social issues in canada essay

Social Issues in Canada

In recent years, one of the most defining elements of the Canadian identity has been the country’s social policies — the collection of laws and regulations that govern how Canadians live their lives, and what sorts of individual rights the government is willing to protect and defend.

Given that many Canadians like to focus on how their country is different from the United States, social policy is often seen as a window into the sort of values that make Canada a uniquely  progressive country — though it would be a mistake to suggest all social policy is progressive or that progressive social policy has no Canadian critics.

The politics of health care

In the 2001 Canadian federal election, Stockwell Day (b. 1950), the conservative candidate for prime minister, famously brandished this sign during a televised debate, lest anyone think he was soft on the issue of privatizing health care. Conservative politicians are often on the defensive about health care policy, since many conservative intellectuals and commentators would like to see more privatization in the system, yet these ideas are not considered popular with voters.

Canadian Health Care

Whenever Canadians are polled about what makes them “proudest to be Canadian,” the Canadian health care system often tops the list. Beginning in the 1960s, Canada’s provincial governments began introducing government health insurance (sometimes known as medicare ), to pay for hospital visits, operations, and other essential medical services. In 1984 the federal government passed the Canada Health Act which forced all provincial health plans to meet certain standards of coverage, and outlawed charging fees for medically-necessary services. Today, all Canadians are provided with comprehensive health insurance from birth through public health plans run by the various provincial governments (with funding help from Ottawa). The provincial governments now generally run most hospitals and clinics as well, with doctors and surgeons charging governments directly for their services. Very few privately-run hospitals or clinics exist in Canada these days.

• Canada Health Act — Frequently Asked Questions, Health Canada

Canada’s public health care system is one of the most generous in the world, but also quite expensive to maintain. In recent years, many provincial governments have started to scale back their scope of insurance coverage in order to make their medicare programs more financially sustainable, and Canadians often purchase supplementary private health insurance to pay for things like dentist trips, eye exams and any operation or treatment the government considers “non-essential.” Such plans, sometimes called extended medical coverage  are often provided to working Canadians by their employers as a perk of the job. Private health insurance cannot — by law — pay for services covered by a provincial, public health plan, however.

How to guarantee the long-term “survival” of the Canadian health care regime is one of the most heated debates in contemporary Canadian politics. On the right, it’s common to advocate greater privatization of medical services, including more privately-run, fee-based clinics and surgeons to give more choice to patients. Folks on the left, in turn, are generally extremely critical of anything that smacks of edging towards a so-called “ two-tiered ” system, where Canadians with money can buy their way into better medical care than those who use the public system. To the broader public, however, the status quo is considered nearly sacred, which leads most politicians to shy away from proposing dramatic reforms.

• Canada’s Health Care System, a summary from Health Canada
• Profile of the Canadian Health Care system, the Commonwealth Fund
• Canadian Health Care myths and facts, Snopes

Born in Poland to a Jewish family, Dr. Morgentaler survived death in a concentration camp and was a frustratingly complex foe for pro-life groups. Brash and outspoken, he is easily one of the most controversial Canadians of all time.

Abortion Laws in Canada

Owing in part to the pressures of the country’s large Catholic population , abortions in Canada were banned entirely until 1969, and then only permitted under narrow conditions when the mother’s health could be proven to be in danger. Illegal abortions continued in the background, however, and in 1988, a particularly unapologetic abortion surgeon named Dr. Henry Morgentaler (1923-2013) went before the Supreme Court of Canada to face charges. Siding with Morgentaler, the court ruled the country’s existing abortion regulations represented an unconstitutional burden on the rights of women, and the legal restrictions on the procedure were struck down.

Though the Supreme Court’s ruling said it would be permissible for the government to place some  limitations on abortion, no Canadian government ever has. Canadian women thus have a universal right to abort at any stage of pregnancy — even the final weeks — which is a degree of permissiveness largely unseen elsewhere in the western world. At the same time, however, there do exist some  de facto limitations on abortion determined by the ethics of individual doctors. In many parts of the country it can be difficult to find doctors willing to perform so-called late term abortions .

Abortion is a very controversial topic in contemporary Canada, and tops the list of things to avoid discussing in polite company. There are a number of passionate pro-life and pro-choice activist groups all over the country, prone to staging aggressive demonstrations and protests in order to ensure their opinions are heard. All of Canada’s political parties are officially pro-choice, however, and proposals to change Canadian abortion policy are almost never heard in mainstream political discussion. Since the 1990s, there has been a strong consensus among Canada’s party leaders that the “ abortion debate ” is a topic too politically explosive to reopen, so the status quo stays. This political consensus masks the degree Canadians themselves disagree about the issue however — a 2018 poll found Canadians quite evenly split when it was asked whether “there should be laws on abortion in Canada.”

• Abortion in Canada Timeline, AbortioninCanada.ca (pro-life)
• Abortion Rights Coalition of Canada (pro-choice)
• Induced Abortions Reported in Canada in 2014, Canadian Institute for Health Information (spreadsheet file)

A medical marijuana store in downtown Toronto. Though many such stores are not actually licensed medical retailers, police in big cities rarely enforce such laws, allowing them to operate in a state of immunity.

Drugs and Alcohol

Liquor was associated with all sorts of social ills in early Canada, and at various times during the early 20th century most provinces experimented with banning the sale and production of alcohol in various ways. This era of so-called prohibition was not the magical solution many had hoped for, however, and by the 1920s, most provinces had changed their laws to re-allow the sale of alcohol, but only within certain tight regulations. To this day, Canadian provinces will often have complicated rules governing just how or where booze can be sold; in some provinces it may only be sold by special government-run liquor stores, in others the law may require hard alcohol and beer to be sold at different locations. Almost all forbid the sale of liquor at 24-hour shops like supermarkets and corner stores. Provinces generally allow citizens to brew (but not sell) their own beer and wine, but it is against federal law to make distilled liquor without a permit.

Canada’s legal drinking age is set by the provinces. In Alberta, Manitoba and Quebec the age is 18 , everywhere else it is 19 . Most provinces also have strict laws against consuming alcohol in public places and low standards for what constitutes “ driving while under the influence .”

Marijuana was legalized for personal consumption across Canada in the fall of 2018. In theory, there are a lot of strict laws dictating exactly when, where and how marijuana can be bought, sold, and used, but it’s unclear to what degree these rules will be enforced. Prior to 2018, Canada’s anti-pot laws were rarely enforced and offenders rarely faced serious punishment, particularly in big cities. Since 2001, it has been legal for Canadian doctors to prescribe marijuana for medical reasons , and in 2014 the federal government authorized the licensing of private retail distribution of medicinal marijuana — a decision which triggered a dramatic increase of pot shops in urban centres, most of which promote rather hazy definitions of “medically necessary” pot.

Hard drugs like heroin, cocaine, LSD, and meth are all banned in Canada.

• Cannabis in Canada: Get the Facts, Government of Canada
• Cannabis for Medical Purposes, Health Canada
• Health Labels for Cigarettes and Little Cigars, Government of Canada

A few works that have been banned from Canada

• "Love to Hate" by the People Haters (CD)
• "Blondes in Bondage" (DVD)
• "Kill the White Man" (DVD)
• "Super Erotic Manga Anthology, Vol. 91" (Book)
• "Family Lust" (magazine)
• "Fight Crime: Abort Black Babies" (sticker)
• "Bestiality Girlfriend Catalog" (comic book)
• "The Jew World Order Unmasked" (essay)

Freedom of Speech in Canada

Canadians generally take their constitutionally-protected right to free expression  (the freedom to say or write whatever you want) very seriously, but the privilege is not an absolute one. As discussed in the Canadian Constitution  chapter, Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms allows “reasonable limits” to be placed on most civil rights, and over the years the government has used this authority to pass some legal limits on freedom of speech. Canada has relatively uncontroversial laws that forbid spreading deliberate, malicious lies about other people (known as  slander or  libel ) as well as copying or attempting to profit from other people’s ideas ( copyright infringement ). It is also generally against the law to use speech to encourage, advise, or provoke the committing of crimes.

It is still technically illegal to sell or produce obscene  material in Canada and the Canadian government often bans the import of specific magazines, books, comics, containing very extreme depictions of sexual violence or perverted sex acts like incest or pedophilia. More “mainstream” pornography is only available in specially licensed stores or theaters, though this has obviously become far less relevant in the internet age. Provincial governments have similar laws banning children from buying pornography, excessively violent video games, or tickets for movies with “mature” content

• Canada Border Services Agency’s Policy on the Classification of Obscene Material
• Movie Ratings in Canada, Parent Previews

Canada has hate speech laws that make it a crime to publicly incite “hatred against any identifiable group” such as racial, religious, or sexual minorities, through written statements or other forms of media. There are exemptions for matters of sincere opinion or religious belief, and the attorney general of Canada must generally choose to initiate prosecution. More sweeping laws that made it a crime to “expose a person or persons to hatred or contempt” on the basis of identity were abolished in 2014. Sentences for the most extreme forms of hate speech, particularly hate speech that “promotes genocide,” can reach a maximum of two to five years in prison. New national security legislation makes it a crime to distribute media that “advocates or promotes” terrorism, as well.

• When is it hate speech?: 7 significant Canadian cases, CBC

It's against the law to own a "replica firearm" in Canada, which the law defines as "any device that is designed or intended to exactly resemble, or to resemble with near precision, a firearm." In order to avoid breaking the law, toy guns, paintball guns, and other play weapons are often cartoonishly proportioned and have bright orange muzzles.

Guns in Canada

As a country with long traditions of hunting and trapping, Canada’s rate of gun ownership has historically been high, and Canada has some of the most liberal gun laws on earth. According to the Canadian National Firearms Association , there are presently about 21 million guns in Canada owned by about seven million Canadians — or about 20 per cent of the population — the majority of whom are recreational hunters. The most commonly owned guns in Canada are rifles and shotguns.

The Canadian government requires citizens to pass a safety course and undergo a background check before they can get a firearms Possession and Acquisition Licence ( PAL ) to legally own or buy arms, and laws governing gun storage and transportation are detailed and strict. Unlike most countries, Canada does not have national gun registry, though handgun owners must obtain a  registration certificate  to prove they are a legal owner. The government maintains a long list of banned guns , mostly semi-automatic rifles, though they can be rented for use in shooting ranges.

Gun control in Canada has proven to be an issue which sharply divides the country in terms of rural-versus-urban. For those who live in big cities, guns tend to be associated with inner-city crime, particularly gangland murders, and support to severely control or outright ban gun possession is usually high. Canadians who live in more rural parts of the country, in contrast, usually associate guns with hobbies like hunting, sport shooting and collecting, and see gun control as an undue burden that punishes the otherwise law-abiding.

• Frequently Asked Questions Canadian Firearms Program, RCMP
• Canadian Coalition for Gun Control

Discrimination Protections

Canada has a fairly robust set of legal protections designed to prevent Canadians from being discriminated against on the basis of things they can’t control, such as race , gender , religion , or sexual orientation .

The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is a section of the Canadian Constitution that makes it illegal for the government of Canada, or any provincial government to pass laws that either explicitly discriminate against certain Canadians on the basis of their identity, or simply place an unfair burden on one group over another. The Supreme Court of Canada routinely overturns laws they perceive to be discriminatory on the grounds of Charter protections.

Canada also has a sweeping piece of legislation called the Canadian Human Rights Act that forbids private entities, such as employers, landlords, schools, and stores from discriminating against clients or customers on the basis of identity. Discrimination cases of these sorts are investigated by the Canadian Human Rights Commission and adjudicated by a court-like body known as the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal that has the power to issue fines and or other corrective actions. The various provincial governments have their own human rights laws, commissions, and tribunals as well.

Cheering Montreal's 2013 Pride Parade. Paul Vance/Shutterstock

While "LGBT" remains the most common acronym to describe the community of Canadians with non-traditional sexual and gender identities, some activist groups include the number 2 in the acronym as well (LGBT2). This refers to the idea of being "Two-Spirited," which is the term some aboriginal Canadian cultures use to describe LGBT-type people.

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Rights

Canadians’ attitudes towards same-sex relationships have greatly liberalized over the last couple decades. Beginning in 1969, most legal bans on “ sodomy ” were lifted, and since then, more and more Canadians have been comfortable living “out” lives as open homosexuals. Provincial governments now explicitly prohibit discrimination in employment or housing on the basis of sexual orientation, and the Supreme Court of Canada has ruled that it is constitutional to impose fines or bans on those who spread aggressively anti-gay “hate speech.” At the same time, homosexuality can still be an issue that makes some Canadians uncomfortable. Many gay or lesbians may experience tension with their families in the aftermath of “coming out” (particularly in more rural or religious parts of the country), and many same-sex couples may not be comfortable showing affection in public, with the exception of known “gay-friendly” venues or neighbourhoods.

After years of opposition from both major parties, in 2005 same-sex marriage was legalized in Canada when the short-lived government of Prime Minister Paul Martin (b. 1938) passed the Civil Marriage Act , which redefined marriage as simply a “lawful union of two persons.” The law was opposed, and continues to be opposed, by many Christian groups and political conservatives, but in 2016 the Conservative Party formally abandoned its promise to reverse the legislation.

Transgenderism , or being born into a biological sex that does not match one’s psychological gender identity has only very recently become a matter of mainstream attention in Canada, and it remains a topic that is far more controversial and contested than homosexuality. All provincial health plans recognize gender dysmorphia  — the medical name for the state of being transgender — as a valid medical condition, and will cover the costs of sex reassignment surgery  (also known as gender-confirming surgery ). That said, there are almost no surgeons in Canada who actually perform the procedure, and many trans Canadians must travel abroad — and often pay out of pocket — to have it performed. Many Canadians may be hostile or skeptical of transgender people, though there is also growing acceptance of trans people as a legitimate minority deserving of public compassion and legal protection.

• Egale, Canada’s largest LGBT lobby group

A billboard in downtown Vancouver reminds men of Canada's prostitution laws.

Prostitution

Selling sex is legal in Canada, but purchasing it is not, a somewhat confusing status quo born from a 2013 Supreme Court ruling holding that previous attempts to outlaw selling represented an undue burden on the safety rights of prostitutes.

Canada’s new prostitution laws, passed in 2014, impose tight regulations on precisely how sex can be sold and advertised — generally as far from public view as possible, and only by the prostitute herself (as opposed to a pimp, madam, or brothel).

Prostitution is incredibly stigmatized in Canada, and sex work is considered an incredibly dangerous and offensive job. Many Canadian prostitutes are poor women (and to a lesser extent, gay men) who come from some of society’s most marginalized groups, such as drug addicts, refugees, or aboriginal Canadians . Despite laws forbidding it, many prostitutes are likewise trapped in exploitive relationships with their managers that are both physically and economically abusive. In recent years, it has been more common to see charitable groups in large Canadian cities that actively work to improve the conditions of sex workers, though this has also faced controversy for “normalizing” prostitution.

The massive Casino de Montreal in Quebec is Canada's largest casino, and one of the largest on earth.

Gambling in Canada

First legalized in 1969, government-run gambling underwent a dramatic boom in Canada during the 1980s and 1990s, largely as a way for provinces to increase their budget revenues without raising taxes. All provinces are now home to a wide variety of legal games of chance, including slot machines , casinos , sports bookies , animal racing , and video lottery terminals (or “ VLTs ”). In 2010, the province of British Columbia went even further and became the first jurisdiction in North America to legalize internet casinos as well. It should be noted that in all these cases gambling services are government-run; it remains illegal in Canada to run a private casino or betting house.

The provincial governments all run lottery corporations that sell so-called “ scratch-and-win tickets ” and other lottery tickets at corner stores and lottery kiosks in shopping malls. There are two national lotteries in Canada, the Lotto 649 and the Lotto Max , with winners picked every month. Winners are chosen from their ability to successfully predict a string of randomly-drawn numbers.

Compared to some of the other issues discussed in this chapter, gambling is generally only a minor controversy in modern Canada. While most Canadians may not want a casino in their neighbourhood and may be aware that there are health problems associated with too much gambling, casual gambling once in a while is a fairly common pastime unlikely to evoke much judgment from others. Buying lottery tickets has a relatively mild social stigma as stereotypically “lower class” behavior.

• Most popular online casinos in Canada

Death Penalty in Canada

From 1859 to 1962, the Canadian government executed 710 convicts, mostly by hanging , for various crimes involving murder or treason. After a series of controversial cases, a moratorium on further executions was imposed in 1967, followed by the outright abolishment of the death penalty in 1976, by the Liberal government of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau (1919-2000).

Despite being execution-free for more than 30 years, public support for executing murderers remains high in Canada, though no Canadian political party officially supports reversing the current ban.

• Capital Punishment in Canada, CBC

Animal Rights

Though pet ownership (cats and dogs, mostly) is common in Canada, it’s not a right, and pet owners are often discriminated against in law. Many public buildings, including apartments, forbid animals and in many parts of the country the types and breeds of animals you’re allowed to own is limited by provincial law. The physical abuse of animals remains a crime, however.

• The Canadian Federation of Humane Societies
• Exotic Pet Laws in Canada, CBC

Canada's welfare capital?

Welfare in Canada is often stereotypically associated with the Maritime provinces, where a seasonal fishing industry creates reliable periods of unemployment for lots of workers every year.

Welfare and Pensions in Canada

In response to increasing Canadian life expectancy, the Canadian government has created various pension programs to ensure Canadians will still have access to a livable income even after they are too old to continue working. Today, every Canadian’s paycheque includes a deduction for the Canadian Pension Plan ( CPP ), which is then pooled by the federal government, partially invested in the stock market (via the CPP Investment Board ), and then redistributed in the form of pension cheques to citizens over the age of 65. In addition, there is also the similar but optional Old Age Security   Pension ( OAS ) program, which can be opted into by retirement age seniors who have lived in Canada for a significant period of time. Of course, this is just a broad summary. Both programs are, in fact, extremely complicated and bureaucratic, and likely to get even more so as the government is forced to deal with a rapidly aging population. About half of all Canadians are also part of a  private pension plan through their employer.

• Public Pensions, Government of Canada
• Reality check: Is CPP going to be around when you retire?, Global News

Welfare is a broad term that basically refers to various forms of financial assistance that are paid by the government to people who, for whatever reason, are not working. Employment Insurance (formerly known by the more dour name  Unemployment Insurance) is the most common form of this, and is available to Canadians who have been unexpectedly laid off or forced to quit their jobs for reasons such as pregnancy, illness or injury, or to take care of a sickly loved one. Most provinces offer similar programs known as income assistance for people unable to work, as well as disability assistance  programs for people with limiting physical impairments.

• Employment Insurance Benefits, Government of Canada

In general, welfare programs are fairly controversial in Canada and there are social taboos associated with using them for too long. Since the 1990s, welfare rules have gotten steadily stricter, and now it’s usually expected that welfare recipients will be actively seeking jobs or otherwise making plans for their future while on it.

Quick Facts

• Canada is usually considered to be a fairly liberal country in terms of the government's permissiveness towards several controversial social issues.
• Abortion, divorce, gambling, and same-sex marriage are all legal in Canada with few restrictions.
• Purchasing sex, marijuana or hard drugs is not legal, though attitudes may be shifting in a more permissive direction.
• Canada's provinces provide government-run health insurance for all their citizens, which guarantees mostly complete coverage.

Thank You For Not Smoking

Tobacco cigarettes are legal for Canadians over 18, but in recent years the government has begun to actively discourage their use, both by banning smoking in all public places and forcing cigarette manufactures to place enormous, disgusting warning labels on all cigarette packages.

Safe Injections

Since 2003, the city of Vancouver has provided heroin addicts with free, clean needles and supervised safe injection sites to prevent overdoses and the spread of infectious diseases like HIV and Hepatitis C. Though controversial, the program is now set to come to Toronto, as well.

Cash for Parts?

Federal and provincial laws make it illegal to pay for human body parts in Canada, including organs like kidneys and hearts, as well as bone marrow, eggs, and semen. This means that Canadians who donate body parts for medical procedures are not allowed to receive money for doing do. It's possible to pay blood and plasma donors in some parts of Canada, but this is rare.

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Research to Insights: A look at Canada’s economy and society three years after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic

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About Research to Insights

Three years on….

• Economic conditions: Economic activity resilient as households and businesses adjust to higher borrowing costs
• Economic conditions: Business entry slows as financing costs rise/a>

Labour market conditions: Strong employment growth as elevated vacancies begin to ease

Tight labour market conditions persist as vacancies begin to moderate.

• Demographic trends: Strategies to mitigate population aging essential for labour force growth

Demographic trends: Immigration will only partially alleviate the impacts of population aging

Converging pressure points: many economic and social challenges are interrelated, economic challenges: housing affordability deteriorates as debt levels rise, economic challenges: while headline inflation eases, pressures on affordability remain widespread, economic challenges: financial stress builds as rising prices weigh on family budgets.

• Social impacts: Persistent impacts on well-being and mental health, particularly among young Canadians
• Social challenges: Alcohol and drug use during the pandemic contributed to excess mortality among younger Canadians

Text begins

The Research to Insights series of presentations features a broad range of findings on selected research topics. Each presentation draws from and integrates evidence from various studies that use innovative and high-quality data and methods to better understand relevant and complex policy issues.

Based on applied research of valuable data, the series is intended to provide decision makers, and Canadians more broadly, a comprehensive and horizontal view of the current economic, social and health issues we face in a changing world.

March 11, 2023, marks three years since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 is still evolving and circulating widely across Canada and many other countries. The Government of Canada (GC) acknowledges that the virus remains a public health emergency of international concern and continues to focus on protecting the health and safety of all Canadians (GC, 2023). To date, 97 million vaccination doses have been administered, but the over 51,000 Canadians who have died from COVID-19 remind us of the true cost of the pandemic (GC, 2023).

The Omicron wave marked a turning point for the pandemic in Canada. Most COVID-19 restrictions were eased or lifted in early 2022, and people began to live with the virus. Today, national transmission indicators and outbreak incidence remain stable, though many of the social impacts of the pandemic, particularly those related to mental health challenges and substance abuse among younger Canadians, may be slow to ease.

Life in Canada, as in other countries, has changed in many ways since the start of the pandemic—some changes were direct impacts of the pandemic, while others were trends that were accelerated by it. Over the past year, Canadian households and businesses have faced a range of challenges. This presentation is the last in a series that has documented the impacts of the pandemic on the lives of Canadians ( COVID-19 in Canada: A One-year Update on Social and Economic Impacts and COVID-19 in Canada: A Two-year Update on Social and Economic Impacts ). In this edition, we highlight several of the major economic and social trends that continue to impact the lives of Canadians. It includes an overview of recent economic and labour market developments, financial pressures related to inflation and affordability, and trends related to excess mortality and well-being.

For more information: Update on the COVID-19 situation in Canada – January 27, 2023 and COVID-19 epidemiology update: Key updates .

Economic conditions: Economic activity remains resilient as households and businesses adjust to higher borrowing costs

• Canada’s gross domestic product (GDP) growth has outpaced that of other G7 countries since the second quarter of 2021.
• Output rose steadily throughout most of 2022, albeit at a slower pace late in the year. As of December, real GDP was 2.7% above pre-pandemic levels.
• Higher financing costs have weighed on activity in sectors that are sensitive to interest rate changes. Activity at real estate agents and brokers contracted for the tenth consecutive month in December 2022. Residential construction has also pulled back as borrowing costs have risen.
• According to the Bank of Canada, it typically takes 18 months to two years for changes in the policy interest rate to work their way through the economy.

For more information: Understanding how monetary policy works .

Economic conditions: Business entry slows as challenges and uncertainty persist

• The number of active businesses fully recovered to pre-pandemic levels in late 2021.
• Business closures have outpaced business openings since the summer of 2022 as borrowing costs have increased. Closures have remained relatively stable since the summer months, while openings in November 2022 fell to their lowest level in over two years.
• Excluding the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, November 2022 was the first month on record that the number of active businesses did not post positive growth for five consecutive months, as rising inflation, high input costs and labour-related obstacles continue to impact the outlook.
• Businesses in retail trade and tourism experienced declines in the number of active businesses in recent months.
• Business insolvencies rose sharply in 2022 as supply chain challenges, inflationary pressures and labour-related obstacles affected many businesses.

For more information: The Daily — Canadian Survey on Business Conditions, fourth quarter 2022 (statcan.gc.ca) .

• Employment has strengthened in recent months, with the number of private sector employees increasing by over one-quarter of a million from September 2022 to January 2023. Employment rates among core-age women and men remained at or near record levels.
• Total employment in January 2023 was about 800,000 above its pre-COVID-19 baseline. All the net gains since the onset of the pandemic have been in full-time work.
• Employment growth in the private sector has been driven largely by gains in professional, scientific and technical services, while public administration and health care jobs have bolstered employment in the public sector.
• Job vacancies eased in late 2022 but remain elevated. On a monthly basis, vacancies totaled about 850,000 in December, down from a peak of just over 1 million in May 2022.
• Vacancies in health care and social assistance have trended higher, reaching about 150,000 in December 2020. Almost half of all health care vacancies in the third quarter, have remained unfilled for 90 days or more, suggesting greater difficulties filling positions.

Demographic trends: Strategies to mitigate population aging are essential for labour force growth

• One in five working-age Canadians is set to retire in the coming years. The gap between those about to leave the labour market (55- to 64-year-olds) and those entering the labour market (15- to 24-year-olds) is at record levels.
• Population aging is now shaping labour market trends, despite the fact that workers are working just as much now as they reach key age milestones. If the age distribution of the working age population had remained constant over the past three years, there would currently be over 330,000 more people in the labour force.
• Population aging will put more pressure on productivity growth to fuel increases in living standards. Business investment spending is a key contributor to productivity growth.
• After rising sharply in the early stages of the pandemic, labour productivity declined for seven consecutive quarters, before increasing in the second and third quarters of 2022. Business productivity has just rebounded to pre-COVID-19 levels, while unit labour costs are 13% above their pre-COVID-19 baseline.

For more information: People nearing retirement outnumber people old enough to enter the labour market (statcan.gc.ca) .

• Since early 2020, over 1.2 million permanent and temporary immigrants have come to Canada, accounting for nearly 90% of total population growth.
• Canada’s population increased by 362,000 in the third quarter of 2022, the highest quarterly population growth rate (+0.9%) since 1957.
• In the first nine months of 2022, Canada’s total population growth (+776,000 people) had already surpassed the annual growth in any full-year period since Confederation in 1867, with much of this growth resulting from an increase in non-permanent residents.
• Many newcomers’ skills are underused when entering the labour market in Canada.
• Most newcomers settle in Canada’s largest cities, which are experiencing deteriorating housing affordability and rising rental prices.

The text in the bubble is, “Over 80% of the growth in the labour force comes from immigration. By 2041, immigrants could account for nearly one-third of Canada’s population, up from a quarter in 2021.”

There are three sub-bubbles pointing to the bubble.

The headline of the first sub-bubble is “Housing challenges.” This is followed by two sub-bullets. The first sub-bullet is, “In 2021, 1 in 10 households were in core housing need.” The second sub-bullet is, “Prior to the pandemic, 56% of recent immigrants were renters, compared with 27% of the total population.”

The headline of the second sub-bubble is “Healthcare strain.” This is followed by two sub-bullets. The first sub-bullet is, “Nursing vacancies in early 2022 were more than triple their level five years earlier.” The second sub-bullet is, “In July, the proportion of nurses working paid overtime was at record levels.”

The headline of the third sub-bubble is “Social cohesion.” This is followed by one sub-bullet. This sub-bullet is, “Nearly half of immigrants believe that Canadians share values on ethnic and cultural diversity, compared with one-quarter of Canadian-born people.” There is a note below the last sub-bubble. The note is, “Core housing need refers to whether a household’s housing falls below at least one of the indicator thresholds for housing adequacy, affordability or suitability, and the household would have to spend 30% or more of its total before-tax income to pay the median rent of alternative local housing.”

• While housing prices are well below peak levels reported in early 2022, the average cost of a home in Canada remains 33%, or $179,000, above pre-pandemic levels.
• Rising borrowing costs have pushed many potential homeowners out of the market, further straining an already hot rental market. The Bank of Canada’s housing affordability index, which measures how difficult it is to afford a home, has reached its highest point since 1990.
• Mortgage interest costs have risen 18% in the 12 months to December 2022 and have been a key source of inflationary pressure in recent months.
• Recent increases in living costs are having a negative impact on net saving and wealth, in particular among households with lower incomes, with lower wealth and in younger age groups.
• Net saving for the bottom 40% of income earners in the third quarter was down about 12% compared with the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, while economically vulnerable households also had higher-than-average increases in their debt.

For more information: Real estate market: Definitions, graphs and data .

• December 2022 marked the 21st consecutive month that headline consumer inflation has been above 3% and the 10th consecutive month above 6%.
• While headline inflation has eased from 40-year highs, underlying cost of living pressures, in particular around food and shelter, remain elevated as price increases continue to outpace wage growth.
• Over the course of 2022, there was a sharp rise in the share of grocery spending on food items that have seen yearly price increases of more than 10%, with little relief as headline inflation eased late in the year.
• In December 2022, grocery items with yearly price increases in the double-digit range accounted for two-thirds of food outlays.
• For context, grocery prices rose 8.6% from late 2014 to late 2019. They have risen 15.8% between December 2020 and December 2022.

For more information: Research to Insights: Consumer price inflation, recent trends and analysis (statcan.gc.ca) .

• In April 2022 , nearly three in four Canadians reported that rising prices were affecting their ability to meet day-to-day expenses.
• Three in 10 Canadians were very concerned about whether they could afford housing or rent.
• About one-quarter of Canadians reported that they have had to borrow money from friends or relatives, take on additional debt, or use credit to meet day-to-day expenses.
• By late 2022 , almost half (44%) of Canadians said they were very concerned with their household’s ability to afford housing or rent.
• Young adults were among those most concerned over finances, with almost half of 35- to 44‑year-olds saying they found it difficult to meet their financial needs during the previous 12 months.
• In late 2022, one in four Canadians said they were unable to cover an unexpected expense of $500. This level rises to more than one-third among 35- to 44-year-olds.

Social impacts: Impacts on well-being and mental health persist, in particular among young Canadians

• The COVID-19 pandemic has had significant impacts on the personal well-being of Canadians. Self-reported mental health declined sharply during the pandemic, especially among younger Canadians.
• In late 2021, about 6 in 10 working-age Canadians reported having a strong sense of meaning and purpose—indicating that they felt strongly that the things they do in life are worthwhile.
• Nearly two-thirds of seniors aged 65 to 74 reported having a strong sense of meaning and purpose, while just over half of 15- to 24-year-olds reported the same.
• Over the past two years, older adults were far more likely than younger Canadians to report high levels of perceived well-being based on a range of quality-of-life indicators. About 4 in 10 of 65- to 84-year-olds reported high well-being scores, compared with one-quarter of 20- to 29‑year-olds.

Social challenges: Alcohol and drug use during the pandemic contributes to excess mortality among younger Canadians

• While COVID-19 has been a main driver of excess deaths overall, other factors are also driving excess mortality, in particular among younger Canadians.
• Deaths attributed to alcohol and drug use increased to new highs during the pandemic.
• Provisional data at the national level show that the number of deaths attributed to accidental poisoning and overdoses was 4,605 in 2020 and 6,310 in 2021, and these numbers are expected to increase with future revisions to the data.
• In comparison, at the previous height of the overdose crisis in 2017, 4,830 deaths were attributed to unintentional poisonings.
• Younger age groups made up a disproportionate number of deaths from overdoses. Among individuals aged younger than 45 years, there were 2,640 accidental poisoning deaths in 2020 and 3,600 in 2021.

• Economic resilience: Economy-wide output has increased in 16 of the last 18 months and, in December 2022, was 2.7% above pre-pandemic levels. While output growth moderated in late 2022, employment strengthened into early 2023 as the unemployment rate remained near a record low. Employment rates for core-aged workers are well above their pre-pandemic baseline.
• Pressures on affordability: While headline inflation eased in the second half of 2022, key sources of upward price pressure—including food and shelter—showed little sign of moderating. While home prices have fallen considerably from peak levels, housing affordability has deteriorated as mortgage interest costs have risen.
• Newcomers bolster population growth: In the third quarter of 2022, Canada posted the largest population growth rate (+0.9%) since the late 1950s. Population growth in recent quarters has reflected large increases in non-permanent residents, along with high levels of immigration. Non-permanent residents have also contributed substantially to employment gains in recent months.
• Persistent social impacts: Self-reported well-being and mental health were adversely affected by the pandemic, especially among young Canadians. From March 2020 to October 2022, there were 7.9% more deaths than expected had a pandemic not occurred. While COVID 19 has been a main driver of excess deaths overall, other factors have also been driving excess mortality, in particular among younger Canadians.

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Catalogue no. 11-631-X

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10 Biggest Human Rights Challenges in Canada

Despite being renowned as a multicultural democracy that celebrates its international reputation for upholding the human rights of its citizens, Canada has struggled to address several of its own human rights abuses within its own borders. Here are 10 human rights challenges that continue to plague Canada, ranging from the country’s longstanding discrimination against their Indigenous communities to the breaching of the rights of criminals and migrants in the nation.

Rights of Indigenous Canadians

First Nations communities in Canada have long lived in the shadows of their colonial oppressors, facing systemic discrimination as their rights as humans are breached. Indigenous Canadians live on lands called reserves that are equipped with inadequate water treatment systems , which have led to a health and sanitation crisis in First Nations communities. The lack of access to clean water has led to considerable mental, social and emotional crises for Indigenous communities, highlighting the lack of action the Canadian government has taken to protect the rights of First Nations.

Violence Against Indigenous Women and Children

Indigenous women and children face disproportionately higher levels of violence and are at higher risk of being murdered in Canada. Indigenous women and girls are twelve times more likely to be murdered or go missing that any other demographic group in Canada and are three times more likely than non-Indigenous women to be assaulted. The violence against Indigenous women stems from systemic racism and deep colonial attitudes that perpetuate discrimination across Canada and are exacerbated by sexist and misogynistic perception of women in the country.

Immigration Detention

The Canadian federal government adopted new policy regulations in 2018 that require children to be held in immigration detention as a “last resort” . Although the number of detained children has decreased over the years, the average time they spent in detention facilities rose, highlighting the structural issues of immigration that continue to plague Canada. Furthermore, despite the introduction of the National Immigration Framework in 2016, Canada has seen a rising trend in immigration detainees in prisons – in 2019, the Canadian Border Services Agency detained 7212 people in immigration holding centres, compared to 6609 people in 2017.

Religious Freedom

In April 2020, the Supreme Court of Canada refused to consider whether Quebec’s controversial ban on religious symbols should be suspended. Introduced in 2019, Bill 21 banned civil servants, teachers and police officers in Quebec from wearing religious symbols when providing or receiving government services. Religious symbols such as hijabs, kippahs and turbans are subject to the ban, underscoring the province’s racist and discriminatory attitude towards religious freedom.

Corporate Accountability

Canada has consistently failed to implement reforms to hold major mining corporations accountable for human rights abuses that occur behind closed doors. The Canadian Ombudsperson for Responsible Enterprise currently do not hold the authority to investigate human rights abuses that occur within the mining industry, which prevents the association from exposing the exploitation by Canadian companies that work overseas in the oil and gas trades.

Women’s Rights

Women in Canada are disproportionately more likely to face financial insecurity, violence and workplace harassment compared to their male counterparts. According to the Canadian Women’s Foundation, 10% of women in Canada live on low incomes and every six days , a Canadian woman is killed by her intimate partner. Such phenomena stem from systemic sexism and gender-based discrimination, alongside societal expectations for women to be the primary caretakers of the home, where they engage in unpaid work in childcare.

Counterterrorism

The Canadian government has failed to support and repatriate Canadians who are unlawfully detained in jails due to alleged connections with the Islamic State (ISIS). Approximately 47 Canadians have been detained in these prisons for over a year, living in overcrowded and inhumane conditions and none of these individuals have been charged with any crime. Human Rights Watch speculates that the Canadian government has deliberately withheld support for its citizens due to their suspected connections with ISIS, highlighting the discriminatory attitudes towards counterterrorism.

Unlawful transfer of weapons

Despite the militarized repression of demonstrators in Colombia, Canada has continued to support and transfer weapons to Saudi Arabia, arguing that there would be no “substantial risk” that the arms would be used to commit human rights abuses. This unlawful transfer of weapons breaches Canada’s international obligations to the Arms Trade Treaty and underscores the perpetuation of the violation of human rights conducted by the Canadian government.

Rights of Migrants

Migrants in Canada continue to exploited for their labor, living in “conditions of modern-day slavery” . According to a report released by The Migrant Rights Network, migrants live in destitute accommodation, characterized by a lack of privacy and cleanliness and are desperate for respect and dignity as people. Alongside testimonies of migrants, the report also cited concerns regarding the control employers have over migrant workers, particularly surveillance and control over their movement.

Solitary Confinement

Although solitary confinement was abolished in Canada in 2019, federal jails have continued to use solitary confinement as a way of punishing criminals in prisons. Some inmates have been cited to be kept alone in their cells for extended periods of time, to the extent where it meets the United Nation’s definition of torture . In fact, a Canadian study found that approximately 30 percent of prisoners did not get four hours outside their cells and 10 percent met the UN definition of torture.

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About the author.

Kaori Higa is a freelance writer based in Vancouver, Canada. She has worked extensively in the human rights sector, public relations consulting and within state governments across three continents. As part of her work, Kaori has coordinated logistics for governmental press conferences and proposed strategies that encourage governmental and legal institutions to adopt human rights-based policies and legislation. Aside from her political endeavors and human rights advocacy, Kaori is an avid classical violinist, having been invited to perform a violin solo in Carnegie Hall.

Although the expression and experience of these social issues vary significantly, resolving them will improve the lives of every Canadian.

The Complex Social Issues Facing Canadians

Family Service Canada member agencies respond to the issues that undermine family and individual well-being.

The issues explored below often intersect adding complexity and contributing to the challenge of resolving them. More than that, outdated social ideas often blame the victims and dismiss the impact. The resulting shame and stigma can make individuals less likely to reach out for support—deepening or prolonging the challenges.

The Impact is not Small

Those who face the issues below bear the immediate physical, mental, and emotional costs. And there are almost certainly more Canadians directly affected than we know. But the costs of these issues extend to every Canadian.

There are government and system costs associated with support, and the affected individuals are typically less able to participate in the workforce and economy. The research highlighted below shows that failing to respond caries a staggering cost to businesses, institutions, and the economy. As community-based social service agencies our task is twofold:

• To support the families who face these issues directly; and
• To help Canadians understand the significant impact and cost of leaving these issues unaddressed.

To learn more about how our members respond, visit their websites. You’ll find links on our Current Members page.

Jump to an Issue

Family violence.

• Mental Health and Addictions

Social Exclusion

“The condition of a person who is deprived of the resources, means, choices and power necessary to acquire and maintain a basic level of living standards and to facilitate integration and participation in society.”

- Government of Canada

Canadians in Poverty

In 2018, 3.2 million Canadians or 8.7% of the population lived in poverty.

Canadians in Deep Poverty

1.7 million Canadians or 4.6% of the total population lived in deep poverty—having disposable income below 75% of Canada’s Official Poverty Line.

Why it Matters

Poverty affects community strength and resilience. People living in poverty are more likely to face health issues, have difficulty finding and keeping a job, find themselves in the criminal justice system, and need various social supports.

Identifying the social cost of poverty is notoriously tricky. The impact is spread across our criminal justice, health, social support systems, and every level of government. Beyond that, there are economic costs: families without money cannot buy products or services.

Statistics Canada, Dimensions of Poverty Hub . https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/topics-start/poverty

Employment and Social Development Canada, Opportunity for All: Canada’s First Poverty Reduction Strategy . https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/poverty-reduction/reports/strategy.html

Association of Ontario Foodbanks, The Cost Of Poverty: An Analysis of the Economic Cost of Poverty in Ontario . https://feedontario.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/CostofPoverty.pdf

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Family violence describes any form of abuse, mistreatment, or neglect that a child or adult experiences from a family member, or from someone with whom they have an intimate relationship.

Victims of police-reported violent crime

In 2016, one‑quarter (26%) of all victims of violent crime had been victimized by a family member.

Female Victims of Family Violence

While women and girls made up just over half (52%) of violent crime victims overall, two‑thirds (67%) of family violence victims were female.

The known rate of family violence is likely underestimated.

Self‑reported data from the 2014 General Social Survey on Canadians’ Safety (Victimization) show that 70% of victims of spousal violence and 93% of victims of childhood physical and/or sexual abuse never spoke to authorities about their experiences.

Family violence can cause a range of short and long-term health issues, including physical, mental, cognitive, and behavioural challenges. It can contribute to poverty, housing instability, and school failure, but individuals who experience these conditions are also at greater risk for intimate violence.

Beyond the personal costs, family violence has implications for our health and justice systems, employers, businesses, as well as social and community services. Like poverty, the total cost is difficult to calculate. A study completed in 2012 suggested $7.4 billion per year. The authors cautioned that value was underestimated because of data availability and the under-reporting of family violence.

Stats Canada, Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile, 2016. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2018001/article/54893-eng.htm

Public Health Agency of Canada, The Health and Social Impacts of Family Violence . https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/health-promotion/stop-family-violence/health-social-impacts-family-violence.html

Government of Canada, An Estimation of the Economic Impact of Spousal Violence in Canada, 2009 . https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cj-jp/fv-vf/rr12_7/index.html

Mental Health Issues & Addictions

Mental health and well-being affect every aspect of life, including our ability to engage with and contribute to our families and communities. Disorders affect mood, thinking, and behaviour, including depression and anxiety, substance abuse disorders and process addictions like gambling.

Canadian Mental Health 1

Mental illness is estimated to take 10 to 20 years off an individual’s life expectancy. As of 2016, an average of 10 Canadians die by suicide each day. It’s the second leading cause of death for Canadians 10 to 29 years of age.

Canadian Association of Mental Health, Mental Illness and Addiction: Facts and Statistics . https://www.camh.ca/en/driving-change/the-crisis-is-real/mental-health-statistics

Public Health Agency of Canada, Suicide in Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/suicide-canada-infographic.html

Mental Health Commission of Canada, The Life and Economic Impact of Major Mental Illnesses in Canada . https://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/sites/default/files/MHCC_Report_Base_Case_FINAL_ENG_0_0.pdf

Racism is the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another and, based on that, actively or passively supports discrimination, prejudice and violence against another person.

Related Blog Posts

Statement on residential schools, become an antiracist organization, canadian ancestry.

On the 2016 census, Canadians reported over 250 ethnic origins or ancestries.

Hate Crimes Motivated by Ethnicity

Forty-four percent of police-reported hate crimes in 2018 were motivated by race or ethnicity.

In 2018, police reported 1,798 criminal incidents in Canada motivated by hate, which is not exclusive to racism. As with other topics on this page the data is incomplete. As a comparison, the 2014 General Social Survey on Canadian's Safety, Canadians self-reported over 330,000 hate-motivated criminal incidents in the year leading up to the survey. Two-thirds of these incidents were never reported to the police.

Racism has clear, and sometimes deadly consequences for Canadians. It also has costs to our justice system and hinders our economy and exacerbates poverty. Racialized Canadians earn, on average, 81 cents to the dollar compared to other Canadians. Employers are also about 40% more likely to interview a job applicant with an English-sounding name despite identical education, skills, and experience.

These impacts become more significant when race intersects with other targeted identities, such as gender and sexual orientation.

Stats Canada, Ethnic and cultural origins of Canadians: Portrait of a rich heritage . https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016016/98-200-x2016016-eng.cfm

Stats Canada, Police-reported Hate Crime in Canada . https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2020001/article/00003-eng.htm

Canadian Human Rights Commission, Racial, Ethnic and Religious Rights . https://www.chrc-ccdp.gc.ca/eng/content/religious-rights

Social exclusion is a denial of belonging or recognition. The intent is to keep people and communities distanced from centres of power and resources. It leaves people economically and socially vulnerable.

Social exclusion is usually driven by greed and prejudice. Excluding others ensures your group has access to more of the resources you want with limited competition. A social understanding of exclusion is relatively new, and we lack statistical data on its pervasiveness, but Canadians are becoming more aware of it.

Racism can be the basis for social exclusion. The anti-racism protests in 2020 called for changes to policy that disproportionately disadvantaged people of colour, especially related to the justice system. The policies they pointed to are a form of social exclusion.

Canadian Council on Social Development, Social Challenges: Social Exclusion . https://www.ccsd.ca/resources/CrimePrevention/c_exclusion.htm

Social Planning Council of Peel, Social Exclusion of Minority Groups: A Conceptual Framework . https://www.spcottawa.on.ca/sites/all/files/pdf/2008/Publications/Social-Exclusion-Conceptual-%20Framework.pdf

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Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

/ article, the pervasive reality of anti-black racism in canada, the current state, and what to do about it.

By  Nan DasGupta ,  Vinay Shandal ,  Daniel Shadd ,  Andrew Segal , and  in conjunction with CivicAction

While Canadians often believe that our country is a model when it comes to inclusion, the hard truth is we have a long way to go toward achieving equity for the Black population in Canada. A new review and compilation of the available data by BCG and CivicAction demonstrate the depth and pervasiveness of anti-Black racism in Canada, and how systemic racism against Black individuals appears across their full lifecycle in areas like education, employment, healthcare, and policing.

“With all that’s happened in the world - from the killing of George Floyd to how COVID-19 has disproportionally impacted those from racialized communities - we needed to act,” says Leslie Woo, CEO of CivicAction. “This report lays bare the depth of anti-Black racism in Canada. We are calling on Canadian companies, governments, and individuals to deepen their commitment and accountability to addressing anti-Black racism.”

The authors compiled data and consulted with a subset of leaders and experts from Black communities in Canada. We took a cross-Canada lens, using national data where available, with a focus on the Greater Toronto Region where more specific data was tracked and available. We then examined proven actions and promising practices from around the world to identify interventions that could be considered for adaption here at home. Our goal is to underscore the systemic oppression that Black people in Canada face – with the aim to enable a better understanding, to illustrate the importance of action, and to sustain motivation and momentum for change.

Data indicates that anti-Black racism exists in Canada and is worse than many Canadians think

The research we compiled shows the realities of the Black experience in Canada, which when put together are eye-opening:

• Black students are four times more likely to be expelled from a Toronto high school than White students
• Black workers are twice as likely as Asian workers and four times as likely as White workers to report experiencing racial discrimination in major decisions at workplaces in Canada
• Black university graduates earn only 80 cents for every dollar earned by White university graduates – despite having the same credentials
• Black women are three times less likely to have a family doctor than non-racialized women in Ontario
• Black residents are 20 times more likely than a White resident to be shot dead by police in Toronto

At the same time, a 2019 survey indicates nearly half of Canadians believe discrimination against Black people is “no longer a problem” – even as 83% of Black people in Canada say they are treated unfairly at least some of the time.

The events of 2020, including the death of George Floyd, have drawn global attention to the reality of systemic anti-Black racism. Now more than ever there is a need to double down on efforts to eliminate anti-Black racism in Canada. The data and insights in this report should serve to catalyze continued action by individuals, corporations and governments in Canada

The state of anti-Black racism in Canada

Black communities in Canada have doubled in size over the past 25 years to more than 1.2 million people – 3.5% of the national population. Even though more than one out of every 30 Canadians is Black – a number that jumps to one in 11 people in Toronto – the experiences and diversity of Black communities in Canada are often aggregated into the category of “visible minority” and overlooked.

To help paint the picture, we have compiled a data set that highlights some of the specifics of Canadian Black communities' experiences. We focused on a set of specific lifecyle areas where Black Canadians experience racism, guided by four of the pillars of the City of Toronto’s Action Plan to Confront Anti-Black Racism, and in areas where at least some existing data had been published. Our goal in synthesizing this data is to provide Canadians with a mirror reflecting the disparate outcomes in our country, in order to drive education and inspire sustained action.

Children and Youth Development. While education is a bedrock foundation for human development, Black students in Ontario have appreciably worse education outcomes. In Toronto, the dropout rate for Black students is 23%, compared to 12% for White students. Facing systemic biases day to day, Black students also achieve lower EQAO (Education Quality and Accountability Office) test scores in mathematics, reading, and writing.

Why is this the case? We have identified data showing the multiple ways in which systemic racism in Canada drives worse educational performance for Black students.

One challenge for Black students is the lack of Black teachers in the classroom. Recent studies show that having a Black teacher can result in a 13% increase in enrolment in post-secondary schooling and decrease the probability of dropping out by 29%. Yet, while Black people make up 3.5% of Canada’s population, only 1.8% of teachers are Black.

This lack of Black representation makes a difference in multiple ways. For one, Black teachers are less likely to use language in the classroom that negatively labels Black students.

“Teachers might use language to describe Black children that they would not for White children, such as ‘threatening,’” according to one Black leader we consulted. “From an early age, kids are being told who they are, from the people that they spend the most amount of time with [their teachers]. Who teachers think you are and what you can be is really important.”

Another impact of implicit bias from teachers is seen in assessments of student capabilities. For example, only 3% of those labeled “gifted” in Toronto schools are Black, despite Black students making up 12% of the population. A study found that teachers in Ontario were twice as likely to rate a White student as “excellent” than a Black student on their report card – even when those students had the same standardized EQAO scores. Meanwhile, Black students are 2.5 times more likely than White students to be streamed into non-academic “applied” programs in Toronto – in turn affecting everything from graduation rates to post-secondary prospects.

Job Opportunities and Income Supports. Racism in the workforce creates barriers to employment and impairs career progression for Black people. One stark statistic – as of October 2020, the unemployment rate for Black Canadians was 5 points higher than the rate for Canadians who are not a visible minority (11.7% vs. 6.7%). And while the impact of COVID-19 has driven up the unemployment rate for all Canadians compared to October 2019, the Black unemployment rate was 3.8 points higher, while the rate for non-visible minorities was up just 2.6 points. This is in part because Black workers are disproportionately represented in service industries, which are particularly affected by COVID-19. With a second wave and subsequent lockdowns now upon us, the Black unemployment rate may be primed to rise further.

What drives these higher unemployment figures? Black people in Canada face many systemic challenges and barriers in the hiring process. Even when experience is comparable to that of non-Black candidates, systemic biases make it more difficult for Black candidates to land positions for which they are qualified.

One particularly sobering study showed the extent of this bias. The study, conducted in Toronto, used the same resume and cover letter, with only two differences: whether the applicant had a White-sounding or Black-sounding name, and whether the applicant referred to having a criminal record in the cover letter.

The results showed that among those with no criminal record, the “White” resume received three times the number of call-backs as the “Black” resume. When both candidates indicated a criminal record, the difference in call-backs jumped to 12x. And perhaps most shockingly – the “White” applicants with a criminal record still got nearly twice as many calls back as the “Black” applicants with no record.

When Black people do succeed in finding a job, systemic racism in the workplace can result in hitting up against a glass ceiling. In addition to facing microaggressions and having to “code switch” (defined as a person changing the way they express themselves when they are around non-racialized people in the workplace), Black employees have low rates of sponsorship and find hidden biases in promotion processes. This is reflected in the data that shows Black leaders hold less than 1% of executive roles and board seats at major Canadian companies.

One specific challenge we heard referenced continually through our interviews was that Black employees experience microaggressions on the job. Microaggressions are brief, everyday exchanges that send denigrating messages – anything from stereotyping comments to racially insensitive language. These microaggressions often demean Black workers, instill distrust, and prevent a sense of belonging.

As just one example, a Black early executive at a Canadian bank relayed the following story: “I was at a breakfast with a senior executive – we spoke for about 15 minutes, and it was great small talk. Two days later, I was running a meeting to which the executive was invited. As I approached to greet him, another White colleague walked in from a different direction. As soon as he saw this person, he started calling her name -- and then stuck out his arm to give me his coat to put away. While he probably didn't see who I was, he assumed that I was someone to whom he should pass his coat – he didn't think to check.”

These microaggressions and the need to “code switch” take an emotional toll on Black employees. Survey data indicates that Black workers are less satisfied at their jobs and are 50% more likely to be planning to leave their job than White workers.

The impact of systemic anti-Black racism driving employees away doesn’t just impact those workers – it also results in a financial hit for businesses, as the average cost of replacing an employee is 33% of their annual salary.

Health and Community Services. A lack of access to health care in Black communities leads to worse physical and mental health outcomes for Black people in Canada compared to other groups.

Although tracking of disparate health impacts is limited in Canada, the data we do have shows notable differences for the Black population – especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. In one national survey, 21% of Black Canadians said they knew someone who had died of COVID-19, vs. 8% of non-Black Canadians. And in Ontario, COVID-19 has had a disproportionate impact on the most heavily racialized areas. Highly diverse neighbourhoods – where more than 10% of the population is Black – have four times the age-adjusted COVID-19 hospitalization rate and twice the death rate of the least racialized neighbourhoods (where just 0.5% of the population is Black).

But the challenge extends well beyond COVID. Data from Ontario shows certain health conditions are much more prevalent in the Black population. For example, Black women in the province have three times the rate of diabetes and 1.7 times the rate of hypertension of White women in the province.

What drives these worse health outcomes? In part it is because many Black communities have impaired access to care, connected to systemic racism in Canada. This includes everything from worse-equipped hospitals in Black neighborhoods in Toronto, to less-flexible jobs that make seeking care a challenge, to fear of racism from providers when seeking out care.

One challenge in accessing health care for Black patients is the lack of culturally appropriate care. This is caused in part by Black doctors being noticeably underrepresented in care settings – there are 50% fewer Black doctors than the Black share of the population in Ontario. It also manifests in a lack of training for non-racialized practitioners about the Black population. “My mother wouldn’t get help because she couldn’t describe her pain in her own words, and the doctor did not understand the nuances of what pain looks like in our culture,” one Black community leader told us.

This is especially true of the mental health system, which is not well-positioned to deliver care to Black communities. Experts noted to us that the mental health system does not have culturally adapted therapies targeted to Black recipients and fails to do the outreach required to reduce barriers to access and stigma. This results in the Black population being four times less likely to access mental health services than the non-racialized population.

Police Services. Police bias against Black people has been a focal point of protests in the US in recent months – and our review of the data indicates there are stark differences in outcomes of police interactions with Black residents in Canada as well.

Only a quarter of Black people in Toronto trust police to treat them fairly compared to three-quarters of White people. This is not surprising, when we consider that Black people are significantly more likely to be profiled, arrested, held overnight, and be subjected to police force than non-racialized Ontarians.

The statistics on disparities in police use of force apply across all types of police interactions. According to an Ontario Human Rights Commission report, although Black people make up 9% of Toronto’s population, they represent:

• 36% of cases where police used pepper spray on an individual
• 46% of cases where police used a Taser on an individual
• And 57% of cases involving a police dog

Most disturbingly – Black Torontonians represent 70% of civilian deaths in police shootings, meaning the police are 20 times more likely to kill a Black person than a White person.

This reality of police bias takes its toll – among Black Ontarians subject to bias-driven street checks, three quarters reported a decreased sense of belonging in society, and 60% reported negative mental health effects.

We can drive change through system-level interventions

Anti-Black racism in Canada negatively impacts the nation’s social and economic fabric, reducing the potential of over a million Canadians. We must work together to achieve system-level change through interventions that address racism across all life cycle areas.

There is no single solution that can undo hundreds of years of racism, and solutions will need to come from a wide range of places, organizations and individuals. As part of this work, we scanned and compiled examples of promising practices that could make up the quilt of solutions required to start to change the experience of Black individuals in Canada.

Below is a summary of the identified examples – followed by a deeper dive in selected areas. We have brought forward these ideas because there is proof that they work – in other locations, or for other disadvantaged groups. Applying them broadly in Canada can help reduce many of the barriers that our Black communities face today.

In addition, a key place to start would be to obtain more data and track key metrics . Compared to the United States, Canada collects very little data by race and ethnicity. Tracking outcomes for Black people in Canada, such as university admission rates, home ownership rates, and infant/maternal mortality rates – all data regularly tracked by US governmental agencies – would enable us to more clearly identify and intervene against the primary barriers impacting Canada’s Black population.

IMPROVE EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

A promising approach to improving Black students’ school experience involves training teachers to use restorative justice, focusing more on preventative strategies instead of punitive discipline.

In a notable example from Maryland, a set of “Positive Behavior Intervention Strategies” using restorative practices led to a 50% reduction in suspensions and a 95% reduction in referrals to the principal’s office. Most remarkably, when disciplinary action was required, these strategies resulted in an even distribution of discipline among students of different races.

IMPROVE EMPLOYMENT PROSPECTS AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT

One promising practice is to revisit job postings and look for hidden biases. For example, the Johnson & Johnson corporation saw a 9% increase in the number of women applying for roles after using software to adjust job postings and remove gender-coded language, business jargon, and laundry lists of skillsets not required. The same approach could be used for the Black community.

One Black rising leader gave us an example from her line of work: “Black women are pretty highly educated – but there’s a real barrier around language in postings that’s often used to exclude. Like when using the word ‘philanthropy’ instead of ‘fundraising’ - philanthropy is very White, but fundraising is broader and more Black people have that experience.”

In terms of career progression, developing formal sponsorship programs can be a big unlock for Black employees. According to our research, Black employees are five times more likely than White employees to describe a sponsorship program as “the most effective program for racial and ethnic diversity and inclusion” that their company could put in place. And yet, only 11% of Canadians in a 2019 survey report that their company has a formal sponsorship program.

The effects of these programs are material. Citibank developed a program to match high performing women with a senior advocate who served as their sponsor. 70% of women in the program advanced in their careers over the next 18 months. Accenture tied engagement in sponsorship to performance evaluations for its leaders – which led to a 20% increase in the number of minority employees up for promotion at the senior executive level.

SUPPORT A FOUNDATION FOR BETTER HEALTHCARE ACCESS

More Black representation in the medical community can help Black patients feel more comfortable – something recognized by the University of Toronto medical school. Its Black Student Application Program (BSAP) offers an optional application stream for students who identify as Black. Since the inception of its BSAP, the number of Black students admitted to U of T medical school grew from 1 in 2017 to 24 in 2020. The rest of the Canada’s medical schools could adopt a similar program.

Offering care more tailored to the Black population can further make a difference. For example, the introduction of a culturally adapted Cognitive Behavioural Therapy at the Women’s Health in Women’s Hands Community Health Centre in Toronto led to a 90% reduction in Black women visiting hospital ERs for mental health issues.

REDUCE POLICE BIAS AND VIOLENCE

Reforming police standard operating procedures is an effective tool against all police uses of force which disproportionately impact Black people. These include adopting policies such as a use of force continuum that sets out which weapons can be used in what circumstances and requiring by-stander officers to intervene if a fellow officer is using excessive force. Research has shown that more restrictive use of force policies can reduce killings by police by as much as 72%.

Changing police hiring practices to be more inclusive can also make a big difference. In one example from the U.K., new hiring directives increased the share of ethnic minorities in a local police service by 1.5% -- leading to a 39% reduction of minorities subject to stop and search, and 11% fewer complaints against officers.

Moving towards an inclusive future

Despite the challenges, there is a reason for optimism. Black communities in Canada are young and resilient. By acting now and removing systemic barriers, we can work with Black individuals to ensure they are on more equitable footing with other Canadians. We need leadership to drive a collective effort across Canadian society.

There are many actions we can and must take to start to eliminate anti-Black racism in Canada and drive lasting change. It starts on the individual level, where we encourage Canadians to speak up, identify inequities, commit to action, and become allies in the movement for change.

What can I do as a first step? Share this report with others in your network or organization and have a conversation about anti-Black racism in Canada and how it shows up in our society.

We encourage employers to commit to act by adopting inclusive practices to help ensure Black candidates and employees have a fair and equal path to jobs and career advancement.

What can employers do as a first step? Create an open dialogue with your leadership teams and workforce to understand how anti-Black racism shows up in your organization.

CivicAction is committed to facilitating these actions by bringing leaders together, supporting the development of new relationships and accelerating Black representation at the leadership level.

Moving forward, we encourage all Canadians to hold our leaders accountable so that they sustain their commitments to support Black communities.

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About our research.

This report is a summary of the research completed by BCG in partnership with CivicAction during the summer of 2020. The work was initiated through a mutual goal to shed a light on the pervasive and systemic biases that are experienced by Black communities in Canada, with the collective goal to drive to meaningful action.

Areas investigated were identified in the framework developed by the Toronto Action Plan to Confront Anti-Black Racism, then further prioritized to focus on specific topics within those issue areas. We chose topics where an active body of research already exists, and actions can be taken at the local level. It is important to note that this summary is not exhaustive, and other important topics were not investigated, such as the justice system within the broader “Policing and the Justice System” issue area, as well as the “Community Engagement and Black Leadership” issue area. These are rich areas for further factbase development.

We acknowledge and appreciate the contributions and insights of numerous rising and risen leaders, academics, activists, doctors, and policy experts in Canada’s Black communities. This includes the executive director and committee chairs of the BlackNorth Initiative, along with its founder, Wes Hall. We incorporated their perspectives together with data from multiple sources including: Statistics Canada, BCG Centre for Canada’s Future Diversity and Inclusion Survey, the Canadian Race Relations Foundation, the Black Health Alliance, the Black Experiences in Health Care Symposium, and reports by the Ontario Human Rights Commission, the Toronto District School Board, and Women’s Health In Women’s Hands CHC. Data and studies were also collected from literature and press searches from Canada and abroad, and were the best known sources at the time of the research. Finally, we want to extend our thanks to the BCG team members who were dedicated to creating the factbase and this report: Puneet Gupta, Gillian Cook, Kasey Boyle, Kate Banting and Prerna Sharma.

About CivicAction

A leading not-for-profit in Canada, CivicAction has nearly two decades of experience working to boost civic engagement and build better cities by creating and implementing effective solutions to the most pressing challenges in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area and beyond. To find out more, visit https://www.civicaction.ca or follow @CivicActionGTHA.

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Managing Director & Partner

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Education of indigenous peoples in canada.

Before contact with Europeans, Indigenous peoples educated their youth through traditional means — demonstration, group socialization, participation in cultural and spiritual rituals, skill development and oral teachings. The introduction of European classroom-style education as part of a larger goal of assimilation disrupted traditional methods and resulted in cultural trauma and dislocation. Reformers of Indigenous education policies are attempting to reintegrate traditional teachings and provide more cultural and language-based support to enhance and improve the outcomes of Indigenous children in the education system.

Abortion in Canada

Abortion is the premature ending of a pregnancy. Inducing an abortion was a crime in Canada until 1988, when the Supreme Court of Canada struck down the law as unconstitutional. Since then, abortion has been legal at any stage in a woman’s pregnancy. Abortion is publicly funded as a medical procedure under the Canada Health Act. (See Health Policy.) However, access to abortion services differs across the country. Despite its legalization, abortion remains one of the most divisive political issues of our time.

Aging is a continual biological, psychological and social process from infancy to old age. Conventionally, the term narrowly refers to the transition from adulthood to old age. Population aging refers to a decline in relative numbers of young people and an increase in relative numbers of old people.

Illnesses that this infection can produce include a transient disease, developing within several months of exposure. It is characterized by rash, fever, malaise, joint pains and lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes).

Alcoholism is a behaviour pattern characterized by uncontrolled drinking of alcoholic beverages to the extent of impairing health and social functioning.

Antifeminism in Québec

​Antifeminism is a counter-movement that is opposed to feminism and that seeks to thwart efforts to emancipate women. Antifeminism has evolved in response to advances made by the feminist movement.

The Basilian Fathers, or Congregation of St Basil, founded in France in 1822, are now centred in Toronto. They came to Canada in 1850 and in 1852 founded St Michael's College there.

Birth Control in Canada

Birth control means the deliberate prevention of conception and pregnancy. The birth control methods used in Canada range from the simplest (like abstinence) to the most complex (like male or female surgical sterilization). (See also History of Birth Control in Canada.)

Canada's Opioid Crisis

Overdoses from a class of painkiller drugs called opioids are claiming the lives of thousands of Canadians from all walks of life. The death count is the result of an escalating public health crisis: an epidemic of opioid addiction. The crisis is made deadlier by an influx of illicit fentanyl and chemically similar drugs, but it can be traced to the medical over-prescribing of opioids, including oxycodone, fentanyl and morphine.

Child Abuse

Children have been maltreated and exploited throughout history. Evidence even exists that child abuse existed during the prehistoric period. Children have long been considered family property. Fathers in ancient times could sell, mutilate or kill their children.

Child Labour

Child labour is defined as the regular employment of boys and girls under the age of 15 or 16. Attitudes toward child labour have altered dramatically since the late 18th century, when it was generally assumed that children should contribute to the family economy from about age seven. By the beginning of the 20th century most Canadian provinces had enacted labour legislation to restrict the employment of children.

Child Migration to Canada

Migration is a unique experience for a child and Canada receives child migrants from all over the world. Some children come as unaccompanied minors and claim refugee status, some come alone and wait to be reunited with their families, while others are international adoptees by Canadian families.

Child Poverty in Canada

This article was originally published in Maclean’s magazine on February 24, 1997. Partner content is not updated. At times, the surroundings must seem grim. The white walls are devoid of decoration, except for a home-made Valentine addressed to "Maman" on the refrigerator, and twin beds are pushed together in the dining-room to create more space.

Child-Sex Trade Thriving in Cambodia

This article was originally published in Maclean’s magazine on November 24, 2003. Partner content is not updated.

Computers and Canadian Society

Canadians use computers in many aspects of their daily lives. Eighty-four per cent of Canadian families have a computer in the home, and many people rely on these devices for work and education. Nearly everyone under the age of 45 uses a computer every day, including mobile phones that are as capable as a laptop or tablet computer. With the widespread use of networked computers facilitated by the Internet, Canadians can purchase products, do their banking, make reservations, share and consume media, communicate and perform many other tasks online. Advancements in computer technologies such as cloud computing, social media, artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things are having a significant impact on Canadian society. While these and other uses of computers offer many benefits, they also present societal challenges related to Internet connectivity, the digital divide, privacy and crime.