write essay on myth busters biology

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The exciting science of “mythbusters” – the revolutionary scientists.

The show “ MythBusters ” moved popular scientific discussion away from the dreariness of staid laboratory rooms and esoteric jargon and toward the excitement of big explosions and fast cars.

The show gained an immense following over its 17-year run. Fans often flocked to the show’s filming location at M5 Industries in San Francisco to catch a glimpse of an exploding manhole cover flying through the air. 

Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman

One great example of this dynamic is when Adam and Jamie tested a myth about painting with explosives that originated from the British comedy series “Mr. Bean.” Adam created a snowflake frame that, while successful in creating smaller pieces of artwork, did not cover the entire room with paint. Jamie created a steel sphere that looked similar to the Death Star and, in the end, splattered very little paint across the room. While both methods failed, they provided an engaging display of the hosts’ ingenuity.

The Build Team

Tory Belleci, Grant Imahara, and Kari Byron formed the “Build Team” and brought youthful exuberance to their myth-busting exploits. The team served as the perfect counterpoint to the Savage/Hyneman duo, as the trio shared the workload of each episode by testing another myth at their adjacent studio location, M6 Industries.

The addition of the Build Team allowed the show to grow exponentially as it could tackle many more myths per episode. While the trio’s experimental procedures often mirrored the practices of the original hosts, the Build Team injected even more energy into their own investigations. 

The myths that “ MythBusters ” tackled varied widely. The show often featured myths from popular shows or movies such as “ The Simpsons ” or “ James Bond .” Historical legends often served as great myths to debunk, from the Archimedes Death Ray to a Ming Dynasty tale about whether rockets strapped to a chair can launch a person into the air. The series also investigated popular idioms, placing lead balloons and bulls in a china shop in experimental settings . Simple examinations of the power of guns and explosions were often more than enough to generate a myth.

The Disgusting Car

Underwater car escape.

At other times, the myth was a genuinely beneficial lesson that viewers could learn from — such as the harrowing myth of the underwater car escape . Adam attempted to escape from a car submerged in a pool in order to figure out how people could successfully exit a car sinking to the bottom of the ocean. It turns out that it is possible to escape from the vehicle so long as the water in the car remains below the driver’s waist.

Adam and Jamie also tested tools that could help passengers escape the vehicle and found that either a window-breaking hammer or a spring-loaded center punch will work in an emergency. However, attempts to open the car window with keys, boots or window cranks failed utterly. The image of Adam’s failure — cheeks puffed out in desperation, lunging for the safety operator’s respirator — remains cemented in the mind. This episode has, in fact, saved lives; some people heeded the show’s warning and placed window-breaking hammers in their cars. 

Giant Paper Folding

A great moment from the Build Team occurs in the same episode. The Build Team tackled the myth that paper cannot fold in perpendicular halves more than seven times. They rented out a giant airplane hangar to test the myth with a football field-sized sheet of paper . The image of huge forklifts lifting the delicate sheet of paper high in the air was fascinating to watch; the forklifts took the myth to new heights. In the end, while it seemed theoretically possible for the Build Team to fold the sheet using thinner paper, they busted the myth.

Educational Value

Watch “MythBusters” on the Discovery Plus app, linked here .

Matthew Doss, University of Chicago

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Microbe Mythbuster

The great enemy of the truth is very often not the lie, deliberate, contrived and dishonest, but the myth, persistent, persuasive and unrealistic. John F. Kennedy

What is Truth?

Truth is a philosophical construct whose meaning has been debated since humans invented language. That’s not the focus of this endeavor.

This project is more about Reason, also a philosophical construct. Reason provides a path for pondering the truth. According to some, truth results when people apply reason appropriately about an issue at hand. This is the goal of science.

Maybe you have recently heard a claim about a nutritional supplement or seen an advertisement for a pharmaceutical drug touting amazing benefits if you take it, and wondered if you should. Or you thought about the health risks associated with getting a flu vaccine, or considered taking a probiotic because your cousin’s friend said you should? How can you know what would be best for you?

There exists a vast body of scientific studies conducted on an infinite number of topics in science and medicine that is published in scholarly journals and stored in searchable databases. By conducting an organized review of the published research on the topic and applying “appropriate reason,” you can decide for yourself what would be best for you, rather than relying on advice from ads or people you don’t know.

The conduct of scientific research is guided by practices collectively referred to as the scientific method, in which experiments are designed to answer questions about a hypothesis. In a perfect world, experiments are carefully designed to ensure that the data collected and the results derived from them are objective and without bias. If the results are significant, the science gets published in a journal as a way to communicate the findings to other interested people. Volumes of journals have historically been stored in libraries, where articles contained therein could be read and copied if relevant. It is no longer necessary to hunt through dusty “stacks” of print journals to find a scientific article, because a huge number are now “open access” or available electronically through a library interface.

There are differences between articles published in scholarly journals and those in other types of publications, and the major difference is peer-review. It’s important to note that use of the term “publication” includes papers published in electronic form as well as in print.

You should view a short video available at http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/peabody/tutorial_files/scholarlyfree/ , which explains how to tell the difference between a source reference from a scholarly publication and one published in the popular media.

Your instructor will be providing you with a microbiology-themed notion that you may have heard about before starting this project. Depending on the preferences of your instructor, you may investigate your assigned idea as a written assignment, or you may be asked to format the assignment in presentation software (such as PowerPoint) and make a formal presenation.

Before doing any research, reflect on and then write down your first impressions and personal views about the idea you’ve been provided. If you are unfamiliar with the idea, or even if you feel you understand it well, do a little background searching of the topic using popular sources (such as Google and Wikipedia) to gather background information before embarking on your scholarly search.

Debunk the Myths, Support the Truth

So much of what you hear on the evening news related to discovery in science and medicine comes from research conducted at universities and medical colleges. The funding for this research may come from government sources, and is therefore paid for by the taxpaying public. However, given the limited size of the pot, research is also conducted by private companies who then profit from research that culminates in a profit-bearing product. When research leads to publication in a “highly ranked” journal (ranked according to the journal’s “impact factor,” based on the number of times articles published in the journal are cited as a reference in other publications), a brief description of the study and its outcome are released to the popular media for reporting to the general public. Sometimes government policy is developed using published studies as a foundation for legislation.

Scholarly and non-scholarly reporting of scientific discovery means that people today have the unprecedented opportunity to make informed decisions about things that may affect their lives. However, it also provides fertile ground for the dissemination of information designed to “market” the idea to gain popular support. Once entrenched in the public conscience, misapplied “facts” may become “myths”—persistent, persuasive, and unrealistic. How do you tell the difference?

For this project, you will investigate whether a common microbiology idea is scientifically conceived and the degree to which it is “true,” by evaluating and reporting on research published in scholarly journals. The components to be included in your report or presentation are specified below.

1. Review popular opinion and develop a thesis

Once you know your Mythbuster subject, look for background information and opinions among sources that are not considered “scholarly.” This includes popular press sources such as newspapers, magazines, internet sources, or Great Aunt Martha who knows everything.

From your accumulated knowledge on the topic, develop a thesis on the topic, and assert what you think about it in a thesis statement—a one or two sentence prediction of what you believe to be true. The thesis statement should be focused and specific enough to be provable within the boundaries of your investigation.

As you search for the “reason” to back up the “truth,” you may find that your thesis can’t be supported by the available scientific evidence. However, you have to be flexible, objective, and honest when you construct and conduct your search of the scientific literature and not just look for ways to make your opinion seem true.

2. Search the scholarly literature

Scientists who think their research is significant communicate the results through publication in scientific journals. Most medical and scientific organizations publish journals related to a professional field—the American Society for Microbiology, for example, publishes several journals such as Applied and Environmental Microbiology and Journal of Clinical Microbiology , among others. Manuscripts submitted to scientific journals are sent to a panel of other scientists, who review them for scientific legitimacy and integrity. This insures that the data and results are obtained from carefully designed, reproducible experiments, and the conclusions are evidence-based. Once they are peer-reviewed and approved, they are incorporated into a volume of the journal and published.

It is important to consider that in a perfect world, using science and the scientific method to understand nature is a logical, objective, and totally unbiased process, that peer-reviewers are always honest, and that peer-reviewed articles represent the “truth.” As several recent high profile cases illustrate, in which published studies have been “retracted” due to fraud on the part of the researchers and/or their reviewers, the process isn’t perfect. This is particularly true when the financial or personal stakes are high.

Once you have developed your thesis statement, the next step is to look for published research studies pertaining to your topic. You can refer to http://www.wikihow.com/Find-Scholarly-Articles-Online / for a concise overview of how to construct and conduct a search for scholarly articles on a topic of interest.

Many libraries at colleges and universities, such as the State University of New York library system, have access to huge databases containing millions of scholarly articles. Therefore, another excellent starting point is to enlist the assistance of a reference librarian in your college library, who can tell you what article databases are available and can help you construct your search. Reference librarians are particularly helpful when it comes to deciding on the right words or phrases, so that your search yields a manageable number of returns, not too few or too many.

Be objective when you decide on which articles to read further. Don’t limit yourself to only those that agree with your thesis 100%. Peruse the abstract, and if it sounds like the article will be relevant to your idea, download the entire article (full text) and read the full content.

3. Create an annotated bibliography of selected scholarly articles

At this point you have (hopefully) browsed through a large list of articles pertaining to your subject. For those that you decided to read in greater depth, prepare a bibliography using the citation format preferred by your instructor. Some of the databases will actually write the citation for you, and again, your reference librarian can help you locate and access the citation application if it exists for that database.

You should provide citations for all of the articles you selected. Of those you include in the bibliography, select three of the articles that you feel exemplify your idea, and write a brief annotation to accompany the citation. “Annotated” means that after the citation, write a brief one to two paragraph summary of the objectives and outcomes of the research presented in the article. The final sentence of the summary should discuss how the article relates to your thesis. An example of an annotated reference is shown below (the citation format is APA).

Fava, F., Lovegrove, J. A., Gitau, R., Jackson, K. G., & Tuohy, K. M. (2006) The gut microbiota and lipid metabolism: Implications for human health and coronary heart disease. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 13 , 3005-3021.

Summary : Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of mortality in Western society, affecting about one third of the population before their seventieth year. This article reviews the modifiable risk factors associated with CHD and discusses the hypothesis that diets rich in sources of dietary fiber and plant polyphenols promote better coronary health. Plant fibers are metabolized by the gut microflora, and are converted into biologically active compounds that are complementary to human metabolism. Metabolism of plant fibers by the gut microflora may prevent or otherwise beneficially impact impaired lipid metabolism and vascular dysfunction that typifies CHD and type II diabetes. Overall this article supports my thesis that the bacteria in the human gut make positive contributions to a person’s overall good health.

4. Write a summary and conclusion

Paper Option : In a paragraph (or two), summarize the scope of the project, the idea you are investigating, and restate your thesis. In two to four paragraphs, summarize the research that you discovered in your search of the scholarly literature, being sure to include the appropriate citation for each reference. In a final paragraph (or two), compare and contrast the non-scholarly information with what you learned from your search of the science, and discuss whether the scientific evidence was in support of your thesis, or if the evidence did not support your view. Consider whether you are sticking with your thesis or if you want to change it, and what amendments might be appropriate based on the scientific evidence.

Presentation Option : Using PowerPoint (or other presentation software), develop your report into a ten minute talk, which you may be scheduled to give as an oral presentation.

• Microbiology: a Laboratory Experience. Authored by : Holly Ahern. Provided by : SUNY Adirondack . Located at : https://textbooks.opensuny.org/microbiology-a-laboratory-experience/ . Project : Open SUNY Textbooks. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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Myth Busters: A College Lab Report

Hello science people :)

I have had my fair share of lab reports already not only in college but just this semester (so far) as well. Here are some myth busters for you to think about when it comes to writing those pesky lab reports!

• Myth buster: You can not write these quickly if you want a good grade, even if you are good and quick with writing essays. Science writing assignments at the college level analyze how well the material is resonating with you and how well you can connect your studies to real-world examples. It also depends on the project. In Foundations of Biology, my first lab report I wrote, took a break from and edited in a matter of two days. I received back a great score, so I thought I could follow that time management strategy again. That was my mistake. The next lab report had the same directions and elaboration requirements, but I did not acknowledge that there was more material and concepts to cover… and that’s the story of why I pulled my first college all-nighter! Thankfully I only made this mistake once, but it definitely emphasizes that the length of your project may not be easily seen by the directions. My papers with the same directions differed by almost ten pages!
• Myth Buster: Please, please, please follow the instructions, but you have to go beyond what you are told to write most of the time in order to get a good grade. You have to connect the dots between what you have learned and what you were expected to do in the lab. My first lab report was for Principles of Chemistry I, and I felt like it was super structured with what I needed to write. I wrote it right after my lab, answered all of the questions laid out for me, and did not get the grade I thought I would. Why? My report was shallow. I did not review the concepts that I was elaborating on, so I was not writing what my professors wanted to see. They do not want to see a regurgitation of the lab procedure or their slide deck, they want to see how you can connect a specific concept used in the lab to a broader scale phenomenon and why things work out the way they do. Write about that.
• Myth Buster: Well you might… but it depends on the project! Like mentioned before, my first ever lab report was short and sweet, handwritten (and largely spaced out), no diagrams or figures needed, solid two pages. However, my most recent lab report was 24 pages. This was for Diversity of Form and Function. Now how on earth is that difference acceptable? My most recent lab report was over a cumulative project rather than a two-hour single lab. This means this report was acknowledging multiple weeks of being in the lab for three hours at a time. That is a lot of data collected to be reported and elaborated upon! This report was also required in a digital format because pictures and diagrams were expected. This was an easy couple of pages added to the report because in the event your report gets printed, these figures have to be huge (with captions and elaboration on them, too, which are easy points)!
• Myth Buster: News flash! Everyone is doing the same project, therefore everyone will have (or should have) the same material in their report. Your professor lives, sleeps, and breathes their profession. Many have assigned the same project for years and have read similar reports hundreds of times. They will read every word of your report, they are used to this. They want to know what you know. Even in the materials and methods section, they are checking that you can do more than just regurgitate your lab manual. Do you know how to put the procedure in your own words? Do you know what is most important to include in the report and what is more common sense?

Good luck with your lab report and future lab reports! Always reach out to your professors and teaching assistants for advice on what specific concepts they are looking for.

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• April 25, 2023
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Mastering A Level Biology Essays: Smart Tips and Unbeatable Examples

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Introduction

A Level Biology is a challenging but rewarding course that covers a wide range of topics, from DNA and genetic inheritance to ecosystems and biodiversity. The key to success in this subject lies in understanding and applying the core principles of Biology and expressing your understanding in well-structured, coherent essays. In this article, we will provide you with some essential tips for writing outstanding A Level Biology essays, as well as presenting clear examples to help you master the essay-writing process.

• Understand the essay question

The first and most important step in writing an A Level Biology essay is to clearly understand the question. Break down the question into its key terms and implications, and ensure you comprehend what the examiner is asking you to discuss. Make a note of any key words or phrases that should feature in your essay, as these will help you structure your response and ensure you cover all the necessary points.

• Plan your essay

Before you begin writing your essay, take the time to plan your response. Create an outline that maps out the main points you want to make, as well as the order in which you will discuss them. This will enable you to develop a logical and coherent argument that addresses all the key aspects of the question.

• Include an engaging introduction

An effective introduction is crucial to grabbing the reader’s attention and setting the tone for your essay. Begin with a general statement that links to the essay question, and then narrow down your focus to present your main argument or line of inquiry. Finish your introduction with a clear thesis statement, which outlines the central points you will cover in your essay, demonstrating a solid understanding of the topic.

Example: The discovery of DNA and the subsequent advancements in genetic research have proven instrumental in understanding the role of genetics ininheritance of traits and diseases. This essay will discuss the role of genetic inheritance in the development of several human diseases, namely: Cystic Fibrosis, Huntington’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease, as well as the ethical implications surrounding genetic testing and treatment.

• Use specific examples to support your arguments

In A Level Biology essays, it is essential to provide examples that demonstrate your understanding of the material and support your claims. Try to include a range of examples from different areas of the subject to show that you have a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the course material.

Example: Cystic Fibrosis is an example of a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the CFTR gene, which results in thick and sticky mucus production in affected individuals. This condition can lead to respiratory and digestive complications, illustrating the significant impact of genetic inheritance on an individual’s health.

• Synthesize information from multiple sources

To demonstrate a high level of understanding, A Level Biology essays should integrate information from various sources, such as class notes, textbooks, and scientific articles. Be sure to support your ideas with specific references to the source material, and use your own words to explain the concepts in a clear and concise manner.

• Address counterarguments and controversies

In any scientific field, there are often debates and controversies surrounding key concepts and theories. To show a comprehensive grasp of the subject matter, be sure to address counterarguments and discuss opposing viewpoints in your essay.

Example: While genetic testing for diseases such as Huntington’s has the potential to provide valuable information for individuals at risk, there are ethical concerns about the potential misuse of genetic information by employers, insurance companies, and even government entities. Weighing the benefits of genetic testing and treatment against these ethical concerns is an ongoing debate within the scientific community.

• Write a strong conclusion

To wrap up your essay, restate your main argument and summarize the key points you have made. Provide a clear and concise conclusion that demonstrates the significance of your argument and its implications for the broader field of Biology.

Example: In conclusion, the role of genetic inheritance in human diseases, as illustrated by Cystic Fibrosis, Huntington’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease, underscores the immense potential of genetic research to improve our understanding of human health. However, as we continue to advance our knowledge and develop new treatments and testing methods, it is crucial that we remain conscious of the ethical implications that come with such advancements in order to protect individuals’ rights and liberties.

• Proofread and edit your essay

Finally, make sure you thoroughly proofread and edit your essay to correct any grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors, and to ensure that your argument flows smoothly and logically. Consider asking a friend or peer to review your essay and provide feedback – a fresh perspective can help you identify areas for improvement that you may have overlooked.

In summary, mastering A Level Biology essays involves understanding the essay question, planning a clear and logical response, using specific examples and evidence, synthesizing information from multiple sources, addressing counterarguments and controversies, and crafting a compelling introduction and conclusion. By following these steps and using the examples provided, you will be well on your way to delivering high-quality, insightful essays that demonstrate an excellent understanding of the complex and fascinating world of Biology.

Good luck, and happy essay writing!

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• Elementary Science
• Busting Myths Using Science in the Classroom

Use the Mythbuster method and other exciting activities to jazz up your scientific method lessons!

By Jennifer Sinsel

Busted!  The Mythbusters phenomenon has proven or busted hundreds of urban legends over the years, and many science teachers have transferred the techniques used by the quirky duo of Adam and Jamie to the classroom. Using modern day science to separate fact from fiction seems as though it might require a lot of extensive knowledge or expensive equipment, but many of the investigations conducted on Mythbusters can actually be duplicated in the classroom – what a great way to learn about the scientific method and science process skills!

Using the Mythbusters Technique

Many Mythbusters episodes can be viewed directly from YouTube, or they can be purchased relatively inexpensively online.  Since every scientific investigation starts with a question, I usually choose a myth with which students will be familiar and pose the question on the board.  While watching the episode, students answer the following questions:

• What question are the Mythbusters trying to answer?
• Before watching the episode, write a hypothesis that answers the question.
• What procedure do the Mythbusters use to answer their question?
• Describe their results. Is their data qualitative or quantitative?  Give an example.
• What is their conclusion ?  List at least one possible source of error in their investigation!  (A source of error involves an issue that may have affected the outcome of the experiment. For example, the watering system malfunctioned in the Mythbusters’ plant investigation, which might have affected their data).

Share Your Favorites

A favorite question comes from the “Talking to Plants” episode: Does talking to plants help them grow?  During this episode, the Mythbusters grew pea plants in a number of different environments: with music (both heavy metal and classical), with talking (both angry words and kind words), and with no sound.  Surprisingly, they determined that the plants that “listened” to heavy metal music produced the greatest number of seeds! 

Students can partially duplicate this investigation by setting up their own “talking to plants” experiment. This often works best if you can partner with another classroom that receives similar light. In one classroom, students will ignore the plants (start with seedlings and begin the experiment when each of the plants has sprouted). In the other, students will take turns talking or playing music to the plants for one to two hours per day. All other variables (light, temperature, water, soil, etc.) should remain the same.  After several weeks, students can count the number of seeds produced by the plants, as well as the mass of the plants that have grown.  Do their results agree with the Mythbusters ? 

Opportunities for integrating other subject areas with an activity such as this are numerous. In language arts, students can write letters to Jamie and Adam sharing their results and asking follow up questions. Some students may even have ideas for future episodes related to the topic they investigated! In math, students can graph the changes in height or number of seeds produced over time. They can also calculate averages, practice measuring skills, or create their own word problems related to the investigation. A technology component could be added using Powerpoint, Hyperstudio, or Photo Story and students could show their presentations to other classes. For more exciting ways to teach the scientific method, try one of the following lesson plans.

The Scientific Method:

Paper Airplanes and Scientific Methods

Students learn about the scientific method by analyzing paper airplane design. Using this lesson, students do research, create a hypothesis, collect and record data, and analyze their data.

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Students gain an understanding of the real world implications of the use of the scientific method. They design experiments to debunk certain myths.

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The facts on climate and energy

Climate change is a hot topic – with myths and falsehoods circulating widely. Find some essential facts here. Share them, use them and talk about them to help counter mis- and disinformation and build support for urgent action.

FACT: Climate change is happening

Climate change is already affecting every region on Earth. Changes in rainfall patterns, rising sea levels, melting glaciers, a warming ocean, and more frequent and intense extreme weather events are just some of the changes already impacting millions of people.  (IPCC)

Climate change can affect our health, ability to grow food, housing, safety and work. Some of us are more vulnerable to climate impacts, such as people living in small island developing countries. Threats like sea-level rise and saltwater intrusion have advanced to the point where whole communities have had to relocate. In the future, the number people displaced by climate change is expected to rise.

The changes in the climate are widespread, rapid and intensifying, and some of the changes, such as sea level rise or melting ice sheets, are irreversible over hundreds to thousands of years. (IPCC)

FACT: Climate change is caused by human activity

Natural changes in the sun’s activity or large volcanic eruptions have caused ancient shifts in the Earth’s temperatures and weather patterns, but over the last 200 years, these natural causes have not significantly affected global temperatures. Today, it’s human activities that are causing climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas.  (IPCC)

Burning fossil fuels creates a blanket of pollution trapping the sun’s heat on Earth and raising global temperatures. (Global warming then leads to other changes like droughts, water scarcity, severe fires, rising sea levels, flooding, melting polar ice, intense storms and declining biodiversity.)

The more of this pollution, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), accumulates in the atmosphere, the more of the sun’s heat gets trapped, the warmer it gets on Earth. There is a strong relationship between cumulative CO2 emissions and the increase in global surface temperature. (IPCC)

The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere has been increasing at an unprecedented rate since the Industrial Revolution, when manual labor began to be replaced by machinery fueled by coal, oil and gas. Today, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is about 50% higher than in 1750, far exceeding the natural changes over at least the past 800,000 years. (IPCC)

FACT: Scientists agree that humans are responsible for climate change

Multiple independent studies over the past 19 years have found that between 90 and 100 per cent of scientists agree that humans are responsible for climate change, with most of the studies finding a 97 per cent consensus.

A 2021 study found a greater than 99 per cent consensus on human-induced climate change in the peer-reviewed scientific literature (reviewed by export in the same field prior to publication) - a level of certainty similar to that of the theory of evolution.

The Synthesis Report by the  Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), released in March 2023, categorically confirmed that human activity is the overwhelming cause of climate change. The IPCC’s comprehensive assessments are written by hundreds of leading scientists from around the globe, with contributions from thousands of experts, and endorsed by the governments of every country in the world.

FACT: Every fraction of a degree of warming matters

With every increment of global warming, extreme heat and rainfall events become more frequent and more intense. (IPCC)

Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, from human activities are responsible for approximately 1.1°C of warming since 1850-1900. (IPCC) This has already caused significant changes in the climate, including more extreme weather events, which have caused widespread harm to people and nature. (IPCC)

If global warming exceeds 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, there will be more heat waves, longer warm seasons and shorter cold seasons. At 2°C of global warming, extreme heat would more often cross critical tolerance thresholds with devastating impacts on agriculture and human health. Increasing changes to wetness and dryness, to winds, snow and ice, coastal areas and oceans, will affect different regions in different ways. (IPCC)

FACT: The climate is changing faster than humans, plants and animals can adapt

If global temperatures keep rising, adapting to climate change will become increasingly difficult, especially for poorer countries. A small island, for example, may become uninhabitable due to sea level rise and lack of sufficient freshwater. In that case, inhabitants may have no other option than to abandon their homes.  (IPCC)

Adaptation alone cannot keep up with the impacts of climate change. Adaptation is crucial for saving lives and livelihoods, but humans’ ability to adapt to climate change is not limitless.  (Insights)

Rising sea levels that submerge coastal communities and extreme heatwaves intolerable to the human body are examples of ‘hard’ limits to our ability to adapt.  (UNFCCC)

With increasing global warming, losses and damages will increase and more human and natural systems will reach the limits of their ability to adapt. Many species and ecosystems are already near or beyond their adaptation limits.  (IPCC)

FACT: Climate change is a major threat to people’s health

The impacts of climate change are harming human health – through air pollution, disease, extreme weather events, forced displacement, food insecurity and pressures on mental health – and will only get worse with every fraction of a degree of warming.  (WHO)

The main cause of climate change – the burning of coal, oil and gas – also causes air pollution which in turn can lead to respiratory diseases, strokes, and heart attacks. More than 8.7 million people currently die every year due to outdoor air pollution.  (REN21)

Replacing fossil fuel-based power plants with renewable energy, such as wind or solar farms, will greatly benefit human health. Wind turbines and solar panels do not release emissions that pollute the air or cause global warming.  (REN21)

FACT: Natural gas is a fossil fuel, not a clean source of energy

Natural gas is a fossil fuel like oil and coal – formed from the remains of plants, animals, and microorganisms that lived millions of years ago. When burned, it releases carbon pollution into the atmosphere.

Burning natural gas was responsible for 22 per cent of global carbon emissions from fuel combustion in 2020 (not far behind oil, 32 per cent, and coal, 45 per cent). (IEA)

In addition, the extraction and transport of natural gas often releases methane – a powerful greenhouse gas – into the atmosphere. Natural gas production was responsible for 40 million tons of methane emissions in 2021 – about the same amount of methane emissions as from the oil industry. (IEA) (Methane is about 84 times more potent than CO2, measured over a 20-year period).  (UNEP)

FACT: Clean energy technologies produce far less carbon pollution than fossil fuels

Clean energy technologies – from wind turbines and solar panels to electric vehicles and battery storage – do require a wide range of minerals and metals (IEA) , and produce thus some emissions, but still far less than fossil fuels. (IEA)

Solar panels produced today only need to operate for 4-8 months to make up for their manufacturing emissions (and the average solar panel has a lifetime of around 25-30 years). (IEA) . Wind turbines, similarly, take only about 7 months to produce enough clean electricity to make up for the carbon pollution generated during manufacture (and they have a typical lifespan of 20-25 years). (ScienceDirect)

Most of the carbon pollution generated during a wind turbine’s life occurs during manufacturing. Once it’s up and spinning, the turbine generates close to zero pollution. A coal or natural gas plant, in contrast, burns fuel — and releases carbon dioxide — every moment that it runs. (Yale)

Even the most carbon-intensive wind turbine is responsible for far less carbon emissions per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced than any coal or natural gas-fired power plant. (Coal-fired power plants produce 675 to 1.689 grams of CO2 per kilowatt-hour, while natural gas power plants produce 437 to 758 grams — far more than on- and offshore wind which produce, on average, 15 and 12 grams (UNECE) , or even the most carbon-intensive wind turbine at 25.5 grams). (Yale)

Electric vehicles, over their lifecycle, from manufacturing to disposal, produce about half the carbon emissions of the average internal combustion engine car, with the potential for a further 25 per cent reduction with low-carbon electricity. (IEA)

FACT: Entire countries already rely on nearly 100 per cent renewable electricity

Costa Rica, Norway, Iceland, Paraguay and Uruguay power their grids with hydro, geothermal, wind and solar energy. (REN21)

Some provinces and sub-national states also use nearly 100 per cent renewables-based electricity: South Australia, Quebec (Canada) and Qinghai (China), as well as the islands of Ta’u (American Samoa), Eigg (Scotland) and El Hierro (Spain). (REN21)

Scotland and South Australia have met more than 100 per cent of their total electricity demand with wind and solar, sometimes exporting their surplus. (REN21)

Other regions have generated surplus electricity with hydropower: Paraguay and Quebec both export their surplus hydropower. (REN21)

NOTE: No examples exist of fully renewable-based energy systems that span the electricity, heating, cooling, and transport sectors (the above examples cover only electricity). The foundations of such systems are now being laid, including the technologies, infrastructure and markets. (REN21)

FACT: Renewable energy will soon be the world’s top source of electricity

Renewable energy sources – such as water, geothermal, wind and solar – are available in every country, and their potential is yet to be fully harnessed.

Almost 30 per cent of global electricity comes from renewables today. (IEA)

By 2050, 90 per cent of the world’s electricity can and should come from renewable energy. (IRENA)

The world is set to add as much renewable power in the next 5 years as it did in the past 20. (IEA)

Renewables are projected to become the largest source of global electricity generation by early 2025, surpassing coal. (IEA)

In many regions, renewables are the fastest-growing energy source. (IEA)

FACT: Renewable energy is cheaper than fossil fuels

In most parts of the world, electricity from new renewable-energy plants, such as wind or solar, is now cheaper than power from new fossil fuel plants. (IRENA)

New onshore wind and solar projects cost roughly 40 per cent less than coal or gas plants built from scratch—and the gap is widening. (BloombergNEF)

The world has witnessed a seismic shift in the competitiveness of renewable power options since 2010: Solar has experienced the most rapid cost reductions, with costs of newly commissioned utility-scale projects falling 88 per cent globally between 2010 and 2021 - mostly thanks to continuing technology improvements, greater economies of scale and reduced financing costs for wind and solar power plants. The cost of onshore wind fell by 68 per cent, and offshore wind by 60 per cent since 2010. (IRENA)

FACT: Solar panels and wind turbines make good use of land

All energy sources require land: from the plot used for mining coal, to the land taken up by a power plant.

Wind farms require a lot of land, but while a coal mine is used just once, a wind farm continues to produce energy, year after year. Over time, an acre of wind or solar can generate more electricity than an acre of coal or uranium mines.

Land used for solar and wind farms can be “dual-use” – used for energy production and agriculture at the same time. Once built, a solar or wind farm has so little impact on its land that it is increasingly common to allow grazing and farming on the same acres at the same time.

Solar panels do not need to be installed directly on the ground, they can be put on existing structures like rooftops, roads or parking lot canopies, over canals and on agricultural land, and even floated on lakes and ponds.

In South-East Asia and Africa, where solar projects tend to compete with agricultural land, “agrivoltaics” and “floatovoltaics” allow agricultural land and water to be “dual-used” for solar panels without compromising water and food resources. (REN21)

Solar farms can also be installed on land that is not suitable for other uses – deserts, landfills, old coal mines or contaminated territory (Chernobyl now hosts a solar plant).

Solar panels can be put anywhere on Earth because the sun shines everywhere. No other type of electricity generation can match this flexibility.

FACT: Renewable energy is better at withstanding extreme weather events

Weather affects all energy sources. (IEA)

Gas-fired power plants could not keep up with electricity demand during the exceptionally cold weather in Texas, in the United States, in February 2021, leaving up to 5 million customers without power over a period of four days – primarily due to frozen gas wells and power outages in gas generators. Coal and nuclear plants also experienced outages. (IEA)

Increasing the share of wind and solar in the energy mix improves electricity security: a well-diversified energy mix can reduce the risks that come from disruptions in the supply of fossil fuels . Small-scale generators, such as distributed wind and solar panels, can also speed the recovery of communities from disasters or large-scale blackouts, while large thermal power plants take longer to resume normal operations since they need a large part of the system to be restored. (IEA)

Systems with distributed resources can be more resilient than centralized systems. Renewable energy technologies reduce vulnerability to climate risks by diversifying the sources of power and using battery storage and smart information technology.

Solar energy can also provide energy for emergency communication and natural disaster response in remote areas.

FACT: The transition to clean energy will create millions of jobs

The transition to net-zero emissions (away from fossil fuels and towards clean sources of energy) is projected to lead to an overall increase in jobs in the energy sector: about 5 million jobs in fossil fuel production could be lost by 2030, but an estimated 14 million new jobs would be created in clean energy, resulting in a net gain of 9 million jobs globally. (IEA)

The number continued to grow worldwide over the past decade, with most jobs in the solar photovoltaic, bioenergy, hydropower and wind power industries. (IRENA) . The renewable energy sector employed 12.7 million people, directly and indirectly, in 2022, up from about 7.3 million in 2012. (IRENA)

Tens of millions of additional jobs will likely be created in the coming decades as investments grow and installed capacities expand. By 2050, the renewable energy sector is expected to employ at least 42 million people. Energy efficiency measures would create 21 million additional jobs and system flexibility 15 million additional jobs. (IRENA)

Every dollar of investment in renewables creates three times more jobs than in the fossil fuel industry. (SG)

FACT: Alternatives to petroleum-based products already exist

Many everyday products are still produced using oil or other fossil fuels. The process of extracting and transporting those fuels, then manufacturing the products creates lots of carbon emissions. Most plastics, clothing, tires, digital devices, fertilizer, laundry detergents and countless other everyday items are made from petrochemicals. (IEA)

The production of plastic is one of the most energy-intensive manufacturing processes in the world. The material is made from fossil fuels such as crude oil, which are transformed via heat and other additives into a polymer. In 2019, plastics generated 1.8 billion metric tonnes of carbon emissions – 3.4 per cent of the global total. (UNEP)

But there are alternatives. Plastic can be made fully or partially from plant materials, such as cellulose, potato or corn starch, sugar cane, maize and soy, instead of petroleum or natural gas. Bio-based plastic can be designed to be structurally identical to petroleum-based plastics. (UNEP)

A variety of carbon- and hydrogen-containing materials can replace oil, natural gas and coal as chemical feedstocks. Key among these are bioenergy products, which are a source of both carbon and hydrogen. Alternatively, each element can be obtained separately from gases produced by the iron and steel industry or from CO2 and water. (IEA)

Replacing the fossils fuels used to manufacture plastics or fertilizer is possible with biomass (organic material from plants and animals). The hydrocarbons in coal, oil and gas themselves originally came from biomass millions of years ago.

There is an enormous opportunity to produce these materials without fossil fuels. For example, bioplastics make up only about 1% of the plastic produced worldwide today. (IEA) However, using plant-based materials must be thoughtfully designed to take into account environmental, social, and economic factors across ecosystems and communities.

FACT: We can still limit climate change, if we act now!

The choices we make today will determine the changes in the climate we will experience in the future. (IPCC)

Large and sustained reductions in emissions of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gas emissions would limit climate change. (IPCC)

If we act now, we can limit climate change and preserve a livable planet.

We have the knowledge, tools and resources to secure a livable, sustainable future for all.

Facts and figures

• What is climate change?
• Causes and effects
• Myth busters

Cutting emissions

• Explaining net zero
• High-level expert group on net zero
• Checklists for credibility of net-zero pledges
• Greenwashing
• What you can do

Clean energy

• Renewable energy – key to a safer future
• What is renewable energy
• Five ways to speed up the energy transition
• Why invest in renewable energy
• Clean energy stories
• A just transition

Adapting to climate change

• Climate adaptation
• Early warnings for all
• Youth voices

Financing climate action

• Finance and justice
• Loss and damage
• $100 billion commitment
• Why finance climate action
• Biodiversity
• Human Security

International cooperation

• What are Nationally Determined Contributions
• Acceleration Agenda
• Climate Ambition Summit
• Climate conferences (COPs)
• Youth Advisory Group
• Action initiatives
• Secretary-General’s speeches
• Press material
• Fact sheets
• Communications tips

Analysis of Fuentes’s “The Myth of Race” Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Description, rhetorical analysis, works cited.

Scientists have repeatedly attempted to classify the representatives of humanity according to their external features, just as they did with animals, insects, or plants. Skin color, eyes, and nose hair served as markers confirming the biological basis of racial differences. Agustin Fuentes in his essay The Myth of Race , dissects established myths, shows their failure, and proves that racial prejudices have not disappeared anywhere and continue to exist alongside ideas of equality and human rights. He uses a variety of approaches to convince the audience, prove himself right, and ultimately win over his side to call for decisive action.

The theory of Agustín Fuentes states that from a biological point of view, races do not exist; human creatures are a single indivisible class. However, race and racism exist as social and cultural phenomena in society. Fuentes tests his theory with evidence, reasoning, and conclusions. Evidence includes studies of DNA structure in people of different races and data from official documents, academic literature, and personal experience that can be cross-checked.

Agustín Fuentes, Professor of Anthropology, in his essay The Myth of Race , argues that racial issues have not disappeared and prejudice is still prevalent in society. He begins by discussing opposing opinions and places readers in an impossible conflict. Stasis discusses the biological basis for different races’ cultural and social characteristics. Thus, the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (AAPA) states no causal relationship exists “between physical and behavioral traits” (Fuentes et al. 401). Therefore, it is wrong to attribute cultural characteristics to genetic inheritance. The second opinion belongs to Phillipe Rushton, the psychologist (Greene and Lidinsky 631). On the contrary, he argues that race affects children’s development, intelligence, and a tendency to violence. This view has been widely held for hundreds of years at the level of politics, structure, social connections, and academia.

Fuentes takes on the role of a leader, looking for a way to resolve the conflict. First, he listed attempts to classify races scientifically on the external features of people or their geographical residence. Fuentes immediately refuted the studies’ conclusions, citing blood tests as evidence. He showed that none of the ABO gene alleles is unique to any race, and none of the ABO patterns correspond to the biological classifications of races. In other words, race has nothing to do with genetics or culture.

The social preconceptions and prejudices about races arise from the fact that people know little about the biology and genetics of human beings. Fuentes is sure that “homo sapiens is one species, undivided into races or subspecies” (Greene and Lidinsky 639). If biological races are a myth, race as a social phenomenon matters. Studies show that almost 90% of doctoral degrees in the US are awarded to white people (Dutt 2). Dutt argues that people do not notice discrimination if they are not a discriminated group (2). For instance, only 25% of American university presidents say race relations are good in society, but 80% of presidents rated race relations on their campuses as good or excellent (Dutt 2). Such results suggest that people may be drawn into discrimination unconsciously and refuse to admit it out of shame or fear.

Fuentes also analyzes systemic racism using the example of official authorities’ definition of a person’s race. The instructions say to define race based on self-determination. He discovers that “blacks” are distinguished from other categories. Black people are defined as “racial groups”, while other people are called “original peoples” (Greene and Lidinsky 642). Fuentes is sure that the real reasons for these are not people’s characteristics but history, culture, and politics.

Fuentes backs up his position with additional statistics that show that blacks and Hispanics are more discriminated groups than Asians or whites. They earn less, have less insurance, and become homeless more often. He concludes that race, as a biological subject, does not exist. Nevertheless, it plays a massive role in people’s social lives and can theoretically influence biology. Fuentes ends his essay by citing the song “Your Racist Friend” by They Might Be Giants, which denounces tacit consent and support for racist statements. The author encourages readers not to be silent and actively engage in a discussion about racism, convincing loved ones of the failure of racist theories.

The author aimed to convince readers that racial prejudice is scientifically unfounded and useless. The only thing that reinforces racial discrimination is people’s actions because of their cultural, historical, or political background. Fuentes gives evidence and inspires readers to participate in discussions about racism and oppose judgments that discriminate against other people. Fuentes used a wide range of rhetorical appeals to convince the reader. From the beginning, he uses his Ethos to put himself in a leadership position and invites readers to follow him. His authority is strengthened when he helps readers get out of the Stasis he creates by giving opposing opinions. At first, it seems impossible to prove the correctness of any answers, but gradually Fuentes shows this answer.

Fuentes uses Logos to find the correct answers. In the “blood” section, he dwells on studies of human DNA in relation to their race. The evidence helps to conclude that biological races do not exist. He further puts forward the following theory that race is a social phenomenon. He again uses Logos to prove the facts of discrimination. He refers to statistics, official documents, and academic research. In addition, he shares his observations from pharmacies and restaurants.

Most of the text is in an academic and strict style. Instead of emotions, the author appeals to the mind and common sense of readers. He shares formal and scientific knowledge, arming readers with evidence for future discussions. Only at the end, Fuentes changes his usual style and uses Pathos by citing the song’s line: “But I feel like a hypocrite talking to you/ You and your racist friend” (Greene and Lidinsky 647). He repeats the word “hypocrite”, contrasting it with “myth busters,” and calls on every reader to become myth busters to fight racial stereotypes and discrimination.

Fuentes, in his essay, did not just want to put forward and prove his theory. The real goal is to convince readers of their point of view, give them knowledge and evidence, and inspire them to debate racial injustice and discrimination. Theories and proofs have become the only tools to achieve the final goal. In addition to objective facts, statistics, observations, and conclusions, Fuentes used Pathos to inspire readers to take action. He uses a stylistic device, contrasting hypocrites and myth busters, to reinforce his appeal. Ultimately, the essay proved effective, fulfilling its purpose – convincing and inspiring.

Dutt, Kuheli. “ Race and Racism in the Geosciences .” Nature Geoscience vol. 13, no. 1, 2020, pp. 2-3, Web.

Fuentes, Agustín, et al. “ AAPA Statement on Race and Racism .” American Journal of Physical Anthropology , vol. 169, no. 3, 2019, pp. 400-402, Web.

Greene, Stuart, and April Lidinsky. From Inquiry to Academic Writing: A Text and Reader. 4 th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2021.

• Curtis Sliwa’s “The Guardian Angels”: Fighting Crime in New York City
• “Citing data sources in the social sciences: Do authors do it?” by Hailey Mooney
• Creation Myths: Theories of Myths
• Why to Believe in The Legend of King Arthur?
• The Story of the Garden of Eden: Reinventing Eden
• La Llorona, a Mexican Folktale
• The Demeter and Persephone Stories
• Apollo and Daphne in Ovid’s Metamorphoses
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 7). Analysis of Fuentes’s “The Myth of Race”. https://ivypanda.com/essays/analysis-of-fuentess-the-myth-of-race/

"Analysis of Fuentes’s “The Myth of Race”." IvyPanda , 7 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/analysis-of-fuentess-the-myth-of-race/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Analysis of Fuentes’s “The Myth of Race”'. 7 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Analysis of Fuentes’s “The Myth of Race”." February 7, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/analysis-of-fuentess-the-myth-of-race/.

1. IvyPanda . "Analysis of Fuentes’s “The Myth of Race”." February 7, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/analysis-of-fuentess-the-myth-of-race/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Analysis of Fuentes’s “The Myth of Race”." February 7, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/analysis-of-fuentess-the-myth-of-race/.

Twin sisters, Miami, 1984. Photo by Abbas/Magnum

The myth of mirrored twins

What do the lives of twins tell us about heritability, selfhood and the age-old debate between nature and nurture.

by Gavin Evans   + BIO

Thirteen days before the start of the Second World War, a 35-year-old unmarried immigrant woman gave birth slightly prematurely to identical twins at the Memorial Hospital in Piqua, Ohio and immediately put them up for adoption. The boys spent their first month together in a children’s home before Ernest and Sarah Springer adopted one – and would have adopted both had they not been told, incorrectly, that the other twin had died. Two weeks later, Jess and Lucille Lewis adopted the other baby and, when they signed the papers at the local courthouse, calling their boy James, the clerk remarked: ‘That’s what [the Springers] named their son.’ Until then they hadn’t known he was a twin.

The boys grew up 40 miles apart in middle-class Ohioan families. Although James Lewis was six when he learnt he’d been adopted, it was only in his late 30s that he began searching for his birth family at the Ohio courthouse. In 1979, the adoption agency wrote to James Springer, who was astonished by the news, because as a teenager he’d been told his twin had died at birth. He phoned Lewis and four days later they met – a nervous handshake and then beaming smiles. Reports on their case prompted a Minneapolis-based psychologist, Thomas Bouchard, to contact them, and a series of interviews and tests began. The Jim Twins, as they were known, became Bouchard’s star turn.

Thomas Bouchard conducting personality tests on James Lewis and James Springer, identical twins adopted by separate families, Minnesota, USA, 1979. Photo by Thomas S England/Science Photo Library

Both Jims, it transpired, had worked as deputy sheriffs, and had done stints at McDonald’s and at petrol stations; they’d both taken holidays at Pass-a-Grille beach in Florida, driving there in their light-blue Chevrolets. Each had dogs called Toy and brothers called Larry, and they’d married and divorced women called Linda, then married Bettys. They’d called their first sons James Alan/Allan. Both were good at maths and bad at spelling, loved carpentry, chewed their nails, chain-smoked Salem and drank Miller Lite beer. Both had haemorrhoids, started experiencing migraines at 18, gained 10 lb in their early 30s, and had similar heart problems and sleep patterns.

Of the 1,894 twins raised apart who had been tested by psychologists internationally between 1922 and 2018, the ‘Jim Twins’ story was, by far, the example cited most often, mainly because it seemed so strongly to suggest that nature trumped nurture, aptly illustrating Bouchard’s prior perceptions. Their tale spread around the globe, finding its way from national newspapers to The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , to school and university textbooks. Later, it was all over the web; 44 years on, it pops up whenever twins are discussed in the media, with the significant differences between these two men invariably ignored.

Some reports feature the story with two sidebar cases, also drawn from Bouchard’s twins’ larder. Oskar Stöhr and Jack Yufe were identical twins born in Trinidad in 1933, to a German mother and a Jewish-Romanian father, but they were separated six months later when their parents’ relationship broke down. Oskar was raised Catholic by his mother in Germany and joined the Hitler Youth. Jack was raised as a Jew in Trinidad by his father. They met briefly at 21 and were reunited at 47. Although they had very different world views, their speech patterns and food tastes were similar, and they shared idiosyncrasies, such as flushing the toilet before using it, and sneezing loudly to gain attention. The other sidebar is devoted to the ‘Giggle twins’, Daphne Goodship and Barbara Herbert, identical twins adopted into separate British families after their Finnish mother reportedly killed herself. They reunited, aged 40, in 1979. Unlike their adoptive families, they were both incessant gigglers, had a fear of heights, dyed their hair auburn, and met their husbands at town hall Christmas dances.

Cases such as these have been used to revive the notion that distinct upbringings make no difference in how we turn out: it’s all down to biology, specifically the clockwork mechanisms of Mendelian genetics – an idea with a long historical tail. But much has changed in our understanding of genetics since the human genome was sequenced in 2003. It was discovered that we have far fewer genes than anticipated (around 20,000, rather than the anticipated 100,000), and that there are very few genes ‘for’ anything. A complex property such as intelligence, for example, involves a network of more than 1,000 genes, interacting with the environment. Other discoveries that chipped away at genetic determinism noted that environmental pressures prompt changes in cell function and gene expression that don’t involve changes in DNA (sometimes lingering over several generations) known as epigenetics; while advances in neuroscience have revealed how our plastic human brains are moulded by experience.

Yet many of those involved in twin studies have been resistant to these influences, betraying the influence of a deeply rooted magical thinking around twins that has cast its long shadow over our understanding of the line between selfhood and otherness.

T hirty years ago, when I began writing about twins, I approached several professionals who specialised in counselling women who’d experienced multiple births, asking each of them why behavioural coincidences in identical twins occurred. Rather to my surprise, they all plumped for telepathy – like the separated conjoined twins of Alexandre Dumas’s novel The Corsican Brothers (1844), who read each other’s thoughts when apart. Joan Woodward, a twin herself and a psychotherapist, suggested that identical twins offered evidence of extrasensory perception ‘which seems to exist for some twins – a bit like these stories of Bushmen in the Kalahari walking miles to visit an uncle because they sense he’s in trouble.’

I was well aware that claims about telepathy, between twins or otherwise, failed when tested under clinical conditions, and that such mystical examples of premonitions were a good illustration of why anecdotes are not evidence. But such assertions interested me nonetheless, because idiosyncratic stories are so much part of what drives our fascination with twins. Their mystique is woven into our cultural history – perhaps because the idea of having a doppelgänger is so compelling, a mirror version of ourselves who echoes our thoughts and fears, or a companion who understands our every impulse and ensures we are never lonely. Our enchantment may also come from the perception that we have a different person inside us, the internal twin, of the Jekyll-and-Hyde variety.

Then there’s our fascination with identical twins seeming so ‘other’– a pair so attuned to each other’s way of being that one can pass for the other, hoodwinking the rest of us. Or, equally pervasive, the idea that, in order for one twin to truly thrive, he or she must destroy the other. Think of Romulus and Remus, twin sons of the vestal virgin Rhea Silvia and the god Mars, suckled by a she-wolf and united against their enemies – until they fall out over which of the seven hills to build on; Romulus kills Remus and goes on to found Rome. Or Jacob and Esau, one usurping the other’s birthright to win their father Isaac’s favour. This kind of mythologically laden thinking about identical twins in particular, combined with a steadfast belief in old-style genetic fundamentalism, has tainted the science of twin studies, with some of its leading lights faking or manipulating evidence.

The ‘Angel of Death’ would order any twins he spotted among incoming prisoners to step out for experiments

Scientists first spotted the potential of twin studies in 1875 when Charles Darwin’s polymath cousin Francis Galton wrote to 35 pairs of apparently identical twins and 20 pairs of apparently fraternal twins. He used their anecdotes to conclude that the twins who said they looked alike had similar characters and interests, whereas those who said they looked different became more so as they got older. With both sets the ‘external influences have been identical; they have never been separated,’ he said . Galton claimed his results proved that ‘nature prevails enormously over nurture’.

Galton’s work with twins reinforced his dubious belief in purifying the population, a version of ethnic cleansing that became the engine of Nazi eugenics, underpinning Josef Mengele’s notorious research in Auschwitz, involving 1,500 twin pairs. The physician known as the ‘Angel of Death’ would order any twins he spotted among incoming prisoners to step out for experiments. In one case, his assistant injected chloroform into the hearts of 14 pairs of Roma twins, after which Mengele dissected their bodies. In another, he sewed together a pair of Roma twins to create conjoined twins. They died of gangrene. In a third, he connected a girl’s urinary tract to her colon. Sometimes, he’d simply shoot them and then dissect them.

The revelations of Mengele’s crimes gave twin studies a nasty name, but the research continued because, until recently, those wanting to uncover the genetic contribution to particular traits had little alternative. Over the past few decades, twin studies have been used to test everything, from whether Vitamin C can prevent colds (it can’t) to whether homosexuality has a genetic origin (minor with gay men, and even smaller with lesbian women).

T he main method of twins-based research is to compare dizygotic (DZ), or two-egg ‘fraternal’ twins, with monozygotic (MZ), or one egg ‘identical’ twins, who are more unusual – one birth in 250 (half the frequency of fraternal twins). The basis of this approach is the assumption that both groups share their environments to the same extent, but that, because fraternal twins share only half their sibling’s genes, if they show greater variation, the cause must be genetic, so it becomes possible to attach a heritability figure to it.

An example of this kind of study, involving a national sample of 11,117 twins, prompted The Guardian headline in 2013: ‘Genetics Accounts For More Than Half Of Variation In Exam Results’. Towards the end of their paper , the study’s authors noted a potential methodological drawback: to wit, ‘the equal-environments assumption – that environmentally caused similarity is equal for MZ and DZ twins’. Acknowledging the problem didn’t stop them making bold claims about the genetic contribution to exam performance. But the problem is profound, undermining hereditary claims when it comes to social studies.

The experiential gap starts in the womb because, unlike identical twins, one fraternal twin might be bigger than the other and therefore take up more space. Also, they each have their own placenta (unlike most identical twins). One meta-analytical study on the impact of the foetal environment on IQ concluded that it accounted for 20 per cent of IQ differences between fraternal twins. What’s more, the gap in experience widens as fraternal twins grow older.

A more newsworthy line of research involves comparing twins who’d been separated at birth

When I was at school, I had several twins in my classes. One pair – the Thompsons – were identical. None of us could tell them apart, and they navigated the world as a unit. Another pair – I’ll call them the Wellingtons – looked and acted differently: Amy was blonde, sporty, good looking and popular; Mary was less striking, red-haired and had just a few close friends. They seldom hung out together, were treated differently, and pursued distinct paths. These differences may have been prompted by genes, but they were widened by experience. Amy was a partygoer who spent less time studying, drank more and smoked cannabis, all of which could affect exam performance.

With the identical Thompsons, we can be sure their similar exam results were genetically prompted because their shared environment was the same and they modelled their behaviour on each other. But with the Wellingtons, their different life paths (and exam results) could be a result of genes, or of environments that became more distinct as they got older, or both. We can’t be sure.

The other, less common but more newsworthy line of research involves comparing twins who’d been separated at birth. The pioneer of this method was the British psychologist Sir Cyril Burt, a eugenics enthusiast, who claimed that IQ and other differences between races and social classes were hereditary. Burt advised government bodies on the introduction of the 11-plus exam into British schools (to sift the top 20 per cent of pupils into grammar schools, leaving the rest to fill trade-based, secondary moderns), and pushed them to include an IQ test, insisting that IQ was innate. He based his conclusions on studies of separated identical twins that he claimed to have conducted with three assistants in the 1950s and ’60s.

Shortly after he died in 1971, Burt’s records and notes were all burnt, after which his reputation imploded. Two of his researchers, whose names appeared as co-authors on his papers, could not be traced (when asked about them, Burt had said they’d both ‘emigrated’ – but he didn’t know where) and a third he clearly invented. In The Science and Politics of IQ (1974), the American psychologist Leon Kamin noted that in 1955, when Burt claimed to have tested 21 separated identical twins, he put the correlation between their IQs at 0.771, yet in the 1960s, when his twins cohort numbered 53, he gave the identical three-decimal figure, which Kamin said had a statistically minuscule chance of occurring. Some circumstantial details that Burt claimed to have found among his twins also raised eyebrows: of a pair born to a wealthy mother and then adopted, he claimed one was raised in splendour on a Scottish country estate, and the other was left to a shepherd (like Perdita in The Winter’s Tale ). The killer blow was delivered by his approved biographer, Leslie Hearnshaw, a one-time Burt enthusiast who in 1979 concluded that all of Burt’s twin studies were invented.

T he next big wave of studies of separated twins came from the stable of Bouchard, the hereditarian behind the ‘Jim Twins’ revelations. Bouchard was attracted to race science and, in 1994, he publicly endorsed a document drawn up by the race science promoter Linda Gottfredson: ‘Mainstream Science on Intelligence’. Its purpose was to back Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray’s book The Bell Curve (1994), which argued that poverty was caused by low IQ and that this was the reason why there were more poor Black people. Bouchard also wrote an enthusiastic endorsement for an overtly racist book called Race, Evolution, and Behavior (1995) by the Canadian psychologist J Philippe Rushton. Bouchard received financial backing for his twin studies from the Pioneer Fund, set up in 1937 by Nazi supporters. The Fund maintained its policy of promoting research in eugenics and ‘race betterment’.

Race science promoters were drawn to twin studies because they thought that, if it could be shown that IQ was highly heritable, then different IQ averages between population groups could be portrayed as innate. But this assumption misunderstands heritability, which speaks to the degree of variation in a trait directly caused by genes within a population, never between populations. This can be illustrated using something far more heritable than IQ: height. Two populations with the same gene profile might have different height averages for environmental reasons. For instance, South Koreans are up to 8 cm taller than North Koreans because of better nutrition over several generations. In the same way, two populations might have different IQ averages owing entirely to environmental factors – something that Bouchard’s backers failed to appreciate.

Using Pioneer Fund money, Bouchard’s Minnesota Center for Twin and Family Research built up its larder of twins raised apart, inviting them in for a battery of interviews and tests. His research team ended up grilling 81 pairs of identical twins and 56 pairs of fraternals. Bouchard’s results must have delighted his sponsors because he said adult IQ was 70 per cent heritable (later he opted for an overall figure of 50 per cent). But his methods and conclusions did not impress other researchers . One problem was self-selection. His identical twins had known each other for an average of nearly two years before contacting him; some had known each other as young children; and it seems likely that those who were most alike were most likely to contact him. Kamin, the professor who rumbled Burt’s fraudulent studies, and his colleague said there was pressure on the twins to come up with cute stories, and that Bouchard’s studies had ‘a number of serious problems in the design, reporting, and analyses’.

Numerous scientists have questioned the value of heritability estimates for social phenomena

Another issue is that Bouchard’s heritability score was based on ‘the assumption of no environmental similarity’ even though almost all the twins in his studies were raised in aspirant, white, middle-class environments, often living near one another, with relatives. Richard Nisbett, a psychology professor at the University of Michigan who specialises in IQ, argued that this false baseline insistence that all adopting families were different led to an overestimation of heritability. ‘Adoptive families, like Tolstoy’s happy families, are all alike,’ he said in an interview with The Times in 2009. Incidentally, Bouchard acknowledged that his percentages applied only to the ‘broad middle class in industrialised societies’, which seemed to contradict his ‘no environmental similarity’ assumption.

Bouchard’s claim that the heritability of IQ increases as twins get older – when true IQ potential kicks in – is equally problematic. Jim Flynn, perhaps the leading IQ theorist of the past half-century, disagreed. In his book What Is Intelligence? (2012), he used the example of separated identical twins born with sharper-than-average brains – prompting them to go to the library, get into top-stream classes, and attend university – to disavow the notion that ‘identical genes alone’ will account for their similar adult IQ scores, and suggesting instead that ‘the ability of those identical genes to co-opt environments of similar quality will be the missing piece of the puzzle.’ Flynn places this ‘multiplier effect’ squarely in the environmental column.

Numerous scientists have questioned the value of heritability estimates for social phenomena – both because it is impossible to separate genetic and environmental prompts, and because it depends on how a population is defined: the wider the definition, the lower the heritability percentage. Bouchard acknowledged that non-middle-class environments might reduce heritability estimates, and that his percentages should therefore ‘not be extrapolated to the extremes of environmental disadvantage’. The British neuroscientist Steven Rose put it more bluntly: ‘Heritability estimates become a way of applying a useless quantity to a socially constructed phenotype and thus apparently scientising it – a clear cut case of Garbage In, Garbage Out.’

I t would seem that genes are less predictive of human behaviour than once thought – at least this is what is emerging from genome-wide association studies (GWAS) that find genetic markers for alleles that influence a trait within a particular population, producing a ‘polygenic score’. Thus, a study of 54,888 Icelanders published in Nature Genetics in 2018 found the heritability of educational attainment was 17 per cent (compared with 50 per cent-plus from twin studies) .

The academic psychologist Kathryn Paige Harden, who uses twin studies and GWAS methods, acknowledges that both these forms of social research may over-egg heritability. ‘There are questions with the twin studies about whether they are attributing to genes what should really be claimed by the environment,’ she told The Observer in 2021. ‘And for polygenic score studies, people may just happen to differ genetically in ways that match environmental factors, and it is really those that are driving the effect.’

If people with identical genes are raised in similar environments, it is likely their IQs will also be similar. But what would happen if they were raised in diverse environments like the twins in The Corsican Brothers – one raised by a servant in the mountains; the other as a gentleman in Paris? Despite his own hereditarian bias, Bouchard’s research suggests the answer. In one paper he referred to separated identical twins with an IQ gap of 29 points; in another , 24 points.

What about both smoking Salem cigarettes, owning dogs called Toy, and having wives called Linda and Betty?

More recently, two pairs of Colombian identical twins were raised as fraternal twins after being mixed up in a hospital error: one pair was raised rurally in a poor family near La Paz, the other pair grew up in a lower-middle-class family in cosmopolitan Bogotá. When they met in 2014, initial reports focused on their similarities. But when Yesika Montoya, a Colombian psychologist, and Nancy Segal, an American academic psychologist who’d once been Bouchard’s lead researcher, persuaded all four men to sign up for a batch of interviews, IQ tests and questionnaires, they discovered that the twins were even less alike than anticipated. ‘The Colombian twins really made me think hard about the environment,’ Segal told The New York Times in 2015. Later, she told The Atlantic : ‘I came away with a real respect for the effect of an extremely different environment.’ A similar experience with a pair of Korean identical twins confirmed Segal’s appreciation of ‘cultural influences’. ‘They really do have a strong effect,’ she told The Telegraph in 2022. ‘But they don’t blot out the basic similarities.’

Yet it is all too easy to pounce on those similarities and overstate their significance, and then brush aside differences. The Jim Twins are an example. There are clear genetic links to heart problems, migraines, weight gain, sleep patterns, nail-biting and probably to maths preference too. Other parallels can be explained at least in part by the Jims’ similar home environments, including shared holiday destinations, job overlaps and car choices. But what about both smoking Salem cigarettes, owning dogs called Toy, and having wives called Linda and Betty? Pure chance. In nearly 2,000 studies of twins raised apart, coincidences inevitably emerge, but no studies uncovered anything like the level of overlap found with the two Jims.

Put it all together, and it would seem that using twins to discover heritability percentages for human behaviour is inherently unreliable. The usual method, of comparing identical and fraternal twins falters because it cannot calculate the impact of the diverging environments experienced by most fraternal twins. The esoteric method of comparing twins raised apart may produce tasty anecdotes, but it has even more profound problems, starting with the small, self-selecting sample and the false assumption that their home environments differ substantially.

Twin studies are still widely used and may remain useful in trying to find out the heritability of illnesses and other physical outcomes where the environmental component is unlikely to differ between identical and fraternal twins. But there is a huge gap between attaching a heritability percentage for, say, macular degeneration, and for something like IQ or academic performance, where it’s impossible to untangle the interlocking influences of biology and culture.

Even the Jim Twins, raised by similar families, in the same part of the same state, have their own stories to tell because of their unique upbringings. Focus on these, and a different picture emerges. When they first met, they had distinct hairstyles and facial hair (one a bit Elvis, the other more Beatles) and different kinds of jobs. Their children were of different ages and most had different names. Springer stayed with his second wife, Betty, while Lewis married a third time. More significantly, they displayed marked character differences, noticeable to anyone who met them: Springer, the more loquacious of the brothers, called himself ‘more easy-going’ and said Lewis was ‘more uptight’. Lewis was reticent in public and, in private, he preferred to write down his thoughts.

Much of the magic evaporates when we lift the lid on the sensational tales of parallel lives. What emerges in place of this seductive mirror myth of the hidden double are more mundane tales of everyday difference, revealing the unique selfhood that is part of the inheritance of all people – including those with genetic doppelgängers.

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Space propulsion by manipulating space-time: can it go from paper to reality, openmind books, scientific anniversaries, gerald durrell and the love of wildlife, featured author, latest book, greek myths in science: scylla and charybdis.

As is widely known, Greek myths and, by extension, Roman myths have greatly influenced many aspects of western culture ranging from literature to cinematography, through various arts and sciences. But you may also have the idea that these myths are already “dead”. However, some of these myths still survive to this day, and somewhere you would perhaps least expect: in science. One of these myths is that of  Scylla and Charybdis , whose trail continues to appear in various fields of Biology, such as Taxonomy, Genetics and Biochemistry, and in other fields such as Geography and Astronomy.

The myth of Scylla and Charybdis

The myth as it appears in Homer’s Odyssey describes an area of sea with a channel where, on one side, there is a monster, Scylla, with a woman’s torso and a fish’s tail from which six dogs emerge, each with two legs ending in heads with three rows of teeth that fiercely attack the ships passing through her side of the strait. On the opposite side of the channel, there is a whirlpool, Charybdis, that periodically—three times a day—alternatively gorges and disgorges the ships sailing by. And since the channel is very narrow, the passing ships are in great danger, because  if they don’t fall into the claws of Scylla, they fall into Charybdis’s waves . In fact, on his journey back home as told in the Odyssey, and on the advice of the goddess Circe,  Ulysses passed by Scylla’s side  so as to lose “just” six sailors but not the whole ship.

Odysseus in front of Scylla and Charybdis Imagen: The Yorck Project:  10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.

This myth has appeared in numerous literary works—from Homer, Ovidio and Virgilio to Manzoni and James Joyce—as well as in artistic works, for example in paintings, ceramics, fountains, sculptures and coins. It has even established itself in journalism-, medical- and legal-related language to describe very dangerous situations, in which there are apparently only two alternatives to get out, but both are undesirable. And in common language, the proverb that invokes this myth means to be between “the devil and the deep blue sea.”

The “flesh and bone” myth

As has happened with other myths, attempts have been made throughout history to look for possible real situations in which this myth could be more or less based. In this case, what has been most defended geographically speaking is that  the myth may be somehow related to the situation in the Strait of Messina,  which separates Sicily from Italy and is less than 3-kilometers wide at its narrowest part. In fact, on the mainland part of the strait, in Calabria, there is a city named  Scilla  with a large cliff and at the base of which it is allegedly defended that this may be the cave where the monster lived. And in front of the cliff, on the island part, in the northwest corner of Sicily, there is a cape ( Cape Peloro ) that has a whirlpool in front of it and has even been included in marine charts as  Charybdis . But, of course, no traces of Scylla have been found; however, the Greeks did know of, for example, reptiles and even mammals with two heads. And the possible whirlpool, at least at present, is not large enough to “absorb” ships.

P lants and animals

In addition, the names of this myth have been used profusely in Biology since  Linnaeus  began to give plants and animals scientific names in the eighteenth century. In 1753, Linnaeus himself gave the name  Scilla maritima to a liliaceae plant with large bulbs widely spread throughout the Mediterranean  that has been called scilla or squill since ancient times and the common name of which in English  is sea onion . Subsequently, with all the changes that taxonomy in general and particularly that of the “liliaceous” plants is undergoing, this species has passed through the Urginea and Drimia genera and, finally and very recently, 1998, it reached the other “extreme” of Scilla, since it has been described as  Charybdis maritima .  In contrast, Linnaeus did not use the names of the two monsters to name animal species. But in the group of “crabs” that he included in a very broad genre called  Cancer  several genera have subsequently been separated, one of them being  Scilla  and the other  Charybdis .

Genes and mutations

Another field of Biology in which mythical names are used is that of genes and their mutations. Specifically, in one of the species most studied by Genetics— the Drosophila vinegar fly —some genes have been named with mythical names, such as  Ariadne  or  Medea . And it is precisely in this species that two genes have recently been described,  scilla and charybde  (sic), that are involved among other things in  embryonic fly development . The curious thing is that it has subsequently been proved that there is a homolog of these two genes in the human genome,  the RTP801 gene , which, among other aspects, is involved in the development of cortical neurogenesis and in the migration of neurons (1).

Outside the human body, this myth has also reached geographic regions far away from where it originated. Consequently, there are glaciers and waterfalls in Antarctica and Canada, and mountains in New Zealand that bear the name of  Charybdis . In this case, there is also another mountain very close called Scilla, as well as sandbanks on the coast of the Philippines such as that known as  ”Charybdis shoal”  by the American maritime service.

Natural principles related to myth

Since ancient times, the plant  Scilla-Urginea-Drimia-Charybdis maritima  has had diverse uses ranging from traditional medicine such as diuretic, emetic, expectorant, stabilizer of heart problems etc., to its use for ritual practices, including its use as an insecticide and rat poison. The natural principles on which these historic utilities can be based are currently being found.

Specifically, in Ch. maritima a plethora of active ingredients such as alkaloids, glycosides, sesquiterpenes, homoisoflavonoids, bufadienolides, etc. have been characterized for some years now. Some of them are specific to these plants and therefore receive names such as  scillirosides, urginerosides,  etc. Some of them are being investigated and their activity is beginning to be proved such as  cardiotonic, antimicrobial, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, etc.

Following this “biochemical” path, in 2006 it was found that in the bulbs of Charybdis maritima there is a protein precisely called  charybdin  which is a ribosome-inactivating protein (2). In relation to this type of protein, which only exists in some plants as well as in some bacteria and fungi, intense research is currently being carried out to use them as  immunotoxins in the fight against cancer , because they seem to act more on cancer cells than on normal cells. In fact, although charybdin does not appear to be very active as a ribosome inactivator, a recombinant antibody based on this protein is beginning to be marketed, albeit only for research purposes for the time being.

Following the trail of charybdin, it was verified for the first time in 2016 that  in ancient times the bulbs of Charybdis maritime were used in funeral practices.  It has thus been seen in a Middle Eastern burial from more than 7,000 years ago that both the buried and burial offerings were “coated” with a paste that in addition to bovine blood, carried collagens, resins and vegetable proteins among which charybdin was the most prominent (3).

All this shows that at least in the case of Scylla and Charybdis,  Greek myths still leave their mark on science.  And this is not a unique case, as we only need to look to see how other Greek myths already mentioned such as Medea or Ariadne appear in Biology, or how the collection of all of them serve to  name planetary satellites and other astronomical bodies in our solar system  that have long since been discovered as well as those still being discovered. Incidentally, there is an asteroid that is part of the great asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter called  Charybdis , so we could say that this myth has gone as far as the “stars.”

Manuel Ruiz Rejón

Doctor of Biological Sciences

Bibliography

• Scuderi, A. et al. 2006. scylla and charybde, homologues of the human apoptotic gene RTP801, are required for head involution in Drosophila. Biology. 291, 1:110-122
• Touloupakis, E. et al. 2006. Isolation, characterization, sequencing and crystal structure of charybdin, a type 1 ribosome-inactivating protein from Charybdis marítima agg. FEBS J. 2006, 273(12): 2682-92.
• Solazzo, C. et al. 2016. Identification of the earliest colagen and plant-based coating from Neolithic artefacts (Nahal Hemar cave, Israel). Rep.6, 31053.

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Anthropology & Materialism

A Journal of Social Research

Home Issues 2 1. Social Theory Roger Caillois’ Biology of Myth a...

Roger Caillois’ Biology of Myth and the Myth of Biology

The article focuses on the “mythical” epistemology of Roger Caillois (1913-1987). For the French sociologist, writer and literary critic myth can no longer be confined to the specialist area of a cultural analysis of mythology, but is part of a « diagonal science ». In his work Le mythe et l’homme (1938), he aims to develop a “biological” basis for the theory of myths. He argues that human imagination is dominated by instincts and that natural processes control cultural production. Thus, Le mythe et l'homme combines anthropology with biology. But this heretical combination of different fields of research is not strictly speaking "scientific", but rather creates, even against the intention of its author, a quasi-mythological text itself. Still, my reading of Caillois' biologist mythology proposes to consider this text not as simply pseudo-scientific, but as a hybrid between fiction and science and in this sense as epistemologically productive: It aims to revitalise the realm of aesthetics by drawing on seemingly more objective biological paradigms. But by doing so, Caillois at the same time turns concepts of evolutionary biology upside down and reorganizes them according to aesthetic criteria. I.e., Caillois’ approach to a biology of myth is still an inspiring incentive to further pursue analyses of the links between evolutionary and aesthetic theory.

Ce texte montre la fécondité d’une épistémologie « mythique » telle que celle de Roger Caillois (1913-1978). Pour le sociologue et écrivain, le mythe n'est pas l’objet d'une science spécialisée (la mythologie), mais contribue au projet d'une « science diagonale » qui excède et transgresse les différentes disciplines scientifiques. Dans son ouvrage fondateur Le mythe et l'homme (1938), Caillois rapporte les mythes à une base biologique : en posant que l’imagination de l’homme est dominée par son instinct et, donc, la production culturelle par des phénomènes naturels, il « diagonalise » l’anthropologie et la biologie. Mais cette combinaison hérétique des sciences aboutit moins, malgré la volonté de Caillois, à une mythologie scientifique qu’à un texte lui-même mythique. Sans manquer de critiquer ses failles, cet article montre que cette « mythologie biologiste » n’est cependant pas « pseudo-scientifique », mais forme un hybride épistémologiquement productif entre la fiction et la science. Caillois vivifie le domaine de l’esthétique en avançant des paradigmes apparemment plus objectifs. Mais en même temps, il renverse les concepts de la biologie évolutionniste et les réorganise selon des critères esthétiques. Son approche d’une biologie du mythe incite ainsi à poursuivre l’analyse stimulante des liens entre esthétique et évolutionnisme.

Index terms

Mots-clés : , keywords: , editor's notes.

English translation reviewed by Kevin Kennedy

Introduction

“Comparant les modèles les plus achevés des deux évolutions divergentes du règne animal, évolutions aboutissant respectivement à l’homme et aux insectes, il ne devra pas paraître périlleux de chercher des correspondances entre les uns et les autres et plus spécialement entre le comportement des uns et la mythologie des autres […].”

Roger Caillois

1 The sociologist, writer, and literary critic Roger Caillois (1918-1978) devoted his oeuvre to a universal “phenomenology of the imagination”. Caillois post-war books are based on his idea of a “natural fantastic” ( fantastique naturel , cf. Caillois 1962) and explore the scientific field of mineralogy with a study about the Writing of Stones (French original 1975), or examines the logic of the imaginary in the phantasms and legends connected to the life of octopuses (1973). But the epistemological basis for his theory of a “aesthetic of nature” is already built in his very first writings: In the 1930ies, myth becomes a crucial object of Caillois analysis. It is portrayed as the “focal point of the imagination” (cf. 1938:9). According to Caillois, myth can therefore no longer be confined to the specialist area of a cultural analysis of mythology but becomes the object of a new, universal science, the basis of which Caillois begins to develop in the 1930s: this so-called “diagonal science” ( science diagonale ; cf. 1960) cuts across the different branches of science, both methodologically and in terms of subject matter. His early book on myth, Le mythe et l’homme (1938), collects studies on Chinese royal myths, surveys on Greek mythology, myths on insects, such as the praying mantis, and urban myths in police novels from 19 th century Paris. Caillois thus combines literary and sociological studies, connects them to psychological and biological frameworks, and thereby already lays the ground for his concept of a diagonal science.

2 The following article focuses on the two chapters in Le mythe et l’homme , which deal with the mythology of insects, “La mante religieuse” (abbreviated version published in 1934) and “Mimétisme et psychasthénie légendaire” (abbreviated version 1935), in which Roger Caillois links mythology to entomology for the purpose of a “fundamental biological research” on myth. He thereby not only presupposes structural analogies between phenomena in the animal kingdom and human myths, but also assumes a process of direct reproduction of natural, biological laws in the human faculty of imagination. Caillois’ mythology of the praying mantis thus exceeds the limits of a merely scientific methodological research and cannot be regarded as a straightforward examination of already existing myths. By drawing on assumed analogies between apparently disparate phenomena and various scientific epistemologies, Caillois, contrary to his intention, creates a quasi-mythical text himself. Still, my reading of Caillois’ early essays on myth does not intend to dismiss his biologist mythology as simply pseudo-scientific, but considers it as a hybrid between fiction and science, and in this sense as epistemologically productive.

I. Empirical Imagination

• 1 Le mythe et l’homme is followed by other, more sociological or anthropological studies on myth, cf. (...)

3 Le mythe et l’homme is Caillois’ first important work on myth and was published in 1938. 1 The volume gathers several texts that had already been partly published in the early 1930s. Le mythe et l’homme aims to examine the “nature and functioning” of myth, as well as the different laws of its formation (cf. 1938: 13). Caillois’ mythology is part of his approach to a “phenomenology of the imagination” that he had already initiated in his first writings, e.g. in Le procès intellectuel d’art (first published in 1935, cf. Caillois 1974a). From the study of myth Caillois expected a privileged starting point for the structural enquiry into imagination, as he considered myth to reveal both collective social ideas and the deep structures of the individual psyche:

C'est en effet dans le mythe que l'on saisit le mieux, à vif , la collusion des postulations les plus secrètes, les plus virulentes du psychisme individuel et des pressions les plus impératives et les plus troublantes de l'existence sociale. (Caillois 1938: 13)

4 Caillois’ mythology thus aims firstly to explain the specific character of various manifestations of the imaginary, secondly to systematize these various phenomena that feed human myths, and finally to show how the independent elements are nevertheless interwoven with and tied to each other to form an “organic totality” of myth ( une totalité organique , cf. ibid.: 12).

• 2 The approach to a „phenomenology of the imagination“ was significantly inspired by Gaston Bachelard (...)
• 3 For more information on the quarrel between Breton and Caillois, which began with the famous “incid (...)

5 Although Caillois’ interest in myths as well as the specific focus of his research – myth is examined in relation to the miraculous, the game, the dream, and psychopathology – reveal the significant influences surrealism and psychoanalysis had exerted on him, his systematic approach is very specific: his mythology does not want to analyse the content of myth, nor does it intend to provide any more “deliriums of content”, but aims to proceed in a strictly formal manner (cf. ibid.: 19). 2 His mythological project was not only preceded by studies (1933-1934) with the famous religious scientist and comparative mythologist Georges Dumézil at the École pratique des hautes etudes in Paris but also by a renunciation of surrealism in 1934. Disappointed by the “imbalance between science and art”, he departed from the circle around André Breton and accused it of privileging art, and thus remaining in the realm of intuition and the irrational. Caillois by contrast does not want to content himself with a pure description of myth, or its evocation by means of art, but seeks to analyse it, and to classify and systematize its elements (cf. 1974b: 35-35). 3

• 4 Caillois understands mythical narrations as an intersection of forces that spring from two differen (...)
• 5 Besides the „impure“ elements in art, there is, according to Caillois, also a „pure“, idealistic an (...)

6 Even though his approach to mythology is strongly influenced by the methods of Freudian psychoanalysis, 4 whose concepts of the unconscious and overdetermination he borrows for his own analysis, Caillois distances himself from the “blind and mechanical use” of psychoanalytical symbolism and elaborates his own theory of mental faculties (cf. ibid.: 23f.). According to Callois, an investigation of myth requires an analysis of that “special faculty of the mind”, called the imagination. For him, this faculty does not constitute a pure or transcendental imagination but is rather based on the partie vécue , that is to say on the “impure” 5 and subjective elements taken from reality itself, "[...] les seuls matériaux sur lesquels on puisse utilement travailler à isoler le fait de l'imagination , en tant qu'activité diffluente [...]" (1974a: 49). In Caillois’ epistemology, the imagination is an empirically grounded faculty, thus he refers to it as “empirical imagination”:

L'impureté dans l'art relève enfin exclusivement de l'imagination empirique , en entendant par cette expression la capacité d'utilisation du concret à des fins les plus souvent passionnelles, mais où la part d'une certaine intellectualité tendue n'est nullement négligeable. (1974a: 47)

• 6 Considering its direct, anti-idealistic and material dimension, Caillois notion of „empirical imagi (...)
• 7 Hence he eventually blurs the boundaries between the subject and the environment – a way of thinkin (...)
• 8 Nevertheless, the imagination is not a simple imprint of a natural phenomenon (as in Descartes’ the (...)

7 Although Caillois attaches a certain importance to the role of the intelligence in the process of perception, the preceding quote shows that he puts the main emphasis on the empirical nature of the imagination. For him, the imagination is essentially empirical, because it emanates from a direct confrontation with sensual phenomena (cf. 1981: 17). In contrast to Kant’s transcendental aesthetic (cf. Kant 1998), Caillois’ theory of the imagination does not include any mediating or synthesizing elements, such as Kant’s apprehension for instance, but is generated directly and immediately. 6 He introduces the term “objective lyricism” ( lyrisme objectif , cf. 1970:218) to refer to the quality of empirical objects and phenomena that arises from their form or content and exists independently from and outside of the human mind. He calls these phenomena “objective” and “lyrical” because they have the “capability to influence human affectivity in a direct way” (1938: 9), and enable the mind to realise specific “affective possibilities” (ibid.: 19). In this regard, sensual empirical phenomena are no longer secondary or mere external stimuli. For Caillois, the objective lyricism inherent in works of art as well as in natural objects, is the principle cause for and driving force behind the human imagination, which thus can be called “empirical”. With reference to both the content and the manifestations of this empirical imagination, he speaks of “objective ideograms” ( idéogramme objectif , cf. 1981: 29). But it is left undecided whether the notion of an “objective ideogram” refers to the natural object or phenomenon itself, or merely to the internal, psychic representation – if, in other words, it refers to empirical reality that, driven by mechanisms inside the human psyche, produces spontaneous associations, representations and ideas (Caillois 1981: 48), or if “objective ideogram” is rather a term for the products of the imagination. 7 On the one hand, Caillois calls all natural phenomena “objective” and “lyrical”, which are able to (lyrically) evoke emotional reactions, even against the will of the perceiving subject (cf. 1981: 29). Such objective ideograms seem to mediate between the extra- and the intrapsychic world. On the other hand, Caillois refers to imaginary images and dreams as well, or, put differently, to the products of human consciousness. In any case, according to Caillois’ notion of an empirical imagination, the capacity of the imagination to be spontaneously productive and to generate new ideas is very limited. He does not regard imagination as an a priori faculty, but rather, with reference to the surrealist concept of écriture automatique , as some kind of “automatic thinking” ( pensée automatique , cf. 1981: 48) that is firmly rooted in the empirical reality of the nature that surrounds it. 8

II. Comparative biology

8 Phenomena that appeal to human affects, impulses and drives and thus directly to man’s biological conditioning are particularly suitable to become natural sources of lyrical objectivity (cf. 1938: 30). Such phenomena, which man observes in nature, “correspond” to his inner psychological and biological structures, and as a result give rise to the imagination and the creation of myths. In assuming that there is an archaic, biological substructure of human fantasy, Caillois concurs with the theory of evolution as outlined by Henri Bergson. In his book Deux sources de la morale et de la religion (1932), published just a few years before Caillois’ study on myths, Bergson posits a close link between human imagination and basic animal survival instincts: Bergson argues that the products of human imagination are based on a so-called “fabulation function” ( fonction fabulatrice ) that constitutes both the human counterpart to animal instinct and its evolutionary development (cf. Bergson 1932: 56 f.) The fabulation function is no longer exclusively tied to instinct, but it is also not fully detached from it either. In religious myths for example, due to the fabulation function, instinct is still active but intellectually developed (ibid.: 59). According to Bergson myths serve as a form of drive satisfaction. They help to intellectually overcome the threatening parts of human existence such as the inevitability of death (cf. ibid.: 71). He thus considers human intelligence as a higher form of basic instincts, or rather as one possible shape instinct assumed in the course of evolutionary development. Bergson insists that the intelligence is still based on the same conditions as animal instinct and moreover, that it is still imbued with instinct (cf. ibid.: 64). He even refers to the fabulation function as a “virtual instinct”:

Disons provisoirement que c'est de l'instinct virtuel, entendant par là qu'à l'extrémité d'une autre ligne d'évolution, dans les sociétés d'insectes, nous voyons l'instinct provoquer mécaniquement une conduite comparable, pour son utilité, à celle que suggèrent à l'homme, intelligent et libre, des images quasi hallucinatoires. (Ibid.: 60)

9 Human intelligence and animal instinct both derive from a basic, unifying force, the “vital impetus” ( élan vital ) which, according to Bergson, is the fundamental motor behind all life forms, and are thus portrayed as two different but closely related and still intertwined manifestations of the same biological conditions. Human imagination is located in-between the two different “evolutionary lines” of instinct and intelligence (cf. ibid: 66 f.).

• 9 In a similar fashion Caillois writes: "[...] dans les mythes, ou précisément les instincts peuvent (...)

10 It is obvious that Caillois’ attempt to analyse the biological conditions of human myths on the basis of a “comparative biology” ( biologie comparée , Caillois 1938: 70) is significantly indebted to Bergson’s notion of the fabulation function. He employs Bergson’s evolutionary model for his own study of myth while trying to refine it: 9 Caillois imagines a natural and universal network of objective ideograms that “corresponds” to man’s archaic parts and offers the pattern for myth-making (cf. Caillois 1938: 26). At the same time, he considers myth to be overdetermined, that is to say, it is derived from more than one source and its production proceeds from “outside to inside”. The first level of myth-making arises from the observation of phenomena like the lunar phases or the solar eclipses, which have inspired various mythic narratives throughout human history. Together with stories on historical or social events and special geographic characteristics, they constitute the external components of myth but do not themselves sufficiently impact human affectivity (ibid.: 20-21).

11 In order to explain the more powerful substructure of myths, Caillois invokes an “internal mythology” ( mythologie interne , ibid.: 30) that originates in several objective ideograms provided by nature. This internal mythology is based on phenomena that are linked to man’s natural instincts, partly for psychological, partly for biological reasons (cf. ibid.: 24). According to Caillois, myth-making is not a procedure of symbolizing nature, instinct or the drives, but rather results from a direct imprinting of nature in products of human imagination – a process, which corresponds to the explanatory model he had already introduced in his theory of objective ideograms. The basis for myth-making is thus provided by a process of unmediated and virtual representation of (animal) drives in the human psyche:

On peut alors retrouver la trame de leur [des mythes, R.E.] organisation [...] étant donné que la représentation remplace en des certains cas l'instinct et que le comportement réel d'une espèce animale peut éclairer les virtualités psychologiques de l'homme. (Ibid.: 33)

• 10 Freud considers myth to arise from the veiling and restaging of the original patricide, committed b (...)

12 By following Bergson’s theory of evolution, and in contrast to the psychoanalytical theory of myths, 10 Caillois does not assume social reasons but basic animal instincts, shared by both man and animal (insect), to be at the core of myth-making. Those stem from shared evolutionary origins, and the “relative continuity” of an evolutionary development that is grounded in the “homogeneity of the universe” (ibid.: 72). For this reason, Callois expects “comparative biology” to produce new insights into the structure and functioning of myths.

III. Biology of the femme fatale

13 The essay on the praying mantis is of great significance for Caillois’ biological grounding of myth theory. His reflections on the assumed analogies between animal behaviour and human myth-making go back to the early 1930s, to his first book (unpublished during his lifetime) La nécessité d’esprit (1981, written somewhere between 1933 to 1935). An abbreviated version of “La mante religieuse” had been published in 1934 in the surrealist journal Minotaure , as well as his other early essay on imagination and insects, “Mimétisme et psychasthénie légendaire” (1935). Extended versions of both texts are included in the volume Le mythe et l’homme (1938), complete with references to entomological studies and extended to a full theoretical reflection on “comparative biology”. The chapter on the praying mantis draws a comparison between myths and scientific research on the praying mantis on the one hand, and the myth of the femme fatale on the other. Caillois refers to myths, scientific reports, lexica and folk tales from the ancient world to the present time, from both European and non-European cultures, where the insect is associated with “all sorts of miraculous things”. He has recourse to reports by natural scientists from the 19 th and 20 th centuries as well as to anthropological reports on North Asian, North American and Kabyle myths on female spectres that kill their males (cf. ibid.: 61 f.). He also cites a treatise on the nature of sexuality by the German Romanticist Novalis (ibid.: 58), and shows that nursery rhymes attribute fortune telling skills to the animal, and that, in French folk tales, it is believed to be a miracle healer (cf. 1938: 40-41). Rather additively, he strings together several quotes from the different texts and text genres to prove, that in Parma, Portugal as well as in Tyrol, Germany and Greece the insect was considered to be both satanic and sacred, whereas in Africa it is worshiped as a god. By quoting extracts from these different source materials, Caillois wants to draw attention to one of the insect’s special characteristics: its tooth. The latter is used by the female praying mantis to kill and devour the male during copulation (ibid.: 46 f.). Caillois insists that the behaviour of the animal is the reason why man associated it with a dangerous, man-eating female sexuality, and that in stories and reports on the insects, it conspicuously often displays characteristics that are usually attributed to a femme fatale (ibid.: 58 f.).

14 Caillois’ particular interest in the praying mantis certainly is very à la mode at this time: Famous surrealists like André Breton owned and bred the animal. The insect was deemed an animal version of the femme fatale – a very popular surrealist figure that was both arousing and terrifying and gave rise to numerous myths about female magic, divinity and power. The insects fascinated the surrealists and Roger Caillois, not only because its posture seemed to correspond to its name and thus supposedly revealed a magic relationship between nature and religion, but also because of its aggressive sexual behaviour. Thus it became the surrealist symbol for female sexual domination (cf. Zuch 2004). Against this background, Caillois’ text on the praying mantis raises the question if it is not the particular behaviour of the insect in the first place, that initially spawned the creation of myths on sexually dangerous women:

Ce qui m'a intéressé, c'est de voir qu'il y avait dans la mythologie des mythes qui n'avaient pas comme centre la mante religieuse, mais qui étaient des mythes des femmes fatales, ou de femelles dangereuses dont le vagin était denté, par exemple, et coupait l'organe masculin, ou détail empoisonné, communiquait une maladie pernicieuse à ceux qui s'accouplaient avec elles [...]. (Caillois 1991: 65)

15 For Caillois, the similarities between myths on femmes fatales and myths on the praying mantis, i.e., the analogies between human myths and myths referring to natural phenomena are not accidental. Nor does he believe that animal myths are mere projections of human fantasies onto phenomena of the animal kingdom. He rather insists that both mythologies have the same origin, namely the biological condition of all living creatures. The reasons for the similarities of the two mythological narrations are thus empirical and evolutionary (cf. 1938: 83).

16 To explain the presumed analogies, Caillois at first refers to his theory of objective ideograms. He argues that because of its name, its physiognomy and its behaviour, the praying mantis possesses the “objective capability to operate directly on affectivity”:

Ainsi, indépendamment de tout mythe et sans préjuger d'eux, il est certain qu'un insecte comme la mante religieuse présente à un rare degré cette capacité objective d'action directe sur l'affectivité : son nom, sa forme, ses mœurs même, dès qu'on les connait, tout paraît concourir à ce résultat. (1938: 38)

17 As Caillois had already pointed out in his theoretical treatise on the objective lyricism of natural phenomena, he considers the process of the imagination to consist of an unmediated evocation of certain ideas, triggered by empirical phenomena, in this case by the praying mantis (cf. 1938: 37). Yet, he does not think that myth-making is simply based on a chain of associations between the two separate spheres of human psychic life and instinctive animal behaviour, created by the imagination itself. Instead, he considers the basis of the imagination and of myth-making to be a process of human identification with the animal, caused by its “anthropomorphic” appearance, which he regards as a “reliable source of influence” on human affectivity (cf. 1938: 49). The special attraction that the insect exerts on human fantasy is based on its posture, which resembles man’s praying position, and on its ability to turn its head instead of averting its eye from its object of interest (cf. ibid.: 49-50). According to Caillois the insects’ affective potency consequently does not spring from its (culturally determined) features such as the mysterious name (given to it by man) and the magic power (attributed to it by man), but from its curious shape itself, and especially from its sexual and eating behaviour, which gives birth to the myths in the first place ( La mythologie à l’état de naissance cf. ibid.: 38-39). For Caillois the phantasms that cause myth-making seem to emanate from the empirical realm. In other words: it is the natural appearance of the praying mantis itself that directly and immediately affects human imagination. He thus refers to the praying mantis as an objective ideogram (ibid.: 37).

• 11 According to Freud, in the course of a (male) child’s development, the discovery of sexual differen (...)

18 The insect furthermore has a strong effect on man because of profound “coincidences” between the human world and the animal kingdom. Caillois suggests that the female animal’s habit to consume the male during copulation corresponds to some elements in human psychic life, which become apparent in the castration complex. 11 Thus, nature is virtually “extended into human consciousness” (ibd.: 61):

[...] j'ai essayé de montrer, que certaines réactions et constellations affectives primordiales qu'on retrouve quelquefois chez l'homme qu'a l'état de virtualités, correspondent à des faits explicitement et couramment observables dans le reste de la nature. (1974a : 47)

Chez l'homme, à divers degrés, se laissent constater des imaginations, où il est aisé d'apercevoir comme la survivance ou le pressentiment de semblables drames : phantasmes répondant aux comportement d'autres espèces vivantes . (1938: 56-57)

• 12 Nevertheless, Caillois does not only appeal to mere psychic residuums of animal drives: With refere (...)
• 13 Moreover, the „objective lyricism“ of the praying mantis is intensified by the death drive (cf. Fre (...)

19 The castration complex, which Freud considered to be based on socials norms, such as the fear of patriarchal power, is put down to biology: Caillois argues that (male) castration anxiety is a psychic residuum of archaic drives. The “original, intrinsic connection between nurture and sexuality” that, according to him, can be observed in the eating behaviour of the insect, is no longer actually realized in the human world, but still remains very powerful in man’s psychic life (cf. 1938: 59). 12 By observing the female praying mantis, man’s fear of being castrated and devoured by the woman during the act of copulation is reactivated. The evolutionary traces of animal instincts in the human psyche thus provide the basis for the creation of myths. Myths are representations of fantasies, directly and spontaneously evoked (cf. 1934: 25). They replace the animal instinct within man, which can no longer be realized and thus comes to life only virtually (1938: 60). 13

20 Nevertheless, the fantasies and myths of the mantis religiosa , analysed by Caillois, are initiated by the real and empirically observable behaviour of the animal, whereas the figure of the femme fatale is only a figment of man’s imagination and thus a mere product of human culture. Caillois only incidentally notes this difference: “La mante dévore son male […], l’homme imagine que des créatures féminines le dévorent après l’avoir attiré dans leurs bras” (1938: 72, emphasis mine). But although the difference between nature and culture is mentioned by Caillois, he does not deem it essential. Instead, he emphasises the point that the threatening female sexuality, which in both cases feeds the content of the myth, bears directly on human affectivity (1938: 60), and ascribes this power to the shared biological conditions of both man and insect. He thus considers the insect’s “objective” and “lyrical” potency to be proven. What is important to Caillois is that in his theory, myths preserve the continuity of animal instincts, which man has, in theory at least, already overcome. This continuity is extended well into the symbolic realm. According to Caillois, man is still, to a large extent, subjected to the laws of biology, even though these laws are no longer acted out physically, but only virtually in the realm of the imaginary. Although human imagination is considered to be an instance of evolutionary progress, and myth-making a super-natural faculty, more advanced than animal instinct, Caillois does not consider myths to be an auto-creative processes of drive-sublimation. Besides, the fictional parts of myth are left aside. Myth for Caillois is not an attempt at a cultural adaptation of the world, but functions exclusively as mirror of nature. In the form of human fantasies, myths serve as nature’s direct and unmediated virtual representations , based on the evocation of the imagination by the power of empirical phenomena, that reactivate the residuum of animal instinct in the human psyche. In Caillois’ approach to a “biology of myth”, what is usually defined as products culture, including myth, appears as extension of nature, as the virtual trace of drives in the human psyche.

IV. Myth, mimesis and mimétisme

• 14 Whereas mimesis, as Aristotle defines it, cannot be described as a simple reproduction (representat (...)

21 Summarizing Caillois’ theory, one can say that products of the human imagination, such as myth, are based on the “affective necessity” to react to natural phenomena, and that this necessity springs from powerful archaic biological conditions (cf. 1938: 23). In other words, man still has to adapt his thinking and his imagination to the force of nature. At the origin of myth-making, Caillois presumes an instinctive impulse, which, in relation to the outside world, becomes a mimetic impulse. As we have seen in the theory of objective ideograms, the imaginary and hence also myth are linked to the need to respond affectively to the appeals of animal nature, because, due to evolution, man is still part of nature. Mythologies, including the myth of the femme fatale , are based on man’s biologically determined and impulsive inclination to be affected by natural phenomena. Put differently, Caillois’ mythology does not highlight myth’s potential to create artificial worlds, but thinks of it as a mimetic imitation of nature. 14

• 15 On the etymological differences between the French term mimétisme (generally referring to homomorph (...)

22 In a similar manner Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer, who, unlike Caillois, were rather critical towards myths, describe them as objectifications of an “iterating nature”, whereby thinking both adapts itself to natural conditions and simultaneously appropriates nature (cf. Adorno/Horkheimer 2001: 23). At Walter Benjamin’s suggestion, Adorno took note of Caillois’ essay on the praying mantis as early as 1937 and reviewed it quite favourably (cf. Adorno 1994). He praised the non-symbolic, materialist dimension of Caillois’ theory, "[...] daß Caillois die Mythen nicht in Bewußtseinsimmanenz auflöst, sie nicht durch 'Symbolik' verflacht, sondern auf ihre Wirklichkeit aus ist" (Adorno 1994: 276-77). Nevertheless, in a private letter to Walter Benjamin he harshly criticized the absence of historical consciousness in Caillois’ biological mythology, "[…] die Naivetät" mit der Caillois "[...] zwar die historische Dynamik in die Biologie hereinzieht, nicht aber ebenso diese in die historische Dynamik” (ibid.: 277). Indeed, man’s mimetic appropriation of nature, approvingly described by Adorno and Horkheimer cannot be found in Caillois’ theory of myths. On the contrary, Caillois “cryptofascist belief in nature”, as Adorno calls it in his letter to Benjamin (ibid.), also reduces the Aristotelian concept of mimesis to biology, where it is construed as a natural compulsion to imitate: This becomes even more obvious in his essay “Mimétisme et psychasthénie légendaire”, where Caillois sketches his notion of mimetism ( mimétisme ). 15

• 16 The idea of a „sumptuous luxury“ in nature certainly owes a lot to his friend and companion Georges (...)

23 Mimetism is initially used to describe practices of assimilation and camouflage in flora and fauna, such as the imitation of one species by another. But Caillois does not share the assumption of Darwinist evolutionary biology that mimetism is a survival strategy, nor that the imitation is necessarily useful, on the contrary: he argues that the animal’s mimetism not only fails to protect it but that it can in fact be the principle cause for being eaten by its natural enemies (cf. 1935: 7). Thus, the reason for mimetism is not self-protection, but a rather futile and instinctive pursuit of “assimilation to the environment” and a “spatial temptation”, that can by classified as a “disturbed external and self perception” (ibid.: 7-8). In opposition to Darwin’s theory of adaption through natural selection, Caillois argues that mimetism is of no use for the conservation of species and therefore a superfluous sport of nature ( luxe dangereux , cf. 1935 7). 16 Moreover, he does not limit mimetism to fauna and flora, but connects it to forms of human psychopathology, namely to “psychasthenia”, as described by Pierre Janet in the 19 th century (cf. Janet 2005), where the patient feels lost in space and dissociated from himself (cf. Caillois 1935: 9). Mimetism and psychasthenia are coterminous with depersonalisation by overassimilation, and the blurring of boundaries between subject and environment. For Caillois, mimetism cannot therefore be attributed to survival strategies, but only to a symbiotic desire that drives the organism to self-destruction and must thus be viewed as a product of the death drive: „Un tel penchant méritait véritablement le nom d’instinct de mort“ (1938: 78).

• 17 Cf. Freud 2000a. „Il convient enfin de ne pas passer sous silence le mimétisme des mantidés, qui il (...)

24 Considering his theory of mimetism, we can stress another dimension in Caillois’ explanation of the myths on insects: in contrast to Henri Bergson, who links myth to the vital impulse and emphasizes its utility for survival, Caillois relates mythic narration to pathological processes in nature. In this respect he does not appeal to Bergson, but to Freud, connecting mimetism not to the élan vital but to the death drive – the natural wish to return to inanimate, inorganic nature that ultimately leads towards self-destruction. 17 Mimetism is thus based on the death drive. Caillois believes that the death drive, which he considers to be a pathological human impulse, causes both mimetic and symbiotic desire in human sexuality (cf. 1934: 26; 1938: 77-82, cf. 1938: 121). He argues that myths of lethal female sexuality remind man of his desire for and fear of dissolution, and that they are in fact evoked by it. According to Caillois, these fears and desires are rooted in the death drive and come to light in human psychopathology, as well as in the mimetism of insects and in virtual manifestations such as myths: „[…] [les] déterminations fondamentales […] agissent[…] également dans les mythes et les délires, pour prendre le pôles extrêmes de l’affabulation” (ibid. : 84). The self-destructive mimetic impulse is thus held responsible both for the content of the myth of (human and animal) femmes fatales (that topically links fatal female sexuality and death) and for its formal creation. It is this natural mimetic impulse that engenders the human mind’s instinctive response to nature’s objective lyricism and overwhelms him through the power of objective ideograms.

25 It is therefore no coincidence that the two essays on the praying mantis and on mimetism and psychasthenia, which were first published separately, are included in Le mythe et l’homme as two consecutive chapters in the section “The myth and the world” ( le mythe et le monde , cf. 1938: 35). The essays are related not only because of their entomological subject matter, but also because both approach the empirical and biological dimensions of myths. The theory of objective ideograms, used by Caillois in his text on the praying mantis, as well as his notion of mimetism, both postulate a direct and overwhelming force of nature that forces the living being, man or insect, to renounce his/its survival instinct and surrender his/its affective balance to the arousing and at the same time threatening power of natural phenomena. If man, by the means of myth-making and the imagination, practices “mimetism in relation to nature”, this is not in order to overcome or tame his animal instinct, nor due to survival impulses. For Caillois, the imagination and myth-making are of little value for the mastery over or appropriation of nature, but rather represent its dangerous and superfluous parts. Myth emanates from the desire to be confronted with nature’s nightmares, its deformations and “perversions” (1938: 57 f.).

V. Myth and science

26 Caillois’ essays on the mythology of insects found a diverse readership and were not only criticized by Adorno. In relation to his “analogical thinking”, Anne-Élisabeth Halpern (1999) and Vincent Fleury, for example, (2000) discuss Caillois’ “demon of analogy”, that introduces a system of classifications based on false or made-up analogies – a concept, which, according to Halpern, possesses a certain “poetical efficiency”, but lacks a “rational scientific basis” (1999: 174 f.). Halpern argues that the similarities in mythic narrations and natural phenomena are produced artificially, not least by citing dubious scientific sources (ibid.: 161 f.). Indeed, Caillois text on the praying mantis shows little interest in the specific historical conditions for the creation of myths, but rather strings together documents from various historical and cultural areas, without actually differentiating between scientific, literary or traditional sources, and finally assembles them into a “nomenclature” that is supposed to prove the assumed analogies (cf. 1938: 51). The correspondences between natural phenomena and cultural or artistic products, which Caillois aims to reveal, are partly produced by his textual techniques.

• 18 One of Caillois’ readers is Jacques Lacan, who, in his concept of the mirror stage, refers to Caill (...)
• 19 According to Karl Heinz Bohrer (2007), the invention of new mythologies (by using „imaginative voca (...)

20 Caillois’ own diagnosis of his early writings, given in Pierre réfléchies (1975).

• 21 For an approach to Caillois’ references to Lamarck, cf. Kyung-Ho Cha 2010. According to Cha, Caillo (...)
• 22 In his essays Caillois quotes, amongst others, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, the evolutionary scientist Fe (...)

27 From a strict scientific perspective, the criticism levelled at the made-up or fictional parts in Caillois’ procedure of diagonal science is certainly warranted. But it falls short in that it exclusively regards Caillois’ mythology as a scientific project in the classical sense. For it is not only the scientific gesture of his essays, but perhaps also their original, unorthodox and almost literary dimension, or to put it with Halpern, their “poetic efficiency”, i.e., their fictional and fantastic character, that fascinates Callois’ readers. 18 The text on the praying mantis is, against his own claims, not a mere scientific analysis of myths, but rather seems to produce a new “mythology”, that is to say it deliberately produces new, unexpected and imaginative relationships between castration anxiety, human psychopathology and phenomena of the animal kingdom itself. 19 At the same time, as he tries to create a “scientific” basis for his fascination with the insect, he also provides the huge mythical complex of surrealist fantasies about the praying mantis with new phantasms. And because is not always clear whether Caillois merely points out correspondences, or if he actually produces them, whether he just diagnoses analogies or if he imagines them, he formally produces a “material mysticism”. 20 Thus, although he distances himself from surrealism, Caillois can be subsumed into the tradition of modern myth-making ( mythologie moderne ), starting with Louis Aragon. According to Peter Bürger (1971), this tradition can be characterized by its surrender to sensual perception and its desire to perceive new and different relations in the world beyond the realm of purposive rationality. Caillois’ unconventional combination of entomology and aesthetic theory, and his emphasis on analogies between instinctual behaviour and human culture betray such a will to produce new, non-utilitarian relations. It is thus possible to interpret his mythology not only as an exemplary study of comparative biology and a natural-scientific approach to myth. Caillois’ early texts on the insect-myths can also be read as an approach to epistemology and a poetic project or both at the same time: It can be interpreted as well as an essay on aesthetic perception and as a poetic text that uses textual strategies to playfully stage common images and fantasies about the femme fatale in order to make its reader shiver., His mythology oscillates between and draws on both science and fiction. By doing so, Caillois’ reorganisation of mythology also revises scientific concepts and paradigms of evolutionary theory that had already passed its peak or had been excluded from the dominant scientific discourse such as a Lamarckist notion of adaptive force, 21 and applies them to philosophical and aesthetic issues. His theory of useless mimetism is inspired by (and more or less contemporary with) life sciences and evolutionary theory, whose concepts are processed into an anthropological notion of artistic mimesis and used to interpret the mechanisms of myth-making. 22 In adopting a position at the edge of a legitimate scientific discourse, Caillois’ “comparative biology” is able to reveal the implicit mechanisms of science, its systems of classification, its mechanism of inclusion and exclusion, and thereby calls them into question (see Cha 2010: 17 f.). It is precisely because they deny disciplinary boundaries that Caillois’ essays are able to transcend the limits of science and to test the implications of evolutionary biology for art and aesthetics.

• 23 Moreover, the approach to a biology of myth has to be understood as an early critique of anthropoce (...)

28 One also has to point out the contemporary historical index of Caillois’ comparative or diagonal biology, which combines mythology and natural-scientist paradigms in one text. This approach to a new scientific culture reflects the institutional crisis of the Lettres and the rising dominance of positivism in France (cf. Lepenies 2006: 90-102), which is concomitant with a “crisis of literature” diagnosed by Caillois (cf. 1974a: 53-54). By adopting the apparently more objective criteria and paradigms of the empirical sciences, Caillois seeks to authorize his own, humanistic cultural studies on myth, and to overcome surrealism’s exclusive and, in his opinion, powerless concentration on art (cf. ibid.). Through his theory of empirical imagination, Caillois wants to take the plunge out of the “art for art’s sake” into science, and out of literary mythology into a more empirical form of myth theory. But even though he criticizes literature and art as naive, metaphysical and powerless (cf. ibid.: 52 f.), he does not simply want to abolish it. His approach to myths rather seems to seek a new, empirically based aesthetic theory and thus, with the help of the natural sciences, to make the realm of aesthetics more respectable than the avant-garde and their claim for artistic autonomy was able to do: 23 The notion of mimesis is part of a non-determinist view on evolution that does not confine aesthetic freedom to the realm of art, but assumes that nature itself is driven by anti-utilitarian mechanisms. Caillois argues that the animal, by adapting to its environment, does not act according to the dictates of survival, but, just like humans, according to an artistic freedom and on the basis of a sumptuous creative principle in nature itself. Thus, even though his theory of empirical imagination at first sight seems to reduce the imagination and creativity to fundamental laws of nature, his notion of mimetism also makes clear that he ascribes freedom of creativity to nature itself. His mythology does not only aim at a biological foundation for myth theory, but also at an artistic grounding of biology. In his later texts on the beauty of nature such as Ésthétique généralisée (1962) and Méduse & Cie (1960), Caillois takes up this argument and sketches a vision of a universal and “natural” aesthetics and poetics, a “natural fantastic”, rooted in nature itself. Not man, not the perceiving subject is the centre of aesthetic experience, but in the processes of imagination, the artistic principle of nature (nature artiste, Caillois 19 are realised independently from the human mind and will. In processes of aesthetic perception, the subject mentally collapses, identifies with the outside world and merges with its environment. Man is no longer the centre of the universe (cf. Jenny 1992: 64).

• 24 Peter Berz, for example, refers to Caillois’ theory in arguing for a contemporary approach to a „bi (...)

29 Thus it can be summarized that on the one hand, Caillois tries to revitalise the realm of aesthetics and the imagination by drawing on seemingly more objective biological paradigms. On the other hand, he also turns concepts of evolutionary biology upside down and reorganizes them – namely according to aesthetic criteria. Hence his theory of myth can also be read – and maybe even at least partially against its own intention – as an artist’s plea for a new aesthetic theory that grounds artistic freedom and aesthetic autonomy in nature itself, and thus appeals to an almost unassailable ontological foundation. But whether it is science or fiction, Caillois’ mythology prefigures highly topical questions about the possible connections between biology and aesthetic theory, beyond a Darwinist explanation of natural beauty on the basis of selection and reproduction. 24 Despite the historical index of his essays and maybe even because of its unorthodox scientific methodology which is inimical to leading evolutionary paradigms of the 20 th and 21 th century, Caillois’ approach to a biology of myth is still an inspiring incentive to further pursue analyses of the links between evolutionary and aesthetic theory.

Bibliography

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Adorno, T. W. 1994. Wiesengrund-Adorno an Benjamin, London, 22. 9. 1937. In Theodor W. Adorno und Walter Benjamin. Briefwechsel 1928-1940 . Vol. 1. (ed.) The Theodor W. Adorno Archiv. Frankfurt on the Main: Suhrkamp, 276-277.

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Caillois, R. 1975. Pierres réfléchies . Paris: Gallimard. English translation: The Writing of Stones (1985). (tr.) B. Bray. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.

Caillois, R. 1978. La querelle des Haricots sauteurs. In Rencontres . (ed.) B. Didier. Paris: P.U.F., 290-294.

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Freud, S. 2000b. Totem und Tabu. In Studienausgabe. Vol. 9: Fragen der Gesellschaft, Ursprünge der Religion . (ed.) A. Mitscherlich, A. Richards, and J. Strachey. Frankfurt on the Main: Fischer, 287–444.

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Zuch, R. 2004. Max Ernst, der König der Vögel und die mythischen Tiere des Surrealismus. In kunsttexte.de, 2, 1-13.

1 Le mythe et l’homme is followed by other, more sociological or anthropological studies on myth, cf. i.a. Caillois 1950.

2 The approach to a „phenomenology of the imagination“ was significantly inspired by Gaston Bachelard’s Le nouvel esprit scientifique (1938). Caillois adopts Bachelard’s call for a reformation of science and he also shares his emphasis on the experimental and imaginative parts in the process of scientific theory-production.

3 For more information on the quarrel between Breton and Caillois, which began with the famous “incident of the Mexican jumping beans“ (Breton wanted to admire the beans from the outside, Caillois to open and dissect them), cf. Caillois 1978.

4 Caillois understands mythical narrations as an intersection of forces that spring from two different sources, from social structures and from the texture of the human psyche. He employs the concepts of overdetermination, transfer, and concentration that Freud had developed in his theory of the dream work, and praises the „worth-while logic of affective imagination“ that “sheds light on the deep psychological reality“ of myths (cf. 1938:23).

5 Besides the „impure“ elements in art, there is, according to Caillois, also a „pure“, idealistic and harmonic part, of which he rather disapproves, however. In this context, he refers to the universal dualism of the sacré pur and the sacré impur of French religious sociology (cf. i.a. Durkheim 1960).

6 Considering its direct, anti-idealistic and material dimension, Caillois notion of „empirical imagination“ remindes once more of Gaston Bachelard, who – but apparently only in 1938, that is to say after Caillois’ early texts on empirical imagination – claims that the artist „material imagination“ (imagination matérielle) springs from the encounter with matter, more precisely: with one of the for elements fire, water, earth or air. (Cf. i.a. Bachelard 1985.) Hower, in his book L’incertitude qui vient des rêves (1956), Caillois criticizes Freuds interpretation of dreams, arguing that there is no definitive criterion to tell dreams from reality.

7 Hence he eventually blurs the boundaries between the subject and the environment – a way of thinking that is intended by Caillois and is explicated in his theory on the mimetic faculty (cf. my remarks below).

8 Nevertheless, the imagination is not a simple imprint of a natural phenomenon (as in Descartes’ theory of perception). Ideograms are complex and overdetermined. Caillois considers them to be an intersection of more then one empirical source. Moreover, he is especially interested in the deformations of the imagination (l’art impur) and in the deformations of nature itself (see my explications below). Hence, the ideogram always exceeds nature, and in this sense is rather related to natural „perversions“ (cf. Roy 2002: 29).

9 In a similar fashion Caillois writes: "[...] dans les mythes, ou précisément les instincts peuvent prendre les satisfactions que la réalité leur refuse, les hommes connaissent des situations semblables [...] chez l'homme la fonction fabulatrice tentait justement le rôle du comportement instinctif chez l'insecte" (1938: 83). But he distances himself from Bergson’s finalistic approach that only attributes a conserving function to myths (ibid.: 72). Unlike Bergson, Caillois is more interested in “morbid” myths like the femme fatale, and the transgressive functioning of myths (see my explanations below).

10 Freud considers myth to arise from the veiling and restaging of the original patricide, committed by the primal horde (cf. Freud 200a).

11 According to Freud, in the course of a (male) child’s development, the discovery of sexual differences, together with incestuous desires towards the mother, give rise to the fear of being castrated by the father (cf. Freud 1972).

12 Nevertheless, Caillois does not only appeal to mere psychic residuums of animal drives: With reference to the cultural practice of the „love bite“, he imagines that the female desire to devour her male partner during coitus actually still really exists: "[...] il existe un lien biologique primaire, profond, entre la nutrition et la sexualité; ce lien aboutit dans un certain nombre d'espèces animales à faire dévorer le mâle par la femelle à l'instant du coït; il subsiste chez l'homme des traces notables de cette parenté ou convergence d'instincts." (1938: 60). In the same context, he ascribes a special affinity for such instinctive behaviour to “primitive” and “wild” women. For a critical discussion of Caillois’ primitivism (and racism), cf. Chaperon 1992 : 34-35.

13 Moreover, the „objective lyricism“ of the praying mantis is intensified by the death drive (cf. Freud 2000b): "En effet, l'assimilation de la mante à un automate, c'est-à-dire, vu l'anthropomorphisme de cette dernière, à un androïde féminin, me paraît relever du même thème affectif, pour peu que, comme j'ai par ailleurs toutes raisons de penser, la conception de la femme-machine, artificielle, mécanique, inanimée et inconsciente, sans comme mesure avec l'homme et les créatures vivantes, dérive d'une façon particulière d'envisager les rapports de la mort et de l'amour, et plus précisément d'un pressentiment ambivalent de trouver l'une dans l'autre." (1934: 25-26) On the “anthropomorphism” of insects and the similarities between the human death drive and animal mimetism, see my explications below.

14 Whereas mimesis, as Aristotle defines it, cannot be described as a simple reproduction (representation), because it always contains the potential to generate new forms or ideas.

15 On the etymological differences between the French term mimétisme (generally referring to homomorphic organisations) and the English notion of „mimicry“ (according to Bates: insect assimilation), cf. Geble 2011. On the theory of mimicry or mimetism in Caillois, cf. Cheng (2009), Cha (2010), and several contributions in the volume Mimikry. Gefährlicher Luxus zwischen Natur und Kultur (Becker et al. 2008), especially those of Peter Berz and Jessica Nitsche.

16 The idea of a „sumptuous luxury“ in nature certainly owes a lot to his friend and companion Georges Bataille, who in his manifold writings on culture, religion, economy and philosophy draws on the anti-utilitarian principle of „unproductive expenditure“ (cf. i.a. Bataille 1946).

17 Cf. Freud 2000a. „Il convient enfin de ne pas passer sous silence le mimétisme des mantidés, qui illustre de façon quelquefois hallucinante le désir humain de réintégration à l'insensibilité originelle, qu'il faut rapprocher de la conception panthéistique de la fusion dans la nature [...].” (1934: 26)

18 One of Caillois’ readers is Jacques Lacan, who, in his concept of the mirror stage, refers to Caillois’ theory of mimetism, cf. Lacan 1973; Berz and Siegert 2005.

19 According to Karl Heinz Bohrer (2007), the invention of new mythologies (by using „imaginative vocabulary” and a “metaphoric style”) is one of the key characteristics of surrealism, which in that respect is connected to the Romantic „New Mythology“ (Schlegel). Thus, it can be argued that Roger Caillois still is part of the surrealist tradition of a „Modern Mythology“, although he distances himself from the surrealist movement.

21 For an approach to Caillois’ references to Lamarck, cf. Kyung-Ho Cha 2010. According to Cha, Caillois is historically located in a phase of scientific rebuilding, where “scientific myths” of mimicry were in great demand (cf. Cha: 17 f.). Cha indicates that Caillois’ notion of mimetism appeals to Lamarckist theories of adaption through the influence of the environment and at the same time points out that "[...] Caillois' Theorie gegen die darwinistische Mimikryforschung und gegen jene Wissenschaftsideale auf[begehrt], die während der Krise der Mimikryforschung für den Ausschluss der Einbildungskraft aus der wissenschaftlichen Forschung plädierten." (2010: 88). According to Cha, one could also say that theories that have already passed the climax of their validity or never reached it, sometimes find an „afterlife“ in aesthetic theory or are incorporated in a „scientific myth“ (cf. Cha, ibid.)

22 In his essays Caillois quotes, amongst others, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, the evolutionary scientist Felix LeDantec and the biologist August Weissman. He thus refers to a specific scientific discourse, dating from around 1900 that cannot be elaborated in this text but is examined by Cha (2010) and Berz (2008a), amongst others.

23 Moreover, the approach to a biology of myth has to be understood as an early critique of anthropocentrism in the sciences humaines, which Caillois seeks to overcome by means of his diagonal science. Caillois stands at the beginning of a „transhuman“ thinking that will also later appear in the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze. In this context, Michelle Richman (1988) has pointed out that the group of renegade surrealists around Roger Caillois and Georges Bataille in the 1930s are „postructuralists avant la lettre“.

24 Peter Berz, for example, refers to Caillois’ theory in arguing for a contemporary approach to a „biological aesthetic theory“: „Das eben begonnene Jahrhundert scheint eine rapide Biologisierung sämtlicher Diskurse in Gang zu setzen. Es gibt also gute Gründe, die tatsächliche und mögliche Lage ästhetischer Reflexion vor dem mächtigen biowissenschaftlichen Wissensdispositiv neu zu überdenken, und zwar weit grundsätzlicher als Biologie und Kunstwissenschaft dies wollen oder können." (Berz: 2008a: 23 und 24). For a more recent Darwinist attempt to combine evolutionary and aesthetic theory, cf. Menninghaus (2011).

Electronic reference

Rosa Eidelpes , “ Roger Caillois’ Biology of Myth and the Myth of Biology ” ,  Anthropology & Materialism [Online], 2 | 2014, Online since 15 April 2014 , connection on 24 June 2024 . URL : http://journals.openedition.org/am/84; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/am.84

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How To Write A Myth in 16 Steps With Examples

Have you ever wondered how ancient myths and legends were created? Fancied having a go at writing your own tall tale? Well, you’ve come to the right place! In this blog post, we’ll be walking through a simple 16-step process to teach you exactly how to write a myth from start to finish. From deciding on your mythological characters and settings to plotting your story arc and bringing it all to life with feedback and editing – we’ve got you covered. So if you’re ready to unleash your inner Homer or Aesop and try crafting your own mythical masterpiece, read on for a fun, easy-to-follow guide on how to write a myth that would make the ancient storytellers proud!

Types of Myths

Myths vs. legends, examples of famous myths, step 1: think of a theme, step 2: decide on the moral, step 3: incorporate symbolic elements, step 4: idea summary, step 5: character development, step 6: setting development, step 7: define the conflict, step 8: outline the beginning, step 9: plan the resolution, step 10: develop a plot outline, step 11: write the first draft, step 12: choose a title, step 13: edit and revise, step 14: seek feedback, step 15: final edit, step 16: publish and share, how do i write my own myth, what are the 5 elements of a myth, what is an example of a myth, how do myths start.

• What is an example of a kids' myth?

What is a Myth?

Myths are influential fictional stories that have been passed down for generations across different cultures. They have had enduring appeal as they often explore timeless themes about human existence – from birth and love to conflict and death. Myths also offer explanations about our world – why the sun rises, how different languages originated, and what happens after death.

While myths are fictional rather than factual accounts, for ancient civilizations they represented a reality grounded in their unique cultural contexts and belief systems. Myths helped shape worldviews, values and customs within these societies. Modern society may classify myths as fantasy , fairytales or legends but their imaginative power and symbolic meaning still resonates.

The fantastical elements in myths like all-powerful gods, mystical quests or monstrous beings capture our imagination. Talking animals and shape-shifting tricksters teach us moral lessons. Heroes overcoming epic trials represent the universal theme of the underdog defeating mighty opponents against the odds. Myths reveal both human flaws and virtues – jealousy and deception but also courage, ambition and redemption.

So myths continue to have significance and value. Their timeless quality means they can be reinterpreted to explore modern challenges – from ethical issues posed by technology to current social dynamics about gender and race. Myths also inspire contemporary pop culture through comic book heroes on quests to computer games built around mythic themes and imagery. Their metaphorical style adds depth to any form of storytelling across genres and mediums.

Myths come in many forms, serving distinct purposes across cultures and eras. Though myths may intertwine multiple elements, some main categories include:

• Creation Myths : Explain the origins of the universe, Earth, and humanity. They often involve gods, goddesses, or supernatural beings.
• Heroic Myths: Focus on the adventures and exploits of heroic figures. These myths often follow a hero’s journey , involving challenges, trials, and a transformation.
• Trickster Myths: Feature characters who are clever, mischievous, and often disrupt the natural order of things. The trickster figure challenges societal norms and brings about change.
• Etiological Myths: Explain the origins of customs, traditions, or natural features. These myths provide cultural explanations for certain practices or phenomena.
• Cosmogonic Myths: Similar to creation myths, cosmogonic myths address the origin and order of the cosmos, including the relationships between various celestial bodies.
• Didactic Myths: Also known as folktales or fables. Convey moral lessons or teachings. These myths often involve characters facing moral dilemmas and making choices that lead to consequences.
• Afterlife Myths: Explore beliefs about what happens after death. They may describe different realms, deities, or rituals associated with the afterlife.
• Eschatological myths: Focus on endings/destruction. Like flood or rapture myths depicting world catastrophes.
• Apocalyptic Myths: Envision the end of the world or a significant transformation of the existing order. They often involve prophecies, divine judgments, or catastrophic events.
• Liminal Myths: Focus on transitions or thresholds, such as rites of passage, initiation ceremonies, or rituals marking significant life changes.
• Ancestral Myths: Explain the origins of a particular people, tribe, or community. These myths often involve the creation of the first humans or the founding of a civilization.
• Deification Myths: Describe how certain individuals or beings become gods or achieve divine status. This may involve heroic deeds, ascension, or divine intervention.

This list covers some of the major types of myths recorded from civilizations worldwide based on their central themes and messages. The great diversity illustrates myth’s enduring capacity to both explain and explore the human condition in creative ways that still influence how we tell stories today across artistic mediums.

Myths and Legends share similarities in being tales passed down over generations that take on symbolic meaning. However, they have some distinct differences:

• Origins : Myths trace back to ancient oral storytelling traditions grounded in religion /spirituality. Legends originate from perceived historical events and may incorporate real people or places.
• Timeframes : Myths are set in ancient, timeless settings like the beginnings of Earth or humanity. Legends occur in knowable eras of antiquity but details remain unreliable or obscure.
• Characters : Myths utilize archetypal non-human characters like all-powerful gods, magical beasts or the forces of nature in human form. Legends may feature heroic human characters accomplishing exaggerated feats.
• Believability : Ancient societies often took myths as literal explanations of divine truths. Legends blur fact and fiction but don’t demand faith in the same way religious myths did.
• Functions : Myths cemented ideological belief systems and helped impart cultural values. Legends tend to inspire national/community pride in past heroes and events.

In essence, the distinction depends on whether supernatural, sacred narratives of myths give way to more grounded tales of extraordinary mortal exploits in legends.

There’s certainly overlap – legends borrow mythic tropes while myths may incorporate historical elements. But generally, myths emerge from faith and legends from memories of remarkable deeds. Evaluating the context and purpose behind fantastical tales illuminates how they spread and the significance they held.

Mythology has spawned countless captivating tales across ancient cultures that remain influential. Here are a few iconic myths and their significance:

• Icarus and Daedalus: In a Greek myth, there’s a skilled builder named Daedalus. He and his son, Icarus, were stuck on an island called Crete. To escape, Daedalus created wings using feathers and wax. He warned Icarus not to fly too high or too low. Excited, Icarus flew too close to the sun. The sun melted the wax on his wings, and he fell into the ocean and drowned. This story teaches us about the dangers of being overly ambitious without thinking. It also represents how humans strive for greatness and creativity.
• Thor vs the Midgard Serpent : In a Norse myth, there’s a big battle between Thor, the thunder god, and the enormous serpent called Jörmungandr. This happens before Ragnarök, a big event where the gods and the world are supposed to be destroyed. Thor goes fishing for the serpent using an ox-head as bait. He hooks the massive serpent, but even with his powerful belt and gloves, he can’t beat it before the line breaks, and he gets thrown backwards. This myth shows the constant struggle between opposing forces in the world, and how they balance each other through their fights for control.
• Pandora’s Box: In an ancient Greek story, there’s a woman named Pandora. The gods made her very beautiful and charming. She came with a sealed jar, and she was told not to open it. But Pandora couldn’t resist her curiosity and opened the jar. This let out all kinds of troubles like sorrow, sickness, and plague, which then affected people forever. The only thing left inside the jar was hope. This story tells us that even when faced with difficulties, people can still keep going with hope.
• The Buddha: In a story from Hindu and Buddhist traditions, there’s a prince named Siddhartha Gautama who later becomes the Buddha, which means the Awakened One. He leaves behind his comfortable life as a prince, including his wife and son, after seeing how much suffering exists in the world. He goes on a spiritual journey for many years, trying extreme ways to find enlightenment. After a simple meal, he sits under a tree and enters deep meditation. During this time, a demon named Mara tries to distract him with desires and fears, but the Buddha remains focused. He reaches a state called nirvana, gaining profound insights. The teachings of Buddhism come from these insights, suggesting that letting go of material desires and fixed ideas can free people from worldly sorrows. This myth shows that humans can transcend difficulties and reach a state of enlightenment.
• Hercules (Heracles): From Greek mythology Hercules, the son of Zeus and a mortal woman named Alcmena, faced a series of challenges known as the Twelve Labors as a punishment for a crime committed in a fit of madness. One of these labours was to clean the Augean stables, which housed an immense number of cattle and had not been cleaned for years. It seemed like an impossible task. Hercules, known for his strength, devised a clever plan. He redirected the rivers Alpheus and Peneus to flow through the stables, cleaning them in a single day. Despite his initial disbelief, King Augeas, who owned the stables, refused to honour his agreement to reward Hercules. This myth illustrates Hercules’ wit and problem-solving skills, showcasing that strength alone is not always the solution. It also highlights the theme of justice as Hercules faced an unfair situation and ultimately demonstrated his capabilities through intelligence and resourcefulness.

These represent just snippets of legendary tales full of symbolic details that have endured for millennia. They remind us of myth’s storytelling power – using fantasy and imagination to probe poignant universals that still compel audiences today.

How To Write A Myth in 16 Steps

Myths have charmed readers for millennia thanks to their imaginative worlds and timeless themes. If you want to join the ranks of storytellers like Homer, the Brothers Grimm, and J.R.R Tolkien, follow these 16 simple steps to learn how to write a myth:

Choosing a theme is the foundational step in crafting a myth. It involves selecting a fundamental concept, value, or message that will serve as the core focus of your narrative. Themes can range from love and courage to justice or any other overarching idea. This choice not only provides direction to your tale but also shapes the underlying philosophy that will resonate with your audience. Consider what profound concept you want to explore and what moral or lesson might emerge from it.

You might want to take a look at our collection of myth ideas for some inspiration on possible themes for your own myth.

Here is a list of common themes found in myths:

• Courage: Exploring the inner strength needed to face adversity and overcome fears.
• Love and Sacrifice: I nvestigating the transformative power of love and the sacrifices one might make for it.
• Justice and Redemption: Delving into the pursuit of justice and the possibility of redemption, even in the face of past mistakes.
• Wisdom and Knowledge: Uncovering the value of wisdom, knowledge, and the pursuit of understanding.
• Fate and Free Will: Examining the interplay between destiny and the choices individuals make, challenging the concept of fate.
• Friendship and Loyalty: Exploring the bonds of friendship and loyalty, and the challenges faced in maintaining them.
• Nature and Balance: Reflecting on the interconnectedness of nature and the importance of maintaining balance in the world.
• Perseverance and Resilience: Illustrating the power of persistence and resilience in the face of trials and tribulations.
• Forgiveness and Reconciliation: Focusing on the themes of forgiveness and reconciliation, exploring the healing power of letting go.
• Self-Discovery and Identity: Following characters on a journey of self-discovery, exploring questions of identity and purpose.
• Hope and Despair: Investigating the contrast between hope and despair, and the transformative impact of hope in challenging situations.
• Duty and Honour: Examining the concepts of duty and honour, and the conflicts that may arise when these principles are tested.

These themes provide a starting point for beginners, offering broad and profound concepts that can be explored in various ways within the structure of a myth. As a beginner, choose a theme that resonates with you and sparks your imagination. Remember, the theme is the soul of your myth, anchoring it with a deeper purpose beyond the surface narrative.

If your theme is “Courage,” your myth might revolve around characters facing daunting challenges and finding inner strength to overcome them. The theme of courage can be expressed through the characters’ actions, decisions, and personal growth throughout the mythic journey.

Once you’ve identified the theme of your myth, the next crucial step is to determine the moral or lesson you want your audience to take away from the narrative. The moral is the guiding principle or truth about living a good life that aligns with your chosen theme. This element gives depth and purpose to your myth, as it imparts meaning beyond the surface storyline.

Here are some key elements to consider in this step:

• Alignment with Theme: Ensure that the chosen moral resonates with and complements the theme you’ve selected. It should be a natural extension of the theme, reinforcing the central concept.
• Universal Applicability: Aim for a moral that possesses universal appeal, allowing readers to relate to and find personal relevance in the lessons imparted by your myth.
• Character Transformation: Consider how the moral will contribute to the transformation of your protagonist. The mythic journey often involves personal growth, and the moral serves as a compass guiding this transformation.

Deciding on the moral is crucial because it gives your myth a purpose beyond entertainment. It elevates the narrative to a realm of meaningful storytelling, allowing readers to connect with the characters and events on a deeper level. The moral provides a guiding light, shaping the overall message you wish to convey and leaving a lasting impact on those who engage with your myth.

Example:  

If your theme is “Courage,” your moral might be centred around the idea that true courage is found not in the absence of fear but in the face of it. This moral aligns with the theme and encourages readers to reflect on the nature of courage in their own lives.

Once you’ve established the theme and decided on the moral, the next step involves weaving symbolic elements into your myth. These elements can take various forms, including items, characters, colours, numbers, and more. Symbolism adds depth and layers of meaning to your story, enhancing its richness and reinforcing the themes and messages you wish to convey.

• Relevance to Theme and Moral: Ensure that the symbolic elements chosen are relevant to the theme and moral of your myth. They should enhance the narrative rather than feel forced or arbitrary.
• Metaphorical Representation: Symbolic elements often carry metaphorical meaning. Consider how they can represent deeper concepts, emotions, or aspects of the human experience.
• Consistency and Coherence: Maintain consistency in the use of symbolism throughout your myth. Symbolic elements should contribute to the overall narrative rather than feeling disjointed.
• Reader Engagement: Allow room for reader engagement with the symbolism. Some elements may be more clear, while others might be subtle, encouraging readers to interpret and discover meanings on their own.

Incorporating symbolic elements adds layers of meaning to your myth, making it a more immersive and thought-provoking experience for readers. Symbols have the power to evoke emotions, create connections between elements in the story, and reinforce the overarching themes. Well-executed symbolism enhances the myth’s impact, allowing readers to explore deeper levels of interpretation and engage with the narrative on a more profound level.

Example: 

For the theme of courage, you might incorporate a symbolic element like a Phoenix feather. The Phoenix, known for its mythical rebirth from its ashes, becomes a symbol of resilience and the ability to rise anew despite challenges. The feather, handed down through generations, represents the legacy of courage within a family or community. As characters face daunting trials, the presence of the Phoenix feather serves as a reminder that courage isn’t the absence of fear but the determination to confront and overcome it, emerging stronger on the other side. In this way, the Phoenix feather becomes a metaphorical representation of the theme, adding layers of meaning to the narrative and reinforcing the message about the nature of courage.

After establishing the theme, deciding on the moral, and incorporating symbolic elements, it’s time to create a concise idea summary for your myth. This summary serves as a condensed version of your myth, outlining the basic premise, main characters, central conflict, supernatural aspects, and the moral message in a paragraph or two.

• Protagonist and Basic Arc: Introduce the main character (or characters) and briefly outline their journey or character arc. What challenges do they face, and how do they evolve throughout the myth?
• Main Conflict: Identify the central conflict that drives the narrative forward. Is it a moral dilemma, a battle against dark forces, or a quest for self-discovery?
• Supernatural Aspects: If your myth involves supernatural or fantastical elements (common in many myths), provide a glimpse of these aspects. This could include gods, magical creatures, or enchanted objects.
• Moral Message: Summarize the moral or lesson that readers should take away from your myth. How does the protagonist’s journey and the resolution contribute to this message?

The idea summary serves as a roadmap for your myth, providing a clear and concise overview of its key elements. It acts as a guide for the subsequent steps, ensuring that your narrative remains focused on its core themes and messages. Additionally, having a well-defined idea summary can be a valuable tool for pitching or sharing your myth with others.

Aria, a young girl from the mystical land of Eldoria, finds an ancient prophecy about a looming darkness that will consume the world. She is chosen by the gods to stop it, armed with a Phoenix feather inherited from her ancestors. Along her perilous quest, she encounters mythical creatures and faces moral dilemmas that test her courage. She learns that courage is not the lack of fear, but the will to act despite it. In the final showdown, she faces the source of the darkness, a monstrous entity that feeds on fear. She musters all her courage and stabs the Phoenix feather into its core willing to sacrifice herself, triggering a massive blast of light and heat. The darkness is burned away, and the land is restored to its natural beauty.  She realizes that the Phoenix feather symbolizes courage, a powerful force that can overcome any evil.

Character development is a crucial aspect of crafting a compelling myth. In this step, you’ll outline your characters, delving into their backgrounds, motivations, flaws, and the growth they undergo throughout the mythic journey.

Here are the key components of developing characters:

• Protagonist : Introduce your main character—the protagonist—who will navigate the challenges of the myth. What makes them unique? What are their strengths and weaknesses?
• Backstories : Provide backgrounds for your characters. What events or experiences have shaped them into who they are at the beginning of the myth?
• Motivations : Explore the motivations driving your characters. What do they desire, fear, or hope to achieve? Motivations often propel characters forward in the face of adversity.
• Flaws : Characters with flaws are relatable and dynamic. What imperfections or internal struggles do your characters grapple with? How do these flaws contribute to their arcs?
• Character Arc : Consider how the challenges and trials of the myth will lead to the growth and transformation of your characters. What lessons will they learn, and how will they evolve?
• Supporting Characters: You should also consider introducing supporting characters who complement and challenge the protagonist. These characters can provide additional layers to the narrative and contribute to the growth of the protagonist.

Well-developed characters contribute to the emotional appeal of your myth. Readers connect with characters who feel real and undergo meaningful transformations. Character development adds depth, authenticity, and relatability to your narrative, making the myth more engaging and impactful.

• Aria is a young and determined girl from Eldoria. 
• Background: Her background reveals a lineage of courageous ancestors, instilling in her a sense of responsibility. 
• Weakness: Aria struggles with self-doubt and the fear of not living up to her family’s legacy. 
• Motivation : Her motivation stems from a deep desire to prove her courage and protect Eldoria from the impending darkness.
• Character Arc: As Aria faces mythical creatures and moral dilemmas, her flaws become apparent. She must confront her self-doubt and overcome her fear, learning that courage is not about being fearless but about acting despite fear. Through the challenges, Aria experiences significant character growth. By the end of the myth, she emerges as a resilient and self-assured individual, having discovered the true meaning of courage.
• Cyrus, a wise elder and mentor, becomes a pivotal supporting character in Aria’s journey. 
• Background: With a mysterious past tied to ancient prophecies, Cyrus possesses knowledge crucial to Eldoria’s survival. 
• Motivation: His motivations are rooted in a deep sense of duty to guide and protect the realm. 
• Weakness: Despite his wisdom, Cyrus grapples with a past mistake that haunts him, serving as a reminder that even the wise have imperfections.
• Character Arc: Throughout the myth, Cyrus serves as both guide and challenge to Aria. He imparts valuable lessons about courage, sacrifice, and the interconnectedness of all things. As Aria faces the trials ahead, Cyrus’s guidance becomes instrumental in her growth. In turn, Aria’s courage inspires Cyrus to confront his own lingering fears.

Setting development is the process of creating and detailing the world in which your myth unfolds. The setting encompasses not only the physical locations but also the cultural, historical, and magical elements that contribute to the overall atmosphere of the narrative.

Here are the key elements for this step:

• Primary Setting: Define the primary location or realm where the events of your myth take place. Is it a fantastical land, an ancient city, or a mythical kingdom? Consider the geography, climate, weather patterns , and overall ambience.
• Crucial Locations: Identify specific locations within the primary setting that play a key role in the narrative. These could be sacred sites, enchanted forests, mythical caves, or significant landmarks.
• Cultural Elements: Explore the cultural aspects of your setting. What beliefs, traditions, and customs shape the characters’ lives? Cultural elements add depth and authenticity to the world you’re creating.
• Historical Backstory: Develop a historical backstory for your setting. What events have shaped the world, and how do they influence the characters and conflicts in the present? A rich history can enhance the myth’s sense of depth.
• Magical Aspects: If your myth involves magic or supernatural elements, detail how these aspects manifest in the setting. Are there magical creatures, artefacts, or ley lines that influence the characters’ journeys?

Setting development establishes the backdrop against which your characters’ journeys unfold. A well-crafted setting immerses readers in the world of your myth, making it more striking and captivating. Additionally, the setting can influence the characters’ beliefs and actions, contributing to the overall atmosphere and thematic appeal of the narrative.

Eldoria, the mystical land in which our myth unfolds, is a realm steeped in magic and ancient prophecies. The primary setting consists of diverse landscapes, from sprawling enchanted forests to majestic mountain ranges. Eldoria is governed by the principles of balance, with natural forces and magical energies interwoven into the fabric of everyday life. Crucial locations include the Sacred Grove, where prophecies are whispered by ancient trees, and the Luminous Falls, a source of magical energy that sustains the land. The cultural elements of Eldoria centre around a deep reverence for nature and a belief in the interconnectedness of all living things. Eldorians celebrate seasonal festivals that honour the cycles of nature. The historical backstory reveals a time when Eldoria faced a similar threat of darkness, and a legendary hero emerged to restore balance. This hero’s legacy echoes through the ages, influencing the characters’ beliefs and motivations. Magical aspects include mythical creatures like the ethereal Moonlight Stags and the elusive Starlight Foxes, both guardians of ancient secrets.

In Step 7, you will define the central conflict that drives the narrative of your myth. The conflict is the driving force that moves the characters forward, creating tension, drama, and opportunities for growth. This step involves determining what challenges, obstacles, or moral dilemmas your characters will face as they embark on their mythic journey.

Here are the key elements of defining the conflict:

• Nature of the Conflict: Clearly state the central conflict that forms the core of your myth. Is it a physical threat, a moral dilemma, an internal struggle, or a combination of these elements? Define what the characters are up against.
• Stakes: Outline the stakes involved in the conflict. What is at risk if the characters fail to overcome the challenges they face? Stakes add urgency and significance to the narrative.
• Antagonistic Forces: Identify the antagonistic forces that oppose the protagonist. These could be external entities, internal struggles, or even the consequences of their own choices. Antagonistic forces create opposition and obstacles.
• Moral Complexity: If your conflict involves moral dilemmas, explore the ethical complexities surrounding the choices your characters must make. This adds depth and nuance to the narrative.

The conflict is the driving force behind your myth, shaping the characters’ journeys and providing a narrative arc. A well-defined conflict creates suspense, engages readers emotionally, and sets the stage for the characters’ growth and transformation. It establishes the challenges that must be overcome, making the myth compelling and resonant.

• Self-Doubt: Aria doubts her magical abilities, fearing that she lacks the strength to combat the darkness. This self-doubt hinders her from fully embracing her role as the chosen one.
• Moral Dilemmas: Aria encounters a village torn between two factions, each seeking her assistance. The moral dilemma forces her to choose between conflicting values, challenging her understanding of justice.
• Fear of Failure: Aria envisions the consequences of failing in her mission, haunted by the idea of Eldoria succumbing to eternal darkness. This fear propels her forward but also tests her resilience.
• Corrupted Mythical Creatures: Aria faces a once-gentle unicorn corrupted by the darkness. Overcoming the creature requires both physical combat and a demonstration of empathy to restore its purity.
• Monstrous Entity: The monstrous entity, fueled by fear, creates illusions that prey on Aria’s deepest fears. Overcoming this external threat demands Aria to confront her personal demons while battling the monster.
• Isolation: Aria finds herself alone in the eerie Whispering Woods, where shadows play tricks on the mind. The isolation intensifies her internal struggles and challenges her ability to trust her instincts.
• Environmental Hazards: Eldoria’s magical landscape shifts unpredictably, creating illusions and mirages. Aria must discern reality from illusion, adding an external layer of challenge to her journey.

In Step 8, you will outline the beginning scenes of your myth. This involves crafting the opening moments that introduce readers to the world, characters, and central conflict. The beginning sets the tone for the entire narrative, hooking readers and drawing them into the mythic journey.

Here are the key elements to consider:

• Introduction of the Protagonist: Establish the main character, providing essential details about their identity, background, and current situation. Create a connection between the protagonist and the readers.
• Introduction of the World: Describe the setting and the mystical elements of the world in which the myth takes place. Transport readers to a realm filled with magic, wonder, and potential challenges.
• Foreshadowing: Drop subtle hints or clues about the impending conflict or challenges the protagonist will face. Foreshadowing adds intrigue and anticipation, encouraging readers to delve deeper into the narrative.
• Establishing the Normal World: Present the protagonist’s everyday life before the call to adventure. This normal world provides a baseline against which readers can measure the transformative journey that lies ahead.
• Introduction of Key Elements: Introduce any key elements, symbols, or objects that will play a significant role in the myth. These elements may include magical artifacts, prophecies, or mythical creatures.

The beginning of the myth serves as the narrative’s foundation, establishing the characters, world, and conflict. A well-crafted beginning captivates readers, prompting them to invest emotionally in the protagonist’s journey. It also sets the stage for the transformation that will unfold as the myth progresses.

The myth begins with Aria, a young girl from Eldoria, going about her daily life in the quaint village of Lumara. The sun-dappled streets and the laughter of children provide a sense of the normal world. Aria is introduced as a relatable character, known for her kindness and curiosity. As Aria practices her magical abilities in a secluded grove, readers witness the first hint of foreshadowing—an ancient prophecy etched into the bark of an ancient tree. The words speak of a looming darkness and a chosen one who will stand against it. Aria, unaware of her destiny, continues her routine. The normal world is disrupted when mysterious shadows start encroaching on Eldoria. Aria witnesses the corruption of once-gentle creatures and feels an unexplained calling. The call to adventure begins as Aria discovers the Phoenix feather, a family heirloom that glows with newfound intensity. This sets the stage for her journey to confront the darkness and fulfil the prophecy.

In Step 9, you will plan the resolution of your myth. This step involves scripting the conclusion of the narrative, determining how the central conflict will be resolved, and outlining the fate of the characters. The resolution should bring closure to the story while imparting the moral lesson or universal truth you want readers to take away.

Here are the key elements of this step:

• Climax: Identify the highest point of tension in the story, often referred to as the climax. This is the moment of greatest conflict or confrontation between the protagonist and the antagonist.
• Resolution of the Central Conflict: Determine how the central conflict will be resolved. Will the protagonist succeed in overcoming the challenges, or will there be a tragic outcome? The resolution should align with the overarching theme of the myth.
• Character Arc Completion: Ensure that the resolution reflects the growth and transformation of the protagonist. Characters should undergo significant changes, learning important lessons or discovering newfound strengths.
• Impact on the World: Consider how the resolution will impact the world of the myth. Will there be a restoration of balance, a transformation of the realm, or a lasting change in the characters’ lives?
• Moral Message: Clarify the moral or universal truth that the resolution will convey. This is the lesson or insight that readers should take away from the mythic journey.

The resolution is the culmination of the mythic journey, providing a sense of closure and fulfilment. It is the moment where the themes, conflicts, and characters come together to deliver a powerful message. A well-planned resolution leaves a lasting impression on readers and reinforces the moral or universal truth embedded in the myth.

As Aria confronts the monstrous entity fueled by fear in the climactic showdown, the Phoenix feather becomes the key to the resolution. The entity, representing the embodiment of darkness, is relentless in its attempt to consume Aria’s courage. The climax unfolds as Aria, drawing strength from within, stabs the Phoenix feather into the entity’s core killing herself in the process. This courageous act triggers a blinding blast of light and intense heat, burning away the darkness that had threatened to engulf Eldoria. The world is restored to its natural beauty, and the once-corrupted mythical creatures regain their purity. Aria, however, is presumed dead in the aftermath. In a poignant twist, Aria’s soul emerges from the light, having absorbed the darkness into the Phoenix feather. Aria is transformed, now radiating with a brilliant glow like a phoenix rising from the ashes. Aria’s character arc is complete, as she learns that true courage involves self-sacrifice and that even the darkest aspects can be transformed into light. The resolution leaves a lasting impact on Eldoria, symbolizing the triumph of courage over fear. The realm is forever changed, and Aria’s sacrifice becomes a legendary tale told across generations.

In Step 10, you will develop a comprehensive plot outline for your myth. This involves mapping out the narrative structure, key events, and character developments from the beginning to the resolution. The plot outline serves as a roadmap, guiding your writing process and ensuring a coherent and engaging story.

Here are the key elements of outlining the plot:

• Hooking Opening: Craft an engaging opening that captures the readers’ attention and introduces the world of your myth. This could involve an intriguing event, a mysterious prophecy, or the introduction of a compelling character.
• Rising Action: Outline the series of events that build tension and propel the story forward. This includes challenges, conflicts, and discoveries that the protagonist faces on their journey.
• Climax: Identify the highest point of tension in the story, where the central conflict reaches its peak. The climax is a pivotal moment that often involves a confrontation between the protagonist and antagonist.
• Falling Action: Detail the events that follow the climax, showing the aftermath of the central conflict. This phase may include resolutions to secondary conflicts and the beginning of the resolution.
• Resolution: Script the conclusion of the narrative, bringing closure to the central conflict and showcasing the transformation of the characters and the world. The resolution should align with the overarching theme and moral message.

Developing a plot outline provides a structured framework for your myth, ensuring a cohesive and engaging narrative. It helps you visualize the entire story, identify key beats, and maintain a sense of direction throughout the writing process. A well-crafted plot outline serves as a valuable tool for both planning and executing a compelling mythic journey.

• Aria discovers an ancient prophecy foretelling a darkness threatening Eldoria.
• Introduction of Aria’s normal world in Lumara, a village filled with magical beings.
• Aria finds the Phoenix feather, setting her on the path of the chosen one.
• Encounters corrupted mythical creatures and faces moral dilemmas.
• Discovers the nature of the darkness and her role in stopping it.
• Confrontation with the monstrous entity fueled by fear.
• Aria’s self-sacrifice with the Phoenix feather to burn away the darkness.
• Eldoria transforms as the darkness recedes.
• Reveal of Aria’s presumed death and the impact on the realm.
• Aria’s soul emerges, transformed into a radiant figure
• Symbolic restoration of Eldoria’s purity and balance.
• The Phoenix feather becomes a beacon of courage and hope.

In Step 11, you embark on the actual writing process, crafting the first draft of your myth. This step involves translating your plot outline, character developments, and key themes into the myth. The primary goal is to get the narrative flow down on paper without obsessing over perfection.

Here are some elements to consider during this step:

• Follow the Plot Outline: Refer to the plot outline you developed in Step 10 as a guide. While writing, allow for creative detours if they enhance the narrative, but ensure that the core structure remains intact.
• Establish the Tone: Set the tone of your myth through your writing style. Consider the atmosphere you want to create—whether it’s mysterious, adventurous, or poignant—and infuse your story with appropriate language and imagery.
• Character Voices: Give each character a distinct voice and personality. Their dialogue, actions, and internal thoughts should align with their individual traits and arcs.
• Show, Don’t Tell : Use descriptive language to evoke vivid imagery and engage readers’ senses. Show character emotions, the magic of the world, and the impact of key events rather than simply stating them.
• Build Atmosphere: Create a rich and immersive atmosphere that draws readers into the mythical realm. Pay attention to the details of settings, sounds, and even the cultural nuances that contribute to the world-building.
• Maintain Consistency: Ensure consistency in character traits, world-building details, and the overall tone of the myth. This consistency enhances the believability of the fictional world.
• Embrace Creativity: Allow your imagination to flourish. Don’t be afraid to explore new ideas or unexpected twists that may enhance the narrative. The first draft is an opportunity to discover the full potential of your myth.
• Focus on Narrative Flow: Prioritize the narrative flow over perfection. The goal is to convey the essence of the story, and you’ll have opportunities for refinement in later editing stages.

Writing the first draft is a crucial step in bringing your myth to life. It allows you to explore the narrative in its raw form, discovering variations, character depths, and unexpected turns. The first draft is a creative space where you can experiment, refine your voice, and build the foundation for subsequent editing and polishing stages. It’s an exciting phase that captures the essence of your mythic journey.

Dawn’s rosy fingers stretched across the clear morning sky as Aria awoke, brimming with excitement for the Solstice Fair. She leaned out the window, drinking in the crisp air as the village of Lumara began to stir. Golden light spilled over the cobblestone streets below while the mouth-watering aroma of sweet cakes and pies drifted from the bustling bakery next door. After washing and dressing hurriedly, Aria bounced downstairs where her mother was brewing hot honey-mint tea. She wolfed down a still-warm spice bun, listening with half an ear as her mother fussed over the handwoven shawls they would sell at their fabric stall. The thrill of the annual fair left no room in Aria’s 12-year-old mind to focus on such mundane matters though. The whole village seemed infected by the frenetic energy as Aria skippered down the main thoroughfare. Everywhere colorful banners and Lantern flowers garlanded the buildings in preparation for the legendary nights of feasting ahead. Weaving through the crowds, Aria felt as if the very air tingled with festive magic. Her steps slowed as she passed the looming stone wall shrouded in emerald ivy that marked the edge of the Twilight Grove which held far greater enchantment for Aria than any Solstice Fair. The wall enclosed a forest clearing that called to Aria in a way she had never been able to explain…

Choosing a title is a crucial step in the myth-writing process. The title serves as the first impression and a guiding beacon for readers, encapsulating the essence of your myth. It should be graphic, intriguing, and reflective of the themes or central elements of the story.

Here are some key elements to consider during this step:

• Reflect the Essence: The title should capture the core theme, message, or unique elements of your myth. It should give readers a glimpse into what makes your story special.
• Evoke Emotion or Curiosity: A compelling title evokes emotion or piques curiosity. It should make potential readers want to explore the mythical world you’ve crafted.
• Avoid Spoilers: While the title should provide insight, avoid giving away major plot twists or spoilers. Maintain an element of mystery to engage readers.
• Consider Symbolism: If there are symbolic elements, key objects, or motifs in your myth, consider incorporating them into the title. This adds depth and intrigue.
• Clarity and Simplicity: Ensure that the title is clear and not overly complex. Simplicity can be powerful, making it easier for readers to remember and relate to.
• Check for Availability: Before finalizing the title, check for its availability. Ensure that it’s not already in extensive use by other works to avoid confusion.

Choosing a title is important because it serves as a gateway for readers to enter your mythical world. A well-crafted title not only attracts attention but also sets the tone for the narrative. It becomes a concise representation of the myth’s identity, making it memorable and inviting. The title is the first step in creating a connection between your story and its audience, drawing them into the enchanting realm you’ve created.

• Embers of the Eternal Phoenix

The title emphasizes the enduring nature of the Phoenix, suggesting a timeless quality to the myth. The use of “Embers” hints at both the fiery aspect and the remnants of ancient magic. “Embers” also evokes a sense of warmth and sparks curiosity about the Phoenix’s eternal flame, inviting readers to explore the myth’s mystical journey. The title maintains a level of intrigue without revealing specific plot details, leaving room for discovery within the narrative. It is also clear and concise, making it easy to remember while conveying the myth’s focus on the eternal aspect of the Phoenix.

Editing and revising are integral steps in refining your myth, enhancing its overall quality, and ensuring that it resonates effectively with your audience. This step involves a thorough examination of the narrative, language, character development, and overall coherence.

Here are the key elements of editing and revising:

• Language Refinement: Scrutinize the language used in your myth. Look for opportunities to elevate descriptions, choose graphic words, and create a more immersive reading experience. Ensure clarity and coherence in your sentences.
• Tighten Pacing: Evaluate the pacing of your myth. Ensure that the narrative flows smoothly, building tension where needed and allowing moments of reflection or revelation. Trim unnecessary details or scenes that may slow down the pace.
• Character Motivations and Development: Revisit your characters. Ensure that their motivations are clear, their actions align with their personalities, and their development arcs are compelling. Characters should feel authentic and contribute meaningfully to the story.
• Emotional Beats: Enhance emotional beats within the story. Whether it’s moments of triumph, tragedy, or self-discovery, make sure these emotional points resonate with readers. Readers should feel connected to the characters and invested in their journeys.
• World-Building Consistency: Check for consistency in your world-building. Ensure that the rules of the mythical world are adhered to and that details about locations, magical elements, and cultural elements remain coherent.
• Address Plot Gaps: Identify any plot gaps or inconsistencies. Make sure that the sequence of events is logical, and that resolutions align with the established conflicts. Fill in any gaps in the narrative that may leave readers confused.
• Balance Descriptive and Action Scenes: Strike a balance between descriptive scenes that establish the atmosphere and action scenes that drive the plot forward. Too much description without progression can lead to pacing issues.
• Check for Redundancy: Eliminate redundant or repetitive elements. Ensure that each scene, character trait, or piece of information contributes meaningfully to the overall narrative.
• Consistent Tone: Maintain a consistent tone throughout your myth. Ensure that the mood and atmosphere align with the themes you want to convey. Consistency enhances the immersive experience for readers.
• Grammar and Syntax: Pay attention to grammar, syntax, and punctuation. Correct any errors to ensure a polished and professional presentation of your myth.

Editing and revising are crucial steps that transform your initial draft into a polished and compelling myth. This process allows you to refine the language, tighten the narrative, and address any inconsistencies or weaknesses in the storytelling. Effective editing ensures that your myth engages readers, conveys its themes effectively, and leaves a lasting impression. It is an opportunity to elevate your work to its fullest potential before sharing it with a wider audience.

• Original Sentence: “Aria, feeling the Phoenix feather pulse, bravely uttered words she didn’t know she had.”
• Revised Sentence: “Feeling the pulsating warmth of the Phoenix feather, Aria courageously spoke words she never knew resided within her.”

Seeking feedback is a crucial phase in the myth-writing process. It involves sharing your work with others, gathering diverse perspectives, and gaining insights that can help improve and refine your narrative. Constructive feedback provides valuable guidance for enhancing your myth before its finalization.

Here are some elements to consider in this step

• Selecting Trusted Readers: Choose individuals whose opinions you value and who can provide constructive criticism. This could include fellow writers, beta readers, or individuals with an interest in mythology and storytelling.
• Ask Specific Questions: When sharing your myth, provide specific questions or areas you would like feedback on. This helps readers focus their feedback and ensures you receive insights into the aspects that matter most to you.
• Remaining Open-Minded: Approach feedback with an open mind. Be open to various perspectives and consider how different suggestions align with your vision for the myth. Remember that feedback is a tool for improvement, not a directive for rewriting.
• Balancing Positive and Constructive Feedback: Acknowledge both positive aspects and areas that need improvement. Positive feedback highlights strengths, while constructive criticism points to areas for refinement. A balanced perspective helps you build on what works well while addressing weaknesses.
• Multiple Rounds of Feedback: Consider gathering feedback in multiple rounds. Initial feedback can focus on broad aspects like plot and character development, while subsequent rounds can delve into finer details such as language and pacing.
• Implementing Changes Thoughtfully: After receiving feedback, take time to reflect on the suggestions. Decide which recommendations align with your creative vision and make changes thoughtfully. Not all feedback needs to be incorporated, and retaining your unique voice is crucial.

Feedback is a vital tool for refining your myth and ensuring it resonates with your intended audience. Other perspectives can highlight blind spots, offer fresh insights, and identify areas that might need clarification or expansion. Constructive feedback is a collaborative process that contributes to the overall quality of your myth, making it a more compelling and engaging narrative. Embracing feedback is an essential aspect of growth as a writer and contributes to the success of your myth when shared with a broader audience.

When sharing your myth with a trusted reader, you might ask specific questions such as the following:

• Did the beginning of the story grab your attention? Why or why not?
• What part of the story did you find the most exciting or interesting?
• Did you feel like you got to know the characters well? Who was your favourite, and why?
• Were there any characters whose actions or feelings you didn’t understand?
• Did the story move at a good pace, or were there parts that felt too slow or too fast?
• What was your favourite part of the story?
• Did the central conflict drive the tension effectively, and was it resolved satisfactorily?
• Were there any parts of the story where you felt confused or wanted to know more?
• Could you picture the magical world in your mind? Were there things you found confusing?
• Did you feel like you understood how the magic worked in the story?
• Did the language used in the myth enhance the storytelling, or were there areas where it could be improved?
• Were the descriptions of settings, characters, and magical elements detailed enough?
• Did you feel emotionally connected to the characters and their journeys? Were there specific moments that stood out emotionally?
• What do you think the story was trying to teach or tell you?
• Were the symbolic elements effectively woven into the narrative, or were they confusing?
• Were there unexpected twists or surprises that you enjoyed?
• Did you find any parts of the plot predictable, and if so, did it impact your enjoyment of the story?
• What did you enjoy most about the myth?
• Is there anything you think could be improved or expanded upon?

The Final Edit is the penultimate step in the process of crafting your myth. During this phase, you focus on thorough polishing, ensuring that your narrative is finely tuned, error-free, and ready to captivate your audience. The Final Edit involves both a macro and micro-level examination of your myth, addressing broader structural elements as well as minute details.

Here are the key elements to consider during this step:

• Flow and Pacing: Ensure the overall flow of your myth is smooth and engaging. Check that each scene transitions seamlessly to the next, maintaining a cohesive narrative rhythm.
• Consistency: Verify that your story maintains consistency in character traits, world-building rules, and any established magical or mythic elements.
• Word Choice: Carefully choose words that enhance the mood, tone, and imagery of your myth. Replace any repetitive or weak language with more vibrant and graphic alternatives.
• Sentence Structure: Vary sentence lengths and structures to maintain reader interest. Ensure clarity and avoid overly complex or complicated sentences.
• Dialogue : Review and refine character dialogues, ensuring they align with each character’s personality and contribute to the plot. Dialogue should feel natural and authentic.
• Character Consistency: Double-check that characters’ actions, motivations, and growth align with their established traits and arcs.
• Visual Imagery: Enhance descriptive elements to vividly paint scenes and characters in the reader’s mind. Engage the senses through rich, immersive details.
• Show, Don’t Tell: Where possible, use descriptive language to “show” the reader what’s happening, rather than simply “telling” them.
• Emotional Connection: Amplify emotional moments by fine-tuning language and expressions. Ensure that readers can connect with the characters on an emotional level.
• Pacing of Emotional Beats: Confirm that emotional peaks and valleys are well-paced, allowing readers to experience a range of feelings throughout the myth.
• Spelling and Grammar : Conduct a meticulous review for spelling and grammatical errors. Consider using grammar-checking tools, but also manually inspect the text for issues that automated tools might miss.
• Consistent Style: Ensure consistency in writing style, whether it’s formal, casual, or a blend of both.
• Clarity: Verify that the narrative is clear and easily comprehensible. Address any areas where confusion might arise.
• Readability for the Intended Audience: Consider the age group or demographic your myth targets and adjust language and complexity accordingly.
• Consistent Theme Weaving: Confirm that the chosen theme is consistently woven throughout the narrative. Every aspect of the myth should contribute to reinforcing the central theme.
• Author’s Vision: Evaluate whether the final draft aligns with your initial vision for the myth. Ensure that your unique voice and storytelling style shine through.
• Reader’s Experience: Consider how the myth will be perceived by readers. Aim to create an immersive and satisfying experience.

The Final Edit is crucial for presenting a polished and professional myth to your audience. It elevates the overall quality of your storytelling, providing readers with a seamless and enjoyable reading experience. This step is the last opportunity to catch any lingering issues and ensure your myth is ready for publication. The Final Edit reflects your commitment to delivering a well-crafted and thoughtful narrative to your audience.

Sunlight crept over the forested peaks, casting its golden glow over the sleepy village of Lumara. Aria stirred slowly from a night filled with vivid dreams of soaring over emerald treetops. As she rubbed the sleep from her eyes, the scent of baking bread and sweet honey-mint tea beckoned from the kitchen below. After changing out of her nightclothes, Aria drifted downstairs where dawn’s light streamed through the open windows. Her mother, Rhea, was stoking the brick oven’s dying embers while a kettle whistled on the stove.  “Good morning, my little owl,” said Rhea. “Ready for some cinnamon spice buns?” Aria seated herself at the hand-carved oak table as Rhea placed a hot mug of fragrant tea and two gooey pastries before her. Famished after her nighttime adventures in the dreaming world, Aria wasted no time devouring her treat. As she licked sticky cinnamon from her fingers, thoughts turned to the annual Solstice Fair which would flood Lumara with visitors and magic unlike any other day. “This year the fair will be more wondrous than ever before,” said Rhea, interrupting Aria’s delicious daydreams. There was joy but also solemnity in her mother’s voice which puzzled Aria. But before she could question it, a knock sounded at the front door…

Step 16 is the completion of your journey as a myth creator — it’s the moment you share your crafted tale with the world. This step involves taking the necessary actions to publish your myth, making it accessible to your intended audience. Here’s a breakdown of the key components within this step:

Here are the elements to consider:

• Choose Your Publishing Platform: Decide where and how you want to publish your myth. Options include traditional publishing through literary agents and publishers, or self-publishing through online platforms like Amazon Kindle or other e-book distributors. If you prefer a physical copy, consider print-on-demand services.
• Formatting and Presentation: Ensure your myth is formatted appropriately for the chosen publishing platform. Pay attention to font styles, page layouts, and any illustrations or images you plan to include. A polished and professional presentation enhances the reader’s experience.
• Cover Design: Create an eye-catching and relevant cover design. The cover is often the first thing potential readers notice, so it should reflect the essence of your myth and entice them to explore further. If you’re not artistically inclined, consider hiring a professional cover designer.
• Metadata and Descriptions: Craft compelling metadata and descriptions for your myth. This includes a concise and engaging book description, relevant keywords, and categories. This information is crucial for attracting the right audience and improving the discoverability of your myth.
• Distribution Channels: Decide whether you want to make your myth available exclusively on a single platform or distribute it widely across multiple channels. Each distribution choice has its advantages and considerations, so weigh them based on your goals.
• Marketing and Promotion: Develop a marketing strategy to promote your myth. Utilize social media, author websites, book blogs, and other platforms to build anticipation and reach potential readers. Consider offering promotional discounts or free giveaways to generate initial interest.
• Author Platform: If you haven’t already, establish an author platform. This could be a personal website, social media profiles, or an author page on platforms like Goodreads. An author platform helps you connect with readers and build a community around your work.
• Engage with Readers: Actively engage with readers who discover and read your myth. Respond to reviews, participate in discussions, and consider organizing virtual or local events. Building a connection with your audience can foster a loyal readership.
• Feedback and Iteration: Remain open to feedback from readers. Use constructive criticism to improve your future works and consider releasing updated editions of your myth based on valuable insights.
• Legal Considerations: Be aware of any legal considerations related to publishing, especially if you choose to use traditional publishing contracts or self-publishing platforms. Understand copyright, licensing, and any contractual agreements.
• Celebrate Your Achievement: Take a moment to celebrate the completion and publication of your myth. Whether it’s a personal accomplishment or the beginning of a larger writing career, acknowledge the effort and creativity you poured into your work.

Publishing and sharing your myth marks the end of your creative endeavour. This step transforms your narrative from a personal project to a piece of art meant to be experienced by others. Sharing your myth with the world allows you to connect with readers, receive feedback, and contribute to the rich tapestry of storytelling. Whether you aim for a wide readership or a niche audience, publishing and sharing are essential steps in the lifecycle of your myth.

Following this straightforward process on how to write a myth will have you conjuring up incredible lands and beloved characters in no time. Soon you’ll be weaving magical narratives that speak to universal truths and capture imaginations for generations to come.

Frequently Asked Questions 

If you want to try your hand at crafting an epic mythic tale, the good news is getting started is straightforward. While myths often deal with grand themes tied to a culture’s cosmology, at their core they relate compelling narratives about universal struggles facing heroes and gods.

The first step is to decide on the core concept or message you want to explore through allegory. Think of timeless ideas surrounding morality, the meaning of life, good vs evil. Themes of love, courage, justice, and temptation are mythic staples.

Next, build your wondrous setting and characters who will bring everything to life. Unleash your creativity when conceiving locations, magical elements, immortal beings and the hero’s adventure. Traditionally myths incorporate fantasy tropes like enchanted weapons, supernatural transformations and talking animals.

Outline the sequence of events from the Call to Adventure trigger that disrupts the known world to the climatic showdown. Follow conventions from famous myth cycles but put your unique spin to surprise audiences. Monitor the pace so stakes escalate as the tale builds to an epic showdown settling conflicts in a satisfying way.

While crafting memorable dialogue and vivid imagery, focus on imparting the moral perspective intended to guide mortals. Let symbolic motifs reinforce your themes of choice. Execute revisions until you have a tight, well-structured myth for the ages! Share printed or online and enjoy as readers lose themselves in this new compelling mini-universe.

Myths across cultures and time periods tend to share certain essential ingredients that capture the imagination. If you want to write a compelling mythic tale, make sure to incorporate these 5 essential elements:

• Supernatural Beings: Myths typically feature immortal gods, goddesses, magical creatures or humans with extraordinary abilities as characters. Their supernatural feats provide that sense of awe and wonder.
• Universal Themes: Fundamental, timeless concepts like love, courage, temptation, jealousy or the battle of good vs evil form the thematic backbone that gives myths appeal.
• Symbolic Elements: Metaphors and motifs like special objects, numbers, colours or seasons litter mythic narratives, representing abstract ideas related to their universal themes.
• Moral Lesson: A teaching or worldview on how mortals can live just, meaningful lives tend to be imparted. Myths establish cultural values.
• Heroic Journeys: The protagonist tends to embark on an adventurous quest or perilous journey of self-discovery that transforms them, allowing them to conquer whatever threatens their world.

By incorporating all these ingredients, you’ll craft a myth capable of enduring for generations as great iconic stories regularly do. So unleash your imagination and get writing!

One famous mythic tale which contains quintessential ingredients from across cultures is the ancient Greek story of Icarus and Daedalus. It features hubris, suspense, sorrow and a moral warning.

The tale goes that skilled inventor Daedalus fashioned wings made of feathers and wax for himself and his son Icarus to escape imprisonment, warning Icarus not to fly too close to the sun. But filled with exhilaration soaring above the azure sea, Icarus ignored his father’s warning and soared higher towards the sun’s warmth. The heat soon melted the wax binding his wings, and young Icarus plunged into the sea where he drowned.

The myth of Icarus incorporates gods, as the imprisonment was by King Minos to punish Daedalus for helping Minos’ wife give birth to the minotaur. It demonstrates man’s temptation to defy the gods and overreach. Beyond just entertainment, it imparts a moral about respecting limits placed on mortals. And it serves as an allegory for hubris or excessive pride leading to downfall.

With its familial love, suspense, tragedy and ominous warning, the legend of Icarus’ doomed flight remains impactful centuries later. All key traits of an unforgettable myth!

Myths take root in civilizations seeking to make sense of the mysteries of nature, life and death. So myths often originate as imaginative explanations of phenomena like storms, illness or conflict that frighten or confuse early humans lacking science.

Gods representing natural forces like thunder, the moon, fertility or the seas feature in nascent creation myths constructed to bring order through storytelling. Likewise, myths emerge accounting for the genesis of mankind and the cosmos featuring supernatural machinations. pantheons of gods, titans clashing or primordial cosmic eggs hatching all aim to elucidate existence.

Myths also arise from ancestors weaving fantastical histories that provide shared identity. Hence national epics like the Hindu Mahabharata or Anglo-Saxon legend Beowulf offer early tribes and dynasties storied lineage and famous deeds to rally around. Veritable characters gain superhuman qualities over centuries of oral retelling before being penned.

Often myths encode guidelines for living through the actions of deities, spirits, heroes and villains. Moral perspectives thus enter the collective consciousness. By dramatizing consequences for vice and virtues myths solidify proper codes of conduct around hospitality, war, infidelity etc.

So while methods differ, mythology always starts with imagination conjuring worlds that resonate enough to endure across generations. The rest is persistent retelling until myths become a tradition.

What is an example of a kids’ myth?

A delightful myth perfect for children is the story of the race between the tortoise and the hare. It’s a fable similar to Aesop’s animal tales, imparting a lesson in a child-friendly way that’s easy to grasp.

As the title suggests, a humble hard-shelled tortoise and an arrogant speedy hare have a contest to settle who’s faster. When they decide to race to a tree and back, the hare sprints ahead swiftly and then lies down napping certain she has won. But steady and determined, the tortoise passes the sleeping hare close to the tree to win while the hare awakes shocked learning a lesson in humility.

The simple story of the race incorporates fun personified animals children adore. It also has suspense – who will triumph? Children can absorb the moral of resilient perseverance defeating complacency or arrogance. And the visualization of a plodding tortoise improbably overtaking the speedy hare stays etched in memories.

So like the best children’s myths, “The Tortoise and the Hare” wraps the fundamental lesson of not underestimating others within an entertaining tale of a sporting rivalry that upset kids find uproariously satisfying. An enduring cautionary myth passed through generations.

We’ve covered the essential ingredients that go into crafting a memorable myth, from incorporating supernatural elements, symbols and heroic arcs to imparting profound themes or cultural values in imaginative ways. Now over to you aspiring myth-makers!

Whether you create a fantastical origin story for your favourite childhood toy or write a tragic saga extolling the virtues of perseverance like the tortoise fable, embrace your boundless creativity. As this guide on how to write a myth has shown, compelling mythology can emerge from any inspiring spark. Once you have brought your new addition to mythology to life through tireless writing and revision, share your remarkable tales far and wide.

Now, we want to hear from you! Have you embarked on your mythical odyssey, or are you inspired to begin one? Share your thoughts, ideas, or questions in the comments below.

Marty the wizard is the master of Imagine Forest. When he's not reading a ton of books or writing some of his own tales, he loves to be surrounded by the magical creatures that live in Imagine Forest. While living in his tree house he has devoted his time to helping children around the world with their writing skills and creativity.

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THE OBLIGATORY "IS THIS A SCAM?" QUESTION:

Considering the fact that you found my contact information online, it’s understandable to be skeptical regarding the legitimacy of my services. Therefore, I’m willing to do all of the following to help you feel more secure in trusting me with your academic needs:

Engage in a Telephone interview:  Speak with you on the phone and answer any questions you may have so that you have the opportunity to assess and analyze my tone, articulation, and accent. I’m a New Jersey-born Irish/Italian-American, but I have been told that I speak in an erudite & articulate suburban American accent with a “professor style” voice somewhat resembling the voice of actor: Ben Stein.

Provide Telephone References:  Provide you with the contact information of students who have utilized my services in the past who would be more than willing to vouch for my skills.

MY REBUTTAL TO THE OBLIGATORY “IS THIS A SCAM?” QUESTION:

At the risk of sounding arrogant, I consider myself to be at least marginally more intelligent (both academically & socially) than the average person. Therefore, if I ever decided to suddenly risk prison time, risk my reputation, and risk enduring the wrath of modern-day “cancel culture” by scamming people out of their money:

Not Worth the Money:  I certainly wouldn’t do it for such paltry amounts of money. (i.e., anything less than $1,000 per victim.)

Most Students are Broke:  I certainly wouldn’t choose high school & college students as my “target audience” to scam, considering that most people without college degrees have abysmally low annual incomes.

Waste of Time & Energy:  Communicating back and forth with potential clients is an absurdly long time sink since only less than 10% of all potential clients who reach out to me actually become paying clients of mine.

All My Payment Apps are Still Active:  If you pay me to provide academic services and I don’t deliver, you can always dispute the payment with the payment app and easily get your money refunded. If I were in the habit of swindling money from people, then all of my payment accounts would have been investigated and be completely shut down by now.

CONCLUSION:

My Mission:  Thank you for taking the time to read my Reddit post. I take what I do very seriously and I always strive to get the highest possible grades for all students who entrust me with their coursework.

Closing Words:  Please feel free to reach out to me if you're sincerely interested in having help you with your school work. I am available via text, email, and call almost 24/7/365.

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