essay on types of energy

10 Types of Energy With Examples

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• Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville
• B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College

Energy is defined as the ability to do work . Energy comes in various forms—from sonic and gravitational to nuclear and thermal. Understanding these diverse forms of energy helps us comprehend the forces that fuel our natural world and day-to-day activities, from charging our cell phones to powering our homes.

Here are ten common types of energy and examples of each.

Mechanical Energy

Mechanical energy is energy that results from either the movement or location of an object. Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy .

Examples: An object possessing mechanical energy has both kinetic and potential energy , although the energy of one of the forms may be equal to zero. A moving car has kinetic energy. If you move the car up a mountain, it has kinetic and potential energy. A book sitting on a table has potential energy.

Thermal Energy

Thermal energy or heat energy reflects the temperature difference between two systems.

Example: A cup of hot coffee has thermal energy. Additionally, you produce heat and possess thermal energy in relation to your surroundings.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is energy resulting from nuclear reactions or changes in the atomic nuclei.

Example: Nuclear fission , nuclear fusion, and nuclear decay are examples of nuclear energy. An atomic detonation or power from a nuclear plant are also examples of this type of energy.

Chemical Energy

Chemical energy results from chemical reactions between atoms or molecules. There are different types of chemical energy , such as electrochemical energy and chemiluminescence.

Example: A good example of chemical energy is an electrochemical cell or battery.

Electromagnetic Energy

Electromagnetic energy (or radiant energy) is energy from light or electromagnetic waves.

Example: Any form of light has electromagnetic energy , including parts of the spectrum we can't see. Radio, gamma rays , x-rays, microwaves, and ultraviolet light are some examples of electromagnetic energy.

Sonic Energy

Sonic energy is the energy of sound waves. Sound waves travel through mediums, such as the air or water, carrying sonic energy with them.

Example : A sonic boom, a song played on a stereo, your voice.

Gravitational Energy

Energy associated with gravity involves the attraction between two objects based on their mass . It can serve as a basis for mechanical energy, such as the potential energy of an object placed on a shelf or the kinetic energy of the Moon in orbit around the Earth.

Example : Gravitational energy holds the atmosphere to the Earth.

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy of a body's motion. It ranges from 0 to a positive value.

Example : An example is a child swinging on a swing. No matter whether the swing is moving forward or backward, the value of the kinetic energy is never negative.

Potential Energy

Potential energy is the energy of an object's position.

Example : When a child swinging on a swing reaches the top of the arc, she has maximum potential energy. When she is closest to the ground, her potential energy is at its minimum (0). Another example is throwing a ball into the air. At the highest point, the potential energy is greatest. As the ball rises or falls it has a combination of potential and kinetic energy.

Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is the form of energy that binds electrons to the nucleus of an atom, ion, or molecule.

Example : The first ionization energy of an atom is the energy needed to remove one electron completely. The second ionization energy is energy to remove a second electron and is greater than that required to remove the first electron.

How Different Types of Energy Work Together

Though many different types of energy exist, you can classify the different forms as either potential or kinetic, and it's common for objects to typically exhibit multiple types of energy at the same time. For example, a car in motion exhibits kinetic energy, and its engine converts chemical energy from fuel into mechanical energy to propel it forward. Additionally, the car's headlights emit light energy, and its exhaust system releases thermal energy.

U.S. Energy Information Administration. " What is energy? "

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What Is Energy? Energy Definition and Examples (Science)

The concept of energy is key to science and engineering. Here is the definition, examples of energy, and a look at the way it is classified.

Energy Definition

In science, energy is the ability to do work or heat objects. It is a scalar physical quantity, which means it has magnitude, but no direction. Energy is conserved, which means it can change from one form to another, but isn’t created or destroyed. There are many different types of energy, such as  kinetic energy, potential energy , light, sound, and nuclear energy.

Word Origin and Units

The term “energy” comes from the Greek word  energeia  or from the French words  en meaning in and  ergon  which means work. The SI unit of energy is the joule (J), where 1 J = 1‎kg⋅m 2 ⋅s −2 . Other units include the kilowatt-hour (kW-h), British thermal unit (BTU), calorie (c), kilocalorie (C), electron-volt (EV), erg, and foot-pound (ft-lb).

What Losing Energy Means

One form of energy may be converted into another without violating a law of thermodynamics . Not all of these forms of energy are equally useful for practical applications. When energy is “lost”, it means the energy can’t be recaptured for use. This usually occurs when heat is produced. Losing energy doesn’t mean there is less of it, only that it has changed forms.

Energy may be either renewable or nonrenewable. Photosynthesis is an example of a process the produces renewable energy. Burning coal is an example of nonrenewable energy. The plant continues to produce chemical energy in the form of sugar, by converting solar energy. Once coal is burned, the ash can’t be used to continue the reaction.

Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy

The various forms of energy are classified as kinetic energy, potential energy, or a mixture of them. Kinetic energy is energy of motion, while potential energy is stored energy or energy of position. The total of the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of a system is constant, but energy changes from one form to another.

For example, when you hold an apple motionless above the ground, it has potential energy, but no kinetic energy. When you drop the apple, it has both kinetic and potential energy as it falls. Just before it strikes the ground, it has maximum kinetic energy, but no potential energy.

Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Another broad way of classifying energy is as renewable or non-renewable . Renewable energy is energy that replenishes within a human lifetime. Examples include solar energy, wind energy, and biomass. Non-renewable energy either does not regenerate or else takes longer than a human lifespan to do so. Fossil fuels are an example of non-renewable energy.

Forms of Energy

There are many different forms energy can take . Here are some examples:

• nuclear energy  – energy released by changes in the atomic nucleus, such as fission or fusion
• electrical energy  – energy based on the attraction, repulsion, and movement of electrical charge, such as electrons, protons , or ions
• chemical energy   – energy based on the difference between the amount required to form chemical bonds versus how much is needed to break them
• mechanical energy – the sum of the translational and rotational kinetic and potential energies of a system
• gravitational energy – energy stored in gravitational fields
• ionization energy – energy that binds an electron to its atom or molecule
• magnetic energy – energy stored within magnetic fields
• elastic energy – energy of a material that causes it to return to its original shape if it’s deformed
• radiant energy – electromagnetic radiation, such as light from the sun or heat from a stove
• thermal energy – kinetic energy due to the motion of subatomic particles, atoms, and molecules

Examples of Energy

Here are some everyday examples of energy and a look at the types of energy:

• Throwing a ball : Throwing a ball is an example of kinetic energy, potential energy, and mechanical energy
• Fire : Fire is thermal energy, chemical energy, and radiant energy. Its source may be either renewable (wood) or non-renewable (coal).
• Charging a phone battery : Charging a phone involves electrical energy, chemical energy (for the battery), and both kinetic and potential energy. The stored electrical charge is potential energy, while moving charge is kinetic energy.
• Harper, Douglas. “Energy”.  Online Etymology Dictionary .
• Smith, Crosbie (1998).  The Science of Energy – a Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain . The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-76420-7.

Related Posts

introduction

A system possesses energy if it has the ability to do work.

Energy is transferred or transformed whenever work is done..

• a scalar quantity
• abstract and cannot always be perceived
• given meaning through calculation
• a central concept in science

Energy can exist in many different forms. All forms of energy are either kinetic or potential. The energy associated with motion is called kinetic energy . The energy associated with position is called potential energy . Potential energy is not "stored energy". Energy can be stored in motion just as well as it can be stored in position. Is kinetic energy "used up energy"?

kinetic energy

• wind energy
• wave energy
• sound (sonic, acoustic) energy
• geothermal energy
• household current
• radio, microwaves, infrared, light, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays
• solar energy

potential energy

• roller coaster
• hydroelectric power
• electric potential energy
• magnetic potential energy
• chemical potential energy
• elastic potential energy
• nuclear power
• nuclear weapons
• radioactive decay

English brewer and scientist James Joule (1818–1889) who determined the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Multitudinous

For those who want some proof that physicists are human, the proof is is the idiocy of all the different units which they use for measuring energy. Richard Feynman, 1965 (paid link)

Atomic and nuclear units

Another scheme

• ocean currents
• ocean thermal temperature gradients
• wood/charcoal
• natural gas

Historical Notes

• Aristotle of Stagira (384–322 BCE) Greece: first use of the word energeia ( ενεργεια ) in the Nicomachean Ethics . Its contemporary meaning has diverged significantly from Aristotle's original meaning. Aristotle's sense of the word is often translated as "activity" or "being at work". Energeia literally means "in work" or "to contain work", en+ergon ( εν+εργον ). In the Nicomachean Ethics , energeia was contrasted with hexis ( εξις ), which meant to "possess" or "to be in the state of". Energeia meant doing. Hexis meant possessing. Aristotle argues that virtue stems from actions and not merely from existence. These are terms of ethical philosophy, not science.

Τοῖς μὲν οὖν λέγουσι τὴν ἀρετὴν ἢ ἀρετήν τινα συνῳδός ἐστιν ὁ λόγος· ταύτης γάρ ἐστιν ἡ κατ᾽ αὐτὴν ἐνέργεια . διαφέρει δὲ ἴσως οὐ μικρὸν ἐν κτήσει ἢ χρήσει τὸ ἄριστον ὑπολαμβάνειν, καὶ ἐν ἕξει ἢ ἐνεργείᾳ . τὴν μὲν γὰρ ἕξιν ἐνδέχεται μηδὲν ἀγαθὸν ἀποτελεῖν ὑπάρχουσαν, οἷον τῷ καθεύδοντι ἢ καὶ ἄλλως πως ἐξηργηκότι, τὴν δ᾽ ἐνέργειαν οὐχ οἷόν τε· πράξει γὰρ ἐξ ἀνάγκης, καὶ εὖ πράξει. ὥσπερ δ᾽ Ὀλυμπίασιν οὐχ οἱ κάλλιστοι καὶ ἰσχυρότατοι στεφανοῦνται ἀλλ᾽ οἱ ἀγωνιζόμενοι (τούτων γάρ τινες νικῶσιν), οὕτω καὶ τῶν ἐν τῷ βίῳ καλῶν κἀγαθῶν οἱ πράττοντες ὀρθῶς ἐπήβολοι γίνονται.   With those who identify happiness with virtue or some one virtue our account is in harmony; for to virtue belongs virtuous activity . But it makes, perhaps, no small difference whether we place the chief good in possession or in use, in state of mind or in activity . For the state of mind may exist without producing any good result, as in a man who is asleep or in some other way quite inactive, but the activity cannot; for one who has the activity will of necessity be acting, and acting well. And as in the Olympic Games it is not the most beautiful and the strongest that are crowned but those who compete (for it is some of these that are victorious), so those who act win, and rightly win, the noble and good things in life.         Aristotle, ca. 320 BCE

• Dead force vis mortua .
• 1669 Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens , vis viva or living force is conserved in perfectly elastic collistions
• 1689 German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz defined vis viva as mass times the square of velocity
• Émilie du Châtelet (1706–1749) France along with Voltaire (1694–1778) France.
• 1811 Italian mathematician Joseph Lagrange used calculus to show that a factor of two is involved in the relationship "potential" (potential energy) and vis viva (kinetic energy). As defined via the symbols used by Lagrange, i.e. T as kinetic energy, in his 1788 Analytical Mechanics
• "Hence is derived the idea conveyed by the term living or ascending force; for since the height to which a body will rise perpendicularly, is as the square of its velocity, it will preserve a tendency to rise to a height which is as the square of its velocity whatever may be the path into which it is directed, provided that it meet with no abrupt angle, or that it rebound at each angle in a new direction without losing any velocity. The same idea is somewhat more concisely expressed by the term energy , which indicates the tendency of a body to ascend or to penetrate to a certain distance, in opposition to a retarding force." Lecture V. On Confined Motion.
• "The term energy may be applied, with great propriety, to the product of the mass or weight of a body, into the square of the number expressing its velocity." Lecture VIII. On Collision.
• Carnot, changed his mind from the caloric to dynamic theory of heat but dies before he was recognised
• Coriolis, (re)defined work, travail, used calculus to propery derive KE as 1/2mv2, work equals change in energy, Du calcul d l'effet des machines.
• Joule, mechanical equivalent of heat
• "The object of the present communication is to call attention to the remarkable consequences which follow from Carnot's proposition, established as it is on a new foundation, in the dynamical theory of heat; that there is an absolute waste of mechanical energy available to man, when heat is allowed to pass from one body to another at a lower temperature, by any means not fulfilling his criterion of a "perfect thermo dynamic engine". As it is most certain that Creative Power alone can either call into existence or annihilate mechanical energy, the "waste" referred to cannot be annihilation, but must be some transformation of energy. To explain the nature of this transformation, it is convenient, in the first place, to divide stores of mechanical energy into two classes — statical and dynamical . A quantity of weights at a height, ready to descend and do work when wanted, an electrified body, a quantity of fuel, contain stores of mechanical energy of the statical kind. Masses of matter in motion, a volume of space through which undulations of light or radiant heat are passing a body having thermal motions among its particles (that is not infinitely cold), contain stores of mechanical energy of the dynamical kind."
• " Actual , or Sensible Energy , is a measurable, transmissible, and transformable condition, whose presence causes a substance to tend to change its state in one or more respects. By the occurrence of such changes, actual energy disappears, and is replaced by Potential or Latent Energy ; which is measured by the product of a change of state into the resistance against which that change is made. (The vis viva of matter in motion, thermometric heat, radiant heat, light, chemical action, and electric currents, are forms of actual energy; amongst those of potential energy are the mechanical powers of gravitation, elasticity, chemical affinity, statical electricity, and magnetism). The law of the Conservation of Energy is already known—viz., that the sum of all the energies of the universe, actual and potential, is unchangeable. The object of the present paper is to investigate the law according to which all transformations of energy, between the actual and potential forms, take place."
• 1855 potential and kinetic?
• When an eight-day clock has been wound up, it is thereby enabled to go for a week in spite of friction and the resistance which the air at every instant offers to the pendulum. It has got what in scientific language we call a supply of Energy. In this ense the energy simply consists in the fact of a mass of lead being suspended some four feet or so above the bottom of the clock-case. The mere fact of its being in that position gives it a power of "doing work" which it would not possess if lying on the ground. This is called Potential Energy .
• A 64 lb. shot, fired vertically from a gun loaded with an ordinary service charge of powder, would, if unresisted by the air, rise to about 35,000 feet, and if seizeed and secured at the highest point of its course, would possess there, in virtue of its position, a potential energy of 2,240,000 foot-pounds. When it left the gun it had none of this, but it was moving at the rate of fifteen hundred feet per second. It had KINETIC or (as it has sometimes been called) actual energy . We prefer the first term, which indicates motion as the form in which the energy is displayed. Kinetic energy depends on motion; and observation shows that its amount in each case is calculable from the mass which moves and the velocity with which it moves.

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Types of Energy and How We Use Them, Essay Example

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In a world of limited resources to produce energy, fossil fuel and other alternative means to produce energy are vital to the lives of everyone on the planet.  Understanding how fuel is turned into energy through the transformation process and how energy is neither created nor destroyed but merely changes its state of energy is paramount when comparing and contrasting multiple energy sources.  Fossil fuels are used in almost every facet of transportation, heating, cooling and movement.  Alternative fuels are necessary to fill the void of the non-renewable fossil fuels used today.  Solar energy and wind energy are two renewable sources which are the current time are only restrained by technological and economic factors due to their near unlimited availability.

Energy is the ability to do “work” and any form of energy can be transformed into another form, but the total energy always remains the same.  It can be found in many different forms such as chemical, electrical, thermal, radiant, nuclear and mechanical energy.  Each of the types of energy is produced in by different methods of transformation.Coal burning is a simple process for producing electrical energy. (SITE SOURCE)  During the process of burning coal at the coal burning plant chunks of coal are pulverized into dust and loaded into a coal burning chamber.  The chemical process of burning coal creates heat to be transferred to a boiler.  The boiler heats up through the heat transfer and boils the water to create steam.  This steam turns a turbine to create kinetic energy which in turns changes the kinetic energy into electrical energy to be used or stored for future use.  Another example of energy transfer would be driving a vehicle down the road.  There is a tremendous amount of energy use in multiple forms through this process.  In order for certain types of energy to form a specific purpose such as moving a vehicle down the road, multiple transformations of energy must take place.  Gasoline is introduced into the engine with oxygen and a spark to produce an explosion of heat and carbon dioxide.  This chemical reaction converts chemical energy into thermal energy and mechanical energy.  The heat and mechanical energy caused by the chemical reaction pushes the piston head down turning the chemical reaction into a mechanical energy and kinetic energy. Through the rotation of the engine and transfer of heat and kinetic energy the vehicle is propelled forward. It may appear that energy is lost through the process but as stated above energy is neither created nor destroy, it is only transferred and reapplied to other areas of energy.

In both the above examples of transforming on type of energy to another the source fuels were coal and gasoline.  Both of these fuels are hydrocarbon based fuels also known as fossil fuels.  Fossil fuels are created by the anaerobic decomposition of buried and dead organisms over the course of millions of years Most of the Earth’s fossil fuels were created during the Carboniferous Period (Site Berkeley), hence the term fossil fuel.  It is important to note that fossil fuels are also known as non-renewable sources of energy due to the long lead time in producing useable energy sources.  In some instances the lifecycle to create a fossil fuel would exceed hundreds of millions of years.  Fossil fuels are composed of carbon and hydrogen and can range from coal, petroleum to natural gas all depending on the mixture of carbon and hydrogen.  The main benefit of fossil fuels is their ability to produce energy.  The amount of fuel available with the amount it takes to use to create the amount of energy surpasses all other consumable energy sources available.Fossil fuels are readily available, multiple uses and an exponentially greater amount of energy in comparison to other energy producing methods currently available.  Although other means for energy production are not currently feasible as a direct competitor to fossil fuels in the world today, tomorrow may be a different story.  Through the economic principle of supply and demand as the demand grows greater for a certain commodity and the supply shrinks with no way to replenish the prices goes up (Prasch, 2008).  As the natural resource of fossil fuels diminish and are no longer able to sustain our needs and cost constraints other methods of energy production must be implemented to fill the growing needs of the world.

One area which currently subsidizes the use of fossil fuel for energy production is solar energy.  Solar energy is created from radiant light and heat from the sun.  Solar energy can be defined as passive or active solar energy depending on how they are captured (Bradford, 2010).  Passive solar energy collection uses sunlight without use of an active mechanical system which rely solely on the thermodynamic properties of the material or system to operate.  An example of this would be a house pointing in the direction of direct sunlight thus gaining heat by allowing the sunlight a direct surface for heat transfer.  This type of technology would use the sunlight to heat things like water or air to be used for hot water or a houses heating system. Active solar collection uses mechanical means to convert solar energy into another form of usable energy such as electricity or heat.  One benefit of active over passive solar energy production is that in the active technique with the use of controls the user can maximize the effectiveness and transfer of energy. The upside to the active process can also be a downside when comparing to the passive method.  If a control fails the entire system could be useless for electrical and heat energy production.  In comparison to fossil fuels the main advantage to solar energy is the abundance and availability of sunlight. The negative aspect is the amount of energy transferred from light to usable electric or heat energy. In comparison the amount of inputs used to turn solar into electric energy far outweigh the amount of inputs needed to turn fossil fuel into electrical, kinetic or heat energy thus making it harder for production of solar energy to meet the demands already in place.

As with solar energy, wind energy is generated through the use of a natural occurring phenomenon called wind.  Wind energy is the kinetic energy of wind as it flows across the earth.Theoretically to capture all of the wind energy, zero wind should leave the mechanical tool used to transfer the energy.Currently wind turbines are used to transfer and capture wind energy. Wind turbines are used to transfer the kinetic energy of the wind into ultimately electric energy to be used or stored for consumption in other applications.  As a replacement for fossil fuels, wind energy is a plentiful and renewablesource of energy only limited by economic and environmental factors for production (Manwell, 2009).  Some advantages over fossil fuel include winds availability, usability and costs.  Since wind is free and cannot be controlled by a single entity it is usable by all societies despite their economic status thus leading to development opportunities to other countries hindered by oil based economies.  Some negative aspects of wind power in relation to fossil fuels include:startup wind farms and their costs, noise pollution, landscape pollution and very large wind farms need to be created to meet the demand of energy consumption.

Bradford, R. (2010). Solar revolution, the economic transformation of the global energy industry. The MIT Press, 89-113. Print.

Manwell, A. F., McGowan, O. G., & Rogers, A. L. (2009). Wind energy explained, theory, design and application. John Wiley & Sons Inc.Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books/feeds/volumes?q=0470015004

Prasch, R,(2008) How markets work: supply, demand and the “real world”. Northhampton: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 3-13. Print.

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High school physics - NGSS

Course: high school physics - ngss   >   unit 3.

• Introduction to energy
• Understand: forms of energy

This Is the Future: Essay on Renewable Energy

Today the world population depends on nonrenewable energy resources. With the constantly growing demand for energy, natural gas, coal, and oil get used up and cannot replenish themselves. 

Aside from limited supply, heavy reliance on fossil fuels causes planetary-scale damage. Sea levels are rising. Heat-trapping carbon dioxide increased the warming effect by 45% from 1990 to 2019. The only way to tackle the crisis is to start the transition to renewable energy now. 

What is renewable energy? It is energy that comes from replenishable natural resources like sunlight, wind, thermal energy, moving water, and organic materials. Renewable resources do not run out. They are cost-efficient and renew faster than they are consumed. How does renewable energy save money? It creates new jobs, supports economic growth, and decreases inequitable fossil fuel subsidies. 

At the current rates of production, some fossil fuels will not even last another century. This is why the future depends on reliable and eco-friendly resources. This renewable energy essay examines the types and benefits of renewable energy and its role in creating a sustainable future.

Top 5 Types of Renewable Energy: The Apollo Alliance Rankings

There are many natural resources that can provide people with clean energy. To make a list of the five most booming types of renewable energy on the market today, this energy essay uses data gathered by the Apollo Alliance. It is a project that aims to revolutionize the energy sector of the US with a focus on clean energy. 

The Apollo Alliance unites businesses, community leaders, and environmental experts to support the transition to more sustainable and efficient living. Their expert opinion helped to compile information about the most common and cost-competitive sources of renewable energy. However, if you want to get some more in-depth research, you can entrust it to an essay writer . Here’s a quick overview of renewable energy resources that have a huge potential to substitute fossil fuels. 

Solar Renewable Energy

The most abundant and practically endless resource is solar energy. It can be turned into electricity by photovoltaic systems that convert radiant energy captured from sunlight. Solar farms could generate enough energy for thousands of homes.

An endless supply is the main benefit of solar energy. The rate at which the Earth receives it is 10,000 times greater than people can consume it, as a paper writer points out based on their analysis of research findings. It can substitute fossil fuels and deliver people electricity, hot water, cooling, heat, etc. 

The upfront investment in solar systems is rather expensive. This is one of the primary limitations that prevent businesses and households from switching to this energy source at once. However, the conclusion of solar energy is still favorable. In the long run, it can significantly decrease energy costs. Besides, solar panels are gradually becoming more affordable to manufacture and adopt, even at an individual level. 

Wind Renewable Energy

Another clean energy source is wind. Wind farms use the kinetic energy of wind flow to convert it into electricity. The Appolo Alliance notes that, unlike solar farms, they can’t be placed in any location. To stay cost-competitive, wind farms should operate in windy areas. Although not all countries have the right conditions to use them on a large scale, wind farms might be introduced for some energy diversity. The technical potential for it is still tremendous. 

Wind energy is clean and safe for the environment. It does not pollute the atmosphere with any harmful products compared to nonrenewable energy resources. 

The investment in wind energy is also economically wise. If you examine the cost of this energy resource in an essay on renewable resources, you’ll see that wind farms can deliver electricity at a price lower than nonrenewable resources. Besides, since wind isn’t limited, its cost won’t be influenced by the imbalance of supply and demand.

Geothermal Renewable Energy

Natural renewable resources are all around us, even beneath the ground. Geothermal energy can be produced from the thermal energy from the Earth’s interior. Sometimes heat reaches the surface naturally, for example, in the form of geysers. But it can also be used by geothermal power plants. The Earth’s heat gets captured and converted to steam that turns a turbine. As a result, we get geothermal energy.

This source provides a significant energy supply while having low emissions and no significant footprint on land. A factsheet and essay on renewable resources state that geothermal plants will increase electricity production from 17 billion kWh in 2020 to 49.8 billion kWh in 2050.

However, this method is not without limitations. While writing a renewable resources essay, consider that geothermal energy can be accessed only in certain regions. Geological hotspots are off-limits as they are vulnerable to earthquakes. Yet, the quantity of geothermal resources is likely to grow as technology advances. 

Ocean Renewable Energy

The kinetic and thermal energy of the ocean is a robust resource. Ocean power systems rely on:

• Changes in sea level;
• Wave energy;
• Water surface temperatures;
• The energy released from seawater and freshwater mixing.

Ocean energy is more predictable compared to other resources. As estimated by EPRI, it has the potential to produce 2640 TWh/yr. However, an important point to consider in a renewable energy essay is that the kinetic energy of the ocean varies. Yet, since it is ruled by the moon’s gravity, the resource is plentiful and continues to be attractive for the energy industry. 

Wave energy systems are still developing. The Apollo energy corporation explores many prototypes. It is looking for the most reliable and robust solution that can function in the harsh ocean environment. 

Another limitation of ocean renewable energy is that it may cause disruptions to marine life. Although its emissions are minimal, the system requires large equipment to be installed in the ocean. 

Biomass Renewable Energy

Organic materials like wood and charcoal have been used for heating and lighting for centuries. There are a lot more types of biomass: from trees, cereal straws, and grass to processed waste. All of them can produce bioenergy. 

Biomass can be converted into energy through burning or using methane produced during the natural process of decomposition. In an essay on renewable sources of energy, the opponents of the method point out that biomass energy is associated with carbon dioxide emissions. Yet, the amount of released greenhouse gases is much lower compared to nonrenewable energy use. 

While biomass is a reliable source of energy, it is only suitable for limited applications. If used too extensively, it might lead to disruptions in biodiversity, a negative impact on land use, and deforestation. Still, Apollo energy includes biomass resources that become waste and decompose quickly anyway. These are organic materials like sawdust, chips from sawmills, stems, nut shells, etc. 

What Is the Apollo Alliance?

The Apollo Alliance is a coalition of business leaders, environmental organizations, labor unions, and foundations. They all unite their efforts in a single project to harness clean energy in new, innovative ways. 

Why Apollo? Similarly to President John F. Kennedy’s Apollo Project, Apollo energy is a strong visionary initiative. It is a dare, a challenge. The alliance calls for the integrity of science, research, technology, and the public to revolutionize the energy industry.

The project has a profound message. Apollo energy solutions are not only about the environment or energy. They are about building a new economy. The alliance gives hope to building a secure future for Americans. 

What is the mission of the Apollo Alliance? 

• Achieve energy independence with efficient and limitless resources of renewable energy.
• Pioneer innovation in the energy sector.
• Build education campaigns and communication to inspire new perceptions of energy. 
• Create new jobs.
• Reduce dependence on imported fossil fuels. 
• Build healthier and happier communities. 

The transformation of the industry will lead to planet-scale changes. The Apollo energy corporation can respond to the global environmental crisis and prevent climate change. 

Apollo renewable energy also has the potential to become a catalyst for social change. With more affordable energy and new jobs in the industry, people can bridge the inequality divide and build stronger communities. 

Why Renewable Energy Is Important for the Future

Renewable energy resources have an enormous potential to cover people’s energy needs on a global scale. Unlike fossil fuels, they are available in abundance and generate minimal to no emissions. 

The burning of fossil fuels caused a lot of environmental problems—from carbon dioxide emissions to ocean acidification. Research this issue in more detail with academic assistance from essay writer online . You can use it to write an essay on renewable sources of energy to explain the importance of change and its global impact. 

Despite all the damage people caused to the planet, there’s still hope to mitigate further repercussions. Every renewable energy essay adds to the existing body of knowledge we have today and advances research in the field. Here are the key advantages and disadvantages of alternative energy resources people should keep in mind. 

Advantage of Green Energy

The use of renewable energy resources has a number of benefits for the climate, human well-being, and economy:

• Renewable energy resources have little to no greenhouse gas emissions. Even if we take into account the manufacturing and recycling of the technologies involved, their impact on the environment is significantly lower compared to fossil fuels. 
• Renewable energy promotes self-sufficiency and reduces a country’s dependence on foreign fuel. According to a study, a 1% increase in the use of renewable energy increases economic growth by 0.21%. This gives socio-economic stability.
• Due to a lack of supply of fossil fuels and quick depletion of natural resources, prices for nonrenewable energy keep increasing. In contrast, green energy is limitless and can be produced locally. In the long run, this allows decreasing the cost of energy. 
• Unlike fossil fuels, renewable energy doesn’t emit air pollutants. This positively influences health and quality of life. 
• The emergence of green energy plants creates new jobs. Thus, Apollo energy solutions support the growth of local communities. By 2030, the transition to renewable energy is expected to generate 10.3 million new jobs. 
• Renewable energy allows decentralization of the industry. Communities get their independent sources of energy that are more flexible in terms of distribution. 
• Renewable energy supports equality. It has the potential to make energy more affordable to low-income countries and expand access to energy even in remote and less fortunate neighborhoods. 

Disadvantages of Non-Conventional Energy Sources

No technology is perfect. Renewable energy resources have certain drawbacks too: 

• The production of renewable energy depends on weather conditions. For example, wind farms could be effective only in certain locations where the weather conditions allow it. The weather also makes it so that renewable energy cannot be generated around the clock. 
• The initial cost of renewable energy technology is expensive. Both manufacturing and installation require significant investment. This is another disadvantage of renewable resources. It makes them unaffordable to a lot of businesses and unavailable for widespread individual use. In addition, the return on investment might not be immediate.
• Renewable energy technology takes up a lot of space. It may affect life in the communities where these clean energy farms are installed. They may also cause disruptions to wildlife in the areas. 
• One more limitation a renewable resources essay should consider is the current state of technology. While the potential of renewable energy resources is tremendous, the technology is still in its development phase. Therefore, renewable energy might not substitute fossil fuels overnight. There’s a need for more research, investment, and time to transition to renewable energy completely. Yet, some diversity of energy resources should be introduced as soon as possible. 
• Renewable energy resources have limited emissions, but they are not entirely pollution-free. The manufacturing process of equipment is associated with greenhouse gas emissions while, for example, the lifespan of a wind turbine is only 20 years. 

For high school seniors eyeing a future rich with innovative endeavors in renewable energy or other fields, it's crucial to seek financial support early on. Explore the top 10 scholarships for high school seniors to find the right fit that can propel you into a future where you can contribute to the renewable energy movement and beyond. Through such financial support, the road to making meaningful contributions to a sustainable future becomes a tangible reality.

Renewable energy unlocks the potential for humanity to have clean energy that is available in abundance. It leads us to economic growth, independence, and stability. With green energy, we can also reduce the impact of human activity on the environment and stop climate change before it’s too late. 

So what’s the conclusion of renewable energy? Transitioning to renewable energy resources might be challenging and expensive. However, most experts agree that the advantages of green energy outweigh any drawbacks. Besides, since technology is continuously evolving, we’ll be able to overcome most limitations in no time.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Wind energy.

Scientists and engineers are using energy from the wind to generate electricity. Wind energy, or wind power, is created using a wind turbine.

Earth Science, Climatology

As renewable energy technology continues to advance and grow in popularity, wind farms like this one have become an increasingly common sight along hills, fields, or even offshore in the ocean.

Photograph by inga spence / Alamy Stock Photo

Anything that moves has kinetic energy , and scientists and engineers are using the wind’s kinetic energy to generate electricity. Wind energy , or wind power , is created using a wind turbine , a device that channels the power of the wind to generate electricity.

The wind blows the blades of the turbine , which are attached to a rotor. The rotor then spins a generator to create electricity. There are two types of wind turbines : the horizontal - axis wind turbines (HAWTs) and vertical - axis wind turbines (VAWTs). HAWTs are the most common type of wind turbine . They usually have two or three long, thin blades that look like an airplane propeller. The blades are positioned so that they face directly into the wind. VAWTs have shorter, wider curved blades that resemble the beaters used in an electric mixer.

Small, individual wind turbines can produce 100 kilowatts of power, enough to power a home. Small wind turbines are also used for places like water pumping stations. Slightly larger wind turbines sit on towers that are as tall as 80 meters (260 feet) and have rotor blades that extend approximately 40 meters (130 feet) long. These turbines can generate 1.8 megawatts of power. Even larger wind turbines can be found perched on towers that stand 240 meters (787 feet) tall have rotor blades more than 162 meters (531 feet) long. These large turbines can generate anywhere from 4.8 to 9.5 megawatts of power.

Once the electricity is generated, it can be used, connected to the electrical grid, or stored for future use. The United States Department of Energy is working with the National Laboratories to develop and improve technologies, such as batteries and pumped-storage hydropower so that they can be used to store excess wind energy. Companies like General Electric install batteries along with their wind turbines so that as the electricity is generated from wind energy, it can be stored right away.

According to the U.S. Geological Survey, there are 57,000 wind turbines in the United States, both on land and offshore. Wind turbines can be standalone structures, or they can be clustered together in what is known as a wind farm . While one turbine can generate enough electricity to support the energy needs of a single home, a wind farm can generate far more electricity, enough to power thousands of homes. Wind farms are usually located on top of a mountain or in an otherwise windy place in order to take advantage of natural winds.

The largest offshore wind farm in the world is called the Walney Extension. This wind farm is located in the Irish Sea approximately 19 kilometers (11 miles) west of the northwest coast of England. The Walney Extension covers a massive area of 149 square kilometers (56 square miles), which makes the wind farm bigger than the city of San Francisco, California, or the island of Manhattan in New York. The grid of 87 wind turbines stands 195 meters (640 feet) tall, making these offshore wind turbines some of the largest wind turbines in the world. The Walney Extension has the potential to generate 659 megawatts of power, which is enough to supply 600,000 homes in the United Kingdom with electricity.

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Related Resources

Different Sources of Energy Definition Essay

Energy can be transformed to a range of states. Energy in different states can be used for various physical works. Energy can be utilized in natural processes or in supplying services to the community. For instance, an inner combustion engine transfers the latent chemical energy present in petrol and oxygen into heat, which is next changed to kinetic energy for use by automobiles and a solar cell changes solar energy into electrical energy which can be used to power television or light a bulb.

Fossil fuels are products of decayed residues of ancient animals and plants. They consist of oil, natural gas and coal. Currently, they provide more than 90 percent of the world’s sum energy (Vas, 1998). Fossil fuels remain attractive for use today since they are cheap, easily distributed, easily available, and can directly generate heat and electricity. However, they emit hazardous substances to the environment. As a result, alternative sources like wind and hydro electricity which are less harmful to the environment are being explored.

Hydro electricity is produced by streaming water through turbines. In generation of hydro electric power, water is bunged up in dams. Big pipes run through the dam construction directing water to the turbines which are turned round by the power of water. The power stations then control the level of the water by opening and closing water gates that ferry water into the turbine quarters.

Hydropower has several benefits over other energy sources. It does not pollute the environment since water is a clean source of fuel. It is also a renewable source that is easily available. Impoundment hydropower builds dams and pools that offer various leisure opportunities, particularly boating, swimming and fishing. Hydropower installations are supposed to offer public access to the reservoir. Other benefits of using hydropower as a source of energy include: flood management and water supply.

On the other hand, hydropower has several limitations. Dams can be a cause of soil erosion and may cause threats to downstream animals and plants in case of floods. Also, developing hydro electricity power plants is really expensive.

The other alternative source of energy is wind energy. Wind energy is a reproducible source of energy that is fueled by the sun so as to produce electricity. Since the earth is enclosed by almost 70 percent water, there is a difference in the manner of heating between the land and the sea (Muljadi & Wang, 2004).

During the night, the air on top of water cools less fast than the air above land. The temperate air over the sea inflates and mounts up while the heavier, cooler air hurries in to replace it, generating winds. During the day, the opposite occurs. The land heats up quicker than the seas. The temperate air over the land inflates and goes up while the heavier, cooler air hurries in to replace it, generating winds.

Wind Energy produces electricity by utilizing blades on wind turbines to amass the kinetic energy of the wind. Wind turbines hold back the wind which streams above the airfoil formed blades causing lift, and making them to revolve. The blades are linked to a drive ray that revolves an electric generator thus generating electricity.

Wind energy is the most rapidly growing energy source in the world as it has several advantages (Farret & Simoes, 2006). The fact that it is fueled by wind makes it a clean source of fuel. It does not emit harmful substances in the environment and it is a renewable source of energy. Wind energy is cheap and easily available. Wind turbines can be constructed on agricultural estates or ranches, thus promoting the rural economy.

On the other hand, wind energy has some demerits. Despite the fact that wind power plants have somewhat less impact on the surroundings weighed against other common power plants, there is much distress over the noise created by the rotor blades. In other instances, birds have lost their lives by soaring into the rotors. However, these issues have been significantly reduced through technological upgrading and by locating wind plants appropriately.

From the above discussion, it is clear that the two alternative sources of energy, the wind and hydropower, compare with fossil fuels in many ways. First, all of them are sources of energy that are available in the world today. However, while the wind and hydropower are renewable sources of energy, fossil fuels are not renewable.

This is the major difference between them. Fossil fuels also emit greenhouse gases that are harmful to the atmosphere. There is also a difference in the way these sources are obtained. While wind energy and hydropower are obtained from the wind and water respectively, fossil fuels are obtained from decayed remains of ancient plants and animals.

In conclusion, energy is convertible to different states. Currently, the world is exploring alternative sources of energy that can suitably replace the common use of fossil fuels as the chief source of energy. This has been motivated by the fact that fossil fuel emits greenhouse gases which are harmful to the environment. Wind energy and hydropower are some of the alternative sources of energy that have been explored. However, each of these sources of energy has its own merits and demerits.

Farret, F.A. & Simoes, M.G. (2006). Integration of alternative sources of energy . New York: Oxford University Press

Muljadi, E. & Wang, C. (2004). Parallel operation of wind, turbine, fuel cell, and diesel . Melboume: Generation Sources.

Vas, G. (1998). Sources of energy . London: Sage

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IvyPanda . 2018. "Different Sources of Energy." October 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/different-sources-of-energy/.

1. IvyPanda . "Different Sources of Energy." October 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/different-sources-of-energy/.

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IvyPanda . "Different Sources of Energy." October 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/different-sources-of-energy/.

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Energy: short essay on energy.

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Here is your short essay on Energy!

Energy is a primary input for almost all activities and is, therefore, vital for improvement in quality of life. Its use in sector such as industry, com­merce, transport, telecommunications, wide range of agriculture and house­hold services has compelled us to focus our attention to ensure its continuous supply to meet our ever increasing demands.

Energy related problems are not new. The energy related problems are as old as 2500 years ago. The early Romans and Greeks faced fuel shortage as wood was their primary source of energy. They had to import wood from very faraway places. Fossil fuel is still the main source of energy. Today we are facing the peak of oil and gas utilization. Fossil fuel resources took millions of years to form and are infinite.

These resources may be exhausted in a few hundred years. Historical evidence shows that world energy demand has increased at almost the same rate as gross world product (GWP). People living in industrialized or developed countries are a relatively small percentage of the world’s total popu­lation, but they consume a huge share of the total energy produced in the world.

The main issues regarding the energy problem in urban areas are:

(a) How to utilize the energy from non-renewable sources at their maximum efficiency.

(b) How to make use of renewable sources of energy or the alternative energy sources?

Energy policy today has two choices (paths). One path leads to the fossil fuels (hard path), which means continuing as we have been for a number of years i.e., emphasising energy quantity by finding more amount of fossil fuels and build­ing much larger power plants.

The second path is the soft path which leads to the energy alternatives that emphasize energy quality and are also renewable, flexible and more environmental friendly. The soft path relies mainly on renew­able energy i.e. sunlight, wind biomass, tidal energy etc.

There is a need to resort to energy management. This concept recognizes that no single energy source can possibly provide all the energy required by the source nation. Thus, the basic objective of the integrated energy management is to obtain sustainable energy and which should be realized at the local level. In addition, measures to conserve energy need to be followed.

Energy conservation is considered as a quick and economical way to solve the problem of power shortage as also a means of conserving the country’s finite sources of energy. Energy conservation measures are cost effective, require rela­tively small investments and have short gestation as well as pay back periods. The studies conducted by Energy Management Centre, New Delhi have indi­cated that there is about 25% potential of energy conservation in the industrial sector.

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AIMS Mathematics

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Analytical and numerical analyses of a viscous strain gradient problem involving type Ⅱ thermoelasticity

• Noelia Bazarra 1 , 
• José R. Fernández 1 , 
• Jaime E. Muñoz-Rivera 2,3 , 
• Elena Ochoa 4 , 
• Ramón Quintanilla 5 ,  , 
• 1. Departamento de Matemática Aplicada I, Universidade de Vigo, Escola de Enxeñería de Telecomunicación, Campus As Lagoas Marcosende s/n, 36310 Vigo, Spain
• 2. Departamento de Matemática, Universidad del Bío-Bío, Avenida Collao 1202, Casilla 5-Concepción, Chile
• 3. National Laboratory for Scientific Computation, Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
• 4. Departamento de Matemáticas, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Andres Bello, Sede Concepción, Autopista Concepción-Talcahuano 7100, Talcahuano, Chile
• 5. Departament de Matemàtiques, Escuela Superior de Ingenierías Industrial, Aeroespacial y Audiovisual de Terrassa, Universitat Politécnica de Catalunya, Colom 11, 08222 Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain
• Received: 26 March 2024 Revised: 26 April 2024 Accepted: 28 April 2024 Published: 15 May 2024

MSC : 35B40, 65M60, 74F05, 74H55, 74K10

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In this paper, a thermoelastic problem involving a viscous strain gradient beam is considered from the analytical and numerical points of view. The so-called type Ⅱ thermal law is used to model the heat conduction and two possible dissipation mechanisms are introduced in the mechanical part, which is considered for the first time within strain gradient theory. An existence and uniqueness result is proved by using semigroup arguments, and the exponential energy decay is obtained. The lack of differentiability for the semigroup of contractions is also shown. Then, fully discrete approximations are introduced by using the finite element method and the backward time scheme, for which a discrete stability property and a priori error estimates are proved. The linear convergence is derived under suitable additional regularity conditions. Finally, some numerical simulations are presented to demonstrate the accuracy of the approximations and the behavior of the discrete energy decay.

• strain gradient ,
• viscoelasticity ,
• type Ⅱ thermoelasticity ,
• existence and uniqueness ,
• finite elements ,
• a priori error analysis

Citation: Noelia Bazarra, José R. Fernández, Jaime E. Muñoz-Rivera, Elena Ochoa, Ramón Quintanilla. Analytical and numerical analyses of a viscous strain gradient problem involving type Ⅱ thermoelasticity[J]. AIMS Mathematics, 2024, 9(7): 16998-17024. doi: 10.3934/math.2024825

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沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

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• Figure 1. Asymptotic constant error
• Figure 2. Evolution in time of the discrete energy for the three problems considered ((a) natural and (b) semi-log scales)
• Figure 3. Evolution of the norm $ \|U_n^{h}\|^2 $ when $ \lambda_n $ increases (to $ 10^5 $ (left-hand side) and zoom in near value $ 10^6 $ (right))

Assessing the carrying capacity of solar dryers applied for agricultural products: a systematic review

• Open access
• Published: 15 May 2024
• Volume 4 , article number  6 , ( 2024 )

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• Halefom Kidane 1 ,
• Istvan Farkas 2 &
• Janos Buzás 2  

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Most of the review research papers previously published were mostly focused on solar dryer design, development, performance evaluation, modification, technologies of solar dryers, etc. There were no works of literature reviews that specifically concerned how much solar dryers can carry. So, the review gives some clues about the carrying capacity of solar dryers. Measuring or knowing solar capacity has critical importance in the drying industry. It helps to produce quality dried products, design efficient solar dryers, and provide valuable insights for researchers, engineers and policymakers involved in solar drying technologies. The current review systematically examines the relevant scientific literature published between 2000 and 2023. The exclusion and inclusion criteria were used to identify the documents. A total of 1230 studies were selected for analysis, encompassing a wide range of geographical regions, crop types, and solar drying technologies. Based on the review conducted; solar dryers (direct, indirect, mixed, and hybrid) can vary between 1 and 250 kg in capacity applied for agricultural products drying purposes. According to the reviewed articles, the minimum loading capacities designed and recorded in the first, second, third, and fourth quinquennial periods were 1 kg, 1 kg, 4.75 kg.m −2 , and 5.4 kg.m −2 , respectively. In the same order as the minimum, the maximum loading capacities observed in the stated quinquennial periods were 250 kg/per day, 250 kg, 70 kg, and 45 kg, respectively.

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1 Introduction

As explored by [ 1 , 2 ] drying is a common method of protecting agricultural products from microorganisms and a way of extending their shelf life for long periods safely. Drying can also be applied to facilitate post-harvest activities, plan the harvest season, provide long-term storage, increase the standard and decrease the output, which leads to a reduction of the requirement for storage space, transport, and distribution, to fetch better returns for farmers to maintain the viability of seeds, to harness direct or indirect ecological benefits and so on. However, as reported by [ 3 ] drying is very energy-intensive process that uses between 10 and 20% of total energy.

Agricultural items were typically dried in the open sun for a very long time and are still exercised especially in third-world countries. However, this type of drying system has many limitations. The main drawbacks as mentioned by [ 4 ] it does not have a control system, non-uniformity in the drying process, exposed to various impurities and dust, unprotected from rain, susceptible to windborne diseases, high labor cost, needs large areas and infected by various microbiological organisms, fungus, insects, and is eaten by rodents and other animal etc.

Another drawback of open-air solar drying dryers was highlighted by [ 5 , 6 ]. Among the drawback listed by the authors were: open drying systems are not always suitable for a largescale production, long drying period, and so on. Thus, the limitation of open drying can be solved using solar dryer technology. As described by [ 3 ] solar drying is the most eco-friendly method for minimization of post-harvest loss and it can be used for different kinds of food products for long-term preservation with a minimum compromise to the product quality, texture, and color.

Solar drying systems of different kinds have been formulated, explored, evolved, and tested across numerous regions globally, resulting in different performances [ 7 ]. Solar driers can also be classified as open-air, indirect and direct solar dryings based on the drying mechanism [ 8 ]. According to [ 9 ] different types of solar dryers exist. based on different parameters based on airflow as active and passive, based on structure as even span roof type, un even span roof type, tunnel-shaped, parabolic type, and chapel shaped, based on energy back up system as chemical and thermal, etc. Many authors, researchers, and reviewers, etc. such as [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ] were categorized solar dryers in different ways of classification based on different criteria’s (Figs. 1 , 2 ).

Solar dryer classification [ 15 ]

Solar drying system components [ 17 ]

There are three discernible subcategories within both active and passive solar drying systems. These subcategories primarily differ in the configuration of system components and how they make use of solar heat. These categories are; integral type of solar dryers (can be exit as active or passive), distributed solar dryers (active and passive mode) and lastly, the combination of these two is called combined -mode types of solar dryers as shown in Fig.  3 [ 10 ]: encompass indirect, direct, and mixed configurations of solar dryers.

Common solar dryer designs [ 10 ]

The difference between active and passive types solar dryers were described by [ 18 ] in the following paragraph. Forced convection dryers, also known as active solar dryers, use fans or pumps to move the heated air comes from collectors to drying chamber. On the other side, passive solar dryers rely on organic processes for air circulation and heating, such as buoyancy and wind pressure.

Integral-type natural-circulation solar-energy dryers, often known as direct solar dryers, feature transparent-walled drying chambers where crops receive direct solar radiation. This radiation both extracts moisture from the crop and reduces the air’s relative humidity, enhancing its moisture-carrying capacity. In contrast, indirect passive solar dryers, such as trays inside opaque chambers heated by air from a thermo-symphonic solar collector, prevent direct exposure of crops to solar radiation. This prevents caramelization and localized heat damage, making them suitable for perishables and fruits sensitive to vitamin loss and color retention issues caused by direct sunlight exposure. Distributed solar dryers achieve higher operating temperatures compared to direct dryers or sun drying [ 19 ]. See Fig.  3 for their arrangement.

1.1 Solar dryers’ mechanism of operation and description

Solar dryers in general have different components to perform their intended task. A direct solar dryer for example as illustrated by [ 4 ] generally have a drying chamber consisting of an insulated box with air apertures that allow air to enter and exit the chamber and is covered in a transparent cover (glass or plastic). When sunlight reaches the glass cover, it warms the air that naturally circulates through wind pressure (passive solar dryer) or artificially circulates through wind pressure (active solar dryer). Similar to the idea of [ 20 ] wrote about solar dryers. They stated that solar dryers have translucent covers, which scatter some solar radiation back into the atmosphere while transmitting the remainder into the dryer chamber. The majority of the transmitted radiation is absorbed by the product, while part of it is reflected by its surface. As a result, the product's temperature increases, enabling evaporation to reduce its moisture content. See Fig.  4 .

Direct solar drying [ 21 ]

Solar air heater (solar collector), drying system (drying chamber), chimney, ducts for air supply, fans, etc. are the main components of passive indirect solar. However auxiliary parts like fans and blowers are add it is called forced type indirect solar dryer [ 22 ].

The general operating idea behind indirect solar dryers is outlined quite well by [ 23 ]. The explanation was as follows: air enters the collection through an air intake and heats up by convection after being collected by a solar collector that uses the sun’s energy to do so. The glass that often encases the solar collector or absorber allows sunlight to enter while keeping the sun’s rays reflected rays from escaping the collection. The bottom surface of the solar collector turns black as a result, which makes it excellent for absorbing solar radiation and raising the air temperature inside the solar collector. In the drying chamber, which contains the agricultural products or other materials to be dried, hot air from the solar collector is driven through the materials. The drying of objects in a drying chamber uses convective heat transfer and evaporative mass transfer. Following the application of heat to the products being dried, the air is discharged into the atmosphere via an exhaust system.

Mixed solar dryers combine the benefits of direct and indirect sun energy dryers. The air is preheated in a solar collector heater in these dryers, and incident direct sun radiation on the product to be dried work together to produce the heat needed for the drying process [ 10 ]. Mixed type of approach is the most effective for products with higher moisture contents since the dried product’s exposure to solar radiation and provided warm air expedite the drying process (Figs. 5 , 6 ).

Common layout of indirect solar dryers [ 12 ]

Solar dryer with mixed modes [ 24 ]

Authors like [ 25 ] clearly defines and states the difference between hybrid and mixed types of solar dryers as follow: hybrid solar dryers are unique due to their capacity to harness heat from multiple sources, including solar energy from the sun, as well as alternative sources like biomass and fossil fuels (see Fig.  7 ). Mixed-mode solar dryers are distinct from hybrid solar dryers in that they only use solar energy. The hybrid solar dryer, in comparison, uses a variety of energy sources, including biomass and solar energy. Even when there is no sunlight, the hybrid solar dryer can still function. Hybrid dryers shortens the drying process and lowers the chance of product waste.

Schematic representation of the hybrid solar dryer [ 26 ]

1.2 Loading capacity of solar dryers

Solar dryers have variable loading capacities based on their design and size. Generally, they can accommodate a range of a few kilograms to several hundred kilograms of agricultural or other materials for drying. It is worth considering that the loading capacity is influenced by factors like the material being dried and the desired drying conditions. Moreover, diverse types various solar dryers, including batch dryers or continuous flow dryers, possess distinct loading capacities and operational characteristics. Knowing the loading capacity also helps full investigate quality of the products, economic viability of the dryers. Assessing the capacity helps estimate potential income generated from dried products, calculate return on investment, and make informed decisions about the profitability of the drying operation. It aids in determining the economic viability of investing in solar drying technology and guides users in optimizing their production and marketing strategies.

The physical size of the dryer, also known as batch drying capacity or loading density, is a direct indicator of the drying capacity and can be used to designate different drying chamber sizes and structures. This is the number of products (in kg of fresh products) that were dried in a single batch using the product's loading density. Drying capacity is primarily determined by the collector's aperture area, the dryer’s size, the nature of the product prepared to dry or loaded, and its content of moisture. Loading capacity is among the parameters considered in the analysis of solar dryers [ 8 , 27 ] convenience element is a crucial concern in the construction of a solar dryer.

The performance of cabinet-type solar dryers with the loading of 20 kg of wheat and under the unloading stage. Was compared by [ 28 ]. According to the results, the maximum plate temperature with a load of 20 kg of wheat was 45–50 °C, whereas the maximum temperature with no load was projected to be 80–85 °C during the noon hour. This implies that loading has an advantage over small loading capacity in terms of commercial purposes [ 29 ]. Investigated the effectiveness of a solar-powered device for drying produce. They used Grapes and apricots weighing 10 kg during their experiment. The result shows that the drying chamber has a 20% when drying 10 kg of grapes and a 33% efficiency when drying 10 kg of apricots. Thus, they conclude that even different products that have the same load, the dryer efficiency can vary. [ 30 ] tested a solar dryer at various loading capacities of 1500 g, 2000 g, and 2500 g, the drying process for shiitake mushrooms to reach a safe moisture content took approximately 15 h, 17 h, and 19 h, respectively. The time needed to warm the shiitake mushroom increased due to the increase in loading capacity. Additionally, it reduced the drying rate by lowering the average temperature in the drying chamber. On the other side higher loading capacity will result in an air exit from the drying chamber with a higher moisture content.

The effect of the load was also studied by [ 31 ] during their experiment, three trays containing 10 kg and 5 kg of evenly distributed tomato slices each were used for two sets of experiments. The drying rate increased for a load of 10 kg, by 8%, and for a load of 5 kg, by 14% [ 32 ]. Marked out that the simplest solar dryer setups are cabinet and greenhouse dryers, which employ passive drying. Due to their simplicity and low cost, cabinet dryers are typically built in 1–2 m 2 sizes with capacities ranging from 10 to 20 kg, they are suitable for drying produce, spices, herbs, etc.

The drying capacity is calculated using Eq. ( 1 ) [ 33 ]

The loading density of a solar dryer with more than a tray is computed as follows [ 34 ]

m p  = mass of given product ready to dry (kg).

\({\rho }_{l}=\) loading density (kg.m −3 ).

A c  = Area of the solar collector (m 2 ).

2 Methodology

The main purpose of the review was to conduct an assessment of solar dryers’ loading capacity for agricultural products. So, to achieve the main target of the research a systematic review approach was applied. This approach was used by a lot of authors and it was mostly exercised by social science and medical researchers.

As explored by [ 35 ] systematic review's use of explicit and rigorous procedures to locate, critically evaluate, and synthesize pertinent studies in order to address a specific question is one of its key characteristics. As stated by [ 36 ] systematic review is useful tool for those seeking to promote research knowledge and put it into action. As described by authors and co-authors of [ 37 ] despite being crucial components of evidence-based healthcare, systematic reviews and meta-analyses are still rather opaque.

The paper provides a review of many studies related to the capacity and size of solar dryers which were published in the last twenty-one years with the exception of solar tunnel dryers and other solar dryers applied to purposes other than agricultural products. The main databases or search engines used to collect the journal articles were Web of Science and Scopus i.e. (. conference papers, book chapters, technical notes, communications, reports, periodicals, case studies, and review papers are not included in the main topic of this review. However, in the introduction part, some review papers and books were included without any limitation on the year of publication. A total of 1230 documents were obtained from both data bases (i.e., Web of Science (685 documents) and Scopus (545 documents)).

In a systematic review, inclusion and exclusion criteria were employed to identify what data should be included in the review and to ensure that only papers relevant to the question(s) addressed by the literature review were included [ 36 ].

The focus of the exclusion and inclusion criteria, as outlined in Table  1 , was primarily on the main part of the review, encompassing subsections like 1.2 (sub title) and the discussion section. The remaining sub-sections consisted of sources such as books, book chapters, and peer-reviewed materials that were published prior to 2000.Twenty-nine papers were used in the introduction part and around four documents were also used in the methodology part. In other words, thirty-three references in-validated the inclusion and exclusion criterions.

3 Discussion

To make it clear and easily understood the review was done by dividing it into four quinquennial periods (quinquennial periods is period of time occurring every 5 years).

3.1 First quinquennial period (2000–2005)

In this quinquennial period in all year, a lot of papers were published however only papers with specified written their drying capacity were included. In this quinquennial period, the minimum capacity was found 1 kg per batch that been created by [ 38 ] which was applied to dry lemon slice. The main finding of the research was lemon slices dried in a closed-type solar dryer had a higher overall in terms of sensory quality criteria. And in this quinquennial period the maximum capacity was 250 kg per day to dry onion and hay made by [ 39 ]. In the study the air temperature, the collector's surface, and the product quality were the main parameters that influence drying. In the year 2001 related to the solar loading dryer capacity specified literature was not found.

Authors in reference list [ 40 ] were designed a hybrid drier powered by solar and biomass with a 16 kg loading capacity for fruits and vegetables specifically bananas and chili. [4manufactured a 2–3 kg-capable air solar collector (ASC) attached to a rotating column cylindrical dryer (RCCD) that can dry apricots [ 42 ]. Used a solar dryer that has 9 kg loading capacity to investigate drying kinetics of pumpkinseed. The result reveals that the temperature of the air was the most important parameter that affected drying kinetics and increased the drying rate [ 43 ]. Used a solar dryer with a capacity of 5 kg to model a mathematically thin layer of apricots. And it has been demonstrated that the logarithmic drying model accurately depicts the apricots’ sun-drying curve [ 44 ]. Demonstrated on an indirect type natural convection solar drier capable of drying 10 kg of chemically treated grapes or green peas in 20 h of sunlight. The authors' findings show that storage and chemical pre-treatment significantly shortened the drying times for all the crops they were used.

For drying agricultural products, a direct-type solar dryer with a burner was created by [ 45 ]. The researchers made a number of system evaluation tests, it was discovered that the dryer had a 20–22 kilo gram carrying capacity of fresh pineapple slices that were 0.01 m thick. In addition, they illustrated that integrating biomass burner with solar dryers increase the system efficiency [ 46 ]. Worked on the optimization of mixed-mode and indirect-mode natural convection solar dryers with a 90 kg grain capacity. The author comes to the conclusion that the indirect way of solar drying results in grain of a greater quality than the mixed approach.

A 5 kg carrying capacity included a solar air collector, a heat storage cabinet, and a solar chimney was designed, tested, and simulated of a unique low-cost tray drier with by [ 47 , 48 ]. Conducted an empirical investigation on a solar-biomass combination dryer by subjecting it to a load trial using 18 kg of fresh ginger produce [ 49 ]. Studied the technical and economical viability and designed a solar dryer with a maximum batch size of 150 kg utilizing the products being dried and tested, chili and beef. As a result, drying beef with a solar dryer system was determined to be less expensive than drying chili with an electric heating system [ 50 ]. Tested how well a solar dryer performed utilizing hot air from solar collectors placed into the roof. In 4 and 3 days, respectively, the dryer can dry 200 kg of rosella flowers and lemongrass. Both as a solar collector and a farmhouse roof, the created solar dryer works well.

3.2 Second quinquennial period (2006–2010)

In this quinquennial period, the solar capacity dryer’s capacity ranges between 1 and 250 kg. Among the developed solar dryers for instance researchers [ 51 ] built and tested built and tested three perforated trays stacked vertically accommodating 1.2 kg of fenugreek leaves to be used in household multi-shelf solar dryers [ 52 ]. Formulated innovative solar-enhanced drying setups capable of handling 10.3 kg of fresh tea leaves for the drying process [ 53 ]. Conducted an empirical study exploring forced convection and solar drying with integrated desiccant. The drying process focused on green peas as the drying product, while the drying tray was loaded at a density of 4 kg/m 2 .

Researchers listed in reference [ 54 ] carried out an experiment to study the solar dehydration of preserved greengages. The drying chamber has the capacity to process 60 kg of salted greengages in one cycle. The results showed that the drying air inside the chamber was substantially warmer than the ambient air even on cloudy days [ 55 ]. Designed and examined a forced convection solar heat collector in a flat-plate configuration, intended for the drying of pre-treated cauliflower in batches of 100 kg each. The authors were used different pre-treatment chemicals. They found that Sodium chloride and sodium benzoate were not as effective as potassium metabisulphite in pre-treatment process [ 56 ]. Assessed the effectiveness of a hybrid drier.150 kg of fresh turmeric rhizomes was used for the five distinct trials, and they were examined visually for any flows. The solar dryers with biomass have shorter drying times and higher-quality products than the open drying system.

A solar-assisted dryer was created, and the amount of energy needed to dry 2 kg of onions was assessed [ 57 ]. The result indicates total energy consumption reduced as the fraction of recycled air increased, and [ 58 ] utilized a drying chamber tray that has a loading density of 5 kg/m 2 to study the solar drying characteristics of strawberries. Increased surface area caused more moisture to evaporate while drying [ 59 ]. Developed, constructed, and tested an indirect type natural convection sun dryer with integrated collector-storage solar and biomass-backup heaters for drying twelve batches of fresh pineapple, each batch weighing around 20 kg. The researchers deduced that even in unfavourable weather conditions, the drying process was successfully accomplished when utilizing the solar-biomass operational mode [ 60 ]. Constructed and examined an indirect forced convection solar dryer that integrated a desiccant system. This setup was utilized to dry 20 kg of green peas and slices of pineapple and rice. Thus, they discovered that adding a reflective mirror to the desiccant bed enables solar drying with faster desiccant material renewal.

A semi-continuous solar drier for cereals was conceived, made, tested, and optimized by [ 61 ]. The dryer could hold up to 132 kg of rough rice at a time. They conclude that there was a substantial relationship between air mass flow rate and discharge interval time and rough rice moisture content along the dryer bed [ 62 ]. Introduced a mixed-mode natural convection solar crop dryer (MNCSCD) for drying crops like cassava. A batch of cassava weighing 160 kg was dried and examined [ 63 ]. Compared solar hybrid dryers and improved copra kilns to investigate the drying behavior and quality of copra. In each trial, 700 nuts were converted into around 147 kg of copra, and each batch’s moisture content was reduced by about 116 kg [ 64 ]. Demonstrated experimental performance and modelled roof-integrated solar dryer’s that can dryer up to 200 kg of fresh rosella and chilli. Good agreement was also found between experimental and simulated moisture contents.

A biomass burner, heat storage, and a backup heater for natural convection that was designed and tested by [ 65 ]. It was discovered through a series of system evaluation studies that the dryer could store 60–65 kg of newly harvested, unshelled groundnuts. They noticed adding heat storage with biomass burner to solar dryer increases the thermal efficiency [ 66 ]. Convection solar dryer used to dry cop. They observed the trays had different capacities for removing moisture content. Thus, the bottom tray was removing a little greater moisture than the top tray [ 67 ]. Built and tested a cabinet dryer for drying fruit and vegetables using indirect solar energy. During the test, a drier was used to dry 4 kg of fresh bitter gourd [ 68 ]. Made and evaluated a cabinet-style dryer designed for the dehydration of fruits and vegetables utilizing indirect solar energy. In the testing phase, the dryer was employed to desiccate 4 kg of freshly harvested bitter gourd.

The best design for a solar-assisted drying system for bananas was determined using a mathematical model. It has been used for drying since 2000 and has a capacity of drying 250 kg of bananas [ 69 , 70 ]. Figured out how to dry apples using a heat pump and a sun dryer. For testing, a digital balance with a 6 kg apple capacity was employed. In the end, they find that raising the internal air consumption ratio raises the temperature of the drying air, but lowers the moisture absorption capacity of both heat pump and solar dryer dryers when the relative humidity of the drying air increases [ 71 ]. Examined the kinetics of drying tomato slices that had been dehydrated in a solar-electric drier using a drying chamber that held 6 trays and 12 kg. With R 2  = 0.9999, the Middli model emerged as the most reliable predictor of tomato slice drying behavior among the models tested [ 72 ]. Created solar dryer for cocoa beans that runs intermittently. A batch of 50 kg wet cocoa beans was intended to fit inside the prototype.

It has been developed and tested to work as a forced indirect convection solar drier in conjunction with numerous useful heat storage mechanisms. Performance for drying chill under the measured conditions at Pollachi, India by [ 73 ]. The dryer had the capacity to accommodate approximately 50 kg of chili per cycle. The conclusive assessment demonstrated that a solar dryer utilizing forced convection is more effective in generating superior quality dried chili, particularly suitable for small-scale farmers [ 74 ] built and assessed a double-pass solar dryer's effectiveness for drying red chili. A total of 45 kg of fresh chili was used for each experimental set. Red chilies were dried in central Vietnam using a double-pass solar dryer, which was found to be both technically and economically practical.

3.3 Third quinquennial period (2011–2015)

In a similar manner to the previous quinquennial period in this time frame also a lot of authors designed, and develop different solar dryers with different loading capacities. For example, For the purpose of drying red chili, a double-pass solar dryer with a 45 kg capacity was created, and its performance was assessed by [ 75 ] and contrasted with that of a standard cabinet dryer and the conventional open-air sun. The results demonstrate that, in order to achieve the desired moisture content of 10% (on a wet basis), the drying times (including nights) were 32 and 73 h, respectively. But even after 93 h (including nights), open-air solar drying is unable to achieve the desired moisture content of 10%. (On a wet basis) [ 76 ]. Designed and built a cylindrical solar drier with a 70-kg drying capacity that was used to dry bean crops [ 77 ]. Carried performed experiments and created a numerical model of a solar dryer with a packing density of the drying tray of 16 kg.m −2 to characterize apple slices. The authors learn more about the actual effects of interruptions on the product from the numerical simulations used in the intermittent tests.

A distinctive solar dryer for crops was designed by [ 78 ] providing uninterrupted drying capabilities and a capacity of up to 12 kg of freshly harvested green herbs, ensuring the retention of their flavor and vibrant color. Six crop trays with an effective size of 0.50–0.75 m 2 and a maximum collector area of 1.5 m 2 were included. As a result, it was discovered at Jodhpur in the middle of the night in June that the drying chamber’s temperature was 6 °C higher than the ambient air temperature. This was because there was more storage material there [ 79 ]. Introduced laboratory models of direct (cabinet), indirect and mixed mode solar dryer were designed and constructed to perform no-load steady state experiments for natural and forced air circulation to determine convective heat transfer coefficient from plate to air of collector(h cpf ) (W/m 2  °C). The authors reported that natural convection cabinet dryers of the direct type with carrying capacity of 10–15 kg are popular among farmers, especially in India to dry 10–15 kg of fruits and vegetables at the household level A forced convection system powered by solar energy was designed by [ 80 ]. The solar dryer has a 6 kg loading capacity for drying fresh chili [ 81 ]. Examined the effectiveness of a solar-gas dryer combination. In the chamber, the load density was 4.75 kg per square meter of the tray. They conclude that the factors that had the greatest effects on the collector’s thermal efficiency were air mass flow, collector angle of inclination, and the difference between the temperature inside and outside the collector. Additionally, they noted that while the hybrid drying system's effectiveness was comparable to that of a liquid propane gas (LPG) drying system, it had the benefit of utilizing 20% less fuel without compromising the dried product's quality (Fig. 8 ).

Flow chart of the selection process

The life cycle cost of solar biomass hybrid dryer systems for drying cashew nuts, in India was investigated by [ 82 ]. A 40 kg loading capacity for renewable energy-based drying devices was suggested for use in small-scale cashew nut processing enterprises. To evaluate the viability of three renewable-based drying systems, four economic variables were evaluated. It was concluded that the development of a solar-biomass hybrid dryer was crucial for small-scale processing industries.

3.4 Fourth quinquennial period (2016–2023)

The drying process inside a chimney-dependent solar crop dryer (CDSCD) with a loading density of 5.4 kg/m 2 has been simulated and validated by [ 83 ]. The validation results indicate that the simulation code can serve as a valuable instrument for comparing and enhancing the design of CDSCD to achieve optimal drying performance [ 84 ]. Employing a double-pass solar air collector, heat pump, and photovoltaic unit, a novel form of solar dryer with a 6.1 kg capacity was conceived, built, and experimentally proven. The trial results showed that the double-pass collector had a thermal efficiency that ranged from 60 to 78 percent [ 85 ]. Conducted an experimental research and evaluation of a hybrid solar/thermal dryer with a capacity of 60–65 kg paired with an additional recovery dryer for drying fresh, unshelled groundnuts. The overall drying efficiency increased from 10.3 to 13% when a hybrid dryer and recovery dryer were used, as opposed to hybrid drying alone. The use of sub dryers for thermal recovery was encouraged and confirmed enhancement way to maximize fuel efficiency and increase system capacity.

A solar air heater was created to assess the drying rate of apples. To enable a continuous drying process, an energy storage system was devised and produced for packed beds. Throughout the research, batches of apples weighing between 5 and 7.5 kg were dried using this equipment [ 86 ]. The importance of the developed system’s was that, compared to other drying technologies, it uses 76.8% less energy [ 87 ]. Examined the energy and exergy used in the solar drying of ginger and ghost pepper. During the experiment, nine kilograms of newly harvested, ripe ghost peppers and thirteen kilograms of sliced ginger were dried. On the same year [ 88 ]. Examined the results of performance tests on a forced convection sun dryer and a shell and tube latent heat storage unit made of paraffin wax. Red chilies weighing 20 kg were dried in the dryer at a temperature range of 36–60 °C [ 89 ]. Introduced and studied the performance of an innovative solar drying system designed for the dehydration of osmotically treated cherry tomatoes. 100 kg of cherry tomatoes were osmotically dried in each of three batches between May and June 2014. In comparison to natural sun drying, the new solar drier significantly reduced drying time.

A multi-pass solar air heating collector system’s thermal performance was studied for drying roselle by [ 34 ]. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the efficiency of a granite-enhanced forced convection multi-pass solar air heating collector (MPSAHC) system. A total weight of between 75.2 and 81.3 kg can be dried by the MPSAHC system. The MPSAHC dryer revealed a significantly faster drying time of 21 h when compared to the open sun drying method (OSDA), which was carried out concurrently under comparable weather circumstances [ 90 ]. Fabricated a solar energy dryer with a 10 kg capacity and examined for its performance in drying tomatoes.

An indirect forced convection sun dryer (IFCSD) with an extra heating source has been described by [ 91 ]. During the experiment, 24 kg of mango slices were dried at four different temperatures [ 92 ]. Locally created and tested active (forced) and passive (natural) modes for a 4 kg sun drying system [ 93 ]. Developed and evaluated both active (forced) and passive (natural) modes for a 4 kg solar drying setup on a local scale [ 94 ]. Examined how well a step-type natural convection sun drier worked for drying beans. For tests on dehydration, 5 kg of processed beans were spread out on 10 trays [ 95 ]. Carried out an experimental analysis of an indirect forced convection solar dryer with sensible heat storage material (SHSM) and phase change material (PCM) integration with a loading density of 9 kg/m 2 in the Himalayan climate (latitude 30.91°N). Performance evaluation of a packed bed thermal energy storage (TES) system-integrated solar dryer.

A Takagi Sugeno fuzzy (TSF) model was created for an indirect hybrid solar-electrical dryer operating under forced convection at a rate of 0.027 kg/s. by [ 96 ]. The drying chamber has a total capacity for four mesh trays, covering a drying area of 0.94 m 2 . The TSF model was applied to forecast the drying temperature under no-load conditions [ 97 ]. Explored the drying behavior of orange slices that had an average thickness of 5 mm. Each experimental trial consisted of drying an average batch of 10 kg of orange [ 98 ]. Investigated how the solar drying technique affected the bioactive profile of Moroccan sweet cherry as well as drying kinetics. With a volume flow rate of 0.1845 m 3 /s and constant temperatures of 60, 70, and 80 °C, 3 kg of cherries were placed on drying trays and dried for 8, 6, and 4 h, respectively [ 99 ]. Demonstrated how effectively bananas may be dried at home using direct forced convection. On a flat plate collector, a parabolic-shaped solar dryer was built, complete with a polycarbonate plate cover. 10 kg of bananas were dried for each batch [ 100 ]. Examine the drying model and assess the quality of the turmeric utilizing a solar thermal system. In addition, they did performance and quality testing of the 10 kg capacity INCSD is carried out at various drying temperatures. Experimental data show that the page model is more appropriate for INCSD and open sun drying (OSD).

The performance of a hybrid solar biomass dryer for drying shelled corn was enhanced by using an ANSYS workbench [ 101 ]. The drier can dry 90 kg (on a wet basis) of maize per batch. The study suggests that the hybrid solar biomass drier (HSBD) was appropriate for drying maize and other agricultural goods because continuous interrupted drying is possible. The dryer's ability to maintain a steady temperature and air flow in the drying chamber allows for the speedy production of high-quality dried goods [ 102 ]. Developed and evaluate the performance passive flat plate collector solar dryer for agricultural product with carrying capacity of 7. 5 kg used to dry mushrooms. They also compared with open drying system. And the results showed that after 21 h of developed dryer, the samples’ moisture ratio was zero, whereas it took 33 h of open sun drying for the same sample to reach zero.

An assessment of the solar grain dryer designed by science for society (S4S) for the drying of paddy seeds was carried out by [ 103 ]. The capacity of the dryer was varying between 42.4 and 55.0 kg batch-1. Depend on the paddy the assessment of the dryer's efficiency and seed quality was conducted using established formulas and techniques [ 104 ]. Presented an innovative through-flow evacuated tube collector for air heating in an active-mode indirect solar dryer. Depending on the drying product, the tray-style dehydration chamber's loading capacity ranges from 6 to 45 kg. The study's concluding finding said that dried fenugreek leaves and turmeric were found to be of greater quality than open sun drying (OSD). When compared to the entire present value of life cycle savings, the capital cost of the solar dryer is negligible, according to its economics [ 105 ]. Devised, constructed, and assessed the effectiveness of a vacuum tube solar dryer engineered for the drying of garlic cloves. A batch of 10 kg of dried garlic cloves was employed to appraise the operational efficiency of the developed experimental setup.

Authors mentioned under number [ 106 ]. Evaluated in terms of performance and cost and modified solar drier with thermal energy storage that was used to dry blood fruit. The drying unit consists of two shelves with four aluminium plate trays of 20 kg drying capacity and an iron frame holder. Exergy analysis, energy payback period, carbon dioxide emissions, and cost payback period were conducted for the MSD (Modified Solar Dryer) and demonstrated superior results compared to the tray dryer (TD) The newly constructed solar dryer may be expanded to any capacity and will be perfect for small businesses and marginal farmers [ 107 ]. Investigated the practical testing of a residential solar dryer for drying bananas and introduced a modeling approach for optimizing banana drying using this solar dryer. The dryer was used to conduct 10 full-scale experimental runs, with 10 kg of ripe bananas being dried for each trial, to examine the experiment's performance. A set of partial differential equations that characterize the heat and moisture transfer in the process of banana drying was formulated and solved using numerical methods, specifically the finite difference method [ 108 ]. Designed innovative hybrid-solar-vacuum dryer with a maximum load of 4 kg to dry banana slices. The dryer was tested with persimmons and carrots, successfully producing dried and crispy products within 3–4 h. The hybrid solar dryer, operating in a vacuum environment, represents an innovative and environmentally friendly technology that consistently delivers high-quality products. It exhibits significant potential for adoption in small-scale farming operations.

A new method of drying cashew kernels has been introduced by [ 109 ] for the drying of cashew kernels. With the aid of this innovative technique, cashew kernels with a capacity of up to 30 kg solar dryer have been successfully dried in batches over the course of 360 min of solar radiation at an average energy consumption of 255 kJ. The results of the trials were supported using an artificial neural network (ANN) and response surface methodology (RSM), leading to improved performance parameter prediction and optimization [ 110 ]. Discussed the development and assessment of a cabinet-style shrimp drying system that combines both solar and an additional infrared heat source. The drying chamber can hold a maximum of 2500 g and operates at a 16.37 percent efficiency. The hybrid dryer has four drying modes and three different pre-treatment kinds.

A recirculating solar energy dryer equipped with an energy-saving feature and a recuperative heat exchanger has been designed for the purpose of drying agricultural products, with a capacity of loading 30 kg drying fresh product was developed by [ 111 ]. Additionally, a mathematical model has been introduced to describe the drying processes within this particular solar energy dryer. Among the models considered, the Henderson and Pubis model demonstrated the closest alignment between the calculated results and the experimental data [ 112 ]. Developed, tested and modified force convection sun dryer (MFCSD) for drying elephant apple slices. The MFCSD comprises of two solar collectors and a drying chamber with a 20 kg drying capacity. It was discovered that the two-term exponential model was very effective at describing the drying kinetics of elephant apple slices dried in MFCSD.

A solar dryer with a drying capacity of 15 kg has been created and manufactured specifically for mango drying purposes They were also evaluated the performance of indirect type forced convection solar dryer used to dry mango. Different performance indicators parameters such as instantaneous collector efficiency, drying efficiency, drying rate, coefficient of performance (COP), heat utilization factor, and moisture content on a dry basis were used to evaluate the performance of the dryer [ 113 , 114 ]. Designed and presented prototype hybrid photovoltaic thermal (PV—T) solar dryer aided with an evacuated tube collector (ETC) with loading capacity of 1.5–2 kg for drying of cassava slices under the meteorological conditions of Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, India. The suggested hybrid dryer was profitable and able to produce high-quality dried products.

To reduce reliance on the non-renewable commercial tea drying technology, a sustainable solar-powered PVT tea drying system that can with loading of 4 kg of green tea has been developed and tested [ 115 ]. An indirect mode solar dryer utilizing forced convection and powered by photovoltaic technology (PVT) has been constructed and examined. 5 kg kilograms of tomatoes in total were dried in the PVT solar drier; one kilogram of tomatoes was dried in each drying tray [ 116 , 117 ]. Evaluated the environmental and economic implications of a mixed-mode solar dryer that uses photovoltaic assisted with thermal energy storage and exhaust air recirculation. The dryer was designed to hold up to 5 kg of drying items and consist of two trays of 80 × 50 cm each.

For drying ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) fruit, a hybrid solar dryer with the drying load of 18 kg that combines photovoltaic and thermal (PV/T) technology was being designed and its performance assessed[ 118 ].assessed the performance and quality parameters of photovoltaic-thermal solar dryer with drying capacity of 2 kg for drying neem leaves. The aim of this study was to assess, through experimentation, how well a photovoltaic-thermal indirect mode solar drier performs when drying neem leaves in different weather situations throughout the year [ 119 ]. Developed a sustainable photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) solar drying system to maintain zero carbon emission in the drying process. A total of 2.5 kg of star fruits were used during the experiment, and each drying tray contained 0.5 kg of product. Sustainability indicators were evaluated using energy and exergy performance, and environmental and economic evaluations (4E) will be conducted for both forced convection drying (FCD) and natural convection drying (NCD) scenarios [ 120 ]. Assessed the performance and quality parameters of photovoltaic-thermal solar dryer with drying capacity of 2 kg for drying neem leaves. The aim of this study was to assess, through experimentation, how well a photovoltaic-thermal indirect mode solar drier performs when drying neem leaves in different weather situations throughout the year.

4 Conclusion

This comprehensive analysis explores the vital area of solar dryers in the context of preserving agricultural products. With the development of solar dryers, post-harvest losses in agricultural product have decreased and food security has increased. Solar dryers are a sustainable and environmentally friendly option for drying produce. To determine the carrying capacity of these solar drying systems, the study carefully evaluates a broad range of research articles covering various geographical regions and technology advancements. In conducting this review, we first embarked on a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed literature, conference proceedings, and technical reports to identify a diverse array of methods and technologies employed in solar drying chambers used for agricultural products.

The review’s conclusions offer useful information for farmers, decision-makers, and researchers alike by illuminating the potential and restrictions of solar dryers in strengthening agricultural value chains. As mentioned in numerous articles, the temperature in the solar drying chamber was significantly elevated compared to the ambient temperature, even under overcast conditions. The quality of the dried products achieved by solar drying was on par with commercial branded products. The integration of heat storage by a biomass burner into the solar drying process increases its thermal efficiency. Among the parameters of the drying system, the air temperature is the most important. Higher temperatures lead to shorter drying time and higher efficiency. It was also found that increasing the surface area increases the moisture loss during the drying process.

"In conclusion, this systematic review offers a comprehensive assessment of the carrying capacity of solar dryers for agricultural products. Through an analysis of numerous research studies, it becomes evident that solar dryers hold considerable promise in mitigating post-harvest losses and promoting sustainable agriculture. The findings underscore the importance of continued advancements in solar dryer technology to enhance drying performance, reduce energy consumption, and improve overall cost-effectiveness. Furthermore, the environmental benefits of utilizing solar energy for drying operations are significant, contributing to a reduction in the carbon footprint associated with conventional drying methods.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Stipendium Hungaricum Programme and by the Doctoral School of Mechanical Engineering, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Gödöllő, Hungary.

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Halefom Kidane: planned and collected the papers to be reviewed, analyzed, and interpreted collected and wrote Janos Buzás: Formulated and devised the review framework, conducted data analysis and interpretation, and supplied necessary documents Istvan Farkas: Advised and planned to write the paper; analyzed and interpreted the information; provided supplementary documents and data. Wrote the paper.

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Kidane, H., Farkas, I. & Buzás, J. Assessing the carrying capacity of solar dryers applied for agricultural products: a systematic review. Discov Energy 4 , 6 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43937-024-00031-x

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Received : 14 August 2023

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Published : 15 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s43937-024-00031-x

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• Physics Concept Questions And Answers
• Types Of Energy Questions

Types of Energy Questions

The capacity to do work is known as energy. Energy is a scalar quantity, and the SI unit of energy is the joule. Energy is classified into two types: potential energy and kinetic energy. Potential energy is defined as the energy stored in an object or system of objects. Kinetic energy is the energy in moving objects or mass. It is given by the formula: 1/2mv^2. Where m = mass of the object and v = velocity of the object. Types of kinetic energy are mechanical energy, electrical energy, radiant energy, thermal energy, and sound energy. The potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy.

The potential energy formula is given by:

Where m = mass of the object (in kilograms), g = Acceleration due to gravity, h = Height in meters.

Different types of potential energy include gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy, chemical potential energy, and electric potential energy.

Different Types of Energy

• Mechanical energy is the energy associated with the motion and the position of an object.
• Radiant energy is the energy that travels in the form of a wave or particle. Sunlight is an example of radiant energy.
• Thermal energy is experienced in the form of heat or warmth.
• Geothermal energy is generated from the decay of natural minerals and the volcanic action of the earth.
• The flow of electrons in a circuit results in electricity production, referred to as electrical energy.

Energy can be classified as renewable energy and non-renewable energy based on energy sources. Examples of renewable resources are solar, geothermal, wind, and water. Examples of non-renewable energy are natural gas, coal, and fossil fuels like oils.

Important Types of Energy Questions with Answers

1. Energy Conservation Day is celebrated on _____

• January 14th
• August 14th
• December 14th

Answer: December 14th

Explanation: Energy Conservation Day has been celebrated on December 14th since 1991.

2. Which of the following consumes more energy?

• Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) bulbs
• Incandescent electric bulbs
• Fluorescent tube-lights

Answer: c) Incandescent electric bulbs

Explanation: Among the listed devices, Light Emitting Diode (LED) bulbs consume the least energy, and incandescent electric bulbs consume more power.

3. Choose YES or No: Can energy be transformed from one form to another?

Answer: a) YES

Explanation: Energy can be transformed from one form to another. The best example to explain is using the solar panel, where sunlight is converted into electrical energy.

4. Shafts in the windmill aid in converting mechanical energy into _____?

• Chemical energy
• Solar energy
• Electrical energy
• Thermal energy

Answer: c) Electrical energy

5. ______ formula gives the potential energy.

Answer: b) m*g*h

Explanation: Potential energy is stored in an object and is measured by the amount of work done. The formula gives it PE=m*g*h.

6. Choose the right answer: Wind is the form of ______ energy

• Renewable energy
• Non-renewable energy

Answer: a) Renewable energy

Explanation: Since wind is not exhausted upon usage, the wind is considered renewable energy.

7. What is the formula to calculate mechanical energy?

Mechanical energy is given by the formula: Mechanical Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy.

Mechanical energy = 1/2mv^{2}+mgh

8. List three types of non-renewable resources of energy.

Three types of non-renewable resources are Fossil fuels like oil, natural gas and coal.

9. To convert sound energy into electrical energy, which device is used?

• Refrigerator
• Microphones

Answer: c) Microphones

Explanation: Microphones are used to convert sound energy into electrical energy.

10. The SI unit of energy is _____

Answer: c) Joule

Explanation: Joule is the SI unit of energy.

Practice Questions

• List various types of kinetic energy.
• Define energy.
• What is meant by chemical energy?
• How is geothermal energy generated?
• State the law of conservation of energy.

See the video below to know about work, power, and energy.

Know the difference between potential energy and kinetic energy by watching the video below.

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