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Last updated on Oct 18, 2021

Remote Proofreading Jobs and 26 Places to Find Them

With working from home becoming more common than ever before, remote proofreading jobs are gaining a lot of traction. Amongst the online jobs you can do, checking grammatical and spelling mistakes sounds like one of the easiest ones to pick up. But what exactly  does this kind of work entail, how much would it earn, and most importantly, how do you search for legitimate as well as rewarding proofreader jobs? These are all valid questions, the answers to which you can find right here.

What is proofreading?

To proofread is to go over a document’s final draft with a fine-tooth comb, searching for grammatical, spelling, punctuation, and formatting errors. Unlike the job of a copy editor, you don't have to concern yourself with language style or voice. It may seem simple, but it requires a thorough understanding of not just the English language but also the appropriate manuscript formatting styles.

Web content, academic papers, and many other types of writing — To proofread and correct each of these kinds of content requires a thorough understanding of its preferred language and formats.

Because of their project-by-project nature, it is common for the gigs you get in this sector to be online, freelance proofreading jobs.

Becoming a proofreader and securing remote jobs

Luckily, you don’t have to go through intensive training or education to become a proofreader. Preferably, you'd have a bachelor's degree in English, Journalism, or a field relevant to the kind of content your hope of proofread. (To proofread for a medical company, you'd need background in medicine, for example.) Other than that, a certificate of completion for a proofreading course can make your profile much more appealing to potential clients. To get started on the right foot, consider:

🎓 Taking a training course via societies such as the  Editorial Freelancers Association ;

📝 Brushing up on style guides (APA, Chicago, and AP Styles);

💻 Creating a profile and following relevant groups/hashtags (this may include creating your own website, a LinkedIn, or a professional Twitter account);

✅ Being flexible about the kind of job you take on (work from different industries, projects involving copy editing ).

You can get more tips in our comprehensive guide on how to become a proofreader . If you’re all clear about the set up, let’s discover all the places that you can find remote jobs for proofreaders.

26 places to find remote proofreading jobs

Below are all the sites that offer legitimate freelance proofreading jobs. We’ve divided the list into two parts: one for those with experience and qualifications, and one for those without.

If you’re going into proofreading with certificates, graduate qualifications, or expert experience, here are the sites that you should check out. 

1. ProofreadingPal

Specializing in academic proofreading,  ProofreadingPal  prides itself on having a highly experienced staff. Because its scholarly projects, the editing skills required by this site are very advanced and specific. To secure a remote proofreading job on this site, you need to be a postgraduate student with a minimum GPA of 3.5 or have a graduate degree along with minimum five years of experience.

If you have a PhD in a writing-intensive discipline,  Edit911  is a good candidate for some remote work. Its proofreading services also tend toward high-level academic editing, so experience is crucial. And as it caters to a worldwide audience, having a strong grasp of a few manuscript styles will be plus.

WordsRU  is great for those who work from home, because it welcomes job applicants from all over the world, as long as they have at least a Master’s degree or higher. It offers a wider range of services for customers, including fiction manuscripts and web content, so its proofreaders receive a variety of projects.

4. American Journal Experts

Similar to WordsRU,  AJE  offers online proofreading jobs for those who have been or are currently enrolled in higher education at universities approved by  the Carnegie Classification . And as the name suggests, this online proofreading opportunity is more suitable for those based in America.

You may or may not have a PhD or a Master’s degree, but if you do have a strong track record in book editing and proofreading,  Reedsy  is the place to be. Our marketplace connects thousands of indie authors with publishing experts (like you!) who can help them produce high quality titles. On average, our professionals set a  proofreading rate  of around $600-$750 per manuscript, though each project varies. (Note that you can set your rates per hour, per word, or per project.)

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6. Polished Paper

Focusing on business and academic editing,  Polished Paper 's proofreader jobs are also suitable for experienced professionals. Instead of proving their qualifications, applicants are asked to complete a 35-question test to demonstrate their editing skills before getting accepted.

7. Managed Editing

Having worked mainly with non-profit organizations and prestigious institutes,  Managed Editing  chooses its freelance proofreaders carefully. A successful applicant will have at least five years of experience and a Bachelor’s degree, although most of its editors and proofreaders have higher qualifications.

8. Wordvice

Apply to  Wordvice  for a more international experience: the company offers editing and proofreading services on essays and business documents for second-language English users. You must have a minimum of two years of experience and a graduate degree to join this team of freelancers. (And needless to say, the remote jobs they have are available to proofreaders across the world!)

9. Start your own freelance business

This basically means creating your own website (don't forget to have a contact section with your email address in it!) along with a LinkedIn, Twitter, or Facebook account to spread the word about it. As you are your own boss, you can work from home, a coffee shop, or wherever else you want! Use your credentials and professional connections to attract customers. Combine that with impeccable proofreading services and you’ll grow your freelance business  in no time.

If you’re just starting out or don’t have higher education qualifications — don’t worry, there are plenty of beginner-friendly sites where you can find proofreading gigs and begin amassing professional experience. 

10. Scribendi

If you do have some experience in content production, i.e. you’ve been a copywriter or have edited your university newspaper, you can apply to  Scribendi . Its online proofreading jobs are focused on academic writing from high school to university level, so having a Bachelor’s degree is a must.

11. Scribbr

Scribbr ’s services are tailored to a younger academic audience, and while it doesn’t ask for specific qualifications, applicants do go through a thorough vetting process. To become a remote proofreader at Scribbr, you have to pass a language test and complete several assignments for evaluation (for which you will receive feedback). If you’ve taken an editing course, you should be able to do well.

12. Proofreading Services

Every remote proofreading job available here focuses on academic and business writing. Prospective proofreaders can join the staff part-time or full-time by getting at least 95% on  the site’s 20-minute test , which mainly focuses on grammar and spelling.

As an education-oriented publication,  CACTUS Communications  is constantly on the lookout for academic editors who can help it produce clear, engaging content. It does require at least a Bachelor’s degree in a relevant discipline, but you don’t need any prior work experience in editing and proofreading to find exciting opportunities.

14. Writer’s Relief

A resourceful website for authors,  Writer’s Relief  also provides book editing and publishing services which you as a remote proofreader can get involved in. Since they have  copy editors  going over everything beforehand, you’ll just have to focus on catching the little mistakes that slipped through.

Prompt  provides coaching services for college applicants, helping them with personal statements and essays. You will need to have been a university student yourself, and as the coach you’re expected to give more feedback than just online proofreading. It’s a good opportunity if you want to start with academic editing.

16. OneSpace Freelancers

OneSpace is a site made for new freelancers. There aren’t as many job postings on this site as on other proofreading services, but you do get support and feedback from their staff. They provide advice on how you can work better as a freelancer and build your business. So while you would't necessarily find remote work on this space, it's a good way to learn the craft of maintaining your freelance proofreading business in the long run.

17. Gramlee

From their tagline ("You write, we edti edit.") and service email address, you can already get a sense of how laid-back the staff at  Gramlee  would be. They welcome proofreaders with no qualifications, as long as they work hard to learn and fulfill the team’s guarantee of 24-hour turnover.

Upwork  is one of the biggest marketplaces for freelancers, and the remote jobs for editors and proofreaders you can find on here are often for technical and copy writing. Projects are usually on the smaller side, which means there isn’t always demand for highly experienced workers. Still, it's a good place to get started on your online proofreading career.

19. Flexjobs

Short for  flexible jobs ,  this job board  only posts work that you can do from home, so you don’t have to narrow the search yourself. There are plenty of proofreading jobs across many industries and countries for you to choose from, some of which are even full-time collaborations.

Indeed ’s interface is probably a familiar sight if you’ve looked for work before — it’s a platform that has everything from full-time positions to freelance gigs in all kinds of industries. Though it might take some digging, there are good remote jobs proofreaders can discover.

21. MediaBistro

MediaBistro  is a job board made specific for media-related jobs. You can filter your search to show only remote entry-level editing jobs to see if there’s anything available. Signing up also gets you a job alert round-up when new relevant jobs are posted.

22. Get Editing Jobs

Here’s another  editing-focused job posting site . You can search for remote proofreading jobs and it will automatically show you recent postings that fit the bill. You’ll then have to apply to the jobs on your own.

23. Domainite

Domainite  provides digital marketing services, from web designing to content writing and editing to its clients. You can easily sign up by filling in its form and sending in a writing sample. The scope of the work might go a little beyond the proofreading job, though you will acquire more skills that way!

Are you interested in marketing books? Visit our post on where to find book marketing jobs . 

24. Freelancer

This site  allows you to bid on a proofreading opportunity you can do remotely, and try to win the client over. There are a lot of projects available, so if you lose out on a bid for one, you can always find another!

❗ Note: Some of the rates you see here are much lower than the average as freelancers try to undercut to appeal to clients. Keep that in mind in formulating your own freelance quote .

25. Lionbridge

Lionbridge  is an international platform that offers marketing and business content creation services for firms across the globe. Specifically, its freelancers “test out” firms’ content — giving them feedback, not just on a linguistic point of view but also user experience and SEO. It's a bit of technical proofreading, if you’re interested.

Though it does not provide the highest paying remote proofreading jobs,  Fiverr is still a good opportunity for new freelancers to start their careers. It’s relatively easy to sign up to and create a profile that will attract customers, most of whom will be searching for competent beginners rather than experienced experts.

Hopefully this list will help you find your next remote job and kickstart your career, whether you’re a full-timer looking for side jobs or an aspiring freelancer. Remember to do your research and know what your proofreading service is worth to avoid being undercharged. With that, and a wish of good luck, we’ll send you into the world of freelance proofreading!

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Freelance & Remote Proofreading Jobs: 10 Companies Hiring

Are you looking to launch a new career in proofreading and curious about entry-level jobs ? Or, perhaps, you’re a seasoned freelancer ready for your next gig . Whatever stage of your proofreading career you’re in, it’s an excellent time to dive into the world of remote proofreading jobs .

The demand for precise and polished written content has significantly increased freelance and remote proofreading jobs. Expand your portfolio by working on diverse projects, such as medical journals, business communications, or academic papers. You’ll discover the freedom to engage in work that aligns with your schedule and preferences .

What Are Freelance and Remote Proofreading Jobs?

You’ll do more than scan for typos as a freelance or remote proofreader. You’ll be charged with a comprehensive review of texts to enhance accuracy, readability, and style compliance .

Work on everything from blog posts and novels to technical documents and advertising copy. As a remote proofreader, you aim to ensure each piece of content is polished, precise, and error-free.

If you’re passionate about language and get a thrill when every “i” is dotted and “t” is crossed, start exploring work-from-home proofreading jobs today.

10 Companies Offering Remote and Freelance Proofreading Jobs

Launch your research and job search with this curated list of companies that routinely post online proofreading jobs .

Cella helps people forge meaningful careers by bridging the gap between creatives and companies. This woman-owned company offers consulting, staffing, and managed solutions for marketing , digital creative, and proposal teams .

Explore more remote proofreading jobs hiring now !

2. InStyle.com

InStyle.com offers celebrity news, fashion trends , and shopping and beauty information across various platforms. The online platform has become a significant source of Hollywood news and lifestyle trends.

Hikers and bikers looking for routes and recommendations for on and off-road experiences turn to komoot. The technology-based application is available on both the iPhone and Android platforms.

4. Language Bear

Language Bear provides professional, SEO-optimized content , writing, editing , and translation services for clients worldwide in the casino, sports betting, and gambling industries.

5. MissionWired

MissionWired is an advertising services company that helps its clients “change the world” by developing and delivering innovative digital storytelling. The company is a full-service agency providing digital expertise and communications strategies.

6. Motion Recruitment

Motion Recruitment supports staffing and recruiting challenges by providing contract, contract-to-hire , and direct-hire IT staffing .

7. Sonata Learning

A professional training and coaching company, Sonata Learning helps organizations strengthen staff performance through learning, process optimization, the appropriate use of technology, and knowledge management.

8. Study.com

Study.com features over 200 instructors that deliver courses, all available for GED credit, certificates of completion, or easily transferable to thousands of universities nationwide.

Made by teachers , for teachers, Twinkl is an educational publishing company that provides award-winning teaching, planning, and assessment resources for birth through adulthood.

10. Welocalize

Welocalize helps brands capture business worldwide by reaching, engaging, and growing their international audiences through multilingual content and data transformation.

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Find Online Proofreading Jobs from Home

As you can see, there’s a demand for online proofreaders across many industries . You can build a career blending your interests with the flexibility you need. As you begin your research, consider roles with similar titles, such as copy editor , quality assurance , or content editor .

If you’re on the lookout for the best remote companies to work for and legitimate online jobs , our partner site FlexJobs is here to assist you. With new jobs posted daily in over 50 career categories, including full-time , part-time , temporary , and freelance jobs —there’s something for everyone in the FlexJobs database. Launch your search today!

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By Kimberli Lowe-MacAuley | Categories: Work Remotely

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Thank you for your interest in applying for an at-home proofreading position with ProofreadingServices.com. We hire part-time and full-time proofreaders who demonstrate superlative proofreading and editing skills. You are welcome to apply from any country.

• Competitive pay ranging from USD 19 to 46 per hour depending on turnaround time, with the highest pay for the most urgent deadlines
• Flexible hours (work when you want, right from your living room, in any time zone)
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Apply below: If you are interested in becoming a proofreader for ProofreadingServices.com, please complete the 20-minute preliminary test below. Note: If you have a learning difference and need additional time or other accommodations, please email [email protected].

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15 Best Websites for Remote Proofreading Jobs in 2024

Make money from home putting your word skills to good use. These are 15 of the best websites for remote proofreading jobs that are hiring now!

Online Proofreading Jobs

With all the side hustles I have tried personally and researched for The Curious Frugal, one of the most interesting remote jobs I came across is proofreading.

Getting paid to read and edit from home sounds like a fantastic way to make money.

If you have an eye for detail, love reading, and are always catching spelling and grammar mistakes, proofreading online would be a great fit for a work-from-home job.

Related posts:

• 21 Work-from-home tips you need to be successful
• 15 Freelance websites to make extra money
• How to make money freelance writing

This post may contain affiliate links. Please read my  disclosure  for more info.

What types of remote proofreading jobs are there?

People need remote proofreaders for all kinds of jobs. Some of these proofreading jobs are:

• social media posts
• court reports
• research papers
• romance novels
• published papers
• legal documents
• academic papers
• technical guides
• and many more

As a proofreader, you will most likely be an independent contractor and own your own proofreading business. This means you can set your own rates and your own schedule.

Related post: Proofreading Jobs from Home: 12 Best Websites to Find Them (and How to Get Them) .

How to become a remote proofreader for beginners

Caitlin Pyle has a popular online course called Proofread Anywhere with over 4,800 students that are now making money proofreading.

If you’re undecided still about the course, Caitlin created a free Proofreading workshop. It will give you all the basics on starting your proofreading career.

You can enroll in her FREE proofreading workshop to see if online proofreading is the right career for you.

Her free workshop is gold, and you’ll get tons of questions answered about how to become a professional proofreader.

Read my interview with Caitlin here about how to become a freelance proofreader .

Recommended tools when looking for remote proofreading jobs

This tool helps in proofreading online content. It automatically finds spelling and grammatical errors, which will help you tremendously with proofreading, as well as when you apply for proofreading jobs. Grab the free version of Grammarly here.

This handy tool helps you optimize your resume and LinkedIn profile when you are applying for a job.

It’s really simple to use; you upload or paste your resume into one box, and the job description of the remote proofreading job you are applying for. Jobscan will tell you if your resume will get noticed for that job, and what improvements you can make to make your resume really stand out so you will get the job.

How Much Do Remote Proofreading Jobs Pay?

According to Salary.com the average proofreading salary is $52,104 per year (as per April 2020).

Proofreading salaries can go to $66,233 and up.

Average salary for full-time proofreaders can be higher than this, especially if you work for a specialized proofreading company such as #16 in the list below.

15 of the Best Companies for Remote Proofreading Jobs

1. amazon proofreading jobs ..

Did you know that Amazon hires A LOT of proofreaders?

I hadn’t thought about it before but it makes sense.

What other websites have as much content as Amazon? And it has to be accurate and easy to read.

When I checked today, there were 353 open jobs in the categories of editorial, writing, & content management.

Related post: Proofreader Certification – Best Proofreading Courses and Why You Need Them

2. Fiverr proofreading jobs .

Do you know Fiverr? It’s a huge site where freelancers from around the world can connect with potential clients.

Contrary to the name, you don’t have to only charge $5 for your freelancing services!

I hired a graphic designer on Fiverr to redo my logo, and I love the new design! I also hired a designer to make me an infographic for a post ( you can check out the infographic here ) and was also super happy with the results.

You can create a profile (make it really stand out!) and have remote proofreading jobs come to you.

3. Scribendi proofreading jobs .

Scribendi hires remote proofreaders as independent contractors and offers a competitive salary.

For remote proofreading jobs at Scribendi, you need a university degree or college degree, and 3 years of experience.

4. Scribe Writing

Scribe offers both full-time career and freelance positions. There weren’t any openings today when I checked but you can subscribe to find out about their latest proofreading job postings.

5. Cactus proofreading .

You don’t need to have previous proofreading experience to apply for remote proofreading jobs at Cactus, so this is a great option for beginner proofreaders.

They hire freelance proofreaders as well as offer full-time work-from-home jobs.

Cactus specializes in science and technology proofreading, so a general background in these fields is an asset.

6. Upwork proofreading .

Upwork is another large freelance connecting site, somewhat similar to Fiverr. Upwork connects freelance job postings of all kinds with job seekers.

There are ALL kinds of proofreading jobs on Upwork, from general proofreading of books and resumes, to specialized proofreading of academic works.

Today I even saw a proofreading job for a new word game app, and another proofreading job to edit a romance novel. Interesting jobs!

7. Cambridge Proofreading .

To be hired for the jobs at Cambridge Proofreading you need to have a bachelor’s degree at a minimum. You edit documents in your own areas of interest and expertise.

Cambridge Proofreading gets very high reviews on review sites from the proofreaders who work there.

Pay is $20-$30/hour USD, paid every two weeks via PayPal.

8. Proofreading Services .

Proofreading Services hires part-time and full-time remote proofreaders from any country.

Pay is $19 to $46 per hour USD depending on the turnaround time; the highest pay is for the most urgent deadlines.

You can start applying right away by taking their 20-minute preliminary test.

9. EditFast .

With EditFast you could proofread novels, textbooks, contracts, letters, reports, business and technical documents. You need to take an editing test as part of the application.

They pay 40% of the contract price to the proofreader through PayPal.

10. Scribbr .

Scribbr specializes in academic proofreading and is rated highly on Trustpilot.

Remote proofreading jobs on Scribbr require a bachelor’s degree, and a commitment of at least 10 hours a week.

Pay is approximately $21-$27 USD per hour, and proofreaders are paid twice a month.

11. eCorrector .

eCorrector specializes in remote proofreading for scientists by scientists, so get that PhD out if you want to apply to this company.

They don’t list specifics about proofreading jobs on their website but do accept applications regularly; send them your CV and information about your proofreading experience.

12. Gramlee .

Gramlee is always accepting applications from proofreaders; you have to fill out an online Google doc with a couple pages of questions.

They don’t disclose specifics on the jobs or what their rate of pay is but say they will be in touch if they are interested in hiring you based on the application you fill out.

13. WordsRU .

WordsRU offers a big variety of remote proofreading jobs.

Some of the proofreading jobs that are available are: book editing, thesis editing, research papers, newsletter editing, advertising copy, journal article editing, biography and autobiography editing, and many more categories depending on your interests and skills.

You need 2+ years of proofreading experience plus a Master’s degree or equivalent professional experience.

14. Prompt .

Remote proofreading jobs at Prompt center on providing editing help for college students, for AP exams with essays and college admission essays.

The pay for proofreading of AP essays is $25-$28 an hour.

15. Lifetips .

With remote proofreading jobs at Lifetips, you will edit the content produced by freelance writers assigned to projects. Salary plus full medical benefits included.

16. American Journal Experts

There are regular remote job opportunities at AJE, but these are not for entry-level proofreaders.

To apply for American Journal Experts remote work, you need a graduate degree, or to be currently enrolled in a graduate program. Advanced degrees accepted can be either a Master’s or PhD.

If you have any other ideas where you can find remote proofreading jobs, please leave them in the comments below.

Requirements to Score Remote Proofreading Jobs

For most remote proofreading jobs, you will need:

internet connection

You’ll use Microsoft Word or Google Docs

Most remote proofreading jobs in the United States will want a native English speaker.

Access to style guides

Sign up for this FREE proofreading workshop to see if remote proofreading is the right career for you.

BECOME AN ONLINE PROOFREADER

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This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

Saturday 2nd of July 2022

Hi! Great Blog!! Informative, educational and a great resource. Thank you for sharing, continued success and many blessings. Mia, Retired Bilingual (Spanish), soon to be trilingual, (Italian) BA American and English Literature looking for remote work to supplement income.

Sunday 2nd of January 2022

I see most of the remote hirers require a degree or higher to even have a foot in the door. But I am doing proofreading for a beauty SME without it. Coming from a non-native English speaking country, it's a challenge to earn a decent regular income without the paper qualifications.

But, I like to thank you for your detailed written sharing which I usually read with a tinge of sigh.

Rohan Yadav

Saturday 1st of August 2020

Nice and Informative article, I am always suggesting that getting a job from any freelancing patfrom because there you will get any best experience throughout job and transaction at all. Thanks for sharing this wonderful blog.

TheCuriousFrugal

Thanks Rohan! I'm glad you found this article on remote proofreading jobs informative. Have a nice weekend!

Lauren Renee Sparks

Monday 4th of May 2020

Saving this resource. Thank you.

You're welcome Lauren! So many awesome types of online proofreading jobs! Hope you have a great day :)

20 Ways to Make Money From Home Proofreading

D o you have an eagle eye for catching spelling and grammatical errors? If so, maybe becoming an online proofreader is your calling.

Because proofreading requires a highly detail-oriented personality, proofreaders are in high demand, particularly for online businesses. And because you can proofread from anywhere, it's an excellent option for making money from home. In many cases, online proofreaders can even set their own hours and work at their own pace.

If becoming an online proofreader sounds appealing, keep reading for everything you need to know about this work from home profession.

What's the Difference Between Proofreading and Editing?

Proofreaders and editors are often thought of as interchangeable, but there are specific differences between the two roles. Proofreading primarily focuses on catching spelling mistakes, grammar and punctuation errors, and typos.

On the other hand, editors may go through the information and reorder and organize it for clarity. They may change or strike out material completely. Editors check and verify sources and change the tone of voice to better match the audience. Often editors and writers may work together through several revisions.

While editors also proofread, proofreaders aren't necessarily considered editors. Both roles are professional and skilled, but proofreading doesn't require as much in-depth examination of the material. Most editors must have a bachelor's degree and sometimes a graduate degree in journalism or English. Explore this post for remote editing jobs .

How Much Do Proofreaders Earn?

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , proofreaders earn a salary of $48,770 on average for full-time work. The pay and amount of work vary by the proofreader's availability and workload. A busy proofreader who can maintain several consistent clients or who has training in a specialty area like bilingual or legal proofreading will generally earn more.

What Qualifications Do You Need to Become an Online Proofreader?

Many proofreading and editing jobs require a bachelor's degree or current enrollment in a four-year program. You should also know how to use programs like Microsoft Office and Google Docs and have familiarity with the main style guides including AP, APA, MLA, and Chicago Manual of Style.

If it's been some time since you've been in school, a proofreading course can improve your skills and knowledge and help prepare you for this career.

Caitlin Pyle from Proofread Anywhere offers a free workshop for proofreaders to help you decide if this is a suitable occupation for your personality. In it, you'll learn:

• Five signs proofreading is the right career path for you
• The freedom, flexibility, and financial rewards of proofreading
• How to attract your proofreading clients

Where Can You Find Online Editing and Proofreading Jobs?

Whether you're looking for online proofreading jobs, editing jobs, part-time or full-time work, or just a side hustle, there are many options for you to explore.

1. EditFast

EditFast is a proofreading service where clients can submit their documents online for proofing and editing. Potential proofreaders must submit a resume and complete several editing tests. Once approved, you'll receive notifications regarding potential projects. EditFast pays the proofreader 40% of the project price, so rates vary by project.

2. Wordvice

Wordvice operates worldwide, servicing universities, medical institutions, and laboratories. They hire freelance editors, content writers, translators, and online English Tutors. To get hired, you'll need to submit a resume and complete an editing sample. Pay is commensurate with experience, projects, and knowledge level of the specific topic.

Gramlee is an editing and proofreading company. They offer services for writing projects such as dissertations, essays, novels, white papers, and more. Editors and proofreaders must complete an application that includes a background check and an assessment. Proofreaders are expected to turn documents around within 24 hours during the week (but can set their own hours).

Kibin is a smaller company that offers copyediting, proofreading, and grammar services. They work with many students and scholarly organizations to help with essays, applications, and dissertations. Kibin pays proofreaders per word and includes bonuses for deadlines and customer satisfaction. According to a review on Glassdoor , proofreaders earn $4-$10 per document.

5. ProofreadingServices.com

Offering $19-$46 per hour and flexible hours, ProofreadingServices.com works with various clients around the globe. Contractors go through a 20-minute testing process when they apply to prove their proofreading skills and abilities. With ProofreadingServices.com, you can create your own schedule and work full- or part-time hours.

6. Scribendi

Scribendi is a proofreading and editing company based in Ontario, Canada. They offer both in-house and freelance opportunities. Freelancers must pass a screening test and complete an application process. The pay varies by project, but it's competitive, and each project's priced out upfront. They do not hire freelancers from California, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, South Dakota, Washington DC, West Virginia, or Wyoming.

7. ProofreadingPal

Proofreading Pal offers proofreading services for resumes, essays, books, businesses, and more. According to their website, proofreaders can earn $500-$3,000 a month proofreading documents from home. To apply, you'll need to fill out their online application, as well as submit a resume and cover letter. If you make it to the next step in the hiring process, you'll be required to pass their timed proofreading exam.

Scribbr hires editors in a variety of languages to proofread and edit academic documents. They are a Dutch company that hires editors from all over the globe. According to their website , editors process, on average, 1,700 words per hour and earn around €20-€25 per hour. You must fill out an application and pass their online language quiz to be considered.

Appen hires individuals for data collection, translation, transcription, and proofreading projects. Once you create your account, be sure to completely fill out your profile to unlock more projects. According to their job listing on LinkedIn , you'll need to have a good comprehension of the English language. They do ask about your education level, but it's unclear if you need a certain level to complete proofreading projects.

10. Scribe Media

Scribe Media offers professional publishing services to people who want to write and publish a book. They often have positions for copywriters ($250 per project), line editors ($0.04 per word), and cover designers ($2,200 per project).

11. Express Writers

Express Writers hires copywriters, expert copywriters, social media copywriters, designers, and copy editors. Their editors are paid $15 per hour and must edit a minimum of 3,000 words per hour. For their writing and editing roles, you must be a native English speaker, have impeccable spelling and grammar, and understand best SEO practices.

12. Focus Forward

Focus Forward offers transcription, translation, marketing research, coding, and proofreading services to clients. For their part-time proofreading positions, you must have advanced to intermediate knowledge of Microsoft Word and Excel, excellent communication skills, and a working computer and high-speed internet connection.

13. Study.com

Study.com hires individuals for lesson and curriculum development, writing, researching, editing, proofreading, and tutoring. For these positions, you can choose your schedule, and you'll get paid twice a month via PayPal. Study.com hire individuals from the US and the Philippines.

Job Boards and Freelance Marketplaces

As you can see, many of the popular editing and proofreading companies require a college degree and experience. So, how do you get experience if no one will hire you? You can try submitting a spec assignment to prove your skills and expertise to a potential client. You can also try pitching and applying for one-off gigs on freelance marketplaces and job boards that don't have as rigid of requirements for proofreaders. Here are platforms and sites to explore.

14. FlexJobs

FlexJobs is a telecommuting job board that hosts a variety of editing and proofreading positions. The nature, availability, and requirements for each position will vary by the assignment and the company. Some proofreading jobs require high skill levels, while other positions are more general and require less experience. With FlexJobs, it's easy to view a variety of positions to assess what you're best qualified for, and they hand-screen all companies so you can rest assured every listing is legit.

Fiverr is a freelance marketplace where freelancers can post their services, and business owners can shop around to find a freelancer to complete their projects. Initially, Fiverr worked on the premise that each service was only $5; today, they have expanded how much freelancers can charge for their services ($5-$10,000). With Fiverr, it's free to join, and whatever you decide to charge for your proofreading services, they'll keep 20% of the total price.

16. Kelly Services

Kelly Services is a staffing agency that offers a wide range of temporary and temp-to-hire jobs. Their virtual jobs include proofreading and editing services for a variety of industries and businesses. Listings will vary based on skills, experience, and the nature of the position. Proofreaders can find virtual work in the US and beyond.

17. Randstad

Randstad is a US-based staffing agency that allows you to search for remote temporary, contract, temporary to permanent, and permanent roles. Since Randstad covers all types of positions, you'll need to search for keywords: proofreader, proofreading, editing, copy editor, and editor. Positions, as well as requirements, will vary greatly from client to client. To help speed up your search, you can sign up for emails for the types of positions you're searching for.

18. Robert Half

Robert Half is a US-based staffing agency that hires permanent, contract, and temporary workers for in-person and remote roles. Like Randstad, Robert Half hires in many different areas, so you'll want to search a few different variations of your keyword. You should also explore all jobs that come up in your search results. Often, the title of the job is in a different area, like writing, content coordination, project assistance, or marketing, but it includes proofreading as part of its role.

Upwork is a freelance marketplace that offers a variety of projects, including proofreading and editing. Once you complete your profile on the site, you're paired with your ideal jobs. You can also search through clients and respond to invitations directly. Rates vary by project and client, and the rates are disclosed upfront. Some projects are hourly, and others offer a fixed price.

Guru is a freelance platform where you can create an account to showcase your freelance proofreading services, or you can bid on existing projects. The projects you'll find on the site vary and include everything from editing blog posts to proofreading speeches and editing screenplays and e-books. Guru has different membership levels for freelancers, which include a free membership plan with a 9% job fee rate and a max of 10 bids per month. For all the different plans and benefits of using Guru, go here .

How to Start a Freelance Proofreader Business

Starting your own proofreading business gives you the option to work the hours of your choosing, set your own rates, and work entirely from home. You don't need a college degree if you start your own business. You can grow with your clients and even offer additional services based on your skills and experience.

While keeping up with deadlines and building up your client base are challenges, there are plenty of resources to help you get started with your freelance proofreading business. The Editorial Freelancers Association is a professional group offering job listings, resources, education, and connections to other proofreaders in the industry.

Ready to Start Your Proofreading Business?

Here are some common steps you'll need to take to start your own proofreading business.

• Get the proper proofreading training if you need it.
• Write your business plan -- You can grab our free business plan template here .
• Determine your proofreading niche (academic, legal, medical, authors, bloggers, copy editor, etc.)
• Build your website and set up your social media profiles.
• Set up your communication channels, workflow processes, and how you'll accept payments.
• Starting pitching clients, I suggest making a list of 100 people and companies you'd like to work with, then pitch 2-5 people a day until you're fully booked up.
• Keep track of your income and expenses and pay your quarterly self-employment taxes.

Is Becoming a Proofreader Right For You?

If you enjoy reading and writing and you're a stickler for correct usage of the English language, proofreading is a great work-from-home job. Since you'll likely be working as a freelancer, you'll also have the bonus of being able to work a flexible schedule, which is good news if you're trying to balance caretaking duties with making money.

Holly Reisem Hanna is the Founder and Publisher of the award-winning career website  The Work at Home Woman.

Mktg Communications Specialist (Remote)

How to apply.

A cover letter is required for consideration for this position and should be attached as the first page of your resume. The cover letter should address your specific interest in the position and outline skills and experience that directly relate to this position.

The Department of Internal Medicine is the largest department in the University of Michigan Medical School with 13 divisions - all dedicated to advancing patient care, education, and research. The Marketing Communications Specialist will be a member of the Internal Medicine communication team that works to promote research, education, and recruitment Initiatives. You will work with specific specialties to strategize, plan, and manage day-to-day digital content production of content, copy, and visual assets across all our channels, including websites, email, and social media. In addition, this position will plan and execute continuing medical education webinars to advance the departments educational mission, expertise, and national reputation. This position will work collaboratively with Michigan Medicines Department of Communications and colleagues from the U-M Medical School.  

Mission Statement

Michigan Medicine improves the health of patients, populations and communities through excellence in education, patient care, community service, research and technology development, and through leadership activities in Michigan, nationally and internationally.  Our mission is guided by our Strategic Principles and has three critical components; patient care, education and research that together enhance our contribution to society.

Why Join Michigan Medicine?

Michigan Medicine is one of the largest health care complexes in the world and has been the site of many groundbreaking medical and technological advancements since the opening of the U-M Medical School in 1850. Michigan Medicine is comprised of over 30,000 employees and our vision is to attract, inspire, and develop outstanding people in medicine, sciences, and healthcare to become one of the world’s most distinguished academic health systems.  In some way, great or small, every person here helps to advance this world-class institution. Work at Michigan Medicine and become a victor for the greater good.

What Benefits can you Look Forward to?

• Excellent medical, dental and vision coverage effective on your very first day
• 2:1 Match on retirement savings

Responsibilities*

• Create ongoing strategies to promote the departments reputation, recruitment efforts, and national standing. 
• Write and edit content that aligns with brand guidelines, reflects key messages, and resonates with target audiences.
• Create visually compelling graphics for digital and print materials including social media posts, email campaigns, web, and promotional materials.
• Develop and design print collateral such as brochures, flyers, and invites.
• Collaborate with subject matter experts and stakeholders to gather information and develop accurate and compelling content.
• Develop, manage, and proactively maintain internal and external website content.
• Oversee web performance using analytic tools and make data-driven recommendations for improvement.
• Monitor social media trends and analytics to optimize content strategy and increase engagement across channels including, but not limited to, Twitter (X) and LinkedIn.  
• Organize, schedule, and manage approximately three to five continuing medical education webinars annually.
• Assist with event planning as needed.
• Provide writing, editing, and proofreading support on various communications projects and offer backup to team members as needed.
• Stay up to date on the latest features and tools within Adobe Creative Cloud to enhance design capabilities and efficiency.

Required Qualifications*

• Bachelors degree in marketing, communications, or a related field.
• Proven experience in a similar role.
• Technical proficiency with Adobe Creative Cloud, website content management systems, and Google Analytics.
• Experience managing multiple content areas (print, graphic, social media, web, etc.).
• Knowledge of email marketing tools.
• Deep understanding of marketing principles and best practices.
• Knowledge of SEO best practices and digital marketing trends.
• Excellent interpersonal and communication skills (both oral and written), and an ability to engage with Michigan Medicine leadership, faculty, staff, and external healthcare physicians. 
• Experience with video editing and motion graphics is a plus.

Work Schedule

This position is fully remote, Monday-Friday.

Background Screening

Michigan Medicine conducts background screening and pre-employment drug testing on job candidates upon acceptance of a contingent job offer and may use a third party administrator to conduct background screenings.  Background screenings are performed in compliance with the Fair Credit Report Act. Pre-employment drug testing applies to all selected candidates, including new or additional faculty and staff appointments, as well as transfers from other U-M campuses.

Application Deadline

Job openings are posted for a minimum of seven calendar days.  The review and selection process may begin as early as the eighth day after posting. This opening may be removed from posting boards and filled anytime after the minimum posting period has ended.

U-M EEO/AA Statement

The University of Michigan is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer.

Important Update: At Northwestern Medicine safety is always a top priority. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Northwestern Medicine has moved to a more virtual recruitment process including telephone and video interviews to help ensure the health and safety of our employees, candidates, and communities. Also, some hiring activities may be delayed or suspended in certain geographic areas and job categories. Review the latest information about the virus .

Remote Triage RN, Access, Part-time, Rotating (80% remote - Must reside in IL, IN, IA, or WI)

• $10,000 Tuition Reimbursement per year ($5,700 part-time)
• $10,000 Student Loan Repayment ($5,000 part-time)
• $1,000 Professional Development per year ($500 part-time)
• $250 Wellbeing Fund per year($125 for part-time)
• Matching 401(k)
• Excellent medical, dental and vision coverage
• Life insurance
• Annual Employee Salary Increase and Incentive Bonus
• Paid time off and Holiday pay

Pay Starting at: $33.00+ per hour based on experience

Northwestern Medicine is powered by a community of colleagues who are purpose-driven and committed to our mission to deliver world-class care. Here, you'll work alongside some of the best clinical talent in the nation leading the way in medical innovation and breakthrough research with Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine.

We recognize where you've been, and we support where you're headed. We celebrate diverse perspectives and experiences, which fuel our commitment to equity and culture of service.

Grow your career with comprehensive training and development opportunities, mentorship programs, educational support and student loan repayment.

• Create the life you envision for yourself with flexible work options, a Reimbursable Well-Being Fund and a Total Rewards package that support your physical, mental, emotional and financial well-being.
• Make a difference through volunteer opportunities we offer in local communities and drive inclusive change through our workforce-led resource groups.

From discovery to delivery, come help us shape the future of medicine.

Description

The Triage RN, Access reflects the mission, vision, and values of NM, adheres to the organization’s Code of Ethics and Corporate Compliance Program, and complies with all relevant policies, procedures, guidelines and all other regulatory and accreditation standards.

The Triage RN, Access provides clinically expert virtual triage service. In their role, the triage nurses serve as a liaison between the patient and their physician by assessing the presenting problem or chief complaint, utilizing targeted evidence based triage protocols to identify acuity and develop appropriate care advice and next-step recommendations. 

Responsibilities:

• Triage nurses must demonstrate excellent customer service and communication skills and the ability to function as part of a highly effective team that consistently puts Patients First. 
• Establish positive first impressions with patients and customers, establishing a role as patient advocate
• Triage all incoming telephone calls and electronic messages, prioritizing and resolving, involving the provider as appropriate, successfully completing the communication cycle. 
• Incorporates critical thinking to develop, implement and update an individualized plan of care based on identified patient care and learning and needs
• Asks key questions to gain insight into the patient’s clinical condition and able to adjust approach as needed to get necessarily information
• Document all communications in the electronic medical record
• Schedules patient for visit with provider as appropriate based upon protocols 
• Follows triage protocols in place for the department
• Assist in scheduling appointments for patients with providers within NM. 
• Assist in orientation of new staff members. 
• Assist in specific process improvement projects 
• Participates in departmental quality improvement activities
• Uses effective service recovery skills to solve problems or service breakdowns when they occur 

Qualifications

• Graduate of accredited RN program 
• 2 years of ambulatory care experience
• Registered Nurse License issued by State of Illinois 
• Current AHA BLS Provider certification 
• Specialty certification upon eligibility

Equal Opportunity

Northwestern Medicine is an affirmative action/equal opportunity employer and does not discriminate in hiring or employment on the basis of age, sex, race, color, religion, national origin, gender identity, veteran status, disability, sexual orientation or any other protected status.

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Suburbanization Problems in the USSR : the Case of Moscow

• Référence bibliographique

Gornostayeva Galina A. Suburbanization Problems in the USSR : the Case of Moscow . In: Espace, populations, sociétés , 1991-2. Les franges périurbaines Peri-urban fringes. pp. 349-357.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.3406/espos.1991.1474

www.persee.fr/doc/espos_0755-7809_1991_num_9_2_1474

• RIS (ProCite, Endnote, ...)

Résumé (fre)

La suburbanisation n'existe pas en URSS au sens des phénomènes décrits dans les villes occidentales. Cependant on observe certains transferts limités d'activités industrielles exigeantes en espace ou polluantes, voire même de centres de recherches, vers les zones suburbaines ou des villes-satellites. Mais ces déconcentrations répondent à une logique de planification administrative. En outre, les Moscovites hésitent à aller habiter dans ces centres d'emploi, de crainte de perdre les privilèges liés à l'autorisation d'habiter Moscou (la propiska) et du fait des communications insuffisantes avec la capitale. Le taux de croissance de la population moscovite reste supérieur à celui du reste de l'oblast. Par contre le développement de datchas de seconde résidence est très important dans l'oblast de Moscou, en particulier aux alentours des stations de chemin de fer. L'abolition du système de propiska pourrait transformer les datchas les plus proches de Moscou en résidences principales.

Résumé (eng)

The suburbanisation does not exist as such in the USSR with the meaning one has of the phenomena in Western cities. Though one may notice some limited transfers of industrial activities demanding a lot of space or polluting ones, even research centres, towards the suburban areas or satellite-towns. But these déconcentrations correspond to an administrative planification logics. Moreover the Muscovites hesitate before going and living in these employment centres, because they are afraid of loosing the privileges linked with the authorisation to live in Moscow (the propiska) and because of insufficient communications with the capital. The growth rate of the Muscovite population remains higher than this of the remainder of the oblast. To the contrary developing of datchas for second residences is very high in the Moscow oblast, especially in the vicinity of a railway station. The abolishment of the «propiska» system might transform the datchas nearer to Moscow into main residences.

• Economic structure [link]
• Suburbanization of activities [link]
• Suburbanization of population [link]
• Conclusions [link]
• Literature [link]

Liste des illustrations

• Table 1. Employment structure, % [link]
• Table 2. Annual rate of population increase, % [link]
• Fig. 1. Spatial distribution of country-cottages and gardening associations in the Moscow region [link]

Texte intégral

Galina A. GORNOSTAYEVA

Moscow University

Suburbanization Problems

in the USSR :

the Case of Moscow

Suburbanization processes typical to cities in Western Europe, the USA and other countries are not observed in the USSR or they are distorted to such an extent that they may not be compared with existing standards. This states the question how Soviet cities-succeeded in escaping this stage of urban development. In order to answer this question, we should first summarize the main aspects of Western suburbanization.

Firstly, it is well known that the urbanization processes are linked to structural changes in the economy. Thus the transition from the stage of concentration to this of suburbanization is associated with industrialization, and the transition to the third stage - déconcentration - is related with the rapid growth of employment in the non-industrial sphere. Secondly, a suburbanization of economic activities can be distinguished. It applies in the first place to the building and iron- working industry, transports, engineering and chemical works. These are polluting and requiring extensive areas. This suburbanization of industry is caused by the following factors: rising demand for land from firms ; worsening of transport

tions in the inner cities ; demand for lower land costs and taxation levels in suburbs ; rapid growth of road transports; state policies regulating the growth of large cities ; migration of the labour force to the suburban zones. Scientific and educational activities are also transferred from the centre to the suburbs.

The third important aspect of suburbanization applies to the population. In the suburbs two opposite flows of population meet ; one is centripetal, coming from non- metropolitan regions, the other is centrifugal, coming from the central city. The reasons for the migration to the suburbs are as follows : declining living standards in large cities (overcrowding, slow housing renewal, environmental problems, etc.); growth of motorization of the population, development of communications (telephone, telex, fax, computer) ; intensifying decentralization of working places ; lower land prices in the suburbs ; state support for the intensification of real estate development in the suburbs. The above-mentioned factors and reasons for suburbanization are altered in the Soviet cities. Let us explore them, by taking for example the largest one - Moscow.

Economic structure

The employment structure in the USSR reveals sharp differences from those in developed urbanized countries. The USSR is characterized by a high share of employment in agriculture, industry, construction and a low share in the non-industrial sphere (tab. 1).

A correlation analysis of the percentage of urban population and employment in the different spheres of economic activity reveals that the share of urban population in the USSR is higher than in countries with the same percentage of persons employed in agriculture.

TABLE 1. EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE,

Source: personal calculations.

The urbanization processes in the Moscow Capital Region (MCR) are more intensive than in other regions of the USSR. Structural changes are more obvious here : the share of employment in the non-industrial sphere increases more substantially and the percentage of persons employed in industry and agriculture is lower than in the whole country. However the MCR cannot therefore be compared with a metropolitan region in a Western country. Although Moscow is the most advanced agglomeration in the USSR, it lags is far behind the major world cities in terms of development and it is at the very start of the post- industrial stage of its structural and urban transformation.

The structural «anomaly» of the USSR as a whole and of the MCR in particular is explained by the enforced process of industrialization (starting from the thirties) at the expense of the peasantry (thus, there is not only a booming industrial employment in cities, but also worsening living and working conditions in villages and forced collectivization having triggered off the massive rural emigration). As a result, the share of urban population in the USSR is higher than expected, based on changes in the economic structure. While urbanization in the developed countries was due, among

other causes, to an increasing labour efficiency in agriculture, this remained quite low in the USSR. Therefore the employment share in agriculture is overstated in comparison with countries with a similar percentage of urban population, and even this considerable part of the labour force is unable to feed the whole population of the country.

The share of agricultural employment in the mcr increased from 7,4 % to 7,6 °7o between 1980 and 1985 (as a result of Moscow attractiveness and the better living standards in its surrounding villages), whereas it continued to decline in other parts of the Central region. The population growth in villages adjacent to Moscow is especially intensive, though labour efficiency in localities near Moscow is higher than in the other oblasts. In spite of this, Moscow oblast provides only 61 % of milk, 34 °/o of potatoes, 45 % of vegetables and 23 % of meat needed by the population in Moscow city and oblast (Argumen- ty i facty, 1988, N50, p. 3). The structural anomaly is not only related to processes in agricultural sphere but also in industrial sector. As a result of the low economic mobility of socialist firms and of the absence of market relations, the industrial development was extensive,

without significant increases of the labour

productivity.

Thus the employment transfer from the

agricultural to the industrial sector, their

extensive development and their low labour

productivity are intrinsically related with the political definition of productiorfrela- tions and course of structural economic transformation.

Suburbanization of activities

Moscow and Moscow oblast show divergent economic structures and changes (tab. 1). In Moscow the employment share in the non-industrial sphere in Moscow is growing more rapidly, whereas the share of industrial employment is decreasing. In Moscow oblast the part of transport and communication infrastructure, retail trade, administration, housing (presently less developed than in Moscow) is increasing. Some stages in the transformation of activities in the mcr's settlements may be pointed out here. The stage of industrialization and reconstruction after World War II is characterized by the swift industrial development and the active restructuration of the Moscow and Moscow oblast economy. New industries have been built (motor-car and aircraft assembly, machine-tool industry, organic synthesis, etc.), around Moscow research and production potential. Nevertheless, this restructuration is extensive, since traditional industries don't curtail production. It favours the heavy concentration of modern functions in Moscow. There is no transfer of firms outside Moscow. Suburbanization of industrial activities did not occur because of the state owning the means of production and of thé socialist form of production relations. When research and technological progress are slowing down, these firms become inefficient and spatially immobile. The period 1956-1970 is marked by an intensive development of the region scientific sphere and by the rise of « satellite » urban policy. The new centres were specialized in modern branches of machinery and research-engineering activities and were undoubtedly very attractive for the population. Therefore towns like Dubna were growing rapidly. While the aim was to redirect part of Moscow population

growth, they display a quite specific relation with the capital. For instance, Muscovites working in Pushchino cannot reach their job every day because they lack transport facilities. Nevertheless, they don't wish to move and register their passports in the city in which they actually work, since they would have to give up their Moscow registration and then lose all Moscow privileges (see further). These new centres are isolated from information sources in Moscow. Poor telephone communications, lack of computers and telex systems hamper contacts and teamwork with colleagues in the city. It seems that material resources for experimental work in research centres are not sufficient to compensate for lack of information and communications. At the same time, poor transport links with Moscow and the other towns of Moscow oblast isolate the scientists from the higher standard of culture in the centre and from a well developed social infrastructure. An original home-work relation can be observed in Dubna: the Muscovites get the second registration of passports and live there in hostel apartments during 4 or 5 working days, during the weekends they go back to Moscow, where their families are living. The change of functions in Moscow oblast towns is still going on. Inside the towns of the first circle adjacent to Moscow, the share of employment in the non-industrial sectors and transport is growing. Inside the towns of the second circle (suburban zone) these changes lead to an increasing potential of non-industrial, industrial and construction functions. Finally, in the outlying parts of the region the further grovth of construction and industrial functions is observed and the organization potential is intensifying in some towns. The mcr towns display a crawling concen-

tration of the regional most important functions and their extension outside the boundaries of Moscow to the towns of the suburban zone. But the déconcentration of functions in the mcr is not only of natural- economic character. It also results from the state urban policy. Déconcentration is not related to the search for more advantageous sites for firms and institutions as regards to economic or social relations (the availability of cheaper labour force or more comfortable living conditions, etc.), nor is it sustained by the expansion of transport and communication facilities. Thus, this déconcentration is independent from curtailment of any function in central Moscow, whose potential is still growing, and it is also completely inadequate regarding the continuing concentration of population (see below). All this, together with the slow economic and territorial mobility of firms, is an obstacle to the economic restructuration of the region, and to the reorientation of Moscow and its suburbs to non-industrial activities and to progressive scientific and informational work. The mass labour-consuming functions still remain in Moscow and its suburbs, but they are inevitably cut off from modern types of activities.

The idea of alleviating Moscow's development appeared from the very beginning of its rapid growth, since the excessive concentration of population and employment led (as in the other major world cities) to environmental discomfort, worsening of transport, strip-holding of land and other congestion signs. In market economies, the firms react to alterations of economic or social conditions by their mobility: some

of them close, other relocate in more convenient places. In the USSR, the problem of firm transfer (unhealthy or unprofitable firms) becomes unsolvable because of the special type of production relations. Economic and territorial passivity of firms is apparent in the difficulties of erecting industrial buildings and dismantling machinery and equipment, in the low turnover of the means of production. The same problem exist regarding the labour force. Firms transferred to the suburban towns of Moscow oblast are encountering great difficulties in recruiting staff in sufficient numbers and of required skill. The local labour force is rather weak, while the Moscow workers wouldn't leave the capital to follow their firm, because they are afraid of being deprived of passport registration in Moscow. From the social point of view, giving up a Moscow registration is more significant to people than losing their job. The processes going on in the mcr are therefore not quite comparable with those in the Western world. The market economy is more «lively» and replacement of functions has the character of territorial waves. Some functions disappear while new ones emerge. In the mcr, the waves are replaced by stratification. New functions do not replace the old ones, but joining them. At the same time, this process of relative déconcentration of functions overpass the process of stable concentration of population. In the mcr, the modern branches are gravitated closely to Moscow, where skilled workers are retained by their registration advantages. Suburban towns have to be satisfied with commuters or specialists from the outlying regions of the USSR.

Suburbanization of population

The urbanization structure of the region is characterized by the predominance of its main centre - Moscow. The share of the capital in the total Moscow oblast population was as follows: in 1929 - 44,3 Vo, in 1939 - 51,6 %, in 1959 - 54,9 %, in 1979 -54,5 Vo, in 1985 - 57,3 % (Moscow Capital Region, p. 137.). Within the agglomeration, the share of Moscow is still higher, in 1959 it was 75,5 % and in 1985

- 67,3 % (ibid., p. 141), whereas in the highly developed capital regions of the world the agglomeration counts one half or less of the total population and of the economic potential, the second half being concentrated in the suburbs (Gritsay, p. 71). Moreover, the growth rate of Moscow population is higher than that of Moscow oblast (tab . 2).

TABLE 2. ANNUAL RATE OF POPULATION INCREASE,

Migrations are of great importance to the mcr. The internal migration of rural population to the cities is rather substantial, and the immigration flow from the rest of the USSR is not compensated by the decrease of rural population in the mcr. The nearer a town to Moscow, the larger the migration share in its total population increase.

The dynamics of population in the mcr has a specific character. In agglomerations of the developed countries the principle of the «broken glass» summarizes the suburbanization process. When, for some reasons, the centre loses its attractiveness the urban population moves to suburbs in search of higher living standard. In Moscow agglomeration the principle of the «overfilled glass» is operating. People wanting to live in Moscow cannot enter the city and are forced to settle near it. In Moscow immigration undoubtedly prevails over emigration, confirming the extreme territorial differentiation in conditions, level and way of life. As a rule, commuting is oriented from suburbs to Moscow (600 thousand persons come to Moscow and only 200 thousand leave it), but it accounts only for 12-15 % cf the total employment in Moscow's economy. Moreover, these commuters are not Muscovites but potential new inhabitants of the capital (striving for passport registration and domicile in Moscow).

Moscow became the most attractive place for living and an intensive flow of ruined rural residents as well as residents from other regions of the country were rushing -to Moscow. These processes were generated not only by the inception of the country structural economic transformation,

but also by the policy of special privileges for Moscow. These privileges came into being after the establishment of a centralized distribution system. Such a system involves the assignment of a priority level of foodstuffs and manufactured goods to each territory. Moscow was awarded the highest priority level. From the very beginning, better living standards and higher income for certain population categories were established there. In the thirties the artificial differentiation in living standards was confirmed by imposing restrictions to passport registration in the capital, and also by the division of administrative bodies into Moscow and Moscow oblast authorities. In the period 1925-30 dozens of new large firms were located in Moscow, but housing was insufficient at that time. Therefore, a great number of migrants from every corner of the country came to get a job in Moscow and settled in cottages in the nearby countryside. Soon, these settlements in the nearby countryside. Soon, these settlements turned into urban ones. For example, towns like Mytishchi and Luberstsy developed rapidly, and even Muscovites moved there when the railways were electrified. This was clearly the outset of a suburbanization process, but it stopped as soon as the restrictions on passport registration in Moscow were imposed and the social barrier between Moscow and Moscow oblast was established. In the period 1930-40, new industrial developments were banned from Moscow and firms drawn towards the city were located on the outskirts thus causing a rapid growth of the old and new towns. Although the development of cottages as second residence near Moscow started even before the revolution, since the en-

vironmental degradation of Moscow was practically completed at that time, they became the main resorts of those years. They had flourished in the districts with privileged natural conditions and convenient transport services (not further than 2 km from a railway station). In the period 1930-40, this sprawl of leisure housing carried on - cottage settlements expanded into an entire belt of scattered one- storeyed buildings. But at the same time, urban multi-storeyed housing also increased and after World War II these multi- storeyed buildings were found in the cottage settlements of the leisure zone. In the period 1950-60 a network of gardening associations was established. In those

years the most convenient land near Moscow had already been built on. The gardening plots allotted to the Muscovites were located in the remote parts of the mcr, outside the suburban zone, and very frequently they were on improper territories. Because of their remoteness, the difficulties in cultivation and building, the lack of infrastructure, these plots cannot become effective leisure resorts. More frequently Muscovites use them for fruit and vegetable growing.

The desire of the Muscovites for having a second residence in the suburbs can be interpreted as an unfulfilled suburbanization tendency. This desire has the same, mainly environmental, causes as suburbaniza-

tion in Western countries. The cottages within the reach of Moscow's traffic and having access to appropriate infrastructure and amenities, might become the principal residence of Muscovites if passport registration is abolished. The restrictions of passport registration in Moscow fixed in the thirties were devised as an administrative solution against the effects of Moscow's unique attractiveness and not as a means of eliminating the attractiveness itself. For this reason, Moscow became even more attractive, like a forbidden fruit. The consequences were both the concentration of the upper strata of society in the city and the extensive development of industry, resulting in a growing shortage of unskilled labour.

The shortage of regular workers in Moscow is sometimes explained by the increasing number of working places. An adequate planning of the «limiters» (1) system is then put forward as the solution for controlling the growth of Moscow is found in (Glushkova, 1988, p. 43). To be frank, about twenty industrial units and more than one hundred scientific institutions were already created in the seventies alone, in spite of the industrial building ban in Moscow, only a few firms moved outside the city in return. New industrial units easily find staff, since they offer new machinery, relatively good working conditions and higher wages. New scientific and administrative institutions are in a similar position. But the situation is totally different in the old industrial units, with rundown equipment and a high level of manual tasks. Those units suffer from a staff shortage. Moreover, as in any other city, there is a social mobility in Moscow, in most cases improving - from manual up to mental, from unskilled up to highly skilled work. Furthermore, the prestige of a higher education (university) is overestimated in Moscow, whereas the prestige of the manual professions has declined as a result of the stagnation of reinvestments in industry, the high share of manual labour (40 %), and also favouritism and

crowding in the administrative staffs. The attractiveness of an upper class position is therefore overestimated, and social mobility activated. Since Moscow cannot admit free «immigrants» the lower strata of the social structure are vacant and there appears a shortage of unskilled labour force. The lower strata of the social structure were filled in with « limiters ». Available employment in Moscow was not the cause of an organized immigration flow, but represented the only possible way to register the passport there. Roughly half of these people drawn into Moscow's economy left their jobs. «Limiters» get the right to register their passports in Moscow and take up their residence in new houses when their contract expires. They usually quit their job as soon as possible in search of better working conditions (Glushkova, 1988, p. 42). The nature of unskilled work in Moscow and the associated working conditions are so unattractive that it is nearly impossible to find Muscovites willing to perform them.

The institution of passport registration raised many problems. Thus the « limiters » are recruited in social groups not needing most of the advantages of a large city, their psychology and value system differ sharply from native Muscovites. The direct environment of the hostels where «limiters » live, has a pronounced criminal character. Fictitious marriage in order to register the passport in Moscow has become a widespread practice.

Moscow's environmental problems can hardly be solved as long as passport registration exists. The population is literally locked up within the city boundaries. Notwithstanding the environmental stresses, the Moscow privileges prevent the Muscovites from leaving the city. The urban districts not saturated with harmful industrial units are the most prestigious. The social and economic causes of Moscow's extensive growth reveal that its problems are a reflection of the ones facing the USSR. The concentration of economic, social and management functions in Mos-

cow in Soviet times materializes the strong centralism of the particraty and weighs down on the city's development. Low labour efficiency in agriculture and sheer desolation of villages on the one hand, rapid but extensive industrialisation together with forced increasing social attraction of Moscow, confirmed by the restrictions on passport registration, on the other hand, were the key factors of the mcr's polarization during decades. Together with objective factors found in other large cities of the world, subjective factors related to the Soviet political and economic system influence Moscow's growth.

The objective factors are as follows: the diversity of employment in the capital, the emergence of new types of occupations, the concentration of high-skilled and creative labour, the higher living standards, the large educational and cultural opportunities.

The subjective factors are the higher supply level of foodstuff and manufactured goods different than in other regions (the existence of meat-rationing system in many regions of the country and its absence in Moscow establishes a significant threshold not only in terms of supply but also in the outlook of the population); the lack of communications and individual motorized transport (in the rsfsr one counts 47 cars per 1000 urban inhabitants against 560 in the USA) (Argumenty i facty, 1988, N47, p. 2); the craving for joining the upper social classes and for accessing neighbourhoods with a high quality of life; unjustified promotion of upward social mobility releasing «the ground floors» of Moscow's economy; continued growth of employment due to the extensive economic development and the low economic and territorial mobility of firms. Today, the hierarchy of priorities for selecting a residence within the mcr and the whole country is as follows. Food supply comes first. The supply of manufactured

goods, the opportunities to obtain better and larger living quarters and to accede to a prestigious employment with a wage increase, social promotion, well developed consumer services come next. And only at the end of the scale appears the opportunity to fulfil cultural needs and education. Thus, there is a process of «pseudo- urbanization» characteristic of the Soviet economic and social system, superimposed on the process of «natural» urbanization. By natural urbanization we mean the process related to economic development and to the natural difference between rural and urban ways of life. The specificity, the structural changes and the hierarchy of city functions shape the migration flows conditioned by natural urbanization. «Pseudo-urbanization» points to «the scum» of the process, that may complete the economic and socially conditioned urbanization. The «pseudo-urbanization» is generated by a disproportionate development of the country's economic structure (hypertrophie share of industry; economic and political reforms have triggered off a massive flow of the peasantry towards the cities, related not with the rising but with the lowering of labour efficiency in agriculture, with impoverishment of the countryside and hence with the urge towards the centres of relative well-being), and by the territorial inequalities in standards of living, artificially created and maintained by the institution of passports and registration.

The suburbanization of population cannot be observed in the MCR. The centripetal tendencies mentioned above resulted in rapid growth of Moscow and its suburbs, as well as in some stagnation of its periphery. Thus Moscow agglomeration is now in the first stage of development, the stage of «crawling» concentration where centrifugal forces are very weak. This situation will last as long as the barrier in terms of standards of living exists between Moscow and Moscow oblast.

Conclusions

This study has reaffirmed the general lack of suburbanization in the Soviet cities. Some signs of suburbanization like the

transfer of some activities from Moscow to the suburbs, the concentration of population in towns and villages near the central

city and commuting, differ significantly pie and firms will emancipate, only if the from the Western cities. The process of ur- existing political and economic system in banization will take its normal course, peo- the USSR is dismantled.

Argumenty i facty, 1988, N47, p. 2 Argumenty i facty, 1988, N50, p. 3

GLUSHKOVA V.G. Questions of Interrelated Settlement in Moscow and the Moscow Region, Problems of Geography, vol. 131, Moscow, 1988, pp. 40-56.

GRITSAY O.V. Western Europe : Regional Contrasts at the New Stage of Scientific-Technological Progress, Moscow, 1988, 148 p.

Moscow in Figures. 1980, Moscow, 1981, 220 p. Moscow in Figures. 1985, Moscow, 1986, 240 p.

National Economy of Moscow Oblast. 1981-1985, Moscow, 1986, 271 p.

National Economy of the ussr. 1985, Moscow, 1986, 421 p. Yearbook of Labour Statistics. 1987, Geneva, 1987, 960 p.

Moscow Capital Region: Territorial Structure and Natural Environment, Moscow, 1988, 321 p.

(1) Limiters are unskilled workers, hired in an organised way by Moscow firms; after working there for several years of working they get the right to register

their passports and to take up their residence in Moscow.

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Out of the Centre

Savvino-storozhevsky monastery and museum.

Zvenigorod's most famous sight is the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery, which was founded in 1398 by the monk Savva from the Troitse-Sergieva Lavra, at the invitation and with the support of Prince Yury Dmitrievich of Zvenigorod. Savva was later canonised as St Sabbas (Savva) of Storozhev. The monastery late flourished under the reign of Tsar Alexis, who chose the monastery as his family church and often went on pilgrimage there and made lots of donations to it. Most of the monastery’s buildings date from this time. The monastery is heavily fortified with thick walls and six towers, the most impressive of which is the Krasny Tower which also serves as the eastern entrance. The monastery was closed in 1918 and only reopened in 1995. In 1998 Patriarch Alexius II took part in a service to return the relics of St Sabbas to the monastery. Today the monastery has the status of a stauropegic monastery, which is second in status to a lavra. In addition to being a working monastery, it also holds the Zvenigorod Historical, Architectural and Art Museum.

Belfry and Neighbouring Churches

Located near the main entrance is the monastery's belfry which is perhaps the calling card of the monastery due to its uniqueness. It was built in the 1650s and the St Sergius of Radonezh’s Church was opened on the middle tier in the mid-17th century, although it was originally dedicated to the Trinity. The belfry's 35-tonne Great Bladgovestny Bell fell in 1941 and was only restored and returned in 2003. Attached to the belfry is a large refectory and the Transfiguration Church, both of which were built on the orders of Tsar Alexis in the 1650s.  

To the left of the belfry is another, smaller, refectory which is attached to the Trinity Gate-Church, which was also constructed in the 1650s on the orders of Tsar Alexis who made it his own family church. The church is elaborately decorated with colourful trims and underneath the archway is a beautiful 19th century fresco.

Nativity of Virgin Mary Cathedral

The Nativity of Virgin Mary Cathedral is the oldest building in the monastery and among the oldest buildings in the Moscow Region. It was built between 1404 and 1405 during the lifetime of St Sabbas and using the funds of Prince Yury of Zvenigorod. The white-stone cathedral is a standard four-pillar design with a single golden dome. After the death of St Sabbas he was interred in the cathedral and a new altar dedicated to him was added.

Under the reign of Tsar Alexis the cathedral was decorated with frescoes by Stepan Ryazanets, some of which remain today. Tsar Alexis also presented the cathedral with a five-tier iconostasis, the top row of icons have been preserved.

Tsaritsa's Chambers

The Nativity of Virgin Mary Cathedral is located between the Tsaritsa's Chambers of the left and the Palace of Tsar Alexis on the right. The Tsaritsa's Chambers were built in the mid-17th century for the wife of Tsar Alexey - Tsaritsa Maria Ilinichna Miloskavskaya. The design of the building is influenced by the ancient Russian architectural style. Is prettier than the Tsar's chambers opposite, being red in colour with elaborately decorated window frames and entrance.

At present the Tsaritsa's Chambers houses the Zvenigorod Historical, Architectural and Art Museum. Among its displays is an accurate recreation of the interior of a noble lady's chambers including furniture, decorations and a decorated tiled oven, and an exhibition on the history of Zvenigorod and the monastery.

Palace of Tsar Alexis

The Palace of Tsar Alexis was built in the 1650s and is now one of the best surviving examples of non-religious architecture of that era. It was built especially for Tsar Alexis who often visited the monastery on religious pilgrimages. Its most striking feature is its pretty row of nine chimney spouts which resemble towers.

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