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Nalanda University History, Library, Destruction and Reconstruction

Nalanda, an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India, holds a remarkable history spanning from 427 to 1197 AD.

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Nalanda, an illustrious institution of ancient India, stands as a historic epicenter of advanced education located in Bihar, India. Established in AD 427 in the northeastern part of India, near the present-day southern border of Nepal, this renowned university continued its educational legacy until AD 1197. While its primary focus lay in the realm of Buddhist studies, it also offered a wide spectrum of education, encompassing fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics, and military strategy. This article serves as a comprehensive exploration of Nalanda University.

History of Nalanda University

Nalanda, an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India, holds a remarkable history spanning from 427 to 1197 AD. Founded in the 5th century AD, this prestigious institution, situated in northeastern India not far from the current southern border of Nepal, stood as a beacon of knowledge and wisdom.

Initially dedicated to Buddhist studies, Nalanda University evolved over time to encompass a diverse curriculum, including fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics, and the art of warfare. Its sprawling campus featured eight separate compounds, ten temples, meditation halls, classrooms, serene lakes, and lush parks.

Who Built Nalanda University?

Nalanda University was founded during the reign of the Gupta dynasty by Kumaragupta I, often referred to as Kumaragupta I (also known as Kumaragupta the Great). Kumaragupta I was a notable Gupta emperor who ruled during the 5th century CE. He is credited with the establishment of Nalanda University in Bihar, India, around the early 5th century AD. Kumaragupta I’s patronage and support played a crucial role in the foundation and development of this prestigious institution. However, it was under the patronage of his successors, particularly King Harsha, that Nalanda flourished and reached its zenith. The university received generous grants and support from various rulers, which contributed to its growth and reputation.

Why Nalanda University is Famous?

Nalanda University gained fame not only for its sheer size but also for its commitment to academic excellence. It boasted a vast library, known as the “Dharma Gunj,” which housed countless scrolls, manuscripts, and texts from different parts of the world. This library was a treasure trove of knowledge and played a pivotal role in the dissemination of wisdom across borders.

Moreover, Nalanda was home to renowned scholars such as Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, and Dharmapala, whose contributions to Buddhism and other fields of study are still revered today. The university’s intellectual and cultural exchange between scholars of different backgrounds enriched its academic environment.

Attacks on Nalanda University

Nalanda University, a symbol of ancient Indian knowledge and scholarship, faced two notable attacks during its history.

The first attack occurred between 455 and 470 AD when the Hunas, a Central Asian tribal group, invaded Nalanda during the reign of Emperor Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire. The motive behind this attack was primarily plunder, as the Hunas sought to loot the university’s valuable resources. Although the damage was not severe, Skanda Gupta, another Gupta Emperor, re-established the university, and during his reign, the renowned Nalanda library was founded.
The second attack transpired in the early 7th century when Goudas Rajvansh, the emperor of Bengal, targeted Nalanda due to political tensions with Emperor Harshavardhana of Kannauj. The attack was motivated by political rivalry, leading to some destruction. However, Harshavardhana’s efforts led to the university’s restoration, enabling Nalanda to continue its mission of global knowledge dissemination. These incidents, while disruptive, underscore Nalanda’s enduring legacy as a center of learning.

Ancient Nalanda University’s Destruction

In 1193 AD, Nalanda University suffered a devastating attack by Bakhtiyar Khilji, a general serving under Qutubuddin Aibak. Unlike previous attacks on the university, this invasion was particularly fatal, and it marked the end of Nalanda’s prominence as a center of learning.

The motivation behind Bakhtiyar Khilji’s assault on Nalanda was not political but rather personal. It is recounted that Khilji was in poor health and had sought medical help from various practitioners without success. Desperate for a cure, he turned to Rahul Sri Bhadra, the principal of Nalanda University at the time, who successfully treated him. However, Khilji’s sense of insecurity grew as he felt threatened by the knowledge possessed by Indian scholars, particularly in the field of Ayurveda. In an attempt to eliminate this perceived threat, he decided to destroy Nalanda University.

The destruction wrought by Bakhtiyar Khilji’s attack was catastrophic. His primary target was the university’s library, which housed an astonishing collection of approximately 90 lakh (9 million) books and manuscripts. He set fire to the library, and historians estimate that it took three months to burn down this repository of knowledge completely. In addition to the destruction of the library, Bakhtiyar Khilji mercilessly killed the monks and scholars residing within the university. His intent was to prevent the transmission of knowledge from one generation of scholars to the next.

The devastation inflicted upon Nalanda University during this attack was so profound that it marked the end of an era. Subsequent rulers were unable to restore the institution to its former glory, and the flow of knowledge from Nalanda came to a tragic and irreversible halt. This tragic event remains a poignant reminder of the fragility of human knowledge and the consequences of cultural and intellectual destruction.

Nalanda University Library

The library of the ancient Nalanda University is referred to as Dharmaganja (also written as Dharma Gunj) by traditional Tibetan sources, and loosely translates to “Treasury of Truth.”This grand edifice had the remarkable capacity to house an astounding 90 lakh (9 million) books and manuscripts. Such was its vastness that during the devastating invasion led by Bakhtiyar Khilji, it tragically took three long months for this immense repository of knowledge to be completely consumed by flames. The loss of Dharma Gunj and its invaluable collection remains a somber testament to the destruction of an irreplaceable treasure trove of ancient wisdom and scholarship.

Nalanda University Reconstruction

The reconstruction of Nalanda University in the modern era is a remarkable and ambitious endeavor aimed at reviving the legacy of this ancient center of learning. Here is an overview of the reconstruction of Nalanda University:

Idea and Inception: The idea of reviving Nalanda University was first mooted by the former President of India, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, in 2006 during his address to the Bihar State Legislative Assembly. Simultaneously, the Singapore government proposed the “Nalanda Proposal” to the Indian government, suggesting the re-establishment of Nalanda as a prominent educational institution.
Government Initiatives: The Government of India, along with the State Government of Bihar, played a pivotal role in the reconstruction of Nalanda University. A suitable location for the new university campus was identified, comprising 450 acres of land at the base of the scenic Rajgir Hills in Bihar.
International Support: Recognizing the historical significance of Nalanda and its potential as a modern center of learning, leaders from sixteen member states of the East Asia Summit (EAS) endorsed the proposal to re-establish Nalanda University. This international support underscored the importance of this initiative on a global scale.
Nalanda University Act: The project took a significant step forward when the Nalanda University Act 2010 was passed in both houses of the Indian Parliament. This act provided the legal framework for the establishment and functioning of the new Nalanda University.
Inauguration and Enrollment : In September 2014, Nalanda University opened its doors for the first batch of students, marking a historic moment after a gap of nearly eight centuries. The new university focused on interdisciplinary studies and global collaboration, embodying the spirit of its ancient predecessor.
Contemporary Focus : The revived Nalanda University aims to carry forward the essence of the original institution by fostering an environment of diverse learning, research, and international cooperation. It focuses on a wide range of academic disciplines and encourages scholars and students from across the world to engage in collaborative knowledge creation.
Recognition: Nalanda University has been recognized as an “Institute of National Importance” by the Government of India, highlighting its critical role in modern education and research.

The reconstruction of Nalanda University serves as a testament to the enduring value of education and the preservation of intellectual heritage. It strives to recapture the spirit of ancient Nalanda while adapting to the needs and challenges of the contemporary world, making it a symbol of India’s commitment to education and global collaboration.

Nalanda University’s current status

Nalanda University (NU) presently operates from its temporary campus located in Rajgir, Bihar. Additionally, the university utilizes the Rajgir International Convention Centre, an impressive facility equipped with diverse auditoriums, seminar rooms, an art gallery, a cinema theater, and a cafeteria.

Nalanda University’s legacy

Nalanda University’s legacy is a testament to intellectual excellence, interdisciplinary learning, and global outreach. Established in the 5th century AD, it attracted scholars and students from across the world, fostering cultural exchange and knowledge dissemination. The university’s legendary library, the “Dharma Gunj,” symbolized the importance of preserving and sharing knowledge. Despite facing adversity, Nalanda demonstrated resilience and continued its mission of education. Its revival in the modern era underscores the enduring legacy of this ancient institution. Nalanda’s influence inspires scholars and institutions worldwide, serving as a symbol of human curiosity and the pursuit of enlightenment.

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Nalanda University FAQs

Who established nalanda university.

Kumargupta founded Nalanda University in the 5th century A.D. He was also called Shakraditya.

What was the name of the library at Nalanda?

The library of the ancient Nalanda University is referred to as Dharmaganja (also written as Dharma Gunj).

Who destroyed Nalanda University?

In the 1190s the university was destroyed by a marauding troop of invaders led by Turko-Afghan military general Bakhtiyar Khilji.

Why the Nalanda University was so famous?

Nalanda's main importance comes from its Buddhist roots as a center of learning.

When was Nalanda University rebuilt?

The university came into existence on 25 November 2010, when the Nalanda University Act 2010 was implemented.

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Nalanda University: An Ancient Indian Ivy-League Institution

Nalanda University boasted a campus with 9 million books and architecture so vast, it took 3 months to burn down completely. Read about the world’s oldest, cultural, and international university.

Western establishments like Oxford, Yale, Cambridge, Harvard, etc. have been sanctified for their education and guidance for the past two centuries. However, a thousand years prior to the worldwide colonization of Europeans, Asian centers of learning such as Nalanda Mahavihara of Magadha were renowned for their academic excellence. The architecture of the Buddhist monastic center was similar to our modern university towns, which provide lodging and boarding for their students.

Founded in 427 C.E., Nalanda Mahavihara , or Nalanda University, lasted for over 700 hundred years. It survived political waves, the rise and fall of civilizations, religious wars, and the birth of intellectual greats for almost a millennium before the Turks destroyed it.

Archeological Excavations At Nalanda University

In a 1917 notice by the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, archeologist David Spooner detailed the discovery of a 24-feet high wall, 600 clay tables, and 211 uniquely carved stone panels surrounding the Baladitya temple, situated in modern-day Bihar. The digging performed around a kilometer square of Nalanda district was counted as one of the most beautiful marvels of its time.

Antiquarian artifacts found on the Nalanda University site are categorized under daily use objects and bronze ritualistic materials. Hundreds of other archaeological shreds of evidence were dug up near Nalanda: clay seals, terracotta ornaments, and metal figurines of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist icons. Symbols and panels from the Pala period, discovered by Dr. Spooner in 1915, are conserved at the Nalanda Museum.

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A few manuscripts and inscriptions were also found during the excavation. Fleeing monks preserved the manuscripts by taking it with them. Three of them include Dharanisamgraha’s folios (1075 AD) displayed at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita is at the Asia Society center and 139 leaves and painted wooden pages are available at Yarlung Museum, Tibet.

The Origin Of Nalanda University

Legend has it that Nalanda University land was purchased for 10 kotis (old currency form) of gold pieces by five hundred merchants. They gifted the land to Lord Buddha, who preached under a Pāvārikāmbavana (mango grove of Pavarika) for several years. Another scholar writes that the university was founded by Kumaragupta I of the Gupta Dynasty (415-455 CE). The succeeding Gupta Emperors promptly invested in the religious and epistemic growth of the university. Under their reign, the building had eight monasteries, 11,000 cells, three libraries, and around 2000 pupils in attendance. The monks and students of the university survived on the generosity and grace of their contemporary rulers. Between 606-647 CE, Nalanda owned 200 villages nearby with the grace of many generations of Pala kings. The land allotted to the Indian monasteries attracted the Turk invasions in the next centuries.

A Monastic Center Of Buddhist Learning

nalanda stupa monastery manasa snake goddess

Chinese monk Hiuen Tsang notes that the intellectual flow of knowledge flourished in Nalanda after the 3 rd or 4 th centuries AD. During his time as a student, 1510 teachers and 10,000 monks were present on the campus. Modern-day Indologists and archeologists predict that the number ranged somewhere between 1000 to 4000. The monks at the university practiced a set of Buddhist customs , rituals, and traditions to honor Lord Buddha. Chinese philosopher I-Sing narrates the proceedings: every morning, they began with beating a gong, and in the evening, the monks gathered around to perform chaityavandan .

Tibetan scholar Taranatha writes in his travelogues about the three-building, nine-story library of Nalanda University, with a volume of 9 million manuscripts. The ancient university has birthed several intellectual greats in history. Eventually, in opposition to the university’s ideological inclination towards tantric doctrines and magic rites of Mahayana Buddhism, several competing mahaviharas cropped up in the area. To reproduce the university’s legacy, dynastic Pala rulers financed Vikramshila and Taxila, the new knockoffs of Nalanda, and urged the monks and potential student crowd to transfer there.

The Sacredness Of Education And Teaching

terracotta clay seal buddhist inscriptions

Nalanda University accepted students of reaching nationalities, including from neighboring regions such as Korea, Japan, China, Indonesia, and even farther countries like Iran, Greece , Mongolia. The center of learning provided a mixture of courses in medicine, arts, philosophies, and religious studies; the list included specialties in literature , astrology, psychology, law, astronomy history, mathematics, economics, and medical science.

The institute had higher educational standards than today’s American Ivy League colleges. There was not a commercial value associated with the sanctity of knowledge. Buddhist students coveted to attain nirvana (salvation) through their learnings and non-Buddhist students trained to comprehend the unknown.

Each attendee was expected to be attached-by-the-hip to their gurus (teachers) for eight years and more. The bond between a teacher and their pupil was sacred. The pupils were ‘servants’ following a noble pursuit and Buddha himself compared the dedication level of the teacher to the love a father has for his son.

Exclusivity And Elitism: The Difficult Admission And Learning Process

Similar to the way the much-gritted and difficult to crack SATs and IELTS haunt today’s young generation, the challenging ‘entrance exams’ of Nalanda were administered by Dwaracharyas (learned pundits), various gatekeepers, and finally, through a separate board of teachers specially assigned to handling the admission process.

Chinese philosopher Xuanzang (602-644 AD) recited that a series of tasks were set for a prospective student prior to admissions. They had to be well-versed in religious and philosophical Hindu and Buddhist texts. Debates, conversations, and tutorials were part and parcel of the teaching methods. The final exams were conducted with the help of innovative modes: the students had to participate in debates/discussions with the gatekeepers, and their grading system was regulated by the satisfaction level of the examiner’s assessment.

The education was not for all. The main goal of Nalanda University, the most famous institute of its time, was to impart spiritual lessons and moral code to its students. The patriarchal and religion-based society ensured that the student body only consisted of upper caste, male candidates.

The Architecture And Buildings

Each monastery and temple of Nalanda University was assigned different purposes and had ranging religious affiliations, namely Buddhism and Hinduism . They were designed with towers, panels, and votive stupas. The decorative art on the towers, depicting figures of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and characters from Jataka tales, can be dated back to the Gupta dynasty. The panels of another temple illustrated motifs of Hindu gods and goddesses.

In the 3rd century, Ashoka, the propagator of Buddhism in India, constructed a stupa to honor Lord Buddha’s second discipline, Sariputta, the native of Nalanda. An Emperor from the Gupta Dynasty ordered the construction of a six-level pavilion and installation of a twenty-four-meter high copper Buddha. The 12th descendant of the Guptas, Narasimha Gupta Baladitya (470-535 AD) erected a ninety-one-meter vihara around the statue of Buddha. In the 7th century, Emperor Harshavardhana of Kannauj built a brass monastery inside the area.

The Devastating Destruction Of Nalanda University

The historical narrative, propagated by the colonial historians, recounts that the decline of Nalanda University was caused by a petty plunderer, overzealous in forwarding Islamic interests in the Indian subcontinent. Bakhtiyar Khalji, a native of Afghanistan, repeatedly plundered Magadha and the neighboring villages for gold, food supplies, and horses. The gold found during his loots and raids of the Buddhist monasteries made him a hundred times richer. The invasions of the Turks forced the monks to flee and a century later, scholars described Nalanda to be completely deserted and empty. Out of the eight temples and 98 viharas (fourteen large and 84 small) of the entire architecture, two viharas (monasteries) survived the brutality of the Turks; also, only the bordering walls with eastern and western gates were left intact.

In Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Minaj-i-Siraj describes the burning of 9 million scripts and the campus building of Nalanda: “Thousands of monks were burned alive and thousands beheaded as Khilji tried his best to uproot Buddhism. The burning of the library continued for several months and smoke from the burning manuscripts hung…like a dark pall over the low hills.”

Post-Khilji And The Decline Of Buddhism

Mahipala was the last ruler to provide patronage to Nalanda before it was ransacked. In the next period of Indian history, the Rajputs (10th-12th century), and the Gahadwala kings directed their grants towards Brahmanical institutions. Bhagavad Gita , a holy script of ‘Puranic Brahmanism’, systematically charged at the epistemological learning of Nalanda. Queen Kumardevï of Sārnāth had attempted to restore Nalanda to its previous glory, but it was in vain. The rise of Brahmanism and the decline of Buddhism were occurring in parallel lengths.

Nalanda University In The 21st Century

A bill proposing the revival of 1,600-year-old Nalanda was passed in Indian Parliament in 2010. On 14th September 2014, Nalanda University officially opened its doors again for learning. To honor the selection process of ancient Nalanda, only 15 candidates, out of 1000 applicants worldwide, were admitted after rigorous screening. Some of the national and international partners of the new university are Yale University, Chinese Peking University, European Consortium for Asian Field Study, and the Archeological Survey of India.

The revivalism of Nalanda has been a failure up until now. The plan was to open seven graduate and postgraduate world-class research universities by 2020. However, several students and faculty have dropped out because it is situated on the rural outskirts of Rajgir, disconnected by two hours from the capital city of Patna.

Amartya Sen, a reputed Indian economist, recently stepped down from the position of University Chancellor, amidst a lot of controversies. If the Nobel Prize-winning polymath could not see to it, then what chance does the rest of the world have in aiding Nalanda to retain its past glory?

What Are the Four Pillars of Suffering According to Buddhism?

By Simran Sood BA History and Anthropology (in-progress) Simran works independently as a writer and researcher. She is a student of History and Anthropology. Currently, she is assisting in the writing of an archaeological and historical book. She is also a part-time assistant for philosopher Volker Zotz. When she’s not busy typing at the rate of sixty words per minute, you can find her lazing around and hopelessly devouring historical romance dramas.

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Nalanda: University to the World

AUTHOR Aditi Shah
PUBLISHED 24 May 2020

“Learned men from different cities who desire to quickly acquire renown in discussion, come here in multitudes to settle their doubts, and then the streams (of their wisdom) spread far and wide,” Chinese Buddhist monk Hiuen Tsang said, on his visit to Nalanda University in the 7th century CE. This centre of learning then attracted students from as far away as Korea, Japan, China, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey. And not everyone who sought it was granted admission.

Travel about 85 km southeast from Patna in Bihar and you’ll come across broken and ruined brick structures spread over 12 hectares. But rewind a thousand years, and exactly here stood the world’s most preeminent educational institute, a campus of multiple colleges, libraries, residential quarters and places of worship. Nalanda was situated just off a major trade route that passed through the neighbouring city of Rajgir, the first capital of the Magadha Empire. Rajgir was just 35 km south of Nalanda. Buddha and Mahavira both spent quite some time in Rajgir, delivering lectures. So it is quite possible that they both spent time in the Nalanda area.

Hiuen Tsang notes in his travelogue that the ground on which Nalanda stood was originally a mango orchard. In the 6th century BCE, 500 merchants jointly bought this land for ten koti of gold coins and gifted it to the Buddha, who preached the laws of Buddhism here, for the next three months. This original endowment was followed by a continuous flow of other endowments through centuries, by successive sovereigns.

Taranatha, a Tibetan Buddhist scholar of the 17th century, says that in the 3rd century BCE, Emperor Ashoka (r. 269 – 232 BCE) built a stupa here to hold the remains of Sariputta, one of the Buddha’s chief disciples, who was also born in Nalanda. This ensured Nalanda’s significance as a place of pilgrimage.

However, it is more difficult to determine when Nalanda became a cloister and a college with several halls of learning. And there is debate over whether it can truly be called a university, or might more accurately be described as a monastic complex. Whatever the answer, it was one of the world’s first attempts at the organised transmission of knowledge, an attempt that sustained itself over an uninterrupted 700 years, leaving behind ruins that visitors continue to marvel at today.

Evidence found at Nalanda suggests that the university has a history dating back only as far as the Gupta Empire of the 5th century CE. This is based on the fact that the oldest seal recovered during excavations here bears the inscription Kumaramatyadhikarana in Gupta script from the 5th century.

But historians like K A Nilakanta Sastri suggest the 3rd or 4th century CE marked the beginnings of the intellectual growth that would make Nalanda the great centre of learning that it later became. Amalananda Ghosh, former Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), provides some archaeological evidence for Nalanda’s dating. He says the main stupa at Nalanda shows signs of being remodelled no less than six times after its original foundation, and the fourth remodelling has beautiful stucco figures of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas on them. There are also inscriptions of Buddhist texts on bricks in the core of votive stupas , which point to some time in the 6th century CE. Considering the huge accumulations upon which the fifth version sits, Ghosh infers that the foundation of the original stupa must have been laid about two centuries earlier.

Detailing on a votive stupa, it shows Buddhas in different Mudras

Hiuen Tsang attributes the foundation of the Nalanda institution to one Sakraditya. Historian Father H Heras identifies Sakraditya as Gupta Emperor Kumaragupta I (r.c. 415-455 CE). Kumaragupta I’s successors later extended and expanded the institution, building additional monasteries and temples. After the decline of the Guptas in the 6th century, the most notable patron of the mahavihara or mega-monastery was Harsha, the 7th-century CE Emperor of Kannauj.

Harsha remitted the revenues of about 100 villages as an endowment to the institute and 200 householders in these villages contributed the required amount of rice, butter and milk on a daily basis. About 1,000 monks from Nalanda were present at Harsha’s royal congregation at Kannauj. It was in his court that Hiuen Tsang was a guest before becoming a student at Nalanda.

Hiuen Tsang studied here under the guidance of Shilabhadra (529-645 CE), the venerable head of the institution at the time. The Chinese scholar mentions that there were 1,510 teachers and 10,000 monks then. Frederick Asher, a specialist in South Asian art and author of Nalanda: Situating The Great Monastery (2015), believes these numbers were exaggerated. He writes that “it is important to remember that Hiuen Tsang wrote his travelogue after his return to Xian and that he had a target audience”. Such a large number of monks would require a huge amount of space and resources, and the excavated remains do not suggest that kind of scale.

Indologist A L Basham too believed the numbers in Hiuen Tsang’s writings weren’t consistent with modern finds at Nalanda. He felt the number of monks could have just about exceeded 1,000. Archaeologist H D Sankalia put that number at about 4,000.

Regardless of the numbers , the institute had begun to attract the kind of faculty that would go down in history. Among them were Dinnaga, the 6th-century founder of the medieval school of logic; Dharmakirti, the 7th-century primary theorist of Buddhist atomism; and Padmasambhava, the 8th-century founder of Tibetan Buddhism.

Traditional Tibetan sources, including the writings of Taranatha, mention the existence of a great library at Nalanda named Dharma Ganj (Piety Mart), which comprised three large multi-storey buildings – the Ratnasagara (Ocean of Jewels), the Ratnodadhi (Sea of Jewels) and the Ratnaranjaka (Jewel-Adorned). These buildings must have been home to hundreds of manuscripts and books on topics ranging from the Vedas and religion to grammar, logic, literature, astrology, astronomy, medicine, law, city-planning, theosophy and philosophy.

All students at Nalanda were expected to be well-versed in the tenets of the Mahayana and Hinayana sects of Buddhism. Their curricula also included regular debate and discussion. But again, there is no evidence of what was taught besides the accounts of travellers. Asher writes that on the seals found here, the entire complex was referred to as the Nalanda Mahavihara (mega-monastery), not Nalanda Vidyalaya (university). And so he believes that Nalanda was focused on religious texts and their interpretations rather than on subjects of a broader liberal education.

I-tsing was another Chinese Buddhist monk at Nalanda, who followed in the footsteps of Hiuen Tsang. He arrived in India in 673 CE and is believed to have spent 10 years at the university. Most of what we know about Nalanda today is from the travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang and I-tsing. The latter described that the minimum age for admission to Nalanda University was twenty years. He states that there were eight halls with as many as 300 apartments on campus. He wrote that daily life at Nalanda included a series of rites practiced by all. Each morning, a bell was rung, signalling the bathing hour, which led to hundreds or thousands of monks proceeding from their viharas (monasteries) towards a number of great pools in and around the campus. The next gong signalled that it was time for the ritual ablution of the statue of the Buddha. The chaityavandana conducted in the evenings included a ‘three-part service’ and the chanting of a prescribed set of hymns from scriptures. This ritual was completed by twilight.

Nalanda was administered by an assembly presided over by senior monks. It met in formal sessions to decide affairs and issues of management. The rules of the university were severe, and all priests were bound to observe them.

From the middle of the 8th century CE, Nalanda enjoyed the sustained patronage of the mighty Pala rulers of Bengal (8th to 12th century CE). They prized and cherished the educational institution, building new structures and renovating old ones. The 9th-century emperor Devapala appears to have been Nalanda’s most distinguished patron in this age. A number of metallic figures containing references to Devapala have been found among the ruins. The Palas were prolific builders, and their dynasty oversaw the establishment of four other universities modeled on Nalanda, at Jagaddala, Odantapura, Somapura and Vikramashila.

Other prominent rulers who were patrons of Nalanda included Shashanka of the Gauda kingdom (r. 590-625 CE ), Bhaskaravarman of Assam (625 CE), Bhoja I of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty (850 CE), and Govindachandra of the Gahadvala dynasty (1130 CE). There is also archaeological evidence of contact with the 8th-century Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a monastery in the complex.

Sculpture of Lokeshvara Khasarpana form of Avalokitesvara, Pala period, Nalnda

The different monasteries in Nalanda were maintained by different kingdoms, and served many interests besides the learning and sheltering of pilgrims. Merchants and ambassadors might have used them to further profitable trade relations and friendly political intercourse between kingdoms. The art and architecture at Nalanda also contributed to the development of Buddhist imagery, and a number of Mahayana and Vajrayana images are believed to have first emerged here.

It must have seemed like Nalanda would live as long a life as Buddhism, but the mahavihara would soon suffer multiple blows. The rise of Hindu philosophies and Bhakti Movement wave in the subcontinent and the waning of the Buddhist Pala dynasty in the 12th century were the first. The university also bore the brunt of political and philosophical rifts. A form of Buddhism became popular that was driven by ideas of tantrism, a belief in the efficacy of charms and spells, and secret practices and rituals.

Rear view of the temple of Baladitya at Nalanda

The final blow was delivered when Nalanda’s still-flourishing monasteries were overrun by the Afghan military chief Bakhtiyar Khilji, during his invasion of Northern India at the turn of the 13th century. He ransacked and destroyed Nalanda and then went on to torch the universities at Odantarpuri and Vikramshila too. The contemporary Persian historian Minhaj-i-Siraj, in his chronicle Tabaqat-i-Nasiri , written a few decades later, reported that “thousands of monks were burned alive and thousands beheaded as Khilji tried his best to uproot Buddhism. The burning of the library continued for several months and smoke from the burning manuscripts hung… like a dark pall over the low hills”.

Still, Nalanda, or at least parts of it, managed a resurrection. A Tibetan monk Dharmasvamin visited Nalanda in 1235 CE. He mentions that most of the buildings had been damaged and fallen into disrepair. Even then he found a 90-year-old teacher named Rahula Shribhadra was instructing a class of about 70 students. He studied under him for 6 months. But all this was just a ghost Nalanda’s glorious past.

For centuries after, Nalanda remained largely forgotten. Until Francis Buchanan-Hamilton, a Scottish physician working for the Bengal Medical Service, surveyed the site in 1811-12 and found some Brahmanical and Buddhist imagery and reported it to the ASI. It took almost half a century more until, in the 1860s, the then ASI Director-General, Alexander Cunningham, identified the region as the one mentioned in the travelogue of Hiuen Tsang. To confirm this, the first preliminary excavations began.

It would be another 50-odd years until, in 1915, systematic excavations commenced, and eleven monasteries and six brick temples, arranged in an orderly layout, were unearthed. A 30-metre-wide passage was found, that ran from north to south of the ruins. The chaityas (prayer halls) are arranged to the west of this passage. To its east, lined up, were the remains of the viharas .

Frederick Asher said it was possible that Nalanda stretched far beyond the currently excavated limits of the complex. Landsat images have revealed water bodies, tanks or pokharas that surround the campus, providing an alternative perimeter that also indicates a rich farming belt may have been part of the mahavihara, providing sustenance to those in the monasteries. Asher suggested that the surrounding villages – Bargaon, Surajpur and Begumpur – may have been a part of the complex as well, given the large number of antiquities still to be found there.

Sculpture of Buddha, Avalokiteshvara and Tara recovered from Nalanda

Hundreds of sculptures in stone, bronze and stucco were retrieved from Nalanda and surrounding areas. These include images of the Buddha in different postures, as well as those of other Buddhist deities such as Marichi, Maitreya, Jambhala, Vajrapani and Avalokitesvara. Sculptures of Hindu deities such as Shiva-Parvati and Mahishasura-Mardini were also found. Besides these, copper plates, terracota artifacts, pottery, coins, seals and inscriptions were excavated, many of which are on display at the Nalanda Archaeological Museum, situated near the ruins.

In 2016, the Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara was declared a World Heritage Site. Two years before that, in 2014, the Government of India opened the gates to a revived Nalanda University in Rajgir. It has been designated an Institution of National Importance by Parliament. In keeping with its legacy of excellence and its multicultural past, the first chancellor of the university was Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen; the second was former Singapore Minister for Foreign Affairs George Yeo.

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Nalanda University, Nalanda: Unveiling the Architectural Marvel of Ancient Learning

Nalanda University, Nalanda – Archeological sites around India

Nestled in the serene landscapes of Nalanda, the ancient Nalanda University stands as a testament to the architectural and intellectual prowess of ancient India. This architectural marvel, with its roots dating back to the 5th century, continues to captivate the minds of historians, architects, and tourists alike. In this comprehensive exploration, we delve into the intricate details of Nalanda University, unraveling its architecture, archeology, and the allure it holds for modern-day travelers.

Architectural Splendor: A Glimpse into the Past

The architectural grandeur of Nalanda University is a fascinating journey into the ancient world of knowledge and enlightenment. Designed with meticulous precision, the university complex spans over 14 hectares and features a central axis aligned with the cardinal points. The layout reflects a systematic approach to planning, emphasizing the importance of symmetry and spatial organization.

Archaeological Insights: Unearthing the Past

Archaeological excavations have unearthed the remains of monasteries, classrooms, and living quarters, offering a glimpse into the daily life of scholars and monks who once roamed these hallowed grounds. The meticulous layout suggests an advanced understanding of architectural planning, with separate residential quarters, lecture halls, and meditation spaces.

Planning and Layout: An Intricate Tapestry of Knowledge

The planning of Nalanda University reflects a profound commitment to fostering an environment conducive to intellectual pursuits. The university comprises multiple complexes, each dedicated to a specific discipline of study. Lecture halls, libraries, and meditation spaces are strategically placed, fostering an atmosphere of scholarly exchange and contemplation.

Interior Design: Where Wisdom Resided

The interiors of Nalanda University, though largely lost to the ravages of time, are believed to have been adorned with intricate artwork and inscriptions. The living quarters of scholars featured austere yet functional designs, emphasizing simplicity and functionality over ostentation.

Urban Design: A City of Learning

Nalanda was not merely a university; it was a city dedicated to the pursuit of knowledge. The urban design incorporated open spaces, courtyards, and water features, creating a harmonious environment for intellectual exploration. The layout, with its careful consideration of natural elements, mirrors the ancient Indian philosophy of living in harmony with nature.

Facade Elegance: Architectural Aesthetics in Stone

The facade of Nalanda University, crafted from locally sourced materials, showcases the architectural finesse of the era. Intricately carved motifs, depicting scenes from daily life and religious iconography, adorned the exteriors. The use of local materials not only reflects sustainable architectural practices but also emphasizes a deep connection to the surrounding landscape.

Architectural Visionaries: Crafting a Legacy

Attributed to the Gupta and Pala dynasties, the architects behind Nalanda University remain anonymous, shrouded in the mists of history. However, their legacy endures through the enduring structures that have withstood the test of time. The architecture, characterized by a blend of Gupta and Pala styles, showcases a mastery of both form and function.

Attractions for Modern-day Travelers: A Journey Through Time

Today, Nalanda University stands as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, drawing tourists from around the globe. The site offers a captivating journey through the annals of history, with its well-preserved ruins and the palpable aura of ancient wisdom. Visitors can explore the excavated structures, marvel at the architectural details, and immerse themselves in the echoes of a bygone era.

Preserving the Legacy: Calls to Action

Preserving the architectural and archaeological heritage of Nalanda University is a shared responsibility. Advocacy for continued research, conservation efforts, and responsible tourism is essential to ensure that future generations can continue to marvel at this beacon of ancient knowledge.

In conclusion, Nalanda University stands as a testament to the intellectual and architectural prowess of ancient India. Its meticulous planning, elegant design, and enduring legacy make it a treasure trove for architects, archaeologists, and tourists seeking to unravel the mysteries of the past. As we navigate the corridors of Nalanda, we not only connect with history but also embrace the responsibility of preserving this architectural gem for generations to come.

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What the ruins of the original Nalanda university tell us about an old civilisation of India

An excerpt from ‘indians: a brief history of a civilisation’, by namit arora..

Our knowledge of Nalanda comes from three kinds of primary sources: archaeology, epigraphy (the study of inscriptions) and texts that survived in foreign lands after Buddhism and its texts disappeared from India by the mid-second millennium. Our chief sources for Nalanda are the writings of Xuanzang and Yijing, who spent two to three and ten years there, respectively. They’ve left us a portrait of its life in the seventh century, including its physical spaces, practices and rhythms of daily life, finances, curriculum and other features of its monastic community.

Legends have long traced Nalanda’s origins to the Buddha himself. One that Xuanzang recorded in the seventh century CE speaks of a naga (serpent) named “Nalanda” who once lived in a pond in a mango grove, later the site of the Mahavihara. “Five hundred merchants,” he adds, “bought [the mango grove] for ten kotis of gold pieces and gave it to the Buddha,” who preached the law here for three months. From then on, it became a site of teaching and learning, and even Nagarjuna, the leading figure of Mahayana Buddhism and a “second Buddha” to some, was said to have taught here in the second century CE (though evidence for this is scant).

When Faxian passed through the adjoining “village of Nala” in c 407 CE, he noted a stupa with relics of Sariputra, one of the two closest disciples of the Buddha. Sariputra, the locals told Faxian, was a native of Nala and so was cremated at the site of the stupa. Oddly, no community of monks had grown around the relics of a figure as eminent as Sariputra. Faxian did not mention any such community. It’s therefore reasonable to conclude that there was no monastery at Nalanda when Faxian visited in the early fifth century CE.

Nalanda Mahavihara likely arose a few years after Faxian’s visit – during the reign of Kumaragupta (reigned c 414-55 CE) – and lasted around eight centuries. The site’s legendary links with great names may well have shaped the decision to locate the monastery there.

After its demise in the thirteenth century, Nalanda lay forgotten and buried under mounds of earth for centuries. It was Stanislas Julien’s French translation of Xuanzang’s travels in 1853 that kindled interest among colonial archaeologists in identifying the site, which they soon did. In 1862, Alexander Cunningham and the freshly minted Archaeological Survey of India, which he founded, surveyed the site. The ASI led formal excavations and restorations at Nalanda from 1915-37 and then again from 1974-82.

Their work uncovered eleven monasteries, six temples and a giant stupa, aka the Great Monument. The monasteries, laid out in a row, face a parallel row of temples directly across. A 30-metre-wide path runs between the two rows. Each monastery, averaging about 40m x 60m, is made of oblong red bricks, once plastered with a paste of lime and sand. In Yijing’s time, there were seven monasteries, all “very similar in general appearance and layout; if you see one, you have seen all the seven”.

Entering one of the monasteries, I imagine being a monk in the seventh century and seeing what he would’ve seen: A Buddha shrine greets me by the main entrance. Walking through a thick-walled corridor, I reach an inner courtyard. It is enclosed on all four sides by two storeys of rooms, perhaps thirty-two on each floor. A veranda lines the courtyard on all four sides; stone pillars hold up a wooden roof over it. The open courtyard has a podium for lectures, a brick oven/stove, a well (with an octagonal cross-section, supposedly inspired by the eightfold path) and bathrooms with covered drains leading out.

Parts of the courtyard floors that aren’t brick or stone are daubed with a mixture of dried cow dung and straw, which provides termite repulsion, thermal insulation and a cleaner, firmer surface than mud. All rooms in the monastery have walls that are multiple feet thick. Teachers and students live together in the monastery; each year before the monsoon, the eldest monks are given the best rooms. Monks training to become temple priests get a room with a purpose-built niche for a holy image, to which they offer flowers and incense after bathing each morning.

Rooms host either one or two monks and have wooden doors. The monks sit on simple chairs, wood blocks or small mats. Each morning, the monks roll up their mattresses – two sewn sheets of cloth with a layer of wool in between. Pillows are stuffed with “home products, such as wool, hemp-scraps, the pollen of Typha latifolia, the catkins of the willow, cotton, reed, Tecoma grandiflora, soft leaves, dry moths, the ear-shells, hemp or beans”.

The monks store books and utensils in niches cut into the thick walls. All this reminds me of my own spartan hostel room at IIT Kharagpur, which too had just enough room for a narrow cot, a desk and a chair, and a cupboard with stone slabs for shelves.

I walk up to the Great Monument, which is still decorated with a few fine sculptural panels of stucco or stone. It has multiple stairs going to the top. In Yijing’s time, it had a “hall with mosaic floor”, a seat “made of gold and studded with jewels” and “an image of the Buddha Tathagata” turning the Wheel of Law. I try to imagine “the ornamentation of the [Great Monument that] was delicate and superb”, according to Yijing.

At its base may have been the famous library of Nalanda, though a Tibetan source speaks of a library with nine storeys, which seems implausible for the building technology of the day. In any case, the library’s location remains uncertain. It held the sorts of manuscripts that the Chinese pilgrims came in search of (at least eight finely illustrated palm-leaf manuscripts created at Nalanda during the Pala period still survive).

Nalanda was a place for advanced learning, not basic education. Some of its teachers both taught and composed path-breaking treatises and commentaries. A Nalanda education held serious cachet in the scholastic community, and it took in the best and the brightest. Or as Xuanzang puts it, they were “men of the highest ability and talent...there are many hundreds whose fame has rapidly spread through distant regions”.

Aspiring students had to be at least twenty years old and pass an oral exam at the monastery’s entrance. They had to “show their ability by hard discussion” and demonstrate a deep knowledge of “both old and new books before getting admission”. No more than two or three out of ten were admitted, and even they were promptly humbled by the calibre of their teachers and co-students. Nuns were admitted too but little record of their lives survives.

Indians: A Brief History of a Civilisation, Namit Arora

Outstanding Universal Value

Brief synthesis

The Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara is located in the North-eastern state of Bihar, India. Spread over an area of 23 hectares the Archaeological site of Nalanda Mahavihara presents remains dating from circa. 3rd Cen BCE with one of the earliest, the largest of its time and longest serving monastic cum scholastic establishment in Indian Subcontinent from 5th Cen CE - 13th Cen CE before the sack and abandonment of Nalanda in the 13th Century. It includes stupas, chaityas, viharas, shrines, many votive structures and important art works in stucco, stone and metal. The layout of the buildings testifies to the change from grouping around the stupa-chaitya to a formal linear alignment flanking an axis from south to north. The historic development of the property testifies to the development of Buddhism into a religion and the flourishing of monastic and educational traditions.

Criterion (iv): The Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara established and developed planning, architectural, artistic principles that were adopted later by many similar institutions in the Indian Subcontinent, South Asia and Southeast Asia.

Standardisation of the architecture of viharas and the evolution of temple-like chaitya into Nalanda prototypes manifests the sustained interchange and patronage towards the expansion of physical infrastructure. The quadrangular free-standing vihara of Gandhara period evolved into a complete residential cum-educational infrastructure borrowed by monastic-cities of South Asia such as Paharpur, Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Jagaddala.

Nalanda shows emergence and mainstreaming of a chaitya having quincuxial (five-fold) form. As a reflection and representation of changing religious practices, this new form replaced the traditionally dominant stupa and influenced Buddhist temples in the region.

Criterion (vi): Nalanda Mahavihara, as a centre for higher learning marks the zenith in the evolution of sangharama (monastic establishment) into the earliest higher learning establishment of early medieval India. Its merit-based approach said to have embraced all contemporary sources of knowledge and systems of learning practiced in the Indian subcontinent.

Nalanda remains one of the earliest and longest serving extraordinary institution-builder. Its systems of pedagogy, administration, planning and architecture were the basis on which later Mahaviharas were established. Nalanda continues to inspire modern university establishments in the region like Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda University and several others across Asia.

Archaeological remains of Nalanda Mahavihara were systematically unearthed and preserved simultaneously. These are the most significant parts of the property that demonstrate development in planning, architecture and artistic tradition of Nalanda. As evinced by the surviving antiquities, the site is explicit of a scholar's life recorded a monastic cum scholastic establishment.

While the original mahavihara was a much larger complex, all surviving remains of Nalanda present in the property area of 23 hectares comprising 11 viharas and 14 temples, besides many smaller shrine and votive structures, demonstrate amply its attributes such as axial planning and layout along north-south axis, its architectural manifestation and extant building materials and applied ornamental embellishments. Preserved in-situ are the structural remains of viharas and chaityas whose layers of construction show evolution of the respective forms. The positioning of these structures over the extent of the site shows the planned layout unique to Nalanda. The property also retains a corpus of moveable and immoveable artefacts and artistic embellishments that show iconographic development reflecting changes in Buddhist belief system.

Archaeological remains including the entire protected area of the property are maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The buffer zone of the property is sparsely populated with agricultural land and seasonal water bodies and thus poses no threat to the property. The property and the buffer zone are protected by a national-level law, the Ancient Monument and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (AMASR), 1958 and (Amendment and Validation, 2010) and is monitored by the National Monument Authority (National level) and office of the District Commissioner, State Government of Bihar (local level).

Authenticity

In subsurface condition for over seven centuries the archaeological remains of Nalanda Mahavihara were systematically excavated in the early 20th Cen. CE and conserved in-situ by the Archaeological Survey of India. Methodology adopted by the Archaeological Survey of India for the conservation and consolidation of its viharas and temples ensured the preservation of its historic fabric through adequate capping by reversible and sacrificial layers and providing supports wherever necessary. All conservation works and interventions are documented through photographs and drawings and published in the annual reports of ASI.

Historical research should be continued, supported by appropriate documentation, with particular attention to the identification of all excavation works carried out before the Archaeological Survey of India, as well as excavations by any other parties of the property, and the identification of all repair works carried out throughout the site, with particular attention to the repairs of brickwork and the documentation of the differentiation of authentic archaeological fabric and added repairs and added capping and sacrificial layers, some of which are marked by way of inscription of dates on select bricks at inconspicuous locations.

Nalanda's layers of construction, iconography and records testify these remains to be its oldest surviving parts. The spatial organization evident in these excavated remains demonstrate its systematic planning. Temple-like form of chaityas and quadrangular-form of viharas replete with infrastructure authenticate Nalanda's contribution in developing sacred architecture of the Buddhists and residential-cum-scholastic facilities. Its stucco, stone and metal art retain iconographic features that enabled changes in Buddhist belief system and transition of Mahayana to Vajrayana.

Ceasing functionally as an institution (13th century CE), Nalanda's role as an institutionbuilder is testified by the borrowing of its system of organization by later Mahaviharas of the 8th century CE. Nalanda's system of pedagogy is best preserved in Tibetan monasteries where discourses are conducted through debate and dialectics. Furthermore, universities across Asia consider Nalanda the landmark of academic learning excellence.

Protection and management requirements

The property is owned, protected, maintained and managed by Archaeological Survey of India vide national level laws - the Ancient Monuments and Sites Remains Act of 1958 (Amendment and Validation, 2010) Decisions pertaining to its conservation and management are governed by National Conservation Policy for Monuments, Archaeological Sites and Remains promulgated by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Conservation and management of the property is ordained by a perspective plan and an annual conservation programme. An in-house committee of the Archaeological Survey of India monitors its state of conservation and conducts need-analysis. A conservation plan for the excavated remains of the property should be worked out for the safeguarding of its Outstanding Universal Value and authenticity. This apart, plans for visitor should be developed to strengthen approaches to visitor management and interpretation. Also the risk preparedness plan should be completed.

The buffer zone is also managed by the National Monument Authority vide Ancient Monument and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (AMASR), 1958, (Amendment and Validation, 2010) in consultation with National Monument Authority (NMA), New Delhi and the State Government of Bihar. The buffer zone also has facilities to augment visitor's experience.

The Integrated Master Plan of Nalanda should be prepared and implemented by the State Government of Bihar, keeping in mind national and regional laws, to mitigate concerns by any development in the vicinity of the property that may impact its Outstanding Universal Value. And a Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA) should be conducted for any development plans within the vicinity of the property, which are vetted by the competent authorities, Archaeological Survey of India, State Government of Bihar and Nalanda's District Collectorate's Office.

State of Conservation (SOC)

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Related Papers

Agnik Bhattacharya

Dr. Pintu Kumar

Arun Thomas

This article has been published in 2010 by the Icfai University Journal of History and Culture. It talks about the cultural/everyday life of ancient Nalanda University, the oldest, largest organised Buddhist educational institution of the pre-modern India. It shows that there was a close relationship between the study and the veneration.

Buddhadharma Magazine, Spring 2023, 12-23.

Jan Westerhoff

This essay provides a popular account of the historical and religious significance of Nālandā university.

The Journal of the World Universities Forum

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Arpita Mitra

Soraj Hongladarom

During its heyday from the fifth to the twelfth centuries C.E., Nalanda Monastery was one of the largest and most advanced knowledge producing and transmitting institutions in the world. Tens of thousands of monks came from many parts of India as well as various parts of Asia to study there. The monastery complex taught not only the teachings of the Buddha, but also subjects such as astrology, music, grammar, rhetoric, medicine, indeed the entire corpus of knowledge that was available in the world at that time. It is therefore not difficult to imagine that these intense academic activities included not only teaching of transmitted texts, but must also have included active interpretations of these texts, as well as very strong creative activities in producing new knowledge. Thus, in the attempt to search for the indigenous source of scientific and technological creativity for Asia, it is impossible to neglect the formidable contribution of Nalanda Monastery. In the proposed paper, I will discuss the role of the Monastery (or university) in knowledge production and refinement of technological capabilities. The paper will also focus on the philosophical and epistemological aspects of Mahayana Buddhism, especially on how the Doctrine of Emptiness (Śūnyatā) might have a bearing on how scientific and technological capabilities in Asia could be further developed.

Fernando J Benetti

MA Dissertation. Historiographical Review on Nalanda Mahavihara and the importance of "Nalanda Tradition" of Tibetan Buddhism.

Indo Nordic Author's Collective

Dr. Uday Dokras

NALANDA was a renowned Buddhist monastic university in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), India. Considered by historians to be the world's very first residential university, and among the greatest centers of learning in the ancient world, it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now Rajgir) and about 90 kilometres (56 mi) southeast of Pataliputra (now Patna), operating from 427 to 1197 CE. Nalanda was established during the Gupta Empire era, and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons-both Buddhists and non-Buddhists. Over some 750 years, its faculty included some of the most revered scholars of Mahayana Buddhism. Nalanda Mahavihara taught six major Buddhist schools and philosophies such as Yogacara and Sarvastivada as well as subjects such as grammar, medicine, logic and mathematics. The university was also a major source of the 657 Sanskrit texts carried by pilgrim Xuanzang and the 400 Sanskrit texts carried by Yijing to China in the 7th-century, which influenced East Asian Buddhism. Many of the texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism including the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra of Shantideva. It was sacked and destroyed by the troops of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, partly restored thereafter, and continued to exist till about 1400 CE. Today, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Nalanda University: Unraveling the Legacy of Ancient Wisdom and Scholarly Excellence

(An insightful conversation with Nhan Vo , Researcher on Nalanda)

Ruins of Nalanda University in Bihar, India

Research Journey

Could you share your motivation behind undertaking this extensive research on Nālandā University? What sparked your interest in this subject, and what were your main objectives throughout the ten-year-long data collection process?

This is a long and not easy question, and it contains 3 points : My motivation, what causes the interest, and the main objectives. Since the question is related to many causes & conditions and the events that crossed my life in the past, I will try to describe it in the simplest way possible.

I was born in a Vietnamese Buddhist family and grew up with a strong background in Math and Computer Science. So, when any new concept appears clearly in my mind, the attitude of doubting and questioning if it is true comes naturally.

I first learned the term “Nalanda” when I attended the teaching of His Holiness the Dalai Lama in California (2006) . At that time, the title Nālandā just arose in my mind. It came up with one irritating and critical question: Why am I a Buddhist for life, but still not knowing well about this “Nālandā”? As time passed, I learned that many great Mahayana Masters also lived and worked there; specifically, one of them is my favourite Master, Xuanzang ( 玄奘 ). A few years later, even with so much information I could collect/learn about the institute, my wonder about it did not decrease at all. However, the final decision for full engagement in research about Nālandā only came after a very vivid and sad dream (circa 2011-12).

In a vivid dream, after coming back to Nālandā with a much younger religious brother from an errant duty after a few months. I saw Nālandā getting destroyed, and I was very frightened. All things that I know of were burnt to black; the remains are broken bricks and walls with a bad smell. I cried as a kid who lost his mom. The feeling was so natural and strong as I was there; the image in the dream was so alive that even after waking up from that night, and many times later when thinking about what I saw in the dream, I continued to cry and feel as if the event just happened.

So this is the final trigger that pushed me to eventually stop my worldly job as a scientist and go to India for 5 years to learn the truth about Nālandā and also to understand deeper about the Buddhist tradition.

For easy saying, the objectives of my research are:

a. To resolve my quest about Nālandā, including the dream .

b. As stated, not only myself but also many other Buddhists, specifically the Vietnamese, do not know what Nālandā is. So, it seems a big mistake if you earnestly learn Buddhism but don’t really know its true history or where the teachings that you currently learn and practice come from and how they were transferred to you.

c. As same as all Buddhists, my goal in life is to see all sentient beings get their true happiness . So if my work may contribute some productive information or facts , which can help Buddhist students to know how authentic and how valuable the teachings that they are following are, then this is a cause for my happiness as well as the graceful appreciation for the schools, the traditions, and the places that have hosted the Dharma teachings for thousands of years also.

Lastly: How do we define the “Nālandā” term ? To me, it is not just the monastery itself since doing so will narrow down the most important factor that Nālandā was the main Buddhist philosophy centre in India particularly, and the largest philosophy centre in the world generally. Not only religious, but it is also the centre of logic school, art, and architecture.

We may find that His Holiness the Dalai Lama’s 14th was fully true: Tibetan Buddhist tradition is Nālandā tradition (not more, not less). Chinese Buddhist tradition and some other Mahayana countries also are a kind of following Nālandā even though they may become self-transforming later. But at least at the time upto Xuanzang (玄奘) and Yijing (義淨) time, it fully adopted the Nālandā tradition.

The scope of these essays is not to find the absolute facts about what happened over a long period of thousand years ago but to find a clearer picture of the place named as Nālandā and its role within Buddhism, especially Mahayana and its tantric subschools. It also tries as much as it can to indicate the earliest source of fact that can be found through scriptures, writings, and the evidence of archaeology.

With all the above mentioned, the presentation of the essays contains two kinds of information : (1) The facts, including the creation, rise, and destruction of Nālandā, its activities, depicting how people live, learn, and practice, and lastly, the philosophy, the teachings, and the paths. (2) The information that is exposed in many other aspects about Nālalndā, but they are implied within stories or legendaries. Those are very important since they may indicate and be the imprint to show details that are the actual image of Nālandā .

Research Methodology

Buddhist Monk Researching at Nalanda University, Bihar, India

2. We understand that your research involved extensive data collection from Tibetan, Indian, and Chinese scriptures, as well as archaeological evidence. Could you shed light on the research methods you employed, the challenges you faced , and how you ensured the accuracy and reliability of the gathered information ?

Following Buddha’s teachings, there should be reliable sources of valid cognition for the proper knowledge: Direct Sense, Inference by suitable logic/critical thinking, and the knowledge taught by reliable persons (such as Buddha himself and his excellent Bodhisattvas). So, pick this as a guideline; my strategy goes with three stages: Collect data, filter them, and select what to present. But where is a good and reliable source for collecting data in the regard of more than thousands of years of history?

a. So, the first sources and facts are the archaeology evidence which may come from: the Nālandā area itself, any other related archaeology evidence that is tightly related to Nālandā (such as Vikramasila Monastery ) and any other facts found directly mentioned or refer to Nālandaā and its tradition. Those include nowadays things found in historical Museums around the world (or books/documents about them, for example, those India-released archaeology bulletins or many regional archaeology journals that I can find based on Google).

Some details: At 1st, as brainstorming, I tried to access all of them, which I can skim reading in the Table of Content of any articles containing the word “Nālandā”. So separate those on one side. Also try to get the pictures of those facts as much as I can, including paying fees or purchases . (Especially the National Museum in Delhi and Nāladā itself were visited by me many times). The archaeological facts are always in the “Direct Sense” Truth. Also, the content of the facts such as script stones, Seals, symbols, statues, and architects are countless values of the truth.

Nalanda University Burnt Down by the Invaders

b. This is the reasonable reference or infer sources: Where do they come from? Even the three libraries of Nālandā were burnt , but their transferred scriptures are kept elsewhere. It may contain some dialogues; however, following the teaching about the four seals of Buddha , we may identify which is right and which is not. We can strictly compare or critically evaluate the main idea to know if scripture is authentic. The scope of my research is NOT to give a nailed point review of the particular objects, but with the general view, we can draw the major vital conclusions. So, with this, I tried to search all available related scriptures. The two most vastly and importantly inherited sources of literature of Nālandā are Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist scriptures. Besides, the recorded history of many Buddhist places (and even from the Iranian language may also contribute some anti-facts about how Nālandā in its last breath). So sad that India itself does not keep full or enough information or scripture sources about the history of Nālandā even though there are some significant rebuilds from the historians) – So, We all know the Kangyur and Tengyur collections in Tibet are the most evidence source of scriptures the prominent experts consider the most extensive library, copied and translated from Nālandā tradition. Furthermore, those literature written in Chinese such as by Xuanzang (a prominent student with more than six years in Nālandā), Yijing (11 years studied in Nālandā), as well as the Tibetan historian such as Tāranātha (ཏཱ་ར་ནཱ་ཐ་), Bu-ston (བུ་སྟོན་རིན་ཆེན་གྲུབ་) and Gö Lotsawa (འགོས་ལོ་ཙཱ་བ་གཞོན་ནུ་དཔལ). Together they contribute a wonderful picture of Nālandā.

Moreover, multiple much smaller information sources may greatly help learn about Nālandā, especially those from Kashmir, Dunhoang, Mongolia, Nepal, and Bhutan.

Do we accept historical information as reliable: At 1st, we have to make sure of what purpose and motivation each writing or scripture was written down. How and why? Does the author try to gain any personal fame/money/power by writing such works? Also, the critical Buddhist morality question may greatly help: if the authors are real Buddhists. The way of understanding these will make his/her works become reliable or not.

c. The teachings of Buddha and the people of Nālandā were another source of reliability; Besides, those collections are generally reliable. Details of the work of the people of Nālandā may contribute massive facts/data to help us to verify or prove whether the later author sources (such as the translations in English, and German, about Nālandā) are reliable or not. This requires users to know either Tibetan or Chinese and how to delve through thousands of scriptures. In this direction, I was lucky to get help from different Buddhist organizations, specifically from Tibetan and Chinese Taiwan. I also developed a specific software that can simulate UNIX grep or Regex tool that uses for the Tibetan language to search any specific phrases with many operations such as (AND, OR, XOR, NEAR, LENGTH and other operators that are useful for searching into the collections) So with that many saying, quoting or even sometimes dialogue spelling will be verified.

d. Anyway, no one can ensure 100% any historical information that may or may not be accurate within a thousand years past, especially if the info came from the time the writing system was not yet fully developed as Buddha Shakyamuni time. However, some levels of logic may help to draw an acceptable resolution out of logical and critical thinking, which are not against each other or against the time-space historical conditions. Additionally, with the above, the Prasangika school defined some strict levels about valid cognitions (e.g. every evidence/valid cognition must be content within the proper causes and effects; it also must NOT conflict with all its timely accepted valid cognitions, …) These tools are excellent for discarding information that may need to be more suitable or accurate. So my research presents data concerning three views: (1) the facts that can be proved, (2) the information cannot be proven (yet), but it may contain/imply precious true stories, (3) The legendary stories may contain values about history, culture, philosophy, way of living, That info is not feasible and, against common sense, discarded since it may not contain any usable info.

Lastly, we should learn as much as possible about the local places (here is Magadha ), culture, customs, civilization, and even the other religions in the period in which the observed event occurred. (this is as aforementioned: Time-space cause-effect); however, with a person, we also have to learn where/when/what country he came from, what background/caste he has, and also what area he was good at (just a simple example: with Asanga , if some collecting information stated that he might have some activities that are not in accordance to “Mind Only” school then it should be something wrong with it … )

Difficulties Faced:

i. Very difficult to make a general map of the timeline: The scripts and evidence (may have Carbon read but cannot state 100% what cycle of history)

ii. the earlier time was storied virtually and traditionally transferred by “word of mouth”. So, working on matching many details in the scriptures/material/ to regain the order and the details are often complex.

iii. Mismatched information about the same person or even. Notably, the more famous a person is, there will be more mismatched legendaries about him. The most famous case is Nagarjuna.

iv Too little information: reversely, some Nālandā people who are less famous, even if they may have a considerable contribution to Nālandā school, then the information about them reversely too little (e.g. the case of Vimuktisena and Harihabra)

v Require a broad knowledge of different majors/subjects/sciences, including history, Buddhist and non-Buddhist philosophy, logic, computer skills, social, and languages.

Significance of Nalanda

Buddhist Monk Delivering a lecture at Nalanda University

3. Nalanda University holds immense historical and cultural importance. What makes Nalanda unique, and why is it considered a treasure trove of knowledge in the Buddhist world ? How does it differ from other ancient centres of learning?

Saying about the object of Nālandā itself: What made Nālandā unique? So clearly the history of its operations, the dimension, the scale, its influence/impact on other religions, countries and the world, the schools and subschools of philosophy, the logic school, the tradition of debate, the tolerance to others, the morality, the size and organization that are born and succeed in Nālandā; the people who actively stayed, how they lived and what happened to them, how they study, practice and transfer the Buddha teaching and the very last important point: the contribution that the people of Nālandā give for the world. Also, how they transfer/transmit their message and how they interact with other communities plus relationships with the local governments as well to survive as a non-breakable linkage from Buddha to the 11-12 century in thousands of years , and lastly, the large number of students that are not only Buddhist and Indian but also for the other religious and international countries as well. Those factors certainly define the unique characteristics of Nālandā.

That also defines how it is world history’s most significant treasure source. Remember that those massive scriptures, which are mostly now found in Tibet and China etc, are directly inherited from Nālanda. This must be recognized as Nālandā ‘s heritage as well. Those include massive value in scientific developments, including philosophy, medicine, psychology, logic, architecture, art, and Buddhist practices. So these values should be noted for reuse, relearned, and redeveloped for application in the future.

About the other ancient institutes: primarily, the essay has one chapter that mentions Vikramaśila Institute , but it is not to compare them but to show this institute was a sub-school of Nālandā.

Nalanda’s Influence

The representation of Nalanda University

4. Nalanda University attracted scholars and students from various regions. Could you elaborate on its impact on the spread of Buddhist teachings and its contribution to intellectual, philosophical, and spiritual growth during its prime?

The impact of Nālandā cannot be mentioned in such a short list or just in a limited interview text. A few hundred pages of my essays indicated the answer to your question. However, I may try to bullet a few significant impacts.

a. The role of Nālandā in the world of Mahayana Buddhism is crucial – including its heavy influence on any sect, any school, and any aspect of the student/practitioner life learning, ceremonies, ritual, behaviour, morality, knowledge/teachings and practice.

b. Not only with Buddhism, but the school also influenced impact on to India itself in culture, art, and society. Especially in most of the regimes, Nālandā Buddhism was one of the significant recognized religions (in such cases, the government/kings also contributed tremendous support for spreading Buddhism to the world and India), also through the history of activities, the school continuously transferred /spread out the compassion and wisdom and ways to do it of Buddha and his sons. The influence of culture may cause positive changes in other religions as well. There are times when many states within India have Buddhism as prominent religion, and it still has some effects on the Indian people today (in their culture of non-violence, for example ).

c. Same amount of teachings of influence also applied to China, Tibet, Indonesia, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, and later Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. It still has a significant impact on those countries today. Nowadays, Buddhism is the most peaceful religion and the third largest one in the world, so a significant role of Nālandā also causes these results.

Teaching Tradition

5. Nalanda is renowned for its unique pedagogical methods . Could you provide insights into the teaching tradition followed at Nalanda University? How did the teachings and practices at Nalanda shape the students’ understanding of Buddhist philosophy and cultivate intellectual curiosity?

To get the data for this answer, we have to dig into many sources, including the writings of those monks who lived in the school mentioned in question 1, the transmitted traditional model of living, training and practice, which is still being applied in some Buddhist countries today, especially Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan . However, the most substantial evidence should be counted from Tibet. We can learn the teaching program currently in this community to see the pedagogical methods that, if applied.

So it entirely depends on training purposes, so they will have unique methods suitable to the theoretical, the ideology, the philosophy proposed/proved the aims of training the school. Against those aims of training came from the ultimate goal of Buddhism or the Buddha’s teaching: to Bring all sentient beings from the status of impure, full of suffering and ignorance (in the means of unknowing the fundamental truths and short sight about the world/env, and causing all kind problems from this ignorance), and wandering in the cyclic world up to the status of complete knowledge of wisdom as omniscience, liberated from all afflicted situations, and found a specific path to escape out of the cyclic existence. So, To see a more profound method, we have to acknowledge that Buddhism, especially the Nālandā tradition, all uniquely follows the law of Dependent Arising theory, which part of it is the causes and effects laws (that modern science and physics accept as the ultimate law) and also any view about the status of phenomena or the world, also depend on the personal/human views which came from their mind situation, the potential karma, knowledge and the conditions of it.

So, with that in mind, we can try to check the closest pedagogy methods of Nālandā is the tradition that is still kept from many Tibetan Buddhist universities today (concerning knowing there may be some minor differences with the original).

For example: Why do students have to learn Logic debate from the beginning? Why does the school program start with learning definitions of anything, including what colour & shape, what is true or false, what are the person and the world and up to what are mind and their attributes/status? Is that similar to modern math that any math/science subjects are required to accept its axioms and principles? (Only Buddhism may undergo a much lower level that touches any aspect of life). So remember all the questions to see some insights about the current methods. I just did an example in a training program of Nālandā: Those are listed from low to high, from freshman to senior (and to final level), from easy to difficult, and from simple subject to the most complex subject, and then the latest stage of training is practising. However, this does not mean forcing students to learn all of them but is only highly recommended for novice students. At a level of high intelligence, a student can skip and jump to a level that he may be capable of and also make sure he should pass all tests (by debating) from the lower levels to ensure his path is proper. Why?

a. Learning all physical and mental world definitions, including definitions, definiendum, statuses, behaviours, properties and the relationships between the terms if available (such as sub-classes, opposites, exclusive, mutually exclusive, inclusive.

b. After that, Logic subject training is provided . This is similar to a kind of logic math; however, it is added another level of giving an example for each type of statement/fundamental theorem since Buddhism is NOT targeted pure theoretical but the real world of application, especially in deb bat, to find the Truth / Liberation. With this learning, students can later be capable of judging what is right or wrong, what is suitable or not. What should be followed and not?

c. Brief core of philosophy: The student then learns all primary philosophy schools, Buddhist subschools and non-Buddhist philosophies. Especially within Buddhist Schools, it presents all the significant issues and advantages of each main /sub-school (why?) So each person may find that particular school tenet may be well suitable for his/her capacity in order to learn practice accordingly and adapt to the capacity as well. For each significant school, the teaching includes Definitions, subschools, etymology, principles of beliefs and assertions, terms, path, and result of the path.

d. After that, students have to spend a long time on Prājñaparamita. (If you are Indian, you should know what it means). (the program may take 4-6 years) Students must learn Mahayana school’s complicated, deep, higher-level philosophy here. especially the path (please self-ask yourself why and find the proper answer)

e. The primary teaching and the most challenging subject is the Middle way (Madhyamaka) . The primary teaching comes from Nagarjuna and his students.

f. Finally, students can have training in practice at a deep /high tantric level. During many years of learning, students learned many principles and foundations and were already involved in training in meditation and religious practices. Now he/she only learns the highest levels. He or she can then go to a solitary place for more profound meditation ( usually in 3 years ) or join the same or other organizations to continue life,

g. So during the primary program training: all students are suggested to learn very well in 5 sciences (that are only available in Nālandā and the world at its time) and learn about morality, meditation, and wisdom, which are contented in 3 baskets (Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma)

So to gain more “insight”, please read the following idea from Xuan Zang, which is briefly depicted: Students learn morality, meditation, and wisdom, how to behave in relationships with gurus and also in the school rules, and obey the laws of Buddha. All must learn sūtra, vinaya, and Abhidharma ; those are in Sanskrit, and all students practise non-violence .

In its (Nālandā) long history, no sangha created any taint in morality or the way of life. Every day, there are about 100 teachings in which different topics are discussed. Students never waste time and attend classes that may inspire/interest them. Whenever there is a talk in forums, there must be an expert teacher about the talking topic. The main topics include hetu vidyā, śabdavidyā, śilpa-sthāna-vidyā, citkitsā-vidyā, mantra śāstra and ādhyātmika-vidyā . The other topics are also learned as sāṃkhya, yoga, nyāya, Sanskrit, vyākaraṇa, jyotiṣa, kāvya, alaṃkāra, purāṇa, itihās, dharma śāstra , and Four Vedas Teachings and their sub-branches (Vedāṅga) . Specifically, in Buddhism, there are four primary schools vaibhāṣika, sautrāntika, cittamātra, and Madhyamaka.

The whole program may take from 17 to 21 years on average; why does it take so long? (However, in the case of Xuan Zang, he seems only to need to learn in about 6-7 years; why?)

Remember, the school is open to Buddhist monks and all laypeople (regardless of caste and religion). Students may have to pass some entrance tests; however, that is to admit only the suitable qualified candidates. The tolerance of Nālandā can also be seen through its training program.

Five sciences, logic, debate, philosophy, practice matching/according with theory/schools, tolerance to multiple schools and even to non-Buddhist thoughts

This question was mostly answered in the other question, so I would like to omit it.

Rediscovering Nalanda

As a researcher dedicated to Nalanda, what are your thoughts on the ongoing efforts to revive Nalanda University as a centre for Buddhist studies and academic excellence? How do you envision its future impact on preserving and disseminating Buddhist knowledge?

I wish the University could be revived. There are already many schools either claim the name of Nālandā or say they are doing the schools’ tradition; however, in order to judge, one should look into some points: At 1st, you need to define what is Nālandā and its tradition; what is the goal for what you wanted to achieve. This should be identified clearly and in full detail. Always remember — Wisdom and Compassion is the real point here. Then you can lay out what needs to be taken and what needs to be avoided.

I do not know how far the current wave of building Nālandā University is going on; Here are some instances of my mind — about the questions that need to be resolved before knowing/saying any further:

1. Is that the “traditional Nālandā” reflexes in the school program, and training, especially the fundamental goal of Nālandā (e.g. it is to bring all good heart & qualified people regardless of layer or casts to real happiness and the harmonic?)

2. Do the universities follow Buddhism or at least treat Buddhist philosophy as a vital major ? (please find out why this is an important question)

3. How advantageous may the school plan implement in order to get such a high level of scale in science and philosophy, deep in knowledge, especially in solid areas of Buddhist science including logic, psychology, mental treatment, self-enhancing (by meditation), philosophy and even the foundation of modern science.

Also, to reflect the primary goal of Buddha in the teaching of the paths: reaching the highest level of Compassion and Wisdom, including worldly wisdom. So the path of training of the school is supposed to go on par with this path: A student not only have the highest level of wisdom (if available) or professional knowledge, he/she must also have a warm heart and is an actual human being which has the sound and meaningful morality and altruistic in the way of life (How to train this during schools programs? To tell the truth, I wish to see this point in good shape of implementation yet!)

It is NOT such simple, since in my essays, the research points out that many such the claimed “Nālandā” universities are failed!

Way Forward

You may have to cautiously & carefully learn from good and bad cases either to draw out the lesions before actually starting, including knowing the causes and conditions for applying any succession and avoiding failures from the other cases.

One of the good cases is that the tradition still exists in Buddhist Universities, but we need to know what to take and what not since it looks like the schools you are building are not for monks or nuns.

How to spread the fundamental knowledge and love/likeness about Nālandā among all people of India 1st and later in the world. Why? Without the actual knowledge/love of Nālandā, you can never get the genuine support needed! Whom to serve/get 1st, then what to serve/get later.

How to convince and gather real inspiration and interest from the government and internationally. This one time, I saw, but sorry to me, it failed since the school did not go well. Why? For example, a university board of leaders needs major decision-makers who are at least supposed to know Buddhism and its philosophy correctly (not talk about a more profound level yet). And how the teachings of Buddha are respected and applied in the schools’ activities; this is not to say a student has to recognize who Buddha is. However, He/she is supposed to know what the aim of Buddha means and what the school’s / activities are to present that goal (not another way around as to encourage fame or money first). Allway “keep in mind” the money or fame will come after the high value in the quality of training/teaching, theory and practice, ineffectiveness, and especially in advancing the harmonic and morality (not materialism).

First, to get excellent leaders of the school who have both compassion and wisdom, then to attract the outstanding heart teachers following up. Moreover, with the acknowledgement of what is Nālandā from everyone around, it will thrive and be healthy.

Pandemic Research -MAVERIC – Clinical Science R&D Service – VA Boston Healthcare System. Expert on the Historic Nalanda University.

The new venture is meant to be a revival of Nalanda Mahavihara, the oldest university in the world, which began in the early fifth century. By the time the first European university was established in Bologna in 1088, Nalanda had been providing higher education to thousands of students from Asian countries for more than six hundred years.

The original university at Nalanda was run by a Buddhist foundation in what was then the prosperous region of Bihar—the original center of Buddhist religion, culture, and enlightenment. Its capital was Pataliputra (now called Patna), which also served, beginning in the third century BC , as the capital of the early all-India empires for more than a thousand years. Nalanda drew students not only from all over India, but also from China, Japan, Korea, Sumatra, and other Asian lands with Buddhist connections, and a few from elsewhere, including Turkey. It was the only institution of higher learning outside China to which any Chinese in the ancient world ever went for education.

By the seventh century Nalanda had ten thousand students, receiving instruction not only in Buddhist philosophy and religious practice, but also in a variety of secular subjects, including languages and literatures, astronomy and other sciences, architecture and sculpture, as well as medicine and public health.

As an institution of higher learning, where the entry qualifications were high, Nalanda was supported by a network of other educational organizations that provided information about Nalanda and also helped to prepare students for studying there. Among the Chinese students was the well-known Yi Jing (635–713 AD ), who studied in Nalanda for ten years, and wrote what was perhaps the first comparative study of different medical systems, comparing Chinese and Indian medical practices. Before coming to India, he went first to Sumatra (then the base of the Buddhist Srivijaya empire and now a part of Indonesia) to learn Sanskrit. By the seventh century, there were four other universities in Bihar drawing on Buddhism, all largely inspired by Nalanda. They worked in collaboration, though by the tenth century one of them—Vikramshila—emerged as a serious competitor to Nalanda in higher education.

After more than seven hundred years of successful teaching, Nalanda was destroyed in the 1190s by invading armies from West Asia, which also demolished the other universities in Bihar. The first attack, it is widely believed, was led by the ruthless Turkic conqueror Bakhtiyar Khilji, whose armies devastated many cities and settlements in North India. All the teachers and monks in Nalanda were killed and much of the campus was razed to the ground. Special care was taken to demolish the beautiful statues of Buddha and other Buddhist figures that were spread across the campus. The library—a nine-story building containing thousands of manuscripts—is reputed to have burned for three days. The destruction of Nalanda took place between the establishment of Oxford in 1167 and the founding of Cambridge in 1209.

A proposal to revive Nalanda as a modern international university, though originating in India (particularly in Bihar), has been a pan-Asian initiative from the beginning. The idea was endorsed by all of the sixteen governments that attended the so-called East Asia Summit in January 2007, meeting in Cebu in the Philippines. They represented mostly Asian countries, including (in addition to India) China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, but also Australia and New Zealand.

Subir Halder/India Today Group/Getty Images

George Yeo, Singapore’s foreign minister at the time, and Amartya Sen at a meeting about the reestablishment of Nalanda University, New Delhi, August 2010

The aim of the founders of the new Nalanda was not only to have a first-rate university but to encourage cooperation and interchange of ideas across national borders (again, reflecting the traditions of the ancient Nalanda). They endorsed a “vision” of a new university that would be “open to currents of thought and practice from around the globe.”

Following the summit decision, the project to reestablish Nalanda was led by a “mentor group,” formally appointed by India but with members drawn also from other Asian countries. Distinguished intellectuals, serving as members, come from India as well as China (Wang Bangwei), Japan (Susumu Nakanishi), Singapore (Wang Gungwu and George Yeo), and Thailand (Prapod Assavavirulhakam). The university was established by an act of the Indian Parliament in 2010, and following that, the mentor group became the governing board of the revived Nalanda University. I have until recently been serving as chair of the board and chancellor of the new university.

The funds for rebuilding Nalanda have come mostly from the government of India, which made a further financial commitment in January 2014 to meet the basic costs until 2021. However, the citizens and governments of a number of other countries have also made contributions, including China, Australia, Singapore, Thailand, and Laos. All the land for the university has been donated by the government of Bihar, which is also assisting with ground and other facilities.

The reestablished Nalanda University will eventually have its new campus in the ancient town of Rajgir, a few miles away from the old Nalanda. The design and planning of the new campus, by the well-known architectural firm Vastu Shilpa Consultants (chosen by an international competition), are now completed, and the work of construction is about to begin. Since even the first phase of the work will take a few years, Nalanda has started functioning, on a small scale, in rented premises in Rajgir, under the incisive leadership of the vice-chancellor, Dr. Gopa Sabharwal, and the dean of academic planning, Dr. Anjana Sharma.

Most of the first students at Nalanda have come from India, but there are some from other Asian countries as well (Japan and Bhutan in particular), and the teachers have been recruited not just from India, but also from the United States, Germany, and South Korea. In addition to classes now being taught in history, environmental studies, and ecology, plans are being made for teaching economics and development studies, public health, and Buddhist philosophy and comparative religions. Eventually, Nalanda will offer courses in international relations, linguistics, and literature, as well as information science and technology.

In my visits to the campus, I have been impressed by the quality of teaching and discussion among the faculty and students. In view of the deep skepticism that many critics had earlier expressed about the possibility of having a successful international university in a remote and backward part of India, there is something very reassuring about what has been achieved, and about the academic climate that has already become palpable.

“Ritorno a Nalanda” was a remarkable and hopeful moment. But relations have become troubled between the newly elected government of India and the governing board of Nalanda University. The previous coalition government, with the National Congress Party as its dominant partner, initiated the revival of Nalanda University in collaboration with the government of Bihar and the East Asia Summit. When the national government lost the general elections in the spring of 2014, it was replaced by members of a very different political alignment, with a new prime minister, Narendra Modi, of the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP )— a part of the powerful Hindutva movement, which is dedicated to promoting India’s Hindu traditions, with Modi himself supporting not only Hindutva but also the goals of private business.

At the time of the general elections, I saw it my duty, as a citizen of India, to argue publicly against Modi’s sectarian political leadership, which posed a threat to India’s long-standing commitment to secularism. While critical of some features of the Congress-led coalition government (particularly its growing inefficiency and corruption), I strongly feared that minorities, particularly Muslims as well as Christians, would be insecure under Modi’s rule. This fear was based partly on his long history as a member—and a public advocate (or pracharak )—of the Hindu right-wing movement called Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh ( RSS ).

The fear was also based on the history of communal violence in Gujarat when Modi was chief minister of the state. More than a thousand people, mostly Muslims, perished in the riots there in 2002. Modi had a good reputation as an economic administrator in Gujarat but he failed to take effective action to protect non-Hindus from attack. My worries, I am afraid, have not been dispelled (despite verbal reassurances from Modi). Under the new regime, there have been sporadic occurrences of church burning and the concerted efforts of Hindutva activists to encourage conversion of non-Hindus to Hinduism, called ghar wapsi (“returning home”).

I was, therefore, not entirely surprised to find that the new government opposed my continuing as chancellor of Nalanda University. However, the larger issue concerns the academic independence of institutions of higher learning. The new government and its allies have been active in trying to impose their own views on many academic institutions, and Nalanda’s academic independence has been under considerable threat over the last year. Many of the statutes concerning the governance of Nalanda that were passed by the board (as it was authorized to do) have not been acted on or even presented by the government to the Visitor of the University—the president of India—for endorsement. (All such statutes require formal government approval before they become effective.) The government tried suddenly, without any consultation with the governing board, to make radical changes in the board’s membership—a move that did not work because the proposed changes violated provisions of the Nalanda University Act passed by the Indian Parliament in 2010.

The government has also tried, much more successfully, to remove me as chancellor, overruling the unanimous decision of Nalanda’s governing board that I should continue—a decision arrived at in the board’s meeting in January chaired by George Yeo, the former foreign minister of Singapore. While I appreciated the unanimous support, it soon became clear to me that the tension between the government and the governing board of Nalanda over my continuing as chancellor was proving to be a barrier to the work of rebuilding the school. It also became obvious that the government’s hostility would prevent me from being an effective leader. I told the board that, under the circumstances, I will not accept reappointment when my present term comes to an end in mid-July of this year.

In fact, I strongly believe that it should not be difficult to find a very distinguished candidate who understands the vision that lies behind Nalanda’s revival and appreciates what Nalanda has to offer to contemporary higher education in India and elsewhere. It is, however, extremely important to make sure that the academic independence of Nalanda under the new chancellor is respected. The university must not be subject to partisan political pressure.

The central issue goes well beyond the headline of a well-researched recent report in the Italian newspaper La Repubblica : “Il Nobel e il Premier: Sen contro Modi.” While it is certainly true that the Modi government is not pleased with the political positions I have taken, the confrontation is ultimately not about personalities. It is about the principles governing public institutions, particularly the importance of academic independence.

Unfortunately, the government’s pressures on Nalanda are part of a general pattern of interference in academic leadership across the country. For example, in January of this year, Dr. Sandip Trivedi, a widely respected physicist, was appointed the director of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research ( TIFR )—perhaps the most prestigious scientific institution in India—by a selection committee chaired by one of India’s most well-known scientists, C.N.R. Rao. But the institute was told by the prime minister’s office that Trivedi had to be removed from his post, and Trivedi stepped down. This led to a good deal of public criticism, and the government told the TIFR in June that Trivedi could return as director.

In December, Raghunath Shevgaonkar, the well-known director of the Indian Institute of Technology ( IIT ) in Delhi, also resigned from his position, alleging government interference in the IIT ’s decisions. In March, Dr. Anil Kakodkar, one of the leading nuclear scientists of India (and a former chair of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission), who chaired the governing board of the Indian Institute of Technology in Bombay, protested against meddling by the government and made it clear that he was unwilling to serve in future activities.

In late February the government asked the famous writer Sethumadhavan to leave his position as chairman of the National Book Trust, which was set up decades ago as “an autonomous body under the Ministry of Education.” The trust has had an excellent record of supporting the publication of worthy books. Following Sethumadhavan’s removal, his position was given to a Hindutva ideologue, Baldev Sharma, a former editor of the journal Panchajanya , which The Times of India described as “the RSS mouthpiece.” More recently, the government has proposed a bill that would give it direct control over India’s thirteen Institutes of Management ( IIM ), the country’s main institutions for postgraduate education in management. This has been sharply protested by the directors and chairmen of the institutes themselves.

It is hard not to conclude that the government has difficulty in appreciating the distinction between (1) an autonomous institution supported by the government, using state resources, and (2) an institution under the direct command of the government currently in office. For many hundreds of years universities in Europe have been helped to become academically excellent by governments that respect their autonomy. The British protect academic independence with much care in their own country even though the British rulers of colonial India very often violated the independence of public academic institutions. The government of India seems to prefer the colonial model.

This is, of course, not the first time that a ruling Indian government has interfered in academic matters. The record of noninterference of the previous Congress government was far from impeccable. And yet the extent of intervention has become both unprecedented and often politically extreme under the present regime. 1

The newly appointed head of the Indian Council of Historical Research ( ICHR ), Yellapragada Sudershan Rao, is perhaps more well known for his Hindutva-oriented opinions than for any historical research he has done. For example, in his paper “Indian Caste System: A Reappraisal,” Rao praises the caste system, which—we are told—is often “misrepresented as an exploitative system.” Rao’s strong links with the group called Akhil Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana ( ABISY ), which is known as the “history wing” of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, has been a source of concern in the academic community, especially after four ABISY activists were appointed to the council of the ICHR . Sabyasachi Bhattacharya, a leading historian and the chief editor of the official journal of ICHR (the Indian Historical Review ), resigned in protest against the transformation of the ICHR .

The new head of the Indian Council of Cultural Relations, Dr. Lokesh Chandra, appointed by the Modi government, has informed The Indian Express that “from a practical point of view [Modi] supersedes the Mahatma [Gandhi].” Chandra has also expressed the view that Modi is, in fact, “a reincarnation of God.” Chandra has said he believes that six million Koreans trace their ancestry back to an Indian princess from Ayodhya.

In view of the general record of the Modi government it was not particularly surprising that the government chose to interfere in the governance of Nalanda. But the confrontations between the governing board and the government, and the removal of the chancellor, got unusual public attention, with wide coverage in the press and editorial criticism of the government in several papers. These reactions have certainly helped to have a restraining effect on the government, unlike the case of many other academic institutions. The widespread public attention and questioning have, in effect, helped the minister of external affairs, Sushma Swaraj, to seek a solution that would be publicly defensible—rather than insisting on the unilateral extremism that characterizes many of the academic interventions by the Modi government.

The presence of intellectuals from other Asian countries on the governing board of Nalanda has also helped to protect the university from the government’s sectarian pressures. The board, which I continued to chair until July, decided in early May to name three non-Indian Asian members of the board, putting George Yeo of Singapore at the top of the list, as possible chancellor with Wang Bangwei of China and Susumu Nakanishi of Japan as reserves. Yeo has just accepted the position with the assurance that he will have the independence that will be required for running the university. Given his commitment to the principles of Nalanda, in addition to his vast knowledge of Asian traditions and remarkable intellectual and administrative skills, his appointment is a very good outcome. 2 It will remain extremely important, however, for the government to give Yeo the independence he will need to make Nalanda an academic success.

When the old Nalanda began functioning in the fifth century, there was no other university in the world. There are now 687 universities in India—and others are being established. Why do we need one more? What makes Nalanda so special?

The history of education at the old Nalanda, which inspires the teachers and students of the reestablished Nalanda, remains powerfully relevant here. The tradition of Nalanda insisted on high educational standards, which are certainly important in India today where there is a conspicuous lack of official commitment to improving the quality of education. But it is also important now to follow the Nalanda tradition of global cooperation, a systematic attempt to learn across the barriers of regions and countries. What the Asian Civilizations Museum in Singapore called “the Nalanda trail” in its remarkable exhibition during 2007–2008 (when the proposal to restart Nalanda University was being planned) emphasized the spread of knowledge and understanding from one country to another across Asia, driven by intellectual curiosity and interest rather than the pursuit of material profit.

The pedagogy that prevailed in the old Nalanda is strongly relevant here. The school regularly arranged debates between people—teachers, students, and visitors—who held different points of view. The method of teaching included arguments between teachers and students. Indeed, as one of Nalanda’s most distinguished Chinese students, Xuan Zang (602–664 AD ) noted, education in Nalanda was not primarily offered through the “bestowing” of knowledge by lecturers, but through extensive debates—between students and teachers and among the students themselves—on all the subjects that were taught.

I have been impressed to find that the emphasis on debate is already strong in the pedagogy of the new Nalanda, not just on the topics in the syllabus, but also on more general subjects. For example, when I visited Nalanda last October—a month after classes started there—we discussed the respective roles of “the Silk Route” and “the Nalanda trail” in the development of intercountry connections. There has been much historical discussion of the trading links between Asia and Europe, and particularly the Silk Road linking China with regions in the West. Originally established between the third century BC and the third century AD , during the Han dynasty, the Silk Road was of great importance not only for trade and commerce, but also for the intermingling of people and ideas.

A critical question can be asked, however, whether an exaggerated focus on trade of commodities, and related to that, an excessive emphasis on the role of the Silk Road, may result in the neglect of intellectual influences—in religion, science, mathematics, art, and architecture—that were not dependent on trade. If trade is a big influence in getting people to take an interest in one another, as David Hume famously noted, so is the sheer pursuit of human curiosity, as Hume also observed. The “Nalanda trail” is, in this sense, a kind of rival to the Silk Road. The rightly admired exhibition at New York’s Metropolitan Museum during 2012–2013, called “Buddhism Along the Silk Road, 5th–8th Century,” merged the two; but the disparate elements in the two types of routes in that grand history can be usefully distinguished. 3

Unlike Yi Jing, who journeyed to Nalanda by sea in the seventh century, Xuan Zang came, in the same century, on the land route, which coincided in some parts with the Silk Road (even though Nalanda is quite far away from that route). But what motivated Xuan Zang—no less than Yi Jing—to undertake that long voyage (and to spend a decade in Nalanda) was his huge curiosity about Buddhism, Buddhist enlightenment, and the subjects taught at Nalanda, in all of which the influence of trade and material pursuit was minimal.

Knowledge of arts, culture, mathematics, science, and engineering, along with religious and ethical reasoning, has moved people across regions for thousands of years. In our divisive world today, the need for nonbusiness and nonconfrontational encounters is extremely strong, and here Nalanda has an important vision to offer.

It is not hard to see how profoundly the intellectual commitment reflected in the pursuit of the Nalanda Trail was inspired by Gautama Buddha’s emphasis on enlightenment without borders—for all people, irrespective of caste, class, and nationality. 4 The issue of the spread of knowledge was raised in a conversation in the seventh century when Xuan Zang completed his studies and was considering going back to China. The professors at Nalanda asked Xuan Zang to stay on as a member of the faculty. He turned them down, observing that Buddha had taught the world not to enjoy enlightenment by oneself. If one learns something, it is one’s duty to share it with others, and therefore Xuan Zang believed he must go home to do just that. (He was in fact very warmly welcomed back in China.)

Indeed, it can be argued that the vast sweep of Buddhist enlightenment across China, Japan, Korea, Thailand, and much of East Asia was so successful because it was not just an imposition of foreign ideas, but was mainly based on cultural interests and intellectual engagement. 5 Buddha himself was eloquent on that subject, and yet in recent years, some Buddhist groups have been much occupied in fomenting prejudice, for example against Rohingya Muslims in Rakine in Burma. As a result of such persecution, and the violations of human rights by the militarist government, there has been a huge flight of Muslim refugees seeking a new home. Some formally Buddhist institutions badly need to learn from Buddha’s advocacy of reasoning and dialogue instead of confrontation and violence.

The town of Rajgir where the campus of the new Nalanda is being built is exactly where the first “Buddhist Council” met two and half thousand years ago, not long after Buddha’s death, “to resolve differences by discussion,” including divergent views on religious beliefs and social practice. A later Buddhist council, the third, was very large and met in Pataliputra (now Patna) at the invitation of Emperor Ashoka in the third century BC . It was the most famous of these councils, but the approach of resolving difference through discussion had been already established three hundred years earlier in Rajgir.

Nalanda has thus been revived near the site of the very first attempt at what John Stuart Mill and Walter Bagehot would celebrate in the nineteenth century as “government by discussion.” The powerful vision behind Nalanda is important for India, for Asia, and for the rest of the world. It must be free of authoritarian and sectarian pressures.

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The interferences have sometimes been accompanied by the planting of false reports, typically through public statements by Hindutva leaders (or by journalists friendly to Hindutva). An example of the crudeness of the attack can be seen in the much-publicized public statement of a prominent BJP leader that the Nalanda chancellor is “paid an annual salary of Rs. 50 lakhs” ($80,000) rather than no salary at all, or that “so far about Rs. 3000 crores,” or about $484 million, have already been spent by Nalanda University. In fact, rather less than 2 percent of that sum (Rs. 46 crores, or $7.42 million) has been expended altogether, including construction costs, from the beginning of the university until the end of the last fiscal year (2014–2015). On misinformation put out to the media by the government itself, see the news interview with Professor Sugata Bose, a member of the Nalanda governing board (and also a member of Indian Parliament), published in The Telegraph , Kolkata, April 1, 2015. ↩

For Yeo’s analysis of the things that bind Asia together and give us such strong reasons to be hopeful about its future, see George Yeo on Bonsai, Banyan and the Tao , with a foreword by Amartya Sen (World Scientific Publishing, 2015). ↩

See William Dalrymple, “ The Great and Beautiful Lost Kingdoms ,” The New York Review , May 21, 2015. ↩

I have tried to discuss related issues in my essay “The Contemporary Relevance of Buddha,” Ethics and International Affairs , Vol. 28, No. 1 (2014). ↩

On this subject, see also Dalrymple, “ The Great and Beautiful Lost Kingdoms .” ↩

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myIndiamyGlory

Ancient. medieval. post-medieval. present..

Nalanda: 9 Million Books Burnt in 1193 by Bakhtiyar Khilji

Nalanda University! The very utterance of this name will transport you to India’s ancient terrain of knowledge. This ancient center of higher learning, located in Bihar (in the ancient kingdom of Magadha), is India’s second oldest university after Takshila. Spread over an area of 14 hectares, it was a principal seat of learning from the last century of BCE till (the Turkish invasion of) 1193, attracting students from as far as Tibet, China, Greece, and Persia. While datable history of Nalanda University as per literary records and inscriptions started from the Gupta period, dating back to at least 2100 years, archaeological excavations and further discoveries prove it existed since the period beyond 1200 BCE.

All of the ancient Indian universities including Nalanda followed highly formalized methods of Vedic learning. It was the Guptas who patronized university education, leading to the establishment of Nalanda University. A seal identifying a monarch named Shakraditya believed to be Kumaragupta I, a Gupta emperor, is considered the founder of Nalanda.

While students from across the world enrolled for higher studies, there have been evidences of kings from foreign lands donating for the building of structures within the Nalanda University complex. There is archaeological evidence of a Shailendra king of Indonesia who built a structure within the campus. Nalanda University was a residential seat of learning and the campus contained 10 temples, classrooms, meditation halls, monasteries, dormitories, etc. including lakes and parks spread across eight compounds. The university accommodated over 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers.

To quote AICTE on Nalanda University from its article on ‘Ancient Universities in India’,

“The center had eight separate compounds, 10 temples, meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books and documents so that individual scholars could have their own collections. It had dormitories for students, perhaps a first for an educational institution, housing 10,000 students in the university’s heyday and providing accommodations for 2,000 professors. Nalanda University attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey.”

According to accounts by pilgrim monks from East Asia and other historians, the curriculum in Nalanda University included study of Mahayana Buddhism, the Vedas , Logic, Sanskrit Grammar, Medicine, Samkhya, and more subjects on every field of learning.

Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed by Turkish Muslim invaders, also called Mamluks, under Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1193 AD. The great library of Nalanda University was so vast that it is reported to have housed more than 9 million manuscripts. According to traditional Tibetan sources, the library at Nalanda University was spread over three large multi-storeyed buildings. One of these buildings had nine storeys that housed the most sacred manuscripts. The library burned for three months after the invaders set fire to the buildings. The Muslim invaders ransacked and destroyed the monasteries and drove the monks from the site.

To quote Paul Monroe’s Encyclopaedia of History of Education, Volume 1 by Paul Monroe about the three multi-storey libraries and Sanskrit texts:

We have already seen that I-tsing stayed for his studies at Nalanda for the long period of ten years (A. D. 675-85), during which he collected there some 400 Sanskrit texts amounting to 500,000 slokas (p.xvii). This shows that Nalanda possessed a well-equipped library. Information on the Nalanda University Library is given in the Tibetan accounts, from which we know that the Library, situated in a special area known by the poetical name of Dharmaganj a (Mart of Religion), comprised three huge buildings, called Ratnaagara, Ratnodadhi, and Rat-naranjala, of which Ratnasagara, which was a ninestoreyed building, specialized in the collection of rare sacred works like Praniapa-ramtia-sutra and Tantrika books like Samajaguhya and the like.

Description about Nalanda University Libraries in the book ‘Paul Monroe’s Encyclopaedia of History of Education, Volume 1’ by Paul Monroe.

Bakhtiyar Khilji, a chieftain, was in the service of a commander in Awadh. The Persian historian, Minhaj-i-Siraj in his book Tabaqat-i Nasiri , recorded his deeds a few decades later. Khilji was assigned two villages on the border of Bihar which had become a political no-man’s land. Sensing an opportunity, he began a series of successful plundering raids into Bihar. He was recognized and rewarded for his efforts by his superiors. Emboldened, Khilji decided to attack a fort in Bihar and was able to successfully capture it, looting it of a great booty.

Barbarian Khilji in a painting from Hutchinson’s ‘Story of the Nations’. It depicts Khilji trying to make sense of a manuscript. Source: Wikipedia

Minhaj-i-Siraj wrote of this attack:

“Muhammad-i-Bakht-yar, by the force of his intrepidity, threw himself into the postern of the gateway of the place, and they captured the fortress, and acquired great booty. The greater number of the inhabitants of that place were Brahmans, and the whole of those Brahmans had their heads shaven; and they were all slain. There were a great number of books there; and, when all these books came under the observation of the Musalmans, they summoned a number of Hindus that they might give them information respecting the import of those books; but the whole of the Hindus had been killed. On becoming acquainted [with the contents of those books], it was found that the whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in the Hindui tongue, they call a college Bihar.”

Here is a screenshot of the above quote from Minhaj-i-Siraj’s book Tabaqat-i Nasiri translated by Raverty:

Minhaj-i-Siraj also wrote in his book Tabaquat-I-Nasiri about thousands of monks being burned alive and thousands beheaded as Khilji tried his best to uproot Buddhism and plant Islam by the sword. The burning of the library continued for several months and ‘smoke from the burning manuscripts hung for days like a dark pall over the low hills.’

Nalanda University before excavations. Source: Wiki Commons

According to another historical source, Rahul Sri Bhadra, a Buddhist scholar of Ayurveda treated Bakhtiyar Khilji for an illness which was deemed incurable by his court Haqims. Disturbed by the fact that an Indian scholar and teacher knew more than the Haqims of his own court, Khilji decided to destroy the roots of all knowledge and Ayurveda in this country. So he set fire to the Great Library of Nalanda and burned down 9 million manuscripts! Given the three multi-story libraries that also included a nine storey library evidenced by literary records, 9 million is just a number. The number of manuscripts the libraries accommodated that catered to 10,000 students and 2000 teachers must be beyond this number.

It has been wrongly interpreted that Nalanda was only a Buddhist centre. According to finds by the ASI, many artefacts discovered were of Hindu deities. To quote a few lines from a research paper on these finds titled ‘ Recent Archaeological Investigations in Nalanda and Surroundings (Bihar), India ‘ by Jalaj Kumar Tiwari and Neetesh Saxena, published in academia.edu, “ Eighteen stone sculptural fragments, datable from post-Gupta to Pala period, were noticed at Gauraiya-sthana . Among them Uma- Maheshwar, Surya, Vishnu, Chamunda , birth of Buddha and an inscribed votive stupa are noteworthy.” To quote further, in another site of Nalanda were discovered amongst many artefacts were “ Ganesha, Uma-Maheshwar, Brahma (48 × 38 cm), Tara, Vishnu, Buddha , votive stupa , Mahisamardani (70 × 40 × 15 cm) are noteworthy. A stone axe (celt) having 7.5 cm length is also worshiped as Siva-linga at Sati-sthana.”

Shakyashribhadra, the recorded last king of Nalanda fled to Tibet in 1204 CE at the invitation of the Tibetan translator Tropu Lotsawa (Khro-phu Lo-tsa-ba Byams-pa dpal). In Tibet he started an ordination lineage of the Mulasarvastivadins to complement the two existing ones.

When the Tibetan translator Chag Lotsawa (Chag Lo-tsa-ba, 1197–1264) visited the site in 1235, he found it damaged and looted, with a 90-year-old teacher, Rahula Shribhadra, instructing a class of about 70 students. During Chag Lotsawa’s time, there was an incursion by Turkish soldiers that caused the remaining students to flee. Despite all this, “remnants of the debilitated Buddhist community continued to struggle on under scare resources until c. 1400 CE when Chagalaraja was reportedly the last king to have patronized Nalanda.”

Author Shri D.C. Ahir considers the destruction of the temples, monasteries, centers of learning at Nalanda and northern India to be responsible for the demise of ancient Indian scientific thought in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, and anatomy. Most of the manuscripts burnt contained valuable inputs on these subjects.

Regarding antiquity of Nalanda University, most historians consider 3rd to 5th century. According to ‘Puranas’, inscriptions, and severa l Indian literary historical evidences, Gupta era was during the last 300 years of BCE. As per Vedveer Arya’s book Chronology of Ancient India , the Gupta era commenced from 335 BCE. As the foundation of Nalanda University was laid by a Gupta Emperor, this learning centre flourished from the last years of BCE until Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed it.

Visit Indian History Real Truth Facebook group to view related posts. This article is part of ‘ JEWELS OF BHARATAM SERIES [TM] ‘ by the author.

Disclaimer: The views expressed here and/or research done are solely of the author. My India My Glory does not assume any responsibility for the validity or information shared in this article by the author.

Featured image courtesy: Masterstudies.

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EssayEmpire

Nalanda essay.

Nalanda was the most renowned center of Buddhist learning in India in the fourth–12th centuries. A Buddhist monastic center and major university were located at Nalanda, which is in Baragaon, Bihar state, in east central India, about 90 miles southeast of the state capital of Patna. The village’s association with Buddhism predates the establishment of the university and monastery: Legend has it that the Gautama Buddha visited the Nalanda village several times and delivered sermons there, and that one of his principal disciples, Sariputta, was born near Nalanda village. Nalanda University was established in the fifth century and grew, with more than 10,000 students from many different countries attending the university at the time of its destruction in the 12th century. The Chinese pilgrim and scholar Xuanzang (Hsuan-tsang) studied at Nalanda University in the seventh century and left detailed accounts of it in his writings. Besides Theraveda and Mahayana Buddhism, instruction was offered in medicine, astronomy, and art.

Nalanda, along with many other Buddhist monasteries and temples, was sacked by Turko-Afghan Muslim invaders led by Bakhtiyar Khalji in the 12th century. The monastery and university were destroyed and many of the monks either were killed or fled to other parts of Asia, in particular Nepal and Tibet. This invasion marked the virtual end of Buddhist culture in India until the 1950s, although Buddhism continued to flourish in other Asian countries such as Tibet, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. In fact Buddhism in those countries was partly nourished by monks from Nalanda who sought refuge. Many historians also believe that destruction of Buddhist centers of higher learning at this time caused the abrupt demise of ancient Indian scientific thought in areas such as mathematics and medicine.

The ruins of Nalanda are frequently studied by scholars today because of their central importance in the history of Buddhist history, culture, and art. Currently excavated ruins cover an area of about 150,000 square miles, and it is estimated that this constitutes only 10 percent of the total area that was developed in the 12th century, as described by Xuanzang. Nalanda is also the name of the administrative district where the ruins are located. The name Nalanda means “the place that confers the lotus” and survives as the name of a Buddhist monastery near Lavaur, France, and two colleges, one in Toronto, and one in Sri Lanka.

Bibliography :

Chauley, G. C. Art and Architecture of Nalanda. New Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, 2002;
Ling, Trevor Oswald. The Buddha: Buddhist Civilization in India and Ceylon. London: Temple Smith, 1973;
Paul, Debjani. The Art of Nalanda: A Development of Buddhist Sculpture, a.d. 600–1200. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1995;
Thakur, Upendra. Buddhist Cities in Early India: Buddha-Gaya, Rajagrha, Nalanda. Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, 1995;
Wiggins, Sally Hovey. The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2004.

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History of Nalanda University

Nalanda university, destruction under bakhtiyar khalji, revival of nalanda university.

When the Gupta Empire was in power, several Indian sponsors helped create Nalanda. Its faculty over 750 years comprised some of the most renowned experts in Mahayana Buddhism. Grammar, medicine, logic, and mathematics were among the six main Buddhist schools and philosophies taught by Nalanda Mahavihara, along with Yogacara and Sarvastivada. Many books written at Nalanda contributed to the growth of the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism. By the time Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji’s army plundered and destroyed it, it had been partially reconstructed, and it had survived until around the year 1400 CE.

At the time that Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang travelled to India, Nalanda was a center of study. He spent time learning in Nalanda with other pilgrims, and he characterized it as:

The Nalanda professors were individuals of the finest talent and ability. They firmly adhered to the Buddha’s teachings.
Everyone was required to abide by the severe restrictions of the monastery.
All during the day, discussions take place. The young and the aged helped each other in turn.
Men of learning from many cities came here to clear up their questions.

The gatekeeper grilled newcomers with challenging inquiries. After responding to such inquiries, they are only permitted to enter. Seven to eight people out of 10 are unable to respond. Due to its dedication to the growth of India as a powerful force in the fourth century, the College of Nalanda gained significant notoriety, respect, and importance in earlier times and climbed to remarkable stature.

At its height, the institution attracted students and researchers from all over the world, including individuals from Tibet, China, Korea, and Central Asia. The formation of significant showing institutions was aided by the highly organized Buddhist examining methods. The Shailendra tradition of Indonesia was also contacted, according to archaeological evidence, and one of its kings built a cloister within the complex. In the fifth and sixth centuries, the Gupta Empire supported Nalanda, and later under Harsha, the king of Kannauj, Nalanda flourished. The Gupta era’s open social practices contributed to a period of growth and prosperity that lasted until the ninth century CE. The hundreds of years that followed were marked by increasing degradation, and it was during this time that the Pala Empire in eastern India saw the tantric advancements of Buddhism become widely articulated.

The teachers and practices at Nalanda have a significant influence on how Tibetan Buddhism, including its Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, came to exist. A researcher in Nalanda, Shantarakshita was responsible for the eighth-century expansion of Buddhism in Tibet. Khri-soon-deu-tsan, the Tibetan monarch, welcomed him. He later established the cloister at Samye and served as the institution’s first abbot. He and his student Kamalashila essentially taught the Tibetans how to reason. One of the major exponents of Buddhist atomism as well as one of the Buddhist philosophers of Indian reason, the researcher Dharmakirti, taught at Nalanda.

Nalanda and other nearby monasteries, including the Odantapuri Vihar, were demolished and the decline of the Ghurid dynasty general Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji was started. Three sources that are consistent but contain certain gaps that cause doubts and a small disagreement about the precise date support this destruction. A Muslim historian provides the first piece of proof. The second is Buddhist monks’ records that were uncovered in Tibet. The third form of proof comes from archaeological digs when layers of charcoal deposits were found covering damaged artwork, ruins, and Nalanda library remnants.

For several centuries, Nalanda University remained abandoned and largely forgotten. The site gradually became covered with vegetation and fell into disrepair. The decline of Buddhism in India, along with political and social changes, contributed to the neglect and abandonment of the once prestigious institution.

In more recent times, efforts have been made to revive and restore Nalanda University. The revival initiative gained momentum in the early 2000s, with the establishment of the Nalanda Mentor Group in 2007 and the passing of the Nalanda University Act in 2010 by the Indian government.

The revival project aims to recreate Nalanda University as a modern international institution for higher learning, focusing on interdisciplinary studies in the humanities, social sciences, and ecological studies. The new Nalanda University campus was constructed near the ancient site of the original university in Rajgir, Bihar.

With the establishment of the revived Nalanda University, efforts have been made to attract faculty, students, and scholars from around the world. The university has initiated academic programs, research projects, and collaborations with global institutions.

While the revived Nalanda University carries the name and legacy of the ancient institution, it is important to note that it is a modern institution with a different structure and academic focus. It seeks to embody the spirit of knowledge, intellectual exchange, and cultural engagement that characterized the ancient Nalanda University.

FAQs on Nalanda University

1. write a short note on nalanda university..

Nalanda University is an educational instituted in ancient India and was established during the Gupta period and students from different corners of India came to study.

2. Why is Nalanda University famous?

Nalanda University is over 750 years and the faculty consisted of scholars from Mahayana Buddhism who taught 6 major Buddhist schools and philosophies.

3. Who discovered Nalanda University?

Nalanda University was discovered by Sir Francis Buchanan.

4. What are the three special features of Nalanda University?

The three special features of Nalanda University are as follows: Nalanda university as established in 5th century by Kumargupta I. Famous library of Nalanda is known as Dharmaganj. There are three multistorey building which are Ratnasagar, Ratnodadhi and Ratna Ranjak.

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Nalanda University History, Library, Destruction and Reconstruction
History of Nalanda University. Nalanda, an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India, holds a remarkable history spanning from 427 to 1197 AD. Founded in the 5th century AD, this prestigious institution, situated in northeastern India not far from the current southern border of Nepal, stood as a beacon of knowledge and wisdom.
Nalanda mahavihara
Nalanda (IAST: Nālandā, pronounced [naːlən̪d̪aː]) was a renowned Buddhist mahavihara (great monastery) in ancient and medieval Magadha (modern-day Bihar), eastern India. Nalanda is considered to be among the greatest centers of learning in the ancient world.It was located near the city of Rajagriha (now Rajgir) and about 90 kilometres (56 mi) southeast of Pataliputra (now Patna).
(PDF) Nalanda: powerful then, powerful now.
This essay provides a popular account of the historical and religious significance of Nālandā university. ... Nalanda University has been established with a vision of being a foremost international institution in India. It begun its academic activities from 2014. The University is posed to be a unique meeting ground for various branches of ...
Nalanda University: An Ancient Indian Ivy-League Institution
The Origin Of Nalanda University Stolen Statue of Buddha (surfaced after 57 years), 12 th century, via the Smithsonian, Washington D.C. Legend has it that Nalanda University land was purchased for 10 kotis (old currency form) of gold pieces by five hundred merchants. They gifted the land to Lord Buddha, who preached under a Pāvārikāmbavana (mango grove of Pavarika) for several years.
Nalanda: University to the World
Evidence found at Nalanda suggests that the university has a history dating back only as far as the Gupta Empire of the 5th century CE. This is based on the fact that the oldest seal recovered during excavations here bears the inscription Kumaramatyadhikarana in Gupta script from the 5th century.. But historians like K A Nilakanta Sastri suggest the 3rd or 4th century CE marked the beginnings ...
Nalanda University, Nalanda: Unveiling the Architectural Marvel of
Nalanda University, Nalanda - Archeological sites around India Nestled in the serene landscapes of Nalanda, the ancient Nalanda University stands as a testament to the architectural and intellectual prowess of ancient India. This architectural marvel, with its roots dating back to the 5th century, continues to captivate the minds of historians, architects, and tourists alike.
What the ruins of the original Nalanda university tell us about an old
Nalanda Mahavihara likely arose a few years after Faxian's visit - during the reign of Kumaragupta (reigned c 414-55 CE) - and lasted around eight centuries.
Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar
The Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State of Bihar, in north-eastern India. It comprises the archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. It includes stupas, shrines, viharas (residential and educational buildings) and important art works in stucco, stone and metal.
Nalanda Mahavihara
Where is it located: Nalanda district, Bihar, India. Why was it built: As Mahavihara (large Buddhist monastery) Best Time to Visit: October to March. Visit Timing: Daily, 9 am to 5 pm. How to Reach: Nearest railhead is Rajgir (11 km) and airport is Patna (89 km) Nalanda, a large Buddhist monastery, now in ruins, was one of the most publicly ...
(PDF) Nalanda University Nalanda University
NALANDA was a renowned Buddhist monastic university in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), India. Considered by historians to be the world's very first residential university, and among the greatest centers of learning in the ancient world, it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now Rajgir) and about 90 kilometres (56 mi) southeast of Pataliputra (now Patna), operating from 427 to 1197 CE.
Nalanda University: Unraveling the Legacy of Ancient Wisdom and
About the other ancient institutes: primarily, the essay has one chapter that mentions Vikramaśila Institute, but it is not to compare them but to show this institute was a sub-school of Nālandā. Nalanda's Influence The representation of Nalanda University. 4. Nalanda University attracted scholars and students from various regions.
Nalanda University
Nalanda University was established to emulate the ancient university of Nalanda (Nalanda mahavihara), which functioned between the 5th and 13th centuries. The idea to resurrect Nalanda University was endorsed in 2007 at the 2nd East Asia Summit by the sixteen member countries. [3]
The Ancient Nalanda University Library
March 15, 2020. News. The Ancient Nalanda University Library. its destruction and tragic loss of millions of manuscripts burned to ashes by Turkic invaders led by Bakhtiyar Khilji. Ancient Nalanda University. Nalanda Mahavihara was established in the 5th century BC in the ancient Magadha Kingdom (modern Bihar, north-eastern India).
India: The Stormy Revival of an International University
The reestablished Nalanda University will eventually have its new campus in the ancient town of Rajgir, a few miles away from the old Nalanda. The design and planning of the new campus, by the well-known architectural firm Vastu Shilpa Consultants (chosen by an international competition), are now completed, and the work of construction is about ...
Nalanda: 9 Million Books Burnt in 1193 by Bakhtiyar Khilji
Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed by Turkish Muslim invaders, also called Mamluks, under Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1193 AD. The great library of Nalanda University was so vast that it is reported to have housed more than 9 million manuscripts. According to traditional Tibetan sources, the library at Nalanda University was spread over three large ...
Nalanda Essay ⋆ History Essay Examples ⋆ EssayEmpire
Nalanda was the most renowned center of Buddhist learning in India in the fourth-12th centuries. A Buddhist monastic center and major university were located at Nalanda, which is in Baragaon, Bihar state, in east central India, about 90 miles southeast of the state capital of Patna. The village's association with Buddhism predates the ...
The Nalanda University: India's Ancient Center of Learning
The university was located in Nalanda, an ancient city that was a major center of learning in ancient India. The institution was founded by Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I, who intended to establish a ...
(PDF) Cultural Life at Nalanda University
Nalanda University was a stunning balance of study and veneration. It was quite visible by. the architectural plan of Nalanda (Figure 1). Its campus comprised 14 temples and 13. monasteries facing ...
Essay on Nalanda University
The very name Nalanda has been derived from the word Na-alam-da insatiable in giving, implying that the university education in those days did not cram the mind with knowledge but created an insatiable thirst for it. Rise and fall. The date of its foundation is not known for certain. Though as a monastic seat it was founded long ago, as a seat ...
Essay On Nalanda University
Essay On Nalanda University. 2266 Words10 Pages. I f any one event signifies the beginning of the dark ages in India it is the sacking of the great university at Nalanda in 1193 CE. Situated in the vast plains between northern and eastern India, Nalanda had stood out like a fortress, nine stories high at places and with walls as wide as a road.
Write a short note on Nalanda University
Nalanda University: In ancient Magadha, the Buddhist monastic university Nalanda was well-known. among the greatest centers of study in the ancient world, and is regarded by historians as the first residential university in history. In the fifth and sixth centuries CE, a time that academics have since referred to as the Golden Age of India, Nalanda was crucial in advancing the patronage of the ...
Essay On Nalanda University
These kinds of 'my essay writing' require a strong stance to be taken upon and establish arguments that would be in favor of the position taken. Also, these arguments must be backed up and our writers know exactly how such writing can be efficiently pulled off. ... Essay On Nalanda University, Nurses Case Study Examples, Esl Biography Editing ...

Nalanda University History, Library, Destruction and Reconstruction

History of Nalanda University

Who Built Nalanda University?

Why Nalanda University is Famous?

Attacks on Nalanda University

Ancient Nalanda University’s Destruction

Nalanda University Library

Nalanda University Reconstruction

Nalanda University’s current status

Nalanda University’s legacy

Nalanda University FAQs

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