed, the specifics reflect realistic ethical challenges and considerations when resolving complex ethical conflict within an organization.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Situation and background

A 22-year-old college student named Maria with a compromised immune system is at risk of respiratory infections, for which she has been periodically hospitalized since she was a child. The student is a candidate to receive a vaccine to protect against an emerging virus, which can mitigate her risk of contracting the virus, leading to health complications, hospitalization, and even death.

Nationwide shortages have resulted in the vaccine available in limited quantities, forcing clinics and health care providers to make the difficult decision of allocating the available resources to the populations in greatest need. To complicate matters, the decision is at the discretion of the provider or at the organizational level, determined by a system-wide policy. Maria’s clinic, where is a patient, is affected by this reality.

Key ethical questions

How should Maria’s clinic or physician decide who gets the available vaccine in an ethical manner?

What considerations should be factored into which populations ought to be prioritized?

Is this decision fair and equitable, or does it unfairly advantage some individuals?

How should personal values and professional obligations be balanced, and how does cost compared to clinical need play a role?

What are the immediate (patient) and extended (society) implications?

Ethical analysis

The lottery method . This model allows for chance to determine who receives the vaccine, based on a blinded system of selection. This approach offers a seemingly fair method of distribution, but it may inadvertently favor those who need the vaccine the least while simultaneously disadvantaging those who have most to benefit

First-come, first served . Perhaps the most common and arguably fair method of distribution, this model favors those who take the initiative to seek out the vaccine based on their need and urgency. In an ideal situation, this approach would benefit those who require the vaccine with greatest urgency, yet in reality such efforts are predicted on the ability of a patient to access their provider in a timely manner. Given real-world challenges of time, money, work and family conflicts, and means of transportation, this model can disadvantage those with limited resources.

Clinical need . Unlike the other two models, this approach seeks to prioritize the decision based on an objective measure. Allowing the health care provider to determine the need based on his or her professional discretion helps to limit the influence of implicit bias and external factors while relying on professional duty to the patient and society.

The initial distribution of the vaccine was limited to those who were most susceptible to health risk: healthy children 2 years and older and healthy household members who have infants younger than six months of age

The next tier was allocated to high-risk groups such as pregnant women, household members and caregivers for children younger than 6 months of age, health care professionals, and high-risk individuals with chronic medical conditions or comorbidities

Given her risk category, Maria was placed in the “medical need” tier and was able to receive the vaccination before the general patient population of the same clinic. In a fair and equitable manner, this decision requires that Maria meets her ethical contractto appear on time for her vaccination

Questions for discussion

How would the decision change if an at-risk elderly individual is unable to afford transport to the clinic?

How might the decision change if a low-risk individual appeared first and offered to pay a premium amount for the vaccine? Does it change your decision knowing that this payment can be used to treat other (or more) patients in the clinic?

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• 3. Scholtens B, Dam L. Cultural values and international differences in business ethics. Journal of Business Ethics. 2007; 75 :273-284. DOI: 10.1007/s10551-006-9252-9
• 4. Karabal C. Resistance to Change and Conflict of Interest: A Case Study. Vol. 2018. London, UK: Intech; 2017. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.71578
• 5. Pritlove C, Juando-Prats C, Ala-Leppilampi K, Parsons JA. The good, the bad, and the ugly of implicit bias. Lancet (London, England). 2019; 393 (10171):502-504. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32267-0
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© The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Five social and ethical considerations for using wildfire visualizations as a communication tool

• Edgeley, Catrin M.
• Cannon, William H.
• Pearse, Scott
• Kosović, Branko
• Pfister, Gabriele
• Kumar, Rajesh

Background Increased use of visualizations as wildfire communication tools with public and professional audiences—particularly 3D videos and virtual or augmented reality—invites discussion of their ethical use in varied social and temporal contexts. Existing studies focus on the use of such visualizations prior to fire events and commonly use hypothetical scenarios intended to motivate proactive mitigation or explore decision-making, overlooking the insights that those who have already experienced fire events can provide to improve user engagement and understanding of wildfire visualizations more broadly. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 101 residents and professionals affected by Colorado's 2020 East Troublesome and 2021 Marshall Fires, using 3D model visualizations of fire events on tablets as a discussion tool to understand how fire behavior influenced evacuation experiences and decision-making. We provide empirically gathered insights that can inform the ethical use of wildfire visualizations by scientists, managers, and communicators working at the intersection of fire management and public safety. Results Study design, interview discussions, and field observations from both case studies reveal the importance of nuanced and responsive approaches for the use of 3D visualizations, with an emphasis on the implementation of protocols that ensure the risk of harm to the intended audience is minimal. We share five considerations for use of visualizations as communication tools with public and professional audiences, expanding existing research into post-fire spaces: (1) determine whether the use of visualizations will truly benefit users; (2) connect users to visualizations by incorporating local values; (3) provide context around model uncertainty; (4) design and share visualizations in ways that meet the needs of the user; (5) be cognizant of the emotional impacts that sharing wildfire visualizations can have. Conclusions This research demonstrates the importance of study design and planning that considers the emotional and psychological well-being of users. For users that do wish to engage with visualizations, this technical note provides guidance for ensuring meaningful understandings that can generate new discussion and knowledge. We advocate for communication with visualizations that consider local context and provide opportunities for users to engage to a level that suits them, suggesting that visualizations should serve as catalysts for meaningful dialogue rather than conclusive information sources. Resumen Antecedentes El uso incremental de visualizaciones como herramientas de comunicación en el tema de incendios de vegetación, con audiencias tanto públicas como profesionales – particularmente videos 3D y/o realidades virtuales– invitan a la discusión sobre sobre su uso ético en distintos contextos sociales y temporales. Los "Focus studies" existentes enfocan sus estudios en el uso de tales visualizaciones antes de los eventos de fuego, y usan escenarios hipotéticos para motivar mitigaciones proactivas o explorar procesos de decisión, pasando por alto las percepciones de aquellos quienes han experimentado eventos de fuego y que pueden proveer información para mejorar el compromiso y comprensión de la visualización de los incendios de vegetación de manera más amplia. Condujimos entrevistas semiestructuradas entre 101 residentes y profesionales afectados por los incendios de 2020 (Colorado Troublesome del Este) y del 2021 (Marshall Fires), usando modelos de visualizaciones 3D de eventos de fuegos en tablets como una herramienta de discusión para entender como el comportamiento del fuego influencia las experiencias de evacuación y los procesos de decisión. Proveímos de las perspectivas reunidas empíricamente que puedan informar sobre el uso ético de las visualizaciones de eventos de fuegos por investigadores, manejadores de recursos, y comunicadores que trabajan en la intersección entre el manejo del fuego y la seguridad pública. Resultados El diseño del estudio, las discusiones sobre las entrevistas, y las observaciones de campo de ambos estudios de caso revelan la importancia de los matices y aproximaciones de respuestas en el uso de las visualizaciones 3D, con énfasis en la implementación de protocolos que aseguren que el riesgo de daños a la audiencia objetivo sea mínimo. Compartimos cinco consideraciones para el uso de visualizaciones como herramientas de la comunicación para audiencias públicas y profesionales, expandiendo las investigaciones existentes en el espacio del post-fuego: (1) determinar si el uso de estas visualizaciones va a beneficiar realmente a los usuarios; (2) conectar a los usuarios de las visualizaciones incorporando valores locales; (3) proveer el contexto sobre las incertidumbres del modelo; (4) diseñar y compartir visualizaciones que cumplan con las necesidades de los usuarios; (5) ser conscientes del impacto emocional que pueden tener este tipo de visualizaciones. Conclusiones Esta investigación demuestra el éxito y la importancia del diseño y planeamiento del estudio que tenga en consideración el bienestar psicológico y emocional de los usuarios. Para los usuarios que no quieran comprometerse con estas visualizaciones, esta nota técnica provee de una guía para asegurar un entendimiento útil que pueda generar nuevas discusiones y conocimiento. Abogamos por comunicaciones y visualizaciones que consideren el contexto local que los contenga, sugiriendo que las visualizaciones deben servir como catalizadores para un diálogo constructivo más que como una fuente de información conclusiva.

Quantification supports amyloid-PET visual assessment of challenging cases: results from the AMYPAD-DPMS study

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• ORCID record for Lyduine E. Collij
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Several studies have demonstrated the high agreement between routine clinical visual assessment and quantification, suggesting that quantification approaches could support the assessment of less experienced readers and/or in challenging cases. However, all studies to date have implemented a retrospective case collection and challenging cases were generally underrepresented.

Methods In this prospective study, we included all participants ( N =741) from the AMYPAD Diagnostic and Patient Management Study (DPMS) with available baseline amyloid-PET quantification. Quantification was done with the PET-only AmyPype pipeline, providing global Centiloid (CL) and regional z-scores. Visual assessment was performed by local readers for the entire cohort. From the total cohort, we selected a subsample of 85 cases 1) for which the amyloid status based on the local reader’s visual assessment and CL classification (cut-off=21) was discordant and/or 2) that were assessed with a low confidence (i.e. ≤3 on a 5-point scale) by the local reader. In addition, concordant negative ( N =8) and positive ( N =8) scans across tracers were selected. In this sample, ( N =101 cases: ([ 18 F]flutemetamol, N =48; [ 18 F]florbetaben, N =53) the visual assessments and corresponding confidence by 5 certified independent central readers were captured before and after disclosure of the quantification results.

Results For the AMYPAD-DPMS whole cohort, the overall assessment of local readers highly agreed with CL status (κ=0.85, 92.3% agreement). This was consistently observed within disease stages (SCD+: κ=0.82/92.3%; MCI: κ=0.80/89.8%; dementia: κ=0.87/94.6%). Across all central reader assessments in the challenging subsample, global CL and regional z-scores quantification were considered supportive of visual read in 70.3% and 49.3% of assessments, respectively. After disclosure of quantitative results, we observed an improvement in concordance between the 5 readers (κ baseline =0.65/65.3%; κ post-disclosure =0.74/73.3%) and a significant increase in reader confidence ( M baseline =4.0 vs. M post-disclosure =4.34, W =101056, p <0.001).

Conclusion In this prospective study enriched for challenging amyloid-PET cases, we demonstrate the value of quantification to support visual assessment. After disclosure, both inter-reader agreement and confidence showed a significant improvement. These results are important considering the arrival of anti-amyloid therapies, which utilized the Centiloid metric for trial inclusion and target-engagement. Moreover, quantification could support determining Aβ status with high certainty, an important factor for treatment initiation.

Competing Interest Statement

DISCLOSURES DA, IB, DVG, ILA, AP, and GBF report no relevant disclosures. LEC has received research support from GE Healthcare and Springer Healthcare (funded by Eli Lilly), both paid to institution. Dr. Collij s salary is supported by the MSCA postdoctoral fellowship research grant (#101108819) and the Alzheimer Association Research Fellowship (AARF) grant (#23AARF-1029663). GNB is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) Project ID 431549029 - SFB 1451 and partially by DFG, DR 445/9 1. MB is employed by GE HealthCare. RW is employed by IXICO ltd. RG is employed by Life Molecular Imaging AWS is employed by Life Molecular Imaging ZW has received research support from GE Healthcare. PS is employed by EQT Life Sciences team. AN has received consulting fee from H Lundbeck AB, AVVA pharmaceuticals and honoraria for lecture from Hoffman La Roche. JDG has received research support from GE HealthCare, Roche Diagnostics and Hoffmann La Roche, speaker/consulting fees from Roche Diagnostics, Esteve, Philips Nederlands, Biogen and Life Molecular Imaging and serves in the Molecular Neuroimaging Advisory Board of Prothena Biosciences. AD has received research support from: Siemens Healthineers, Life Molecular Imaging, GE Healthcare, AVID Radiopharmaceuticals, Sofie, Eisai, Novartis/AAA, Ariceum Therapeutics, speaker Honorary/Advisory Boards: Siemens Healthineers, Sanofi, GE Healthcare, Biogen, Novo Nordisk, Invicro, Novartis/AAA, Bayer Vital, Lilly Stock: Siemens Healthineers, Lantheus Holding, Structured therapeutics, Lilly. Patents: Patent for 18F JK PSMA 7 (Patent No.: EP3765097A1; Date of patent: Jan. 20, 2021). SM received speaker honoraria from GE Healthcare, Eli Lilly and Life Molecular Imaging. CB is employed by GE HealthCare. VG is supported by the Swiss national science foundation (project n.320030_185028 and 320030_169876), the Aetas Foundation, the Schmidheiny Foundation, the Velux Foundation, the Fondation privee des HUG. She received support for research and speakers fees from Siemens Healthineers, GE HealthCare, Janssen, Novo Nordisk, all paid to institution. GF is employed by GE HealthCare. FB is supported by the NIHR biomedical research centre at UCLH. Steering committee or Data Safety Monitoring Board member for Biogen, Merck, Eisai and Prothena. Advisory board member for Combinostics, Scottish Brain Sciences. Consultant for Roche, Celltrion, Rewind Therapeutics, Merck, Bracco. Research agreements with ADDI, Merck, Biogen, GE Healthcare, Roche. Co-founder and shareholder of Queen Square Analytics LTD.

Funding Statement

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The project leading to this paper has also received funding from the Innovative Medicines Initiative 2 Joint Undertaking under grant agreement No 115952. This Joint Undertaking receives the support from the European Union s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme and EFPIA. This communication reflects the views of the authors and neither IMI nor the European Union and EFPIA are liable for any use that may be made of the information contained herein.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

All participants gave written informed consent. The trial was registered with EudraCT (2017-002527-21). The study was approved by the CCER (Commission Cantonale d Ethique de la Recherche) in Geneva Switzerland (#2017-01408).

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

Data is available upon request through the ADDI platform

https://amypad.eu/

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