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Ayurveda: the Traditional Indian Medicine System and its Global Dissemination

by D.P. Agrawal & Lalit Tiwari

This essay provides an introduction to the ancient Indian medicine system of Ayurveda and its rise in popularity throughout the world. �This dissemination began with the Buddhist monks who spread Ayurveda throughout Tibet and China. �Thus, many Chinese scholars visited India and even studied in the ancient Indian universities. �During the period of the Arab Caliphs in the medieval times, the Arab world became a hub of international science and medicine. �In its institutes, such as the Medical Academy at Jundishapur, both Greek and Indian savants taught and translated major medical works. Details about the Indo-Arab contacts during this period will be discussed further in this discourse.

It is probably accurate to say that almost all life forms are afflicted with some type of disease. �Disease continues to be the most basic problem faced by humans since the prehistoric times. �Evidence for the existence of a well-organized system of medicine in India can be traced back to the archaeological remains of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Ayurveda is the oldest Indian indigenous medicine system. �Its roots probably originate in the Indus Civilization. �

The term Ayus means duration or span of life and the term veda means unimpeachable knowledge. �Ayurveda is commonly translated as the 'science of life'. �Author Kris Morgan says that Ayurveda literally means the 'science of longevity', but because of its divine origin, it is also called the 'medicine of the God'. �Tradition says that Brahma (the creator) was the divine source of this science, which was brought into existence before the creation of mankind. � Brahma passed this knowledge to the god Daksapati , who then passed it to the two celestial physicians (the twins Asvina and Kumaras ), later to Indra the god king, and finally to Bharadvaja , the semi-divine sage. �Such traditions need not be taken literally although they do indicate the great antiquity of Ayurveda.

Literary Evidence

The earliest-recorded knowledge about Ayurveda is found in the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda , both written in the second millennium BC. �The Atreya Samhita is perhaps the oldest medical book in the world; it survives from Taksashila University, which dates back to the middle of the first Millennium BC. �The Atharvaveda lists eight divisions of Ayurveda: internal medicine, surgery of head and neck, ophthalmology, surgery, toxicology, psychiatry, pediatrics, gerontology or science of rejuvenation, and fertility. At about 500 BC in the University of Banaras, Susruta, a surgeon who developed the operative techniques of rhinoplasty (plastic surgery), wrote the Susruta Samhita , which describes the highly developed surgery. �The physician Caraka revised and supplemented the Atreya Samhita with his book Carak Samhita, which is a vast work on internal medicine.

Susruta Samhita : �According to Susruta Samhita, the purpose of Ayurveda is not only to cure illness and affliction, but also to preserve health and ensure a long happy life. Susruta Samhita deals especially with the therapeutic branch of Ayurveda. �It contains 120 chapters, distributed into five divisions: � Sutrasthana (fundamental postulates cover 46 chapters), Nidanasthana (pathology covers 16 chapters), Sarirasthana (embryology and anatomy cover 10 chapters), Cikitsasthana (medical treatment covers 40 chapters), Kalpasthana (toxicology covers 8 chapters) and Uttaratantra (specialized knowledge covers 66 chapters).

Caraka Samhita : �Caraka Samhita is an exhaustive work on medicine. �It is said that Caraka's original work was entitled Samhita of Agnivesa . �Agnivesa was a disciple of the medical sage Atreya. �Long passages in the Caraka Samhita are in the form of questions and answers between Atreya and Agnivesa. �Caraka is a class title of a school of physicians, which existed in Vedic times, and also the personal title of a physician in the court of King Kaniska. �There is no unanimity about Caraka's date yet. �The subject matter of the Caraka Samhita has been divided into 8 sections and 120 chapters. The total number of chapters probably refers to the maximum life span of man because the ultimate object of treatise is to promote longevity.

More then 600 drugs of animal, plant, and mineral origins are used in the Caraka and about 650 in the Susruta Samhita . �Susruta mentions more than 300 different operations employing 42 different surgical processes and 121 different types of instruments. �The Samhitas divide Ayurveda into 8 different branches: Salyatantra (surgical knowledge), Salakyatantra (treatment of diseases of the ears, nose, eye, tongue, oral cavity, and throat), Bhutavidya (knowledge of mental diseases and diseases with supernatural origins), Kaumarabhrtya (care of children and infantile disorders), Agadatantra (toxicology), Rasayanatantra (syrup and tonic knowledge) and Vajikaranatantra (knowledge of virility).

Ayurveda deals with medical subjects such as genetics, gynaecology, aetiology, surgery, physiology, biology, diet, ethics, personal hygiene, social medicine, allied subjects like animal biology, botany, cultivation, pharmacognosy, chemistry, and cosmology.

Ayurvedic Concept of Ideal Health

According to the philosophical concepts on which Ayurveda is based, all bodies � material, living, conscious and unconscious - are evolved out of Prakrti (the ultimate ground) by the subtle influence of the Purusa , the absolute or the primal self conscious principle. �Every component of the human organism is created out of the tattvas (fundamental compounds) as evolved out of Prakrti . �When all the eleven indriyas (the mind, the five sense organs, and the five organs of motion and action), the three dosas (the air, radiant energy, and water), the agni (digestive fire), the malas (excretions), the kriyas (like sleep, elimination, respiratory, etc.), and the seven dhatus (elementary stuff) are in a normal state and in equilibrium, then one�s health is in an ideal state. �The two main aims of Ayurveda are maintenance of this equilibrium and its repair in case of any imbalance and derangement. �Ayurveda attempts these maintenance and repair processes by the application of all spiritual and material resources available to man.

Philosophy of Ayurveda

There is a remarkable theory in Ayurveda to the effect that man is a miniature form of the universe: �a 'microcosm' of the macrocosm. �The material contents of man and universe are constituted of the same five primal elements: � prthvi (earth, solid component), apas (water, liquid), tejas (radient energy, body heat, digestive fire), vayu (air), and akasa (orifices and empty spaces inside the body).

Ayurvedic Definition of Health

In Ayurvedic medicine, health is defined as the soundness of sarira (body), manas (mind), and atman (self). �Each of these must be nurtured if an individual is to have good health.

Concept of Disease

Ayurveda is basically a humeral medical system and conceives of three essential humors, which cause disease if they become imbalanced. These three humours are: vayu (air), pitta (bile), and kapha (phlegm). �Occasionally, in surgical tradition, a fourth humor, blood, was also added.

Vayu : � Vayu is self-begotten, eternal, all pervading, and all-powerful in its action and control over all space. �It controls the creation, growth, and disintegration of all living organisms. �It has five key functions: prana vayu (maintain the breath, transmit food), udana vayu (vocal sound, song and speech depend upon it), samana vayu (causes digestion), vyana vayu (causes perspiration) and apana vayu (causes the downward movement of stool, urine, semen, and menses).

Pitta : � Pitta is the cosmic fiery principle. It is responsible for the creation of heat and all forms of radiant energy in the body. �It is also responsible for the pumping action of heart, the skin�s temperature, and the vitality of blood. �In the body, pitta is of five types: ranjaka pitta (color producing fire), pacaka pitta (digestive fire), sadhaka pitta (motion giving fire), alocaka pitta (vision giving fire), and bhrajaka pitta (lustre giving fire).

Kapha : � Kapha supplies the placid and cooling principles to the body. � Kapha is of five kinds: kladaka (supply mucous to the system), avalambaka (transport the blood fluids), vodhaka (tasting agent), tarpaka (irrigating agent), and slesmaka (binding agent).

Vyadhis (diseases) are caused by the derangement of one or more of the three humors and blood. �According to the Samhitas , vyadhi may be of four types: agantuja (extraneous), sarira (internal), manasa (mental), and svabhavika (natural).

Concept of Treatment

Direct observation is the most remarkable feature of Ayurveda but sometimes it is correlated with metaphysics. �The Samhitas accept this view and write that of all types of evidence, the most dependable ones are those that are directly observed by the eyes. In the Ayurvedic viewpoint, successful medical treatment depends on four factors: the physician, substances (diet and drugs), the nurse, and the patient. �The Samhitas described these four factors properly. �The physician should have the following qualifications: �a clear grasp of the theoretical content of the science, a wide range of experience, the necessary practical skills, and cleanliness. �The necessary qualities of the drugs and/or substances are: �abundance, applicability, multiple uses, and richness in efficacy. �The nursing attendant should be: knowledgeable of nursing techniques, practically skilled, attached to the patient, and clean. �And the essential qualifications of the patient are: good memory, obedience of the instructions given by the doctors, courage, and the ability to describe the symptoms.

Influence of Ayurveda on East and West

By 400 AD, Ayurvedic works were translated into Chinese and by 700 AD, Chinese scholars were studying medicine in India at Nalanda University. �Indian thought greatly influenced Chinese medicine and herbology through Ayurveda. �In 800 AD, Ayurvedic works were translated into Arabic. �In the 16th century in Europe, Paracelsus, who is known as the father of modern Western medicine, practiced and propagated a system of medicine, which borrowed heavily from Ayurveda.

India�s cultural and trade relations with Mesopotamia, the Gulf countries, and Iran date back to the third millennium BC. �Seals of Bahrain have been found in Lothal, a Harappan town in Gujarat. �India's scientific and cultural relationship with the Arabic countries dates back to prehistory. �During the medieval times such relations intensified a great deal.

No doubt Alexander's annexation of the Gandhara region led to closer ties between Greece and India, but the mutual contacts go beyond to the Persian kings (Cyrus, Darius, etc) of mid-first millennium BCE. �These Persian kings employed both Greek and Indian scholars and physicians. �Quoting Fillozat, Sharma (1992) suggests that both Plato and Hippocrates were influenced by Indian thought and concepts. �Indian Wootz steel was equally popular with the Persian kings for both its hardness and rust-free properties (Tripathi 2001).

Contacts with China and Tibet

India was in contact with China even during the Kushana times. �Bahlika was an important center where traders from China, India, and West Asia met and exchanged ideas and goods. �During the Gupta period, the links between India and China were firmly established. �Chinese scholars like Fahiyan, Ywan Chwang, and Itsing, were great cultural ambassadors between the two countries. �The University of Nalanda, established during the reign of Kumaragupta, attracted a large number of scholars and students from China. �Several Ayurvedic texts were translated into Chinese (Sharma 1992).

The Bower Manuscript , which is named after its discoverer, Lieutenant H. Bower, was founded in 1890 in Kuchar, Turkestan, on the great caravan route of China. �It was then sent to Colonel J. Waterhouse, who was then the President of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, where the famous Indologist Hoernle edited it. �Detailed studies of the manuscript indicated to Hoernle that the writers of Parts I-III and Parts V-VII were Indian Buddhist monks. �The manuscript is written in Indian Gupta script. �The use of birch-bark for writing shows that they must have come from Kashmir or Udyana. �Hoernle thinks that they passed the manuscript into the hands of a native of Eastern Turkestan or China who wrote Part IV. �But the ultimate owner of the whole series of manuscripts, Yasomitra, must have held a prominent position in that monastery. �This collective manuscript was contained in the relic chamber of the memorial stupa at the Ming-oi of Qum Tura, which was built in Yasomitra�s honor. �The large medical treatise called Navanitaka forms the second part of the Bower manuscript dated to about the second half of the fourth century AD. �The Chinese medicine system has several parallels with the Indian system. �The Chinese concept of Ying and Yang is comparable to Indian Prakriti and Purusa . �So also the five basic elements of the Chinese and Indian systems are similar. �It seems that the pulse reading system in India was derived from the Chinese.

The Tibetan and Indian medicine systems also had close relations. �The most popular Tibetan medical text is Rgyud bzi (meaning Catus-tantra , four treatises). �It is based on Amrta Hrdaya Astanga Guhyopadesa Tantra . �In the 8th Century AD Vairochana, a Tibetan scholar, translated it into Tibetan (Dash 1992). The Tibetan medicine system was greatly influenced by Ayurveda, but it is an integral part of Buddhism. Their materia-medica could provide many cures for the obstinate and incurable diseases.

Contacts with West Asia

Rhazes (865-965 AD) and Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037 AD) were great scholars of Arabic medicine who influenced global medical literature for a long time. �The canon of Avicenna was translated into Latin in the 12th Century AD and was a textbook in European medical institutes for an extended period of time. �

The names of several Indian products such as the Indian sword, the Indian spices, and aloes-wood are often found even in pre-Islamic poetry. �Names of the Indian drugs, like Kafur ( Karp�ra ), Misk ( Muska ), Zanjabil ( Srhgavera ), and ud ( Aguru ) occur even in the Qur'an and the Prophet's traditions ( Ahadith-i-Nabawi ). Probably the Arabic words like Faniz , T�tia , Narjil , Bish and Sandal have probably been derived from Sanskrit language. Varma (1992) in his detailed article, "Indo-Arab Relations in Medical Sciences", provides several well-documented instances of such contacts.

Abu Sa'id, a companion of the Prophet, has related that an Indian Raja had sent an earthen jar containing dried ginger ( Zanjabil ) to the Prophet who distributed it among all his companions to eat. �Al Tabari, the author of the first comprehensive Arabic book, entitled ' Firdaus-ul-Hikmat ' (Paradise of Wisdom) (c.850 AD) mentions, "If a person takes seven pieces of Zanjabil (dried ginger) in the form of jam, particularly prepared in honey, for seven days in a month for some time, he would be protected from phlegmatic ailments like paralysis, rheumatism, etc., it would also sooth the stomach. �It is a help in old age. �Due to its medicinal properties, its use is very common not only in food preparations but also in Unani medicine and Ayurveda. �The Prophet used to burn Aloes-wood (' Ud-Hindi ) with camphor. Said the Prophet, 'In Aloes-wood, there are seven remedies'. �As a snuff, it is good for the disease called al-Ghudrah . �It is also efficacious for cases of pleurisy."

Several Indian tribes like Jats ( Zutt ) settled down in Arabia even before the beginning of Islam and were well-versed in different branches of ancient Indian traditional medicine. Many of them were using their clinical proficiency to cure the patients. �Even some of the Indians are also said to have been in the company of the Prophet. �The wife of the Prophet was cured by an Indian Jat physician of Medina. �It is also recorded that Harith bin Kalada, the Hakim of the Prophet, studied in the medical school of Jundishapur (in Khuzistan , in South-West Iran) where Indian vaidyas and philosophers also taught the sciences. At the end of his studies and before returning to Mecca, Harith traveled through India in search of more information about different branches of Indian medicine. �It is also mentioned that an Indian physician named Birzantin Hindi, had migrated to Yemen and settled there presumably during Anusherwan's reign (530-580 AD). �He had a fair knowledge of Indian medicine and specialized in treating different diseases by administering Indian herbs, particularly hemp ( Cannabis indica Linn). �He is responsible for introducing Indian hemp to cure various ailments and received fame due to new mode of treatment in that area.

Zubayr (1960) says that a Chinese monarch sent a gift in the form of a book to the first Ummayyad Caliph (660-680 AD). �The book contained secrets and wisdom of Indian medicine, alchemy, and astronomy. �The same book was received by his grand son, Abu Hashimn Khalid bin Yazid, who took a keen interest in the acquisition of scientific knowledge from different countries. �It is therefore believed that he might have extracted and assimilated a considerable amount of material on medical sciences and other subjects of Indian origin. �It is stated that after conquering Sindh, 'Abdullah bin Sawwar' Abdi (667 AD), the Governor of Sindh, sent a number of rare gifts to the Caliph on behalf of Raja Gigan (Qiqan). �Al Tabari (c. 850 AD) mentions that Indian hair dye ( al-Khidab ul-Hindi ) was also exported to Arabia and was very popular with the Arabs due to its peculiar quality for retaining the bright dark texture of the hair for minimum period of about a year. It was also used by the Arab caliphs like Hashim bin 'Abdu'l Malik (742 AD). In this context, Al Tabari mentions, "Many persons had told me about a wonderful thing for retaining black texture of hair forever, quoting their ancestors. According to them, the buccal sucking of one piece of black chibulic myroba1 of Kabul (famous Indian drug) daily, continuously for one year was advised to retain permanent black texture of hair."

All the 'Abbasid caliphs from al-Mansur (754-773 AD) to al-Mutawakkil (847-886 AD) were patrons of the arts and sciences. �Al-Mansur, the second 'Abbasid caliph, received embassies from Sindh, one of which included Indian pandits who presented him with two Indian books on astronomy. These books, �the Brahmasiddhanta and the Khandakhadyaka , were translated into Arabic by Ibrahim al-Fazari (786-806 A.D). Caliph Harun al-Rashid's (763-809 AD) is well known for his literary and scientific interest. �He established his famous Bait-ul-Hikmat (House of Wisdom), a combination of library, academy, and translation bureau which in many respects, proved to be the most important educational center since the foundation of the Alexandrian museum in the first half of the third century BC. �When the Arabs realized the high quality and value of Ayurveda and Indian culture, they got interested in translating Indian medical and other scientific works from Sanskrit into Arabic. �Thus works of Caraka-samhita and Susruta-samhita etc. were rendered into Arabic. �The Arabic translation of these Samhitas highly impressed the Arabs and they assimilated an enormous material in their Tibbi medical treatises.

The Barmecide (Barmaki or Barmak, after the Sanskrit word Pramukh , high priest) rose to the most influential position during the 'Abb�sid period, particularly in the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. As a physician Barmak's claim to fame is the pill Habb-i-Barmakim, which was named after him. �It was recommended by Ibn Sina (980-1037 AD) and later Hakims . �Yahya bin Khalid, the Barmecide (c. 805 AD), the vizier of the Caliph Mahdi, and the tutor of Harun al-Rashid, sent an Arab scholar to India to study and bring back the Indian drugs and herbs. Yahya also invited Indian vaidyas and philosophers westwards so that he might learn from them. �Harun al-Rashid was afflicted with a serious disease which could not be cured by his own physicians. �He sent for Manaka (Mankhaor Minikya) who came to Baghdad and cured the royal patient for which the caliph granted him a handsome pension and great wealth.

Manaka was proficient in Ayurveda and other Indian sciences and had a sound knowledge of Indian and Persian languages. �He was deputed as Chief of the Royal Hospital at Baghdad and translated several books from Sanskrit into Persian or Arabic. Ibn Dhan (Dhanya or short form of Dhanvantari) was another competent Indian vaidya who lived in Baghdad at the same time when Manaka was there. �He was called there by Yahya bin Khalid, the Barmecid vizier and was appointed as the Director of his (Barmecid) hospital at Baghdad. �At his behest, Ibn Dhan also rendered a few Sanskrit texts into Persian or Arabic. �Saleh bin Behla was another competent practitioner of Ayurveda, though he does not seem to have any official position. �He is known to have cured Ibrahim bin Saleh of apoplexy, even though he was declared dead by the Caliph's own physicians. �After the advice of S�leh, the royal patient was removed out of his coffin, bathed, and put in his usual dress. �Then the Indian vaidya ordered to bring a blowing pipe and blew some snuff prepared of Kundush ( Verartilum album ) with the instrument into his nose. �After about ten minutes his body quivered, he sneezed, he sat up in front of the caliph, and he kissed his hands. The caliph was much impressed by the clinical acumen of Indian doctor and rewarded him handsomely.

D�ban was the last and fourth Indian vaidya who was mentioned by Maulana Shill Nu mani, the well-known Indian orientalist, in one of his scholarly monographs entitled 'A1-Ma'mun'. �Duban was sent by an Indian Raja to the court of Caliph al-Ma'mun' in Baghdad. �It seems clear that Burzoe, the well-known minister of Nausherwan (530-580 AD), came to India at the command of his king to collect more information on Indian arts and science. �He brought Indian scientists and experts of Ayurveda along with books on different subjects of India. �Most of them were deputed to impart Indian medical education. �Other scholars were appointed for rendering scientific books in Pehlavi language in the medical academy and the translation bureau of Jundishapur. �Besides the above mentioned four well-known Indian vaidyas several other Indian medical men must have been at Baghdad although no information about them is available.

The Arab scholars were also acquainted with some other Indian vaidyas and masters of other allied sciences. These are:

Kanka (Ganga) :� Kanka was one of the most learned Indian scientists who also knew the art of healing and drug sciences. �According to some Arab writers, Kanka was accepted by all the Indian savants to be the greatest authority in astronomy in ancient India. �He is probably the author of the following books: (a) Kitab-ul Namudar fil-'Amar (The Book of Horoscopes of Lives); (b) Kitab-ul Asr�ri'l Mawalid (The Book of the Secrets of Births): (c) Kitab-ul Qiranat (The Book of Conjuctions); (d) Kitab fi 'llm-ul-Tibb (The Book on Medical Science); (e) Kitab fi'lm- Tawahhum (The Book on Mania); and (f) Kitab fi'l Ahdathi'Alamii fi l'Qirdn (The Book on the Incidents that May Happen in the World Under Certain Conjunctions of Stars).

Sanjhal : �Sanjhal was the most learned man of India who wrote a book on nativity entitled, Kitab-ul-Mawalid (The Book of Nativities).

Shanaq (Canakya): Canakya was one of the ablest vaidyas of India. �He had versatile knowledge of various branches of science and philosophy. �He excelled in astronomy and occupied a high position in the courts of Indian kings of his time. �Varma thinks that Shanaq al-Hindi is to be identified as Canakya, Candragupta's minister, also called Kautilya. �It is known to have been translated into Persian from an Indian language by Manaka. �Then, it was translated into Arabic by Abu I (9th Century AD). �Shanaq was known to be author of the Fihrist, Ibn al-Nadim, and also of other books on the conduct of life, the management of war, and cultural studies. �His works mentioned by Ibn abi Usaibi'ya are on the stars, lapidary crafts, and on veterinary medicine.

Abu Hatim of Balkh who translated books from Persian into Arabic is known only as a contemporary of Manaka and a translator who worked for Yahya bin Khalid the Barmecide. �Another translation of Shanaq's work was carried out by al-'Abb�s ibn Sa'id al-Jauharil, a contemporary of al-Ma'm�n, and a well-known Islamic astronomer and commentator on the Elements of Euclid. �Shanaq divided his book into five chapters. �The first deals mainly with poisons; the second is on veterinary science; the third is on astronomy; the fourth book was meant for the guidance of a certain king; and the fifth is the book of nativities.

Besides the above ancient Indian scientists, there are many others mentioned by Ibn Nadim and Ibn abi Usaibi'ya, but it is not possible to identify them definitely. �The following names of the Indian scientists have been mentioned:� (1) Bakhar, (2) Raha (or Raja), (3) Dahir, (4) Saka, (5) Aikab, (6) Zankal, (7) Jabari, (8) Indi, (9) Jahar, (10) Ank�, and (11) Manjhal. �Qazi Athar Mubarakpuri has further added these names: (1) Vaidya Behla, (2) Qalbarqal, and (3) Khatif Hindii. �They were also invited by Yahya bin Kh�lid, the Barmecide, during Harun al-Rashild's time.

The following Indian medical works were rendered into Arabic from Sanskrit or Hindi during the Abbasid Caliphate:

Caraka-Samhita : ��Caraka-Samhita was translated into Persian (Pehlavi) probably by Manaka Hindi and it was then rendered into Arabic by Abdu Habin.

Susruta-Samhita: �Susruta Samhita (susrud); Astanghrdaya; Nidana; Siddhyoga; the book of poisons; the book on treatment of pregnant women; the book on female diseases; the book on snake bites and incantations; there are other books on intoxicants, diseases, drugs etc.

Firdaus-ul-Hikmat : �Firdaus-ul-Hikmat (Paradise of Wisdom) was composed by Abu 'Ali bin Rabban al-Tabari (c. 850 AD). �Al-Tabari divided the book into a number of discourses. �Its last and fourth discourse has discussed the different branches of ancient medicine (Tibb-i-Vaidik) that is in 36 chapters. �Its first chapter starts with the genesis of Ayurvedic medicine as follows, "When I was about to complete this book, I thought it fit to add another discourse to it, with separate chapters describing the merits of medical works of Indians and their reputed medicaments. I hope it will increase the knowledge of the student because when he comes to know where these two great nations (Greeks and Indians) agree and where they differ, he will naturally come to know the advantages and disadvantages of Hindu medicine. Out of these topics which I have written here very many things agree with what the Greek Hakims have mentioned, but most of the things do not."

Regarding the origin and transmission of Ayurvedic medicine, Al-Tabari further adds, "They say that, in remote antiquity, the earth was always bright, fertile, clean and its five fundamental sources or elements i.e. Mahabhuta's natures were moderate. �These were counted as five, with the addition of a kind of air, i.e. Ether ( Akash ) to the other four, namely (1) Earth (2) Water (3) Air and (4) Fire. The people lived in harmony and love with each other. �They had no greed, anger, jealousy or anything else which made their body and soul sick. �But, later on, when jealousy arose among them, when they became greedy, they needed to find out the tricks and means to hoard up the riches,�grievances, scheming, weariness, causing pain to others, corrupted the community." �Al-Tabari's account is however ambiguous and misleading on the subject and does not correspond with the modern texts of Caraka-Samhita . �This may be due to the fact that Al-Tabari's studies were presumably based upon the defective Arabic translation of Caraka-Samhita by 'Al bin Zain of Tabaristan rendered during the days of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. �The Atreya School of Medicine believes that the first mortal who received the Ayurvedic Medicine was Bharadv�ja. �But the South Indian traditions credit Rsi Agastya, popularly known as Kundamalai Siddhar, to have been the first mortal to receive Ayurvedic science from the gods.

Among the simple and compound medicaments, al-Tabari described are (1) Jauz Hindi (cononut), (2) Tamar Hindi (tamarind), (3) Ud 'Hindi (aloewood), (4) Mileh Hindi (Indian salt), (5) Kammun Hindi (Indian cumin), (6) Shitraj Hindi ( Indian lepidium ), (7) Qust Hindi( Costus indica ), (8) Halelaj (chebulic myrobalan), (9) Balalaj (belleric myrobalan), (10) Amlaj ( Emblic myrobalan ), (11) Saddhij Hindi ( Malabathrum indica ) and (12) Hirq-ul- Dhahab (calces/bhasma of iron, silver and gold). �It is presumed that this is the first Arabic comprehensive book which contains the description of Ayurvedic medicine along with the mode of calces preparation of different metals. �Another prescription used for improving memory was to take pieces of al-Wajj ( Vaca , Calamus asiaticus ) dipped in cow butter-oil in a green container for some time and burn them in a heap of barley for at least twenty days. �The medicine thus prepared should be taken in a dose of one small piece daily. �According to an Indian scholar, a member of his family used it for some time and his memory was so sharpened that he recollected those incidents of his life which had happened fifty years ago and had been forgotten by him.

Caliph Harun 'al Rashid used to levy heavy taxes on various kinds of Indian articles including spices and drugs. �Caliph al-Ma'mun (813-33 AD) was also interested in different sciences. �So, he brought many scientists to his court from Jundishap�r where a large number of Indian scientists had brought their sciences and wisdom from the Indian subcontinent. �After his return from India, Ibrahim bin Fazarun brought a great amount of information about Indian drugs, Ayurveda, its teaching and texts. �Among the gifts sent by Indian rajas to the Caliph al-Ma'm�n was a special mat made of dragon's skin which, when used for sleeping or sitting, was supposed to prevent and cure pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis. �Indian kings used to send rare and wonderful Indian gifts to Arab caliphs, which consisted of aloe-wood, musk, camphor, dried ginger, kostos, amber, fresh myrobalan of Kabul, and precious stones.

In addition to references to Shanaq, abstracts from other Indian books on poisons were borrowed and assimilated by Ibn Wahashiya (9th cent. AD) in his Arabic text, entitled Kitab ul-Sum�m wa'l-Tiryaqat (The Book of Poisons and Their Antidotes). �Reference was also made to two Indian experts on the subject, Tammashah and Bahlindad, and their medical treatises in his Arabic work. �Another Indian vaidya , called Bal, Nai, or Tai, is mentioned in the medical literature, but his treatise is not extant currently.

Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Zakariya al-R�zi (850-923 AD), the well-known and distinguished pupil of al-Tabari, also quoted Indian Ayurvedic works in many of his medical treatises particularly in his al- Hawi.

The famous Ibn Sin� (980-1037 AD), the Prince of Physicians, wrote the Canon of Medicine ( al-Qanun-fil-Tibb ), which has been used for the centuries as the authoritative text on Unani medicine. �It is comprised of five parts. �In this text, Ibn Sin� expresses his indebtedness to the Indian doctors and quotes verbatim from Ayurvedic treatises on leeches and the combination of various articles of food. �He says that sour foods and fish should be consumed with milk.� The result of mixing such foods may lead to various types of diseases such as leprosy. �In their opinion, curd should not be taken with radish nor bird's meat. �Similarly, fat-oil stored in copper utensils should not be used for cooking purposes. �Kababs barbecued on charcoal of castor-wood should not be eaten. According to Indian vaidyas , some leeches are poisonous.

Ibn Sin� described 792 simple drugs in his a1-Q�nun. �Among these, 49 have been stated to be of Indian origin. �Out of these, Avicenna designated several of Indian origin but their identity can not be ascertained. �In Kitab ul-Saidana fi'l- Tibb (The Book of Pharmacology in Medical Science), Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (973-1051 AD) referred to the skill and wisdom of the Indian physicians and the marvelous cures which they achieved by using aconite to treat the cases of hemorrhoids.

It may be concluded that the Arabs developed great respect and love for Indian medical scholars and their products, as is evident from many historical references and panegyrics ( Qasida ) composed in reply to the carping of a critic by an Arab of Indian origin, Abu Dila' Sindhi (9th Century AD). His following word will conclude this section:

"When India and its arrows were admired in the battlefield my friends disliked it, but this was not proper;

By my life, it is a land where, when rain falls, it turns into pearls and ruby for those who have no ornaments;

From here come musk, camphor, amber and aloe-wood, and various kinds of perfumes for those who require them;

Here grow all kinds of sweet-smelling substances and nutmeg, and andropogonnadus;

Here are found ivory and jaiphal , and aloes-wood, and sandal and here is found in abundance the mineral Tutia;

Here are found the lions, the leopards, the elephants, and the bears;

And here are found the cranes, and the parrots and the peacocks and the pigeons;

And here grow the coconut tree and the ebony tree and the pepper plant;

And here are made the unparallel swords which need not be polished, and the lances which when wielded, large armies are routed;

Who can deny the excellence of such a land except a fool?"

Conclusion:

Today, Ayurveda is increasingly popular because it speaks of those elementary concepts of (1) contact with nature, (2) holism, and (3) we are what we eat. �Ayurveda forms an integral part of the daily regimen of hundreds of millions of people worldwide.�� Its principles are utilized, not only to treat individuals who are ill, but also to prepare balanced meals and construct harmonious environments. �Ayurveda brings to life the concepts of preventive health care and health promotion. �The ultimate goal of Ayurveda is to help the individual discover a personal knowledge of living.

Sources and Further Reading

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Al-Suyuti, Jalal-ul-Din. 1962. Tibb-ul-Nabi ( Arabic ). Rendered into English by C. Elgood, Osiris, vol. Quartum Decimum, Bruges (Belgium), p.100.

A1-Tabari, Abu'1 Hasan Ali bin Sahi Rabban (c. 850 AD). Firdaus-ul-Hikmat (Arabic); edited by M.Z. Siddiqi, Berlin (W. Germany), 1928, p. 105.

Bates, Don. (Ed.) 1995. Knowledge and the Scholarly Medical Traditions . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chattopadhyaya, D. 1982. Case for a critical analysis of the Carak Samhita . In Studies in the History of Science in India (Ed. D. Chattopadhyaya). Vol. 1. New Delhi: Editorial Enterprises.

Dash, Bhagwan. 1992. Tibetan Medicine. In Sharma, P.V. History of Medicine in India . New Delhi: INSA.

DeWoskin, Kenneth J, 1983. (trans.). Doctors, Diviners, and Magician of Ancient China: Biographies of Fang-shih . New York: Columbia University Press.

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Gordon, B.L. 1960. Medieval and Renaissance Medicine . London (U.K.), pp. 88, 133.

Hoernle, A. F. R. 1909. The composition of the Caraka-Samita in the light of the Bower Manuscript. Reprinted in Studies in the History of Science in India . 1982. Vol. I. (Ed) Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya. New Delhi: Editorial Enterprises. Pp. 141-174.

Jaggi, O.P. 2000. Medicine in India: Modern Period . New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Kuriyama, Shigeshi. 1999. The Expressiveness of the Body and the Divergence of Greek and Chinese Medicin e. New York: Zone Books.

Lloyd, G.E.R. 1996. Adversaries and Authorities: Investigation into Ancient Greek and Chinese Science . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Majumdar, R. C. 1971. Medicine. A Concise History of Science in India . New Delhi: The National Commission for the Compilation of History of Science in India, INSA. Pp.213-174.

Morgan Kris. Medicines of the Gods . Oxford: Mandrake. Pp. 209-236.

Needham, Joseph, Lu Gwei-djen and Nathan Sivin. 2000. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 6, Part VI: Medicine . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ray, P, H. N. Gupta and M. Roy. 1980. Susruta Samhita: a Scientific Synopsis . New Delhi: Indian National Commission for History of Science.

Sharma, P.V. 1997. Development of Ayurveda from antiquity to AD 300. In Science, Philosophy and Culture (eds) D.P. Chattopadhyaya and R. Kumar. New Delhi: PHISPC.

Shet Pankaj. 1995. On the Internet.

Siddiqi, M. Z. 1959. Studies in Persian and Arabic Medical Literature , Calcutta, pp. 31-43.

Singh, R.H. 1997. Medical Techniques. In Bag, A.K. (Ed.). History of Technology in India . New Delhi: INSA.

Tripathi, Vibha. 2001. The Age of Iron in South Asia � Legacy and Traditions . New Delhi: Aryan Books International.

Verma, R.L. 1992. Indian-Arab relations in medical sciences. In P.V.Sharma (Ed.) History of Medicine in India . New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 465-484.

Zubayr, Rashid bin, Qazi.1960. Kitab-ul-Zakha'ir wal Tuhuf (Arabic), Kuwait, P. 10.

For general history of medicine see:

Erwin Ackerknecht, A Short History of Medicine , rev. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); Charles Singer and E. Ashworth Underwood, A Short History of Medicine , 2d ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951 [vol. 1] and 1961 [vol. 2]; Arturo Castiglioni, A History of Medicine , 2d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947); Max Neuburger, History of Medicine , 4th ed. (Philadelpia: W.B. Saunders, 1929); Benjamin Lee Gordon, Medicine Throughout Antiquity (Philadelphia: F.A. Davis, 1949); John Hermann Bass, Outlines of the History of Medicine and the Medical Profession , trans. H.E. Handerson (New York: J.H. Vail, 1889).

Spices in India and Beyond: The Origin, History, Tradition and Culture

• First Online: 22 March 2018

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Food and nutrition have not only been contributed by biological production through its cultivation and husbandry, it reflects the history and tradition of a nation as well. India has historically been one of the world’s prominent sites for the origin and husbandry of a good score of spices which transcends history nation and culture since time immemorial. The suitability of ecological configuration and meteorological behaviour, the Indian diaspora have carried it forward not only to support her cultural tradition but also to meet up both therapeutic and culinary requirements of spices. From mythology to history, from history to the modern political economy, spices have got a beautiful and aromatic continuity across nations and cultures. The quality of food and its palatability, the nutritive value of food and its therapeutics are nicely contributed by spices. The geospatial distribution in India encompasses hill terrains to rain forest, coastal ecosystem to semi-arid agro-ecology, moist forest ecosystem to rice-based agro-ecosystem in alluvial lands. Spices have got a well-pervading role for integrating ecological diversity and cultural mellifluence. This chapter is designed to keep on unveiling the following aspects of spices in India: history, literature, geospatial distribution over India, the cultural aroma and its socio-economic uniqueness for supporting macro-economy as well as community livelihood generation process.

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Sharangi, A.B., Acharya, S.K. (2018). Spices in India and Beyond: The Origin, History, Tradition and Culture. In: Sharangi, A. (eds) Indian Spices. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75016-3_1

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Herb-medicine tango in ancient India

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Gentleman’s Magazine report on rhinoplasty in India in 1794, a practice then unknown in the West. Credit: Wellcome Library, London

Throughout the history of maritime trade, Indian herbs, spices and medicines have been a great pull for international traders. So much so that around the 15 th Century, lured by the richess of these spices and medicines, discovery voyages started to change the map of the world as mariners tried configuring the shortest routes to India.

During these adventurous times, many books and texts were scripted, by foreign traders detailing regional medicines and therapies of India. Annamma Spudich, a Stanford University-trained biologist and now a botany historian, has researched such resources from around the world.

In an ongoing exhibition (13 January-31 March, 2017) at the National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS) in Bangalore, she points to the underlying science behind many indigenous botanical medical practices – drawing an interesting plot between these natural allies as a “consummate example of pre-modern science” in India.

“These uniquely Indian knowledge resources provide an interesting facet to our understanding of disease pathways and may help modern scientific tools find some therapeutic solutions to hitherto intractable diseases,” Spudich says.

On display are images and texts from European books describing now-vanished regional medicines and therapies of India, not found in classical Indian medical texts.

Indian medical manuscript fragment written in Chinese, Dunhuang Caves, China, 9th C. AD. Credit: Institute of OrientaI Studies, Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. Russia

In these books, European authors describe medicinal properties of plants and disease symptoms from a biomedicine point of view. These may be more accessible to modern biomedical researchers than Indian classical medical texts.

“They could be valuable resources for future bio-medical research in India,” Spudich says.

Among other interesting exhibits is one from the Gentleman's Magazine in England talking of “A Singular Operation" — a nose job on a Maratha bullock cart driver named Cowasjee, who worked in the British army. A regional folk practitioner reportedly replaced Cowasjee's nose, mutilated in battle, with a flap of skin from his forehead. According to folk medical traditions, this was an operation practiced for centuries in India. ( A History of Organ Transplantation: Ancient Legends to Modern Practice, David Hamilton, U. Pittsburg Press, 2012 ).

Indigo dying in India. Company Painting. Credit: KEW Collection

Another panel at the exhibition shows traditional indigo making from leaves of the Indian plant Indigoferra tinctoria L and illustrates it with the chemical reaction that converts the colourless precursor indican in its leaves into the brilliant blue indigo dye. "While the complex molecular pathways and chemistry were unknown at the time, many of the underlying concepts have been confirmed with modern scientific methods," Spudich says.

A series of short audio narratives accompany the exhibition transporting the audience into times and places where such fascinating science was happening — amidst busy maritime traders in local bazaars where indigenous knowledge found its takers. It’s a fascinating journey through millennia, accentuated by layered light installations that depict important historic knowledge milestones and hand-drawn illustrations that bring out the folklore related to Indian healing practices.

Spudich had earlier curated an exhibition called ' Such Treasures and Rich Merchandize ’ at NCBS after getting initiated into Indian botany history at Cambridge University library when she read 'The Greate Herball' written by John Gerard in 1597.

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• Indian Recipes

Spices in Indian Food: An Ultimate Guide

Published: Aug 6, 2022 · Modified: Aug 19, 2022

Indian food is known for its bold, flavorful spices. One of the things that make Indian food so unique is the variety of spices that are used. To the non-South Asian tongue, Indian cuisine is synonymous with spicy hot. However, most people don’t realize a fundamental thing about Indian cuisine. Indian dishes are full of different flavors that go beyond just heat.

Contrary to popular belief, you can’t get away with seasoning Indian food by throwing in a teaspoon of curry powder. In fact – and you might want to take a seat for this – curry powder isn’t a thing in Indian cuisine. It is a common misconception that curry powder is a staple in Indian recipes. Interestingly, this spice mix was actually conjured up by the British. This was in their quest to evoke the essence of Indian food.

It is common knowledge that salt and pepper are a staple in western cuisine. This duo often single-handedly carries the dish to success. However, the labor division of herbs and spices in Indian cuisine is more of a team effort. Every member is indispensable in giving the dish its unique and unmatchable flavor.

How to use this Spice Guide:

In this non-comprehensive guide to Indian spices and flavor, you will find a rundown of ingredients used in Indian cuisine in no particular order of importance. You’ll also learn each ingredient’s health perks. Lastly, you’ll be introduced to the appropriate usage of each herb and spice (for a serving size of 4). Most importantly, you will understand why Indian food would simply not be Indian without these ingredients. At the end of this guide, you will leave with a comprehensive idea of each ingredient’s flavor and purpose.

1. Red Chili Powder & Whole Dried Red Chili

2. turmeric, 3. asafoetida powder, 4. cumin and coriander powder.

• 5. Black Salt Powder

6. Black Pepper

7. green & black cardamom.

• 8. Cinnamon
• 9. Nutmeg & Mace
• 10. Star Anise, Cloves, & Bay Leaves
• 11. Fenugreek Seeds & Fenugreek Leaves
• 12. Fennel Seeds
• 13. Cumin & Mustard Seeds
• 14. Carom Seeds & Nigella Seeds
• 15. Saffron

16. Tamarind

17. dried mango powder.

• 19. Jaggery
• 20. Garam masala

21. Curry Leaves

English ( Hindi ) translation: Red Chili Powder ( Lal Mirch ); Whole dried Red Chili ( Khadi Mirchi )

Starting off with the most well-known South Asian spice, red chili powder. Also known as ‘lal Mirch, this is a pivotal ingredient in Indian cuisine. It is derived from grinding whole red chilies to a fine powder.

This ingredient is known mainly for transforming a dish into a spicy flavor bomb. However, red chili powder is also an unsung hero regarding its health benefits. It is anti-inflammatory, maintains blood pressure levels, improves heart health, boosts cognitive function, builds immunity against diseases, and relieves nasal congestion. So the next time you’re struggling with a cold, whip up your favorite Indian dish and load it up with a healthy amount of lal mirch!

Similar to Japanese matcha, there are different grades of red chili powder. Each has its own unique purpose and place in various dishes. Although there are numerous varieties of red chili powder, two of them, in particular, are household names.

First up: Bird’s eye chili powder . This chili fits a more classic understanding of Indian cuisine as it packs a punch and lends a fiery heat to dishes. On the other hand, is Kashmiri chili powder . This gentle spice is palatable to the tongues of even Indian food virgins! It flaunts a striking vermillion red color which lends vivid vibrancy to dishes. Despite its red-hot appearance, it still maintains a mild heat. Pro tip: add a touch of water to your Kashmiri chili in a bowl before adding it to dry dishes during cooking. This prevents the powder from immediately scorching upon hitting the smoking pan. As such, it will retain its bright red hue. 

How to use:

As a staple in Indian cuisine, lal mirch appears in nearly every savory Indian recipe. You’ll find it in snacks, lentil curries, vegetable stir-frys, and even rice. The optimal quantity of this ingredient is approximately 1 to 2 tsp in a serving size of 4. Sprinkle it in the preliminary stages of cooking your dish – particularly when your aromatics are being sauteed. If you’re wary of spice, rather than omitting this ingredient altogether, opt for ½ tbsp of Kashmiri or Deggi Mirch. This way, you can enjoy the flavor minus the heat!

English ( Hindi ) translation: Turmeric ( Haldi )

Next up on the list is a new favorite in western households – turmeric. If you’ve been to your local Starbucks off-late, you’ve probably seen their swanky new drink: golden latte. A golden latte is made with milk, cinnamon, black pepper, a sweetener, and turmeric. So essentially, it’s haldi doodh.

Haldi doodh has been a household remedy for infections in Indian households for decades! As children, our mums would hand us a tall steel glass of yellowish milk when we’d catch a cold or fall down and scrape our knees. So despite not liking the taste of this drink back then, haldi doodh is a godsend.

What lends this milky concoction its healing properties is turmeric – or haldi. This orange-yellow spice powder comes from the root of Curcuma longa. Turmeric must be consumed with black pepper to activate benefits of Turmeric . It then imparts powerful anti-inflammatory effects, helps improve memory and attention, lowers our risk of heart disease, alleviates arthritis pain, and delays aging.

Turmeric Powder : Like red chili powder, turmeric is a staple in Indian cuisine. In fact, it is practically impossible to find any savory dish that doesn’t use it. However, the dried version of this spice is used sparingly due to its warm, bitter, and peppery flavor. You’d generally sprinkle and gently fry ½ tsp of it in the preliminary stages of cooking your dish.

Turmeric Root: The fresh variety of this ingredient – turmeric root- is less commonly used. Due to its appearance, it is often confused with ginger. And similar to ginger, fresh turmeric has a mildly pungent yet bright flavor. Due to fresh turmeric’s subtler flavor profile, it is used in larger quantities in recipes. It is a star ingredient in Ambahaldad (or Kacchi Haldi aur Adrak ka Achar), Rajasthani Haldi ki Sabzi, and Madras Coconut Curry. This ingredient imparts a robust zing and distinct golden pigment to these dishes!

English ( Hindi ) translation: Asafoetida Powder ( Hing )

Have you ever walked past a particular aisle in your local Indian grocery store and stopped to wonder where that awful smell just came from? Don’t worry! I promise no one let one rip while no one was looking. Instead, that smell primarily came from the sulfur compounds in the neatly arranged rows of hing bottles near you.

Wondering what hing is? It’s known as asafoetida in English. Quite the mouthful, so let’s stick to ‘hing.’

Ah, hing. The secret weapon transforms you from Amateur Indian Food Enthusiast to a True Blue Indian Food Expert who understands the intricacies of South Asian cooking.

Hing truly is a sneaky little ingredient. It has the transformative power of taking your dishes from “this is yummy” to “this tastes just like how mom used to make them.” Did I mention you only need to use a pinch of it? Now, you might wonder why you’ve never heard of this ingredient if it is that monumental. Well – it’s likely because hing is often left off ingredient lists in recipe blogs due to its inaccessibility.

Hing tends to be paired with its good friends, turmeric or cumin. Together, they provide a savory, umami note to lentil and vegetable-based dishes. Hing may be pungent-smelling straight out of the bottle. But upon cooking, this peculiar powder acquires a garlic-like flavor.

The best part? Besides being delicious, hing is high in antioxidants, is excellent for digestion, and eases blood pressure, asthma symptoms, and blood sugar levels. Some studies have even found it to have anti-cancer effects!

Start your dish as one starts off most Indian dishes – with some sort of fat and cumin/mustard seeds in a pan. Now, add a pinch of hing as soon as the seeds begin to crackle. Then, without waiting further, throw in the rest of the ingredients. You have to do this before the fine hing powder gets a chance to burn!

English ( Hindi ) translation: Cumin Powder ( Jeera Powder ); Coriander ( Dhania Powder )

You’ve never seen best friends like these two.

Cumin powder and coriander powder are outstanding South Asian ingredients derived from grinding their whole seed counterparts. Known as jeera and dhaniya powder, these spices have strong personalities. Yet, they are surprisingly versatile. Due to this, they blend into the depths of any dish without calling too much attention to themselves.

Cumin and coriander powder are often mistaken for each other due to their similar brownish hue. In reality, they have vastly different flavor profiles that make them complementary ingredients. Cumin has an earthy and warm flavor. In contrast, coriander powder is fresh-tasting with a floral, slightly sweet, almost lemony tang.

Together, jeera and dhaniya powder tackle the numerous health obstacles we run into every day. These spices promote digestion, offer a rich source of iron and antioxidants, help with diabetes, prevent food-borne illnesses, fight inflammation and infections, augment hair and skin health, prevent vision disorders, and cure mouth ulcers. I can attest to that last one! I’ve definitely been handed a glassful of water mixed with dhaniya-jeera powder whenever I complained of soreness in my mouth.

Cumin powder is best used with coriander powder in stir-fries, marinades, curries, and soups. Adding them directly into hot oil/ ghee will instantly bloom the spices. Doing this brings out a more buttery, deep flavor. Alternatively, sprinkling these spices towards the end of the cooking process will create a barely-there, light flavor. Recipes will generally call for around 1 tbsp of cumin powder and 1½ tbsp of coriander powder. Feel free to go a little heavier for strongly-flavored dishes, though!

Cumin powder makes an excellent solo addition to raw salads, raita (a yogurt condiment), and chaats (Indian street snacks). Meanwhile, coriander powder is generally not added to no-cook dishes.

5. Black Salt Powder

English ( Hindi ) translation: Black Salt ( Kala Namak )

Lately, vegan cooking is gaining popularity worldwide- and on the internet. With this, food bloggers on Instagram and TikTok incorporate one foreign ingredient into their recipes: Kala namak.

Kala namak, translated to black salt in English, is kiln-fired rock salt. Like hing, it has a pungent, sulfurous smell. This sulfurous scent is reminiscent of a distinct eggy flavor. Due to this, black salt has found a place in the landscape of vegan cooking as an egg substitute.

However, in traditional Indian cuisine, Kala namak has a very different function. You may have heard of the 5 pillars of flavor – sweet, savory, sour, bitter, and umami. But I now present to you the sixth: ‘chatpata.’

‘Chatpata’ is an indescribable South Asian flavor. It best encapsulates a vivacious marriage between savory, sweet, sour, tangy, and spicy. This is the ingredient responsible for separating the multidimensional taste of Thai cuisine from the ‘chatpata’ flavor of Indian food. Thus, it is an ingredient common in street snacks – a flavor bomb known for waking up the tastebuds. Such snacks include masala peanuts, Pani puri, papdi chaat, Dahi vada, chatpata aloo, aloo Tikki chaat, and bhelpuri.

Kala namak is believed to be better than regular table salt due to its lower sodium content. It is also more nutritious due to the high concentration of minerals in it. Research is yet to support the claim that black salt has health benefits. However, the first-hand experiences of many Indian grandmas will attest to the ingredient’s ability to aid digestion, relieve bloating, and alleviate constipation.

The usage of black salt is simple. Scatter about ¼ tsp – or roughly 2 pinches – of it into your dish. Be sure not to apply high heat to it. Do not substitute table salt completely for black salt either. Instead, use the latter as a flavor-enhancer in your dishes.

English ( Hindi ) translation: Black Pepper ( Kalee Mirch )

Black pepper has a permanent home on the dining table of many Western households. Yet, ironically, this ingredient has its origins firmly planted in Kerala, a state in South India.

Black pepper is rarely ever a solo star in Indian cuisine. Instead, it plays a supporting, critical role in garam masala – which we will discuss later. This is our first spice in this list that is often utilized whole rather than ground. 

Fun fact: pepper mills are common in Italian restaurants and western homes. However, they are uncommon in South Asian households. Instead, you are more likely to find whole spices grounded using a mortar and pestle – or in an electric spice grinder. This is usually done in small batches when called for in a recipe. A few pinches of this freshly-ground black pepper will amp up the heat in salads, raitas, or even meat and paneer marinades.

If you live in a humid environment, black pepper is best-stored whole in an airtight container in a cool, dry spot – preferably the fridge. The purpose of this is to retain its kick over time. This will also preserve pepper’s beneficial properties, such as its ability to relieve nasal congestion, alleviate joint swelling, improve blood sugar metabolism, and promote gut health.

The flavor of whole black peppercorns is best extracted by tempering a couple of them in hot ghee. You could do this as the first step in cooking dishes such as pulao, biryani, and meat or vegetable curries. The other way is to prepare tempering (For more info, see What is Tadka here) as a finishing touch poured over dal and sambar right before serving. This lends an irresistible peppery fragrance to the dish without any heat from the spice. Of course, this is perfect for people uncomfortable with high heat levels.

English ( Hindi ) translation: Cardamom ( elaichi )

Ever ravenously dug into a plate of biryani, eager to discover what unique zing your next bite will bring – only to accidentally bite into a dreadful pod of seeds? You guessed it – that’s elaichi.

Elachi, more commonly known as cardamom in English, is most popular in North Indian cuisine. A little-known fact is that these pods originate from the Southern region of India. They’re utterly underappreciated for their ability to correct digestive ailments, fight harmful bacteria, keep acne in check and even ease anxiety. Elaichi may be despised for its uninvited guest appearance in certain dishes. However, it adds a unique touch to dishes irreplicable with substitutes.

Like bell peppers, green and black cardamom come from the same parent plant. They’re just harvested at different stages: the green before it matures and the black after. Though these spices look similar, the purpose and flavor of green and black cardamom are different. Green cardamom is smaller and finds a home in traditional Indian sweets. Conversely, black cardamom is larger and pairs better with savory dishes.

Green cardamom possesses an ambrosian floral flavor. This flavor is delectable in desserts such as kheer (sweet rice pudding), halwa (semolina pudding), and gulab jamun (fried dough balls soaked in sticky syrup). On the other hand, black cardamom has pungent and smokey notes. These shine through in savory North Indian fare like Kadai Paneer, Dal Makhani, Murgh Musallam, Pindi Chole, and Bombay Biryani.

Often sold in whole pods, cardamom is best-stored whole and ground by hand with a mortar and pestle. Again, this is to retain its freshness and fragrance. In desserts, sprinkle green cardamom powder as a finishing touch, ensuring that little heat is applied to the ingredient. For black cardamom, gently fry it with other spices while building the flavor base for savory dishes. Resist the temptation of convenience that pre-ground cardamom powder offers. Its flavor is likely dead and won’t do any magic for your dish.

Beware, though. These dishes may sound scrummy, but both varieties of cardamom pack a punch! You only need about ¼ tsp – or the equivalent of the seeds from 3-4 pods, grounded – to add dimension to your dish.

8. Cinnamon

English ( Hindi ) translation: Cinnamon ( Dalcheeni or Dalchini )

Cinnamon is indispensable in Christmas and fall-themed treats like apple pie, cinnamon rolls, and pumpkin-spiced lattes. Similarly, it is an absolute favorite in Indian food as well. Though criticized as an overrated spice, cinnamon offers more than just flavor. It is also loaded with antioxidants, has anti-inflammatory properties, lowers the risk of heart disease, has a powerful anti-diabetic effect, and fights HIV. Like the holiday season, it’s the gift that keeps on giving.

Did you know the Hindi word for ‘cinnamon’, ‘dalchini’, translates directly to lentil sugar? Rest assured. This sweet-smelling spice has no traces of sugar or lentils in it. It does accentuate both dals and desserts with equal aplomb, though!

Like black pepper, cinnamon is another crucial ingredient in garam masala. It is a strong spice with a delightfully sweet scent and an unexpectedly bitter flavor. The distinctive spicy-sweet kick of this ingredient makes it a lovely addition to chai. It also fares well in desserts like kulfi and gujiya. Interestingly, it assimilates into savory dishes just as spectacularly. It is a star ingredient in specific lentils such as Dal Palak, non-vegetarian curries like Keralan Fish Stew, Rogan Josh, and Chettinad Chicken, as well as rice dishes like pulao and biryani.

Cinnamon is excellent purchased as whole sticks or in its powdered form. Unlike cardamom and black pepper, the ground variety of this spice stands the test of time in your kitchen cabinet. Like black peppercorns, cinnamon sticks should be tempered in hot ghee or oil to extract their sweet, woody, citrusy notes. Ground cinnamon should be used sparingly – around ⅓ tsp – and gently fried with the base ingredients of a dish to bring out its full flavor. If you’re a masala chai enthusiast, skip the powder. Instead, throw in 1 stick of cinnamon with your chai patti (tea leaves) as it’s brewing. The finished product will be reminiscent of cinnamon without having an overpowering cinnamony taste.

9. Nutmeg & Mace

English ( Hindi ) translation: Nutmeg ( Jaayphal ); Mace ( Gada )

While we’re on the train of spices that are western favorites, we would be remiss not to mention nutmeg – and its lesser-known sibling, mace. Both spices come from the seed of the native Indonesian evergreen tree. However, while nutmeg is the inner seed, mace is the red, lace-like substance that envelopes the seed.

The warm, nutty flavor of nutmeg makes it an exquisite – but not staple – addition to Indian cuisine. It appears in sweets such as Dried Fruit Barfi, Pongal, and Mohanthal. It is also added to savory recipes, like Lauki Ke Kofte and Sabzi ka Salan.

Mace has a flavor best described as a cross between nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper. This means it is generally restricted to usage in savory appetizers and entrees. Examples include Lahori Aloo, South Indian Biryani, and Dum Dahi Methi Murgh. The intensity of nutmeg means you only need to sprinkle a pinch of it into your dish. Whereas the subtlety of mace allows you to use up to 2 whole blades of it.

These spices’ unique benefits are their ability to detoxify the body, alleviate oral conditions, reduce insomnia, prevent leukemia, and improve blood circulation. But, the quantity of these spices in recipes tends to be small. To reap the full benefits of these ingredients, try this recipe. Stir about ¼ tsp ground nutmeg and mace into warm, sweetened milk or a lightly-brewed tea. It makes for a great drink, particularly in the mornings and nights.

Nutmeg and mace, without debate, have to be purchased whole and broken down at home. Can’t take our word for it? Just drive to your local grocery store and look for powdered mace or nutmeg. Most likely, you won’t find it because these spices lose their flavor entirely when pre-ground and stored even for short durations. The best way to grind these spices is to gently roast them whole. Then, process them in a spice grinder once cooled. Pro tip: nutmeg is best grounded by grating it with a microplane or a lemon zester.

10. Star Anise, Cloves, & Bay Leaves

English ( Hindi ) translation: Star Anice ( Chakra Phool ); Cloves ( Laung ); Bay Leaves (Tej Patta)

Star anise, cloves , and bay leaves are the holy trinity of whole spices, star anise, cloves. They will rarely be found independently in their powdered form. Instead, they make for excellent supporting players in garam masala.

There is a reason you usually see these spices together. On their own, each ingredient leaves something to be desired and craves balance. Star anise has a sweet, licorice flavor. Cloves have an intense, astringent sensation. Bay leaves have a pine-like, spearmint quality. Yet, when used together, these form a zing that is remarkably wholesome in its flavor profile.

This trio is used in curries, lentils, rice dishes, and several regional delights. You’ll find these spices in Maharashtrian Kala Chana, Zarda Pulao, Dal Bati Churma, Mushroom Masala, Dal Makhani, Rajasthani Kadhi Pakoda, Kashmiri Dum Aloo, and Badshahi Khichdi.

While these ingredients often steal the show, their unique health benefits cannot be ignored. For example, Star anise has antimicrobial, antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal properties! In addition, cloves possess anti-cancer qualities, kill bacteria (which makes them an excellent flu remedy), improve liver health, reduce stomach ulcers, and promote bone health. Lastly, bay leaves are an excellent source of vitamin A, vitamin B6, and vitamin C.

They are often used as a trio in tempering in the initial step of a recipe – similar to black peppercorns and cinnamon sticks. Just grab 2 star anise, 5-6 cloves, and 1-2 bay leaves and drop them into warm ghee or oil. Now, patiently wait for a minute or two as the spices infuse into the fat. The delightful aromas will flood your kitchen and envelop your home’s atmosphere.

11. Fenugreek Seeds & Fenugreek Leaves

English ( Hindi ) translation: Fresh Fenugreek ( Methi ); Fenugreek Seeds ( Methi Daana ); Fenugreek Leaves ( Kasoori Methi or Kasuri Methi )

I must admit, this ingredient is understandably unpopular. Fenugreek is a plant with green leaves, white flowers, and little pods encasing tiny, golden seeds. Kasoori methi is derived from drying the green leaves of the plant. Meanwhile, fenugreek seeds are procured from the pods.

Don’t be mistaken, though. Despite coming from the same plant, fenugreek leaves and seeds have strikingly contrasting flavors.

Fresh Fenugreek leaves, or methi, have a bitter taste when consumed fresh. However, these leaves develop a sweet, herbal aroma when dried and preserved for later use. I’m talking about Kasuri methi! On the other hand, Fenugreek seeds are incredibly bitter when consumed raw. Upon cooking, they transform into a more palatable, subtle bittersweet flavor.

Kasuri Methi has one of the most unique methods of usage. First, it is placed into your hand and gently crushed between two palms by rubbing the palms. Then, finally, you sprinkle it into the almost cooked dish as a finishing touch. The crushing of the leaves is a non-negotiable step. It releases the flavor of the Kasuri methi and imparts a grassy, maple-like, umami note to the final product. Unique in every sense of the word.

Kasuri methi is often used in North Indian dishes. It is a must in fan favorites such as Paneer Tikka Masala, Malai Kofta, Rajma, Palak Paneer, Darbari Dal, and Tandoori Gobi. The herbal grassiness of Kasuri methi balances out the luxurious mouthfeel in these rich recipes. Don’t be tempted to use more than just a teaspoon, though! Kasuri methi will single-handedly overpower the taste of your dish if overdone.

Fenugreek seeds, unlike Kasuri methi, are not extensively used in Indian cooking. They are regarded more for their medicinal value. This golden seed lowers blood sugar levels and cholesterol, boosts testosterone, increases milk production in breastfeeding mothers, and even soothes menstrual cramps. First, soak these seeds in hot water for 30 minutes (or room temperature water overnight). After that, consume them raw on an empty stomach. Tip: you may want to swallow them whole instead of chewing them. They are incredibly bitter.

12. Fennel Seeds

English ( Hindi ) translation: Fennel Seeds ( Saunf )

If you’ve ever spotted customers sneaking a spoonful of colored seeds from a bowl on their way out of an Indian restaurant – congratulations! You’ve witnessed an integral part of the desi (Indian) experience. Those seeds are mukhwas, a South Asian after-meal snack or mouth freshener. Mukhwas is consumed for its digestive (and delicious) properties and to eliminate the onion-garlic smell from the mouth.

Fennel originates in Southern Europe and is used traditionally in Italian cuisine. But it is just as commonly used in Indian cuisine. Fennel’s candy-like appearance at said restaurants and dessert-like licorice flavor are deceiving. Contradictorily, Saunf is more frequently used in savory Indian cuisine. You’ll likely find fennel seeds in a conservative quantity of roughly 1 tsp in various appetizers and main curries. Examples are Punjabi Samosas, Achari Paneer, Tinda Aur Saunf ki Sabzi, Banarsi Dum Aloo, Achari Baingan, Dahi Bhindi, Mug Dal ni Kachori, Gatte ka Pulao, and Mango Pickle.

As mentioned earlier, Saunf is a superstar for its ability to aid digestion and keep bad breath at bay. In addition, it also alleviates asthma, purifies the blood, clears our skin, and may even combat cancer.

Fennel seeds’ no-fuss versatility makes them an easy addition to any dish. Saunf can be used whole to be kneaded into a dough or grounded into a spice mix or paste for a gravy base. You could even use it whole in a tempering – the possibilities are endless.

13. Cumin & Mustard Seeds

English ( Hindi ) translation: Cumin Seeds ( Jeera ); Mustard Seeds ( Rai )

Mustard and cumin seeds are the two most frequently used ingredients in tempering (Tadka). If you’ve been confused this whole time about what tempering means – I’ve got just the guide for you.

Tempering is a cooking technique used in various regions of South Asia. This technique utilizes whole spices, ground spices, and seeds. These ingredients are fried and infused briefly in hot oil, ghee, or butter to extract their essential oils and enhance their flavors. This integral step can be performed at the beginning of cooking a dish. After this, you would add the recipe’s other aromatic ingredients – such as onions, garlic, ginger, and tomatoes. Alternatively, it can be done as the finishing garnish of a dish, where you’d pour the tempering, oil, and all, atop a serving dish.

Most of the Indian curries, dals and lentil dishes are tempered with Cumin and/or Mustard seeds.

Despite this small volume, these ingredients relieve headaches, improve digestive, cardiovascular, and bone health, prevent aging, fight parasites, boost memory, and treat diarrhea.

Many Indian mums all over the world call these seeds’ Rai-Jeera’. This duo is usually dropped into a little bit of hot ghee or oil, where it begins crackling. This step is quickly followed up with a dash of hing to complete the tempering process. Rai-jeera is often used together in regional cuisines such as Gujarati, Maharashtrian, and Hyderabadi cuisine. However, rai-jeera tends to be used individually in other cuisines, such as Rajasthani, Punjabi, and Chettinad.

Cumin and mustard seeds are crucial in Indian cuisine but are used in conservative quantities – around ½ tsp each.

14. Carom Seeds & Nigella Seeds

English ( Hindi ) translation: Carom seeds ( Ajwain ); Nigella Seeds ( Kalonji or Kalonjee )

Native to Iran and Turkey, carom seeds are a staple in any South Asian home. But, funnily, kids will often turn up their noses at it. This is because its pungent, bitter flavor is dominant in the herbal drinks they’re forced to consume by their mothers when sick. Ask an Indian grandmother what a ‘carom seed’ is, and you’ll be met with a confused stare. Much more commonly known as ajwain in Indian households, carom seeds occupy less space in the culinary scope of India. Instead, they are talked about more in their medicinal arena. This is due to its ability to fight bacteria, indigestion, ulcers, inflammation, and the flu.

Unlike ajwain, kalonji has a pleasant flavor reminiscent of onion and oregano. This makes it a more versatile ingredient. It is a common addition to curries and stir-frys such as Achari Paneer, Bhindi Do Pyaza, Hyderabadi Bagara Baingan, Mirchi ka Salan, and Aloo Gobi.

Kalonji originates from Turkey, Syria, and Iraq and is derived from the seeds of the flowering plant Nigella sativa. It effectively lowers cholesterol, kills harmful bacteria, protects the liver, and aids in blood sugar regulation.

Like rai-jeera, carom seeds may be used in tempering. This is often done with another outstanding Indian ingredient – nigella seeds (or kalonji). However, the more widespread use of this duo is in doughs and batters. This could be in the form of aloo parathas, theplas, and deep-fried pakoras. Just 1 tbsp of ajwain and kalonji mix is enough to lend a textural crunch and a sharp flavor zing that cuts through the otherwise doughy texture of these snacks.

15. Saffron

English ( Hindi ) translation: Saffron ( Kesar )

Saffron is touted as the most expensive spice in the entire world. It is derived from the threads of the flower Crocus Sativus and was first cultivated in Greece. This luxurious spice is grown today in Iran, Morocco, Spain, and India. With an incredibly labor-intensive production process, it is no wonder that this spice goes at $1000 per kilogram.

Justifying its astronomical price is also its flavor. Saffron flaunts a complex profile comprising sweet, honey-like floral notes and musky, earthy, hay-like nuances. This multidimensional yet gentle flavor makes it a welcome addition to savory and sweet Indian cuisine. Its usage in entrees tends to be limited – namely, to biryani, Pulao, and Kofta. But it is used far more frequently in desserts. This is because its inherently sweet scent is a natural combination with the pillars of Indian desserts: milk, cream, cardamom, dry fruits, and sugar. Some delicacies that enjoy a saffron-stained golden hue are Kesar-Pista Kulfi, Kesari Bhaat, Mango Murabba, Shrikhand, Falooda, and even Lassi.

Saffron contains disease-preventing antioxidants, potassium, copper, magnesium, selenium, iron, zinc, vitamins A, C, and folic acid. It also includes components that can have therapeutic applications in traditional medicine, such as antidepressants, antiseptics, and anticonvulsants.

The perfect way of utilizing Safron is by soaking 5-6 strands in 2-3 tbsp of warm milk for 30 minutes. Next, gently crush the strands with the back of a spoon. Lastly, pour this mixture into your dish during the last 5 minutes of its cooking process. 

English ( Hindi ) translation: Tamarind ( Imli )

Let’s talk souring agents. Interestingly, Indian cuisine does not limit itself to lemon, limes, and citric acid for brightness in its food. Instead, this cuisine forays into underutilized sources of acidity – tamarind, amchur powder (or dried mango powder), and Kokum. These contribute to the multilayered flavor profile of South Asian food and add piquancy to Indian cuisine. Each of the three has a home in specific regional Indian cuisine.

All three souring agents have a high concentration of vitamin C, which stimulates detoxification, improves eyesight, prevents scurvy, provides natural antibacterial, antimicrobial, and anti-diabetic benefits, eases indigestion, and regulates blood sugar.

Tamarind is a pod of fruit native to Asia and Africa. This fruit has hints of caramel, molasses, and lime upon ripening. The intensely sweet-sour yet enjoyable flavor truly leaves you wanting more. It is most popularly added to delicious South Indian recipes such as Tamarind Rice, Sambar, Coriander Pachadi, Rasam, and Tamarind Upma. But its flavor is most noticeable in street food – specifically, in Khajur-Imli ki Chutney (date and tamarind sauce).

A safe amount to use is roughly 2 tbsp of tamarind pulp. To make this pulp, pour hot water over the tamarind and let it sit for 45 minutes. Upon cooling, rub the fruit between your fingers to separate the flesh from the seeds. Do this until you’ve attained a thick and pulpy mixture. Next, strain out the seeds, and you’re good to go!

English ( Hindi ) translation: Dried Mango Powder ( Amchur Powder )

Amchur powder, unlike tamarind, has no sweetness. Instead, it has a predominantly tart, fruity, citrusy flavor profile. This acidity cuts through the cloying sweetness of any dish.

Like many other Indian ingredients, Amchur is best added in a quantity of 1-2 tsp towards the end of cooking. You’ll find this zesty ingredient in meat and vegetable marinades, certain stir-fried sabzis, or a garnish sprinkled on deep-fried snacks.

English ( Hindi ) translation: Kokum ( Kokum )

Kokum is the dried peel of the fruit borne from the “Indian Butter Tree.” This deep-red colored peel may have a deceptively sweet aroma. But be warned, it actually has a sharply acidic, borderline metallic flavor.

The proper way to extract Kokum’s goodness is by soaking the peel in water for a few hours. Follow this by straining the mixture. Most regional recipes use Kokum in small quantities of 3-6 peels. Kokum adds the perfect zing to these regional dishes: Konkan Sol Kadhi, Gujarati Dal Dhokli, Assamese Fish Tenga, and Maharashtrian Dalimbi Usal.

19. Jaggery

English ( Hindi ) translation: Jaggery ( Gur or Gud )

A sweetener gaining popularity in the health world as a white sugar replacement is jaggery – or Gur. Native to Asia and Africa, Gur is known for being an unrefined sugar product. Its gorgeous yellow hue and rock-like texture make Gur look like unearthed gold.

But what separates Gur from plain ol’ sugar is not just its micronutrients and health benefits. It’s also its flavor. The minerally-sweet and ever-so-slightly salty profile of jaggery add more than just sweetness to a dish. It also lends dimension. Instead of throwing a chunk of jaggery willy-nilly into the cooking pan, thy following- caramelize the jaggery with other aromatics in some ghee or oil. Do this until it begins breaking down into a dark, fragrant syrup. This remarkable ingredient has the potential to add so much depth to a dish when used correctly. But, of course, how much you add depends on your personal taste and threshold for sweetness.

Its versatility makes it a barely noticeable addition to potentially every meal of the day. You’d find it in the Jaggery Dosas at breakfast and in the Gur ki Roti at lunch. At teatime, you might notice its flavor in Pana Vellam Chai. If that wasn’t enough, the Chicken Curry at dinner and Malpuas at dessert also incorporate jaggery into their recipes. A real treat at any time of the day.

20. Garam masala

English ( Hindi ) translation: Garam Masala ( Garam Masala )

Lastly, we arrive at the mother of all spices: garam masala. This ingredient is the most well-known Indian spice apart from “curry powder.” Garam masala is a blend of coriander seeds, cumin seeds, green and black cardamom, Ceylon cinnamon, cloves, black peppercorns, fennel seeds, star anise, mace, nutmeg, and bay leaf. These spices are gently roasted whole before being ground into a fine powder.

Many non-South Asians may not know that every Indian household has its unique recipe for garam masala. These recipes are one-of-its-kind due to the varied ratios of the components. However, these households and their respective cultures are unified by one thing: garam masala is a must-have ingredient in nearly every regional Indian cuisine.

Each individual ingredient of this mix has its unique health benefits. But as a whole, garam masala is a magical blend that, according to our Indian ancestors, provides warmth to the body, detoxifies it, and balances the energies in our body.

Garam Masala is used in Awadhi Anda Curry, Gujarati Masala Khichdi, Punjabi Bharwan Karela, Lucknowi Galouti Kebabs, South Indian Rasam, Manglorean Tendli and Chana Masala, Maharashtrian Masala Bhaat, Rajasthani Moong Dal Kachori – the list is endless.

This spice blend has a robust flavor. As such, it is sprinkled sparingly in a quantity of ¼ to ½ tsp towards the end of the cooking process. This does wonder in retaining its pleasantly sharp spiciness. Pro Tip: Do not add Garam Masala in the hot oil or ghee as it will instantly burn the spices and ruin the taste.

English ( Hindi ) translation: Curry Leaves ( Kadhi Patta or Mitho Limdo )

Indian cuisine is known for its spices and curry leaves are no exception. Curry leaves add a unique flavor to Indian dishes that are both spicy and aromatic. When used properly, they can really enhance the taste of your food.

Curry leaves have a distinctive taste and aroma that can really elevate a dish. When used fresh, they have a slightly sour, citrusy flavor that pairs well with spicy dishes. Dried curry leaves have a more intense flavor and are often used in powder form to add a depth of flavor to curries and other dishes.

Curry leaves also help to create a more vibrant color in dishes. When cooked, they release their natural pigment, which can lend a beautiful green hue to food.

Curry leaves are a good source of vitamins A and C, as well as minerals like iron and calcium. They also contain antioxidants that can help boost your immune system. Curry leaves are known for their health benefits. They can aid digestion, reduce inflammation and help control blood sugar levels.

Curry leaves are often used as a flavoring agent in Indian cooking. To get the most flavor out of them, fry them in oil until they are slightly browned. This will release their essential oils and provide a delicious flavor to your dish. Curry leaves can also be used to flavor soups and stews. Simply add a few leaves to the pot when you are cooking your soup or stew. This will infuse the curry flavor into the dish.

Now that we’ve looked at the most essential spices for Indian cooking, you might find cooking an Indian meal less intimidating. Indian cuisine may have complicated flavors, but once you can name and understand the individual spices we use, you’ll see that it’s really not that difficult to prepare.

Do you have any questions about any of the spices? Have you found this article helpful? Please leave a comment below.

Good luck – and happy cooking!

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Essay on Indian Food

Students are often asked to write an essay on Indian Food in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Indian Food

Introduction to indian food.

Indian food is a rich blend of various regional cuisines from India. It’s known for its bold, complex flavours and diverse ingredients.

Flavours and Ingredients

Indian cuisine uses a variety of spices like turmeric, cumin, and coriander. Ingredients like rice, wheat, and lentils are common, along with vegetables and fruits.

Regional Variations

India’s diverse regions each have unique food. Northern India enjoys creamy curries and tandoori, while Southern India is known for spicy dishes and rice-based meals.

Significance

Indian food is not just about taste, but also culture and tradition. It’s a crucial part of festivals and celebrations.

Also check:

• 10 Lines on Indian Food

250 Words Essay on Indian Food

Introduction.

Indian cuisine, a rich tapestry of flavors, is a testament to the country’s diverse culture and history. It is characterized by its sophisticated and subtle use of a multitude of spices and herbs, which vary by region due to differences in climate and soil.

The Diversity of Indian Cuisine

Indian food is not a monolith but a plethora of regional cuisines. Northern Indian dishes, like butter chicken and naan, are heavily influenced by Persian and Mughal cuisines. In contrast, Southern Indian cuisine, known for dosas and sambar, relies heavily on rice and lentils. Coastal areas, such as Goa and Bengal, offer a rich array of seafood dishes.

Spices: The Heart of Indian Cuisine

Spices are the lifeblood of Indian cuisine. Turmeric, cumin, coriander, and cardamom are just a few examples. These spices not only add flavor but also have medicinal properties, reflecting the ancient Indian practice of Ayurveda.

The Role of Vegetarianism

India has the highest percentage of vegetarians globally, influenced by religious beliefs and philosophies. This has led to a vast array of vegetarian dishes, including paneer tikka, aloo gobi, and chole bhature.

Indian food, with its rich flavors, diverse regional variations, and emphasis on spices and vegetarianism, offers a unique culinary experience. It is not just about feeding the body, but also about nourishing the soul, reflecting India’s cultural richness and spiritual depth.

500 Words Essay on Indian Food

Indian cuisine, a rich tapestry of flavors, is a testament to the country’s complex cultural heritage and geographical diversity. With its myriad regional dishes and culinary techniques, it offers a gastronomic journey that is as diverse as its people and traditions.

Historical and Geographical Influence

The evolution of Indian food is deeply intertwined with the country’s history and geography. The early Harappan civilization laid the foundation with its farming practices, later enriched by the Aryans’ dairy-based diet. Subsequent invasions, trade relations, and colonial rule introduced new ingredients and cooking methods, shaping the cuisine we know today.

India’s geography has also played a significant role. Coastal regions, with their abundant seafood, have developed distinct dishes like Goan fish curry. In contrast, the arid regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat have unique vegetarian cuisines, given the scarcity of water and fresh produce.

Ingredients and Flavors

Indian cuisine is characterized by its bold use of spices, which are typically toasted and ground into a blend known as masala. These spice blends vary regionally, with garam masala in the north and sambar powder in the south. Herbs, such as coriander, mint, and fenugreek, also play a significant role, adding depth and complexity to dishes.

Rice and wheat are staple grains, forming the base for dishes like biryani and roti. Lentils and pulses are also integral, providing protein in a predominantly vegetarian diet. Dairy, in the form of milk, yogurt, and ghee, is used extensively, especially in northern India.

Diversity of Indian Cuisine

India’s culinary diversity is striking. Northern Indian cuisine, influenced by Persian and Mughal cooking, features rich, creamy dishes like butter chicken and naan bread. Southern Indian cuisine, on the other hand, is characterized by its spicy, tangy flavors, with dishes like dosa and rasam. Western India offers a blend of sweet and savory dishes, while eastern India is known for its sweets like rasgulla and sandesh.

Indian Food Beyond Borders

Indian food has gained global recognition, with adaptations like chicken tikka masala becoming beloved dishes worldwide. This international popularity has led to fusion cuisines, blending Indian flavors with foreign culinary traditions. However, it’s important to note that these adaptations often represent only a fraction of India’s culinary diversity.

In essence, Indian food is a symphony of flavors, a reflection of the country’s cultural diversity and historical journey. It’s a cuisine that tells stories, celebrates regional diversity, and offers an array of flavors that continue to enthrall food lovers around the globe. As Indian food continues to evolve and influence global cuisines, it stands as a testament to India’s rich culinary heritage.

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The Religious Landscape of Ancient India: Complexity and Diversity

This essay about the religious landscape of ancient India discusses the complex and diverse spiritual traditions that shaped the subcontinent. Starting with the nature worship and fertility cults of the Indus Valley Civilization, it traces the evolution through the Vedic period, which introduced a pantheon of gods and complex rituals detailed in the Vedas. The essay highlights the emergence of transformative philosophies with Jainism and Buddhism, which advocated ethical living and renunciation of materialism. It also covers the philosophical depth of the Upanishads and the development of classical Hinduism, marked by the worship of deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti. The narrative concludes by appreciating the pluralism and intellectual vitality of ancient Indian religion, emphasizing its enduring global influence and relevance.

How it works

Ancient Indian religious customs comprise a diverse range of spiritual activities and intellectual understandings, all of which add to the larger cultural fabric that characterizes the history of the subcontinent. The religious landscape of ancient India was far from a monolithic entity; rather, it was a dynamic mash-up of rites, beliefs, and deities that changed dramatically over millennia.

In the early phases of Indian civilization, particularly during the Indus Valley Civilization around 2500 BCE, religious life was likely centered around fertility cults, nature worship, and the veneration of a proto-Shiva figure, indicating an early form of Shaivism.

The archaeological remnants from this period, such as seals depicting yogic postures and figures surrounded by animals, suggest a religion that revered both anthropomorphic and theriomorphic forms.

As the Indus Valley Civilization declined and the Vedic period took root (circa 1500 BCE), the religious paradigm shifted dramatically. The Vedas, a collection of hymns and religious texts composed during this era, laid the foundational beliefs of what would become Hinduism. These texts introduced a pantheon of gods and goddesses, each associated with natural elements and cosmic functions. The primary deities included Indra, the king of gods and god of thunder; Agni, the god of fire; and Varuna, the god of water. The rituals described in the Vedas, particularly the elaborate sacrificial rites, underscored the importance of appeasing deities for material benefits and cosmic order.

The subsequent development in ancient Indian religion was marked by the rise of two major schools of thought that challenged the orthodoxy of Vedic rituals—Jainism and Buddhism. Around the 6th century BCE, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha each founded these religions, emphasizing ethical living, renunciation of materialism, and the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment. Jainism introduced the concept of ahimsa (non-violence) and an extreme form of asceticism, while Buddhism presented the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as a means to end suffering and achieve Nirvana.

Another significant religious development during the later Vedic period was the Upanishads, which shifted focus from external ritual practices to internal spiritual growth and understanding of the self. The Upanishads explore the nature of reality and the concept of Brahman (the ultimate reality) and Atman (the individual soul), proposing a philosophical underpinning to the idea of moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth).

The synthesis of these diverse religious practices and philosophical concepts gave rise to classical Hinduism, which emerged around the beginning of the Common Era. This period witnessed the integration of Vedic gods with local deities and the ascendance of major gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, and the goddess Shakti, each with their own elaborate mythology and worship practices. The epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, including the Bhagavad Gita, played a crucial role in popularizing these deities and philosophical ideas, weaving them into the social and cultural fabric of Indian life.

One of the most amazing features of ancient Indian religion during these changes was its pluralism. Philosophical discussions and spiritual advances developed in a dynamic religious environment made possible by the coexistence and mixing of diverse beliefs and practices. The profound quality of ancient Indian spirituality, which still has an impact on contemporary religious rituals around the world, is highlighted by this eclectic tradition, which also reflects the Indian attitude of tolerance and acceptance.

In conclusion, the religious history of ancient India is a testament to the region’s profound spiritual depth and intellectual vitality. From the ritualistic hymns of the Vedas to the introspective philosophies of the Upanishads, and from the ethical teachings of Jainism and Buddhism to the devotional fervor of Bhakti, each layer of religious expression contributes to the understanding of human existence and the universe. The ongoing relevance of these ancient teachings in contemporary society underscores their enduring wisdom and universal appeal.

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NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, editors. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd edition. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2011.

Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd edition.

Chapter 13 turmeric, the golden spice.

Sahdeo Prasad and Bharat B. Aggarwal .

13.1. INTRODUCTION

Natural plant products have been used throughout human history for various purposes. Having co-evolved with animal life, many of the plants from which these natural products are derived are billions of years old. Tens of thousands of these products are produced as secondary metabolites by higher plants as a natural defense mechanism against disease and infection. Many of these natural products have pharmacological or biological activity that can be exploited in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. Medicines derived from plants have played a pivotal role in the health care of many cultures, both ancient and modern ( Newman, Cragg, and Sander 2003 ; Butler 2004 ; Balunas and Kinghorn 2005 ; Gurib-Fakim 2006 ; Newman and Cragg 2007 ). The Indian system of holistic medicine known as “Ayurveda” uses mainly plant-based drugs or formulations to treat various ailments, including cancer. Of the at least 877 small-molecule drugs introduced worldwide between 1981 and 2002, the origins of most (61%) can be traced to natural products ( Newman and Cragg 2007 ). Although many synthetic drugs are produced through combinatorial chemistry, plant-based drugs are more suitable, at least in biochemical terms, for human use. Nonetheless, modern medicine has neither held in very high esteem nor encouraged the medicinal use of natural products.

Turmeric is a plant that has a very long history of medicinal use, dating back nearly 4000 years. In Southeast Asia, turmeric is used not only as a principal spice but also as a component in religious ceremonies. Because of its brilliant yellow color, turmeric is also known as “Indian saffron.” Modern medicine has begun to recognize its importance, as indicated by the over 3000 publications dealing with turmeric that came out within the last 25 years. This review first discusses in vitro studies with turmeric, followed by animal studies, and finally studies carried out on humans; the safety and efficacy of turmeric are further addressed.

13.2. ORIGIN, NOMENCLATURE, HISTORY, CULTIVATION, AND PROCESSING OF TURMERIC

The use of turmeric dates back nearly 4000 years to the Vedic culture in India, where it was used as a culinary spice and had some religious significance. It probably reached China by 700 ad , East Africa by 800 ad , West Africa by 1200 ad , and Jamaica in the eighteenth century. In 1280, Marco Polo described this spice, marveling at a vegetable that exhibited qualities so similar to that of saffron. According to Sanskrit medical treatises and Ayurvedic and Unani systems, turmeric has a long history of medicinal use in South Asia. Susruta’s Ayurvedic Compendium , dating back to 250 BC , recommends an ointment containing turmeric to relieve the effects of poisoned food.

Today, turmeric is widely cultivated in the tropics and goes by different names in different cultures and countries ( Table 13.1 ). In North India, turmeric is commonly called “haldi,” a word derived from the Sanskrit word haridra , and in the south it is called “manjal,” a word that is frequently used in ancient Tamil literature. The name turmeric derives from the Latin word terra merita (meritorious earth), referring to the color of ground turmeric, which resembles a mineral pigment. It is known as terre merite in French and simply as “yellow root” in many languages. In many cultures, its name is based on the Latin word curcuma . In Sanskrit, turmeric has at least 53 different names, including anestha (not offered for sacrifice or homa), bhadra (auspicious or lucky), bahula (plenty), dhirgharaja (long in appearance), gandhaplashika (which produces good smell), gauri (to make fair), gharshani (to rub), haldi (that draws attention to its bright color), haridra (dear to hari, Lord Krishna), harita (greenish), hemaragi (exhibits golden color), hemaragini (gives the golden color), hridayavilasini (gives delight to heart, charming), jayanti (one that wins over diseases), jawarantika (which cures fevers), kanchani (exhibits golden color), kaveri (harlot), krimighni or kashpa (killer of worms), kshamata (capability), laxmi (prosperity), mangalprada (who bestows auspiciousness), mangalya (auspicious), mehagni (killer of fat), nisha (night), nishakhya (known as night), nishawa (clears darkness and imparts color), patwaluka (perfumed powder), pavitra (holy), pinga (reddish-brown), pinja (yellow-red powder), pita (yellow), pitika (which gives yellow color), rabhangavasa (which dissolves fat), ranjani (which gives color), ratrimanika (as beautiful as moonlight), shifa (fibrous root), shobhna (brilliant color), shiva (gracious), shyama (dark colored), soubhagaya (lucky), survana (golden color), survanavara (which exhibits golden color), tamasini (beautiful as night), umavara (Parvati, wife of Lord Shiva), vairagi (who remains free from desires), varavarnini (which gives fair complexion), varna datri (enhancer of body complexion), varnini (which gives color), vishagni (killer of poison), yamini (night), yoshitapriya (beloved of wife), and yuvati (young girl).

Various Names of Turmeric/Curcumin in Different Languages.

Turmeric is a product of Curcuma longa , a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant belonging to the ginger family Zingiberaceae, which is native to tropical South Asia. As many as 133 species of Curcuma have been identified worldwide ( Table 13.2 ). Most of them have common local names and are used for various medicinal formulations. Some specific turmeric species are shown in Figure 13.1 . The turmeric plant needs temperatures between 20°C and 30°C and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive. Individual plants grow to a height of 1 m, and have long, oblong leaves. Plants are gathered annually for their rhizomes, and are reseeded from some of those rhizomes in the following season. The rhizome, from which the turmeric is derived, is tuberous, with a rough and segmented skin. The rhizomes mature beneath the foliage in the ground. They are yellowish brown with a dull orange interior. The main rhizome is pointed or tapered at the distal end and measures 2.5–7.0 cm (1–3 inches) in length and 2.5 cm (1 inch) in diameter, with smaller tubers branching off. When the turmeric rhizome is dried, it can be ground to a yellow powder with a bitter, slightly acrid, yet sweet, taste.

List of Curcuma Species.

FIGURE 13.1

(See color insert.) Different species of Curcuma that are used traditionally as a spice or as medicine.

India produces nearly all of the world’s turmeric crop and consumes 80% of it. With its inherent qualities and high content of the important bioactive compound curcumin, Indian turmeric is considered to be the best in the world. Erode, a city in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is the world’s largest producer of and the most important trading center for turmeric. It is also known as “Yellow City,” “Turmeric City,” or “Textile City.” Sangli, a city of Maharashtra, is second only to Erode in size and importance as a production and trading site for turmeric.

Before turmeric can be used, the turmeric rhizomes must be processed. Rhizomes are boiled or steamed to remove the raw odor, gelatinize the starch, and produce a more uniformly colored product. In the traditional Indian process, rhizomes were placed in pans or earthenware filled with water and then covered with leaves and a layer of cow dung. The ammonia in the cow dung reacted with the turmeric to give the final product. For hygienic reasons, this method has been discouraged. In present-day processing, rhizomes are placed in shallow pans in large iron vats containing 0.05–0.1% alkaline water (e.g., solution of sodium bicarbonate). The rhizomes are then boiled for between 40–45 minutes (in India) or 6 hours (in Hazare, Pakistan), depending on the variety. The rhizomes are removed from the water and dried in the sun immediately to prevent overcooking. The final moisture content should be between 8% and 10% (wet basis). When finger tapping of the rhizome produces a metallic sound, it is sufficiently dry. The dried rhizomes are polished to remove the rough surface. Sometimes, lead chromate is used to produce a better finish, but for obvious reasons this practice should be actively discouraged. The powder maintains its coloring properties indefinitely, although the flavor may diminish over time. Protecting the turmeric powder from sunlight retards the rate of deterioration.

13.3. COMPOSITION OF TURMERIC

More than 100 components have been isolated from turmeric. The main component of the root is a volatile oil, containing turmerone, and there are other coloring agents called curcuminoids in turmeric. Curcuminoids consist of curcumin demethoxycurcumin, 5’-methoxycurcumin, and dihydrocurcumin, which are found to be natural antioxidants ( Ruby et al. 1995 ; Selvam et al. 1995 ). In a standard form, turmeric contains moisture (>9%), curcumin (5–6.6%), extraneous matter (<0.5% by weight), mould (<3%), and volatile oils (<3.5%). Volatile oils include d-α-phellandrene, d-sabinene, cinol, borneol, zingiberene, and sesquiterpenes ( Ohshiro, Kuroyanag, and Keno 1990 ). There are a variety of sesquiterpenes, like germacrone; termerone; ar-(+)-, α-, and β-termerones; β-bisabolene; α-curcumene; zingiberene; β-sesquiphellanderene; bisacurone; curcumenone; dehydrocurdione; procurcumadiol; bis-acumol; curcumenol; isoprocurcumenol; epiprocurcumenol; procurcumenol; zedoaronediol; and curlone, many of which are specific for a species. The components responsible for the aroma of turmeric are turmerone, arturmerone, and zingiberene. The rhizomes are also reported to contain four new polysaccharides-ukonans along with stigmasterole, β-sitosterole, cholesterol, and 2-hydroxymethyl anthraquinone ( Kapoor 1990 ; Kirtikar and Basu 1993 ). Nutritional analysis showed that 100 g of turmeric contains 390 kcal, 10 g total fat, 3 g saturated fat, 0 mg cholesterol, 0.2 g calcium, 0.26 g phosphorous, 10 mg sodium, 2500 mg potassium, 47.5 mg iron, 0.9 mg thiamine, 0.19 mg riboflavin, 4.8 mg niacin, 50 mg ascorbic acid, 69.9 g total carbohydrates, 21 g dietary fiber, 3 g sugars, and 8 g protein ( Balakrishnan 2007 ). Turmeric is also a good source of the ω-3 fatty acid and α-linolenic acid (2.5%; Goud, Polasa, and Krishnaswamy 1993 ).

13.4. CONSUMPTION AND IMPORTANCE OF TURMERIC

Turmeric has been put to use as a foodstuff, cosmetic, and medicine. It is widely used as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. It lends curry its distinctive yellow color and flavor. It is used as a coloring agent in cheese, butter, and other foods ( Govindarajan 1980 ; Ammon and Wahl 1991 ). As a result of Indian influence, turmeric has made its way into Ethiopian cuisine. In South Africa, turmeric is traditionally used to give boiled white rice a golden color. Turmeric is also used in manufactured food products such as canned beverages, dairy products, baked products, ice cream, yellow cakes, yogurt, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn, sweets, cake icings, cereals, sauces, and gelatins. It is a significant ingredient in most commercial curry powders. Turmeric has numerous uses in Asian cuisine. It is used in savory and sweet dishes, and is widely used in Eastern specialties such as fresh turmeric pickle. The reported consumption of turmeric in Asian countries in humans is in the range of 200–1000 mg/day ( Thimmayamma, Rau, and Radhaiah 1983 ; Polasa et al. 1991 ) or 160–440 g/person/year ( Krishnaswamy 1996 ). Intake in urban areas is lower (200 mg/day) than in rural areas (600 mg/day/person; Thimmayamma, Rau, and Radhaiah 1983 ).

According to some estimates, as much as USD $10 billion is spent every year on alternative therapies. Over USDA $650 million is spent on botanical supplements that are used for chronic inflammatory diseases such as chronic obstructive airways disease (COPD), asthma, and rheumatoid arthritis. Botanical supplements have been used for centuries in traditional medicine, including Ayurveda (science of long life), Chinese medicine, Kampo (Japanese medicine), and Egyptian medicine. Several of the medicines that are traditionally used exhibit anti-inflammatory activities ( Garodia et al. 2007 ; Aggarwal et al. 2006 ). Turmeric is one such herb.

Turmeric is used as an herbal medicine for rheumatoid arthritis, chronic anterior uveitis, conjunctivitis, skin cancer, small pox, chicken pox, wound healing, urinary tract infections, and liver ailments ( Dixit, Jain, and Joshi 1988 ). It is also used for digestive disorders; to reduce flatus, jaundice, menstrual difficulties, and colic; for abdominal pain and distension ( Bundy et al. 2004 ); and for dyspeptic conditions including loss of appetite, postprandial feelings of fullness, and liver and gallbladder complaints. It has anti-inflammatory, choleretic, antimicrobial, and carminative actions ( Mills and Bone 2000 ). The main clinical targets of turmeric are the digestive organs: in the intestine, for treatment of diseases such as familial adenomatous polyposis ( Cruz-Correa et al. 2006 ); in the bowels, for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease ( Hanai and Sugimoto 2009 ); and in the colon, for treatment of colon cancer ( Naganuma et al. 2006 ). For arthritis, dosages of 8–60 g of fresh turmeric root three times daily have been recommended ( Fetrow and Avila 1999 ). For dyspepsia, 1.3–3.0 g of turmeric root is recommended. No known interaction of drugs with turmeric has been reported by the monographs of the German regulatory authority, Commission E ( Blumenthal, Goldberg, and Brinckmann 2000 ).

13.5. TURMERIC AS A TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

In folk medicine, turmeric has been used in therapeutic preparations over the centuries in different parts of the world. In Ayurvedic practices, turmeric is thought to have many medicinal properties including strengthening the overall energy of the body, relieving gas, dispelling worms, improving digestion, regulating menstruation, dissolving gallstones, and relieving arthritis. Many South Asian countries use it as an antiseptic for cuts, burns, and bruises, and as an antibacterial agent. In Pakistan, it is used as an anti-inflammatory agent, and as a remedy for gastrointestinal discomfort associated with irritable bowel syndrome and other digestive disorders. In Pakistan and Afghanistan, turmeric is used to cleanse wounds and stimulate their recovery by applying it on a piece of burnt cloth that is placed over a wound. Indians use turmeric, in addition to its Ayurvedic applications, to purify blood and remedy skin conditions. Turmeric paste is used by women in some parts of India to remove superfluous hair. Turmeric paste is applied to the skin of the bride and groom before marriage in some parts of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, where it is believed to make the skin glow and keep harmful bacteria away from the body. Turmeric is currently used in the formulation of several sunscreens. Several multinational companies are involved in making face creams based on turmeric.

In Ayurvedic medicine, turmeric is a well-documented treatment for various respiratory conditions (e.g., asthma, bronchial hyperactivity, and allergy), as well as for liver disorders, anorexia, rheumatism, diabetic wounds, runny nose, cough, and sinusitis ( Araujo and Leon 2001 ). In traditional Chinese medicine, it is used to treat diseases associated with abdominal pain ( Aggarwal, Ichikawa, and Garodia 2004 ). From ancient times, as prescribed by Ayurveda, turmeric has been used to treat sprains and swelling ( Araujo and Leon 2001 ). In both Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine, turmeric is considered a bitter digestive and a carminative. Unani practitioners also use turmeric to expel phlegm or kapha , as well as to open blood vessels in order to improve blood circulation. It can be incorporated into foods, including rice and bean dishes, to improve digestion and reduce gas and bloating. It is a cholagogue, stimulating bile production in the liver and encouraging excretion of bile via the gallbladder, which improves the body’s ability to digest fats. Sometimes, turmeric mixed with milk or water is taken to treat intestinal disorders as well as colds and sore throats.

13.6. FROM TRADITIONAL MEDICINE TO MODERN MEDICINE

Although modern medicine has been routinely used in treatment of various diseases, it is less than 100 years old. Traditional medicine, in comparison, has served mankind for thousands of years, is quite safe and effective. The mechanism or the scientific basis of traditional medicine, however, is less well understood.

13.6.1. I n V itro S tudies with T urmeric

Throughout the Orient, turmeric is traditionally used for both prevention and therapy of diseases. Modern in vitro studies reveal that turmeric is a potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antimicrobial, and anticancer agent ( Table 13.3 ). Turmeric, used in cooking and in home remedies, has significant antioxidant abilities at different levels of action. Studies indicate that sufficient levels of turmeric may be consumed from curries in vivo to ensure adequate antioxidant protection. ( Tilak et al. 2004 ). As an antioxidant, turmeric extracts can scavenge free radicals, increase antioxidant enzymes, and inhibit lipid peroxidation. Turmeric (100 μg/mL) inhibits lipid peroxidation in renal cells against hydrogen peroxide-induced injury when incubated with cells for 3 hours ( Cohly et al. 1998 ). Using Salmonella typhimurium strains TA 100 and TA 1535, a mutagenicity study showed that turmeric inhibits the mutagenicity produced by direct-acting mutagens such as N-methyl N’-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine and sodium azide. Turmeric extracts were found to inhibit microsomal activation-dependent mutagenicity of 2-acetamidofluorene ( Soudamini et al. 1995 ).

In Vitro Effects of Turmeric against Various Diseases/Disorders.

Numerous lines of evidence suggest that turmeric exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. In one study, crude organic extracts of turmeric were found to inhibit lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (median inhibitory concentration [IC 50 ] value = 15.2 μg/mL) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2; IC 50 value = 0.92 μg/mL) from HL-60 cells. A combination of several fractions that contained the turmeric oils was more effective than curcuminoids in inhibiting PGE2 production ( Lantz et al. 2005 ). A hydroethanolic extract of turmeric was recently found to inhibit activation of human dendritic cells in response to inflammatory cytokines ( Krasovsky et al. 2009 ).

Besides these properties, turmeric has strong antimicrobial properties. The growth of histamine-producing bacteria (Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and Proteus mirabilis) was inhibited by garlic and turmeric extracts at a 5% concentration ( Paramasivam, Thangaradjou, and Kannan 2007 ). Turmeric was also found to inhibit histamine production in Morganella morganii (potent histamine-producing bacteria). However, inhibition of histamine production and histidine decarboxylase activity of turmeric is less than that of clove and cinnamon ( Shakila, Vasundhara, and Rao 1996 ). Turmeric extract was found to inhibit growth of the foodborne pathogen V. parahaemolyticus with good sensitivity ( Yano, Satomi, and Oikawa 2006 ). A methanolic extract of turmeric inhibited the growth of different strains of Helicobacter pylori with a minimum inhibitory concentration range of 6.25–50.0 μg/mL ( Mahady et al. 2002 ). Among the various plant extracts that killed H. pylori , such as cumin, ginger, chili, borage, black caraway, oregano, and licorice, turmeric was found to be the most efficient ( O’Mahony et al. 2005 ).

Ethanolic extracts of C. longa have good antifungal activity against Trichophyton longifusus ( Khattak et al. 2005 ). Tests using the agar disc diffusion method for detecting antifungal activity showed that a crude ethanolic extract of turmeric killed all 29 tested clinical strains of dermatophytes. This extract exhibited an inhibition zone range of 6.1–26.0 mm ( Wuthi-udomlert et al. 2000 ).

The anticancer activities of turmeric include inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis of cancer cells. Ar-turmerone, which is isolated from turmeric, induced apoptosis in human leukemia Molt 4B and HL-60 cells by fragmenting DNA to oligonucleosome-sized fragments, a known step in the process of apoptosis ( Aratanechemuge et al. 2002 ). Moreover, the nucleosomal DNA fragmentation induced by ar-turmerone was associated with induction of Bax and p53 proteins, rather than B cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and p21, and activation of mitochondrial cytochrome c and caspase-3 ( Lee 2009 ). This study showed that turmeric extract repressed the production and secretion of hepatitis B surface antigen from HepG 2.2.15 cells, an activity that is mediated through the enhancement of cellular accumulation of p53 protein by transactivating the transcription of the p53 gene as well as increasing the stability of the p53 protein ( Kim et al. 2009 ).

13.6.2. I n V ivo S tudies with T urmeric

Both the preventive and therapeutic effects of turmeric have been examined in animal models ( Table 13.4 ). These studies report that this yellow spice exhibits anticancer ( Azuine and Bhide 1994 ; Deshpande, Ingle, and Maru 1997 ; Garg, Ingle, and Maru 2008 ), hepatoprotective ( Miyakoshi et al. 2004 ), cardioprotective ( Mohanty, Arya, and Gupta 2006 ), hypoglycemic ( Kuroda et al. 2005 ; Honda et al. 2006 ), and antiarthritic properties ( Funk et al. 2006 ).

In Vivo Effect of Turmeric against Development of Various Diseases/Disorders.

In various models, turmeric has been reported to exhibit activity against the development of skin cancer ( Villaseñlor, Simon, and Villanueva 2002 ), breast cancer ( Deshpande, Ingle, and Maru 1998a ), oral cancer ( Azuine and Bhide 1992a ), and stomach cancer ( Azuine and Bhide 1992b ). It prevents carcinogenesis at various steps, including inhibiting mutation ( Polasa et al. 1991 ), detoxifying carcinogens ( Thapliyal, Deshpande, and Maru 2001 ), decreasing cell proliferation, and inducing apoptosis of tumor cells ( Garg, Ingle, and Maru 2008 ). Turmeric extract prevents animal tumors induced by Dalton’s lymphoma ( Kuttan et al. 1985 ). In this study, mice were injected with Dalton’s lymphoma cells intraperitoneally and treated with turmeric extract (10–40 mg/animal) for 10 days. After 30 days, the authors found up to 80% decrease in tumor formation in comparison with nontreated mice ( Figure 13.2a ). They also observed that up to 75% of animals survived after 30 days and 50% after 60 days of treatment ( Figure 13.2b ). In a 7,12-dimethylbenz( a )anthracene (DMBA)-induced hamster buccal pouch model of carcinogenesis, dietary turmeric (1%) decreased tumor burden and multiplicity and enhanced the latency period in parallel. The mechanisms of anticarcinogenesis were mediated through inhibition of DMBA-induced expression of the ras oncogene product, induction of p21 and its downstream targets, mitogen-activated protein kinases, and reduction of proliferating cell nuclear antigen and Bcl-2 expression. Turmeric also enhanced apoptosis (increased expression of Bax, caspase-3, and apoptotic index), decreased inflammation (levels of cyclooxygenase [COX]-2, the downstream target of activator protein-1/nuclear factor K B [NF- K B], and PGE2), and induced aberrant expression of known differentiation markers, that is, cytokeratins ( Garg, Ingle, and Maru 2008 ).

FIGURE 13.2

Inhibition of tumor growth in mice by turmeric extracts in a dose-dependent manner. Mice were injected with Dalton’s lymphoma cells (1 million) intraperitoneally. After randomization, turmeric was given to the mice (n = 8) at indicated concentration (more...)

Topical application of turmeric was found to decrease multiplicity and onset of skin tumors ( Villaseñor, Simon, and Villanueva 2002 ). Dietary administration of 1% turmeric per 0.05% ethanolic turmeric extract was found to inhibit DMBA-induced mammary tumorigenesis in female Sprague–Dawley rats ( Deshpande, Ingle, and Maru 1998a ). Dietary turmeric inhibited ethyl(acetoxymethyl) nitrosamine-induced oral carcinogenesis in Syrian hamsters. However, the inhibitory effect of a combination of turmeric and betel leaf extract was found to be higher than that of the individual constituents ( Azuine and Bhide 1992a ). Administration of turmeric extract at a dose of 3 mg/animal 18 hours prior to intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP; 250 mg/kg) significantly inhibited bone marrow micronuclei formation in female Swiss mice. Moreover, the incidence and multiplicity of BaP-induced forestomach tumors in female Swiss mice were significantly inhibited by turmeric extract ( Azuine, Kayal, and Bhide 1992 ). Chandra Mohan, Abraham, and Nagini (2004) also showed that pretreatment with turmeric alone and in combination with tomato and garlic extract significantly lowered the frequencies of DMBA-induced bone marrow micronuclei, as well as the extent of lipid peroxidation. They revealed that these changes may be mediated by the antioxidant-enhancing effects of the dietary agents. Combined treatment of urethane, a well-known mutagen, and turmeric displayed an inhibition of the genotoxic effect of urethane by turmeric ( el Hamss et al. 1999 ). Decrease in tumorigenesis caused by turmeric is also associated with inhibition of DNA adduct formation. Turmeric inhibited the levels of BaP-induced DNA adducts in the livers of rats. Inclusion of turmeric at 0.1%, 0.5%, and 3.0% in the diet for 4 weeks significantly decreased the level of BaP–DNA adducts, including the major adduct dG-N2-BaP, formed within 24 hours in response to a single i.p. BaP injection ( Mukundan et al. 1993 ). Irrespective of whether turmeric was included in the diet or applied locally, it significantly decreased DMBA-induced DNA adducts at the target site and consequently lowered the number of tumors and tumor burden in the studied animals ( Krishnaswamy et al. 1998 ). Turmeric contains several substances capable of inhibiting chemical carcinogenesis. It enhanced the xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in the hepatic tissue of rats fed with 0.5–1.0% turmeric in the diet. Detoxifying enzymes such as uridine diphosphate (UDP), glucuronyl transferase, and glutathione-S-transferase significantly increased in turmeric-fed mice as compared with control animals ( Goud, Polasa, and Krishnaswamy 1993 ).

Ethanolic turmeric extract was found to have opposing actions on murine lymphocytes and on Ehlrich ascitic carcinoma cells. Turmeric enhances lymphocyte viability and blastogenesis, but induces formation of cytoplasmic blebs and plasma membrane disintegration of tumor cells. Thus, it is suggested that turmeric is a conducive agent for lymphocytes and inhibitory as well as apoptosisinducing for tumor cells ( Chakravarty and Yasmin 2005 ). A comparative study of edible plants like C. longa and F. caraica , and herbaceous plants like Gossypium barbadense and Ricinus communis extracts for their antitumor activities showed that the edible plant extracts exhibited higher antitumorigenic activities. Thus, edible plants that show in vivo antitumor activities may be recommended as safe sources of antitumor compounds ( Amara, El-Masry, and Bogdady 2008 ).

Turmeric showed antioxidant potential by lowering oxidative stress in animals. A study showed that a diet containing 0.1% turmeric fed for 3 weeks to retinol-deficient rats lowered lipid peroxidation rates by 22.6% in liver, 24.1% in kidney, 18.0% in spleen, and 31.4% in brain ( Kaul and Krishnakantha 1997 ). A study conducted on mice showed that turmeric extract inhibited membrane phospholipid peroxidation and increased liver lipid metabolism, which indicates turmeric extract has the ability to prevent the deposition of triacylglycerols in the liver. Dietary supplementation for one week (1% w/w of diet) with a turmeric extract showed lower phospholipids hydroperoxide level in mice red blood cells (RBC). The liver lipid peroxidizability induced with Fe 2+ /ascorbic acid was effectively suppressed by dietary supplementation with turmeric ( Asai, Nakagawa, and Miyazawa 1999 ). Oral administration of a nutritional dose of turmeric extract decreased susceptibility to oxidation of erythrocyte and liver microsome membranes in vitro. When turmeric hydroalcoholic extract (1.66 mg/kg of body weight) was given to rabbits fed a high-fat diet, oxidation of erythrocyte membranes was found to be significantly lower than that in membranes of control animals. Levels of hydroperoxides and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances in liver microsomes were also low ( Mesa et al. 2003 ). Turmeric also seems beneficial in preventing diabetes-induced oxidative stress. In diabetic rats, an AIN93 diet containing 0.5% turmeric was found to control oxidative stress by inhibiting increases in thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances and protein carbonyls and reversing altered antioxidant enzyme activities without altering the hyperglycemic state ( Arun and Nalini 2002 ; Suryanarayana et al. 2007 ). This diet also inhibited expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in diabetic rats ( Mrudula et al. 2007 ). Further, it suppressed increase in blood glucose level in type 2 diabetic KK-Ay mice. A dose of 0.2 or 1.0 g of ethanol extract, 0.5 g of hexane extract, and 0.5 g of hexane-extraction residue per 100 g of diet in the mice feed suppressed significant increase in blood glucose levels. The ethanol extract of turmeric also stimulated human adipocyte differentiation, and it showed human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) ligand-binding activity ( Nishiyama et al. 2005 ). Further, turmeric appeared to minimize osmotic stress. Most importantly, aggregation and insolubilization of lens proteins due to hyperglycemia was prevented by turmeric, indicating that it prevents or delays the development of cataracts ( Suryanarayana et al. 2005 ).

Turmeric has been reported to be hepatoprotective. Diets containing turmeric extract suppressed increases in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels caused by D-galactosamine-induced liver injury in rats ( Miyakoshi et al. 2004 ). A 5% turmeric extract decreased carbon tetrachloride–induced increases in serum levels of bilirubin, cholesterol, AST, ALT, and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in mice ( Deshpande et al. 1998b ). In female Wistar rats fed a diet containing 0%, 0.2%, 1.0%, or 5.0% turmeric, nitrosodiethylamineinduced hepatocarcinogenesis was inhibited. This effect was detected by measuring the numbers of γ-glutamyl transpeptidase–positive foci, a marker of hepatocarcinogenesis ( Thapliyal et al. 2003 ).

Turmeric is also effective against neuronal, cardiac, and kidney disorders. The effect of turmeric on myocardial apoptosis and cardiac function was examined in an ischemia and reperfusion model of myocardial injury. Turmeric at 100 mg/kg administered for 1 month afforded significant cardioprotection and functional recovery that was attributed to reduction in cell death ( Mohanty, Arya, and Gupta 2006 ).

Turmeric is also useful against depression ( Yu, Kong, and Chen 2002 ; Xia et al. 2006 ; Xia et al. 2007 ). Its ethanolic extract markedly attenuated swim stress–induced decreases in serotonin, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and noradrenaline and dopamine concentrations, as well as increases in serotonin turnover. Also, this extract significantly reversed swim stress–induced increases in serum corticotropin-releasing factor and cortisol levels and thus regulated neurochemical and neuroendocrine systems in mice ( Xia et al. 2007 ). In another study, administration of aqueous extracts of turmeric to mice (140–560 mg/kg for 14 days) reduced immobility in the tail suspension test and the forced swimming test ( Yu, Kong, and Chen 2002 ). The effects of 560-mg/kg turmeric were found to be more potent than those of the antidepressant fluoxetine. The extracts significantly inhibited brain monoamine oxidase (MAO)-A activity at a low dose, but at a higher dose, they inhibited brain MAO-B activity. In comparison, fluoxetine showed only a tendency to inhibit MAO-A and -B activity in animal brains. These results demonstrate that turmeric has specific antidepressant effects in vivo. However, since curcumin is not water soluble, the agent in aqueous extracts of turmeric responsible for this activity is not clear.

The antiarthritic effects of turmeric include inhibition of joint inflammation and periarticular joint destruction. In vivo treatment with turmeric extract prevented local activation of NF-κB and the subsequent expression of NF-κB-regulated genes mediating joint inflammation and destruction, including chemokines, COX-2, and the receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL). It also inhibited inflammatory cell influx, joint levels of PGE2, and periarticular osteoclast formation in rats ( Funk et al. 2006 ). Turmeric was found to be effective against carrageenan-induced edema in rats ( Yegnanarayan, Saraf, and Balwani 1976 ), and water extracts of turmeric were more active than alcohol extracts in the inhibition of carrageenan-induced edema. Turmeric extract, when given intraperitoneally, was found to be more active than hydrocortisone ( Ghatak and Basu 1972 ). The yellow powder of turmeric is known to have potent vasorelaxant activity and to decrease the atherogenic properties of cholesterol. A study showed that supplementation of turmeric in the diet controlled arterial blood pressure in animals and enhanced vasorelaxant responses to adenosine, acetylcholine, and isoproterenol ( Zahid Ashraf, Hussain, and Fahim 2005 ). Turmeric’s antiatherosclerotic effect is associated with inhibition of low-density lipoprotein oxidation, prevention of lipoperoxidation, and reduction in levels of cholesterol ( Quiles et al. 1998 ; Ramírez-Tortosa et al. 1999 ). A study showed that feeding an ethanolic extract of turmeric to rats elevated the high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol/total cholesterol ratio. The extract also caused a significant decrease in the ratio of total cholesterol/phospholipids. Turmeric extract exhibited better cholesterol and triglyceride lowering (85% and 88%, respectively) as compared to Nardostachys jatamansi extract in tritoninduced hyperlipidemic rats ( Dixit, Jain, and Joshi 1988 ). Turmeric suppresses Freund’s adjuvantinduced arthritis and acute edema in rats, and it has also been reported that oil extract of turmeric is more active than cortisone ( Chandra and Gupta 1972 ).

Another interesting property of turmeric is its wound-healing ability. Gujral, Chowdhury, and Saxena (1953) found that turmeric has the property of healing wounds and ulcers in rats and rabbits. Other studies in rabbits revealed that stimulation of mucin secretion could protect the stomach from ulcer ( Mukerji, Zaidi, and Singh 1961 ).

Besides causing these effects, addition of turmeric to the diet significantly improved weight gain of broiler chicks and reduced their relative liver weight. Turmeric also ameliorated the adverse effects of aflatoxin on some serum chemistry parameters (total protein, albumin, cholesterol, calcium) in broiler chicks and restored antioxidant functions in terms of level of peroxides, superoxide dismutase activity, and total antioxidant concentration in their livers ( Gowda et al. 2008 ).

Turmeric acts as a digestive stimulant. As a dietary supplement, it favorably enhanced the activities of pancreatic lipase, chymotrypsin, and amylase. Moreover, turmeric mixed with other spices such as coriander, red chili, black pepper, and cumin brought about a pronounced stimulation of bile flow and bile acid secretion ( Platel et al. 2002 ). Mukerji, Zaidi, and Singh (1961) showed that turmeric increases the mucin content of gastric juice in rabbits. Studies conducted by Farnsworth and Bunyapraphatsara (1992) , Supniewski and Hano (1935) , and Prucksunand et al. (2001) explain that turmeric has local anesthetic action. After eating turmeric, secretion of gastrin hormone from the antrum of the stomach may be inhibited. Turmeric may possess local membrane-anesthetizing activity at the antrum of the stomach, which then inhibits secretion of gastrin in the same way as oxethazaine, the active ingredient of strocain ( Masuda 1973 ). This is the reason turmeric is administered before meals.

13.6.3. C linical S tudies U sing T urmeric

Turmeric has been tested against various diseases in humans ( Table 13.5 ). In one study, the antimutagenic effects of turmeric were examined in 16 chronic smokers ( Polasa et al. 1992 ). Turmeric was given in doses of 1.5 g/day for 30 days, and this was found to significantly reduce the urinary excretion of mutagens in these smokers. In six nonsmokers, on the other hand, no change in urinary excretion of mutagens was noted. These results suggest that dietary turmeric is an effective antimutagen and may be useful in chemoprevention. In another study, the effect of turmeric was examined on patients with irritable bowel syndrome. When 1 or 2 tablets of a standardized turmeric extract were given daily for 8 weeks, the prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome was significantly decreased, as was the abdominal pain/discomfort score ( Bundy et al. 2004 ). Alcoholic extract of turmeric offered protection against BaP-induced increase in micronuclei in circulating lymphocytes of healthy individuals ( Hastak et al. 1997 ). In a subsequent study, the authors treated patients suffering from oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) with turmeric extract (3 g/day) for 3 months. The number of micronuclei from oral exfoliated cells of OSF patients before and after treatment with turmeric extract was recorded. They found that the number of micronuclei in oral exfoliated cells decreased substantially and was comparable with that of normal, healthy individuals ( Figure 13.3 ).

Human Studies with Turmeric.

FIGURE 13.3

Inhibition of micronuclei formation in oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) patients: (a) Incidence of micronuclei in exfoliated buccal mucosal cells of OSF patients before and after treatment with turmeric and of normal healthy individuals. (b) Incidence of (more...)

Turmeric was also found useful in healing peptic ulcers. In a phase II clinical trial, 45 patients with peptic ulcer received capsule-filled turmeric orally in the dose of 2 capsules (300 mg each) five times daily. After 4 weeks of treatment, ulcers were found to be absent in 48% of cases. After 12 weeks of treatment, ulcer-free cases increased to 76% ( Prucksunand et al. 2001 ). A double-blind trial found turmeric to be helpful for people with indigestion and for people with stomach or intestinal ulcers, but it was shown to be less effective than antacids ( Kositchaiwat, Kositchaiwat, and Havanondha 1993 ). An ethanol extract of turmeric was found to produce remarkable symptomatic relief in patients with external cancerous lesions. In a study of 62 patients, reduction in smell was noted in 90% of the cases and reduction of itching in almost all cases. Some patients (10%) had a reduction in lesion size and pain ( Kuttan, Sudheeran, and Joseph 1987 ).

A study on eight healthy subjects showed that the presence of turmeric in curry increases bowel motility and activates hydrogen-producing bacterial flora in the colon, thereby increasing the concentration of breath hydrogen ( Shimouchi et al. 2008 ). Turmeric paste is used to heal wounds or to protect against infection. In certain parts of Bangladesh, turmeric is the most common application on the cut umbilical cord after delivery ( Alam et al. 2008 ).

13.7. STUDIES WITH TURMERIC OIL

Turmeric has medicinal properties due to its bioactive components. One of the important components of turmeric is its volatile oil. The role of turmeric oil in in vitro animals and in human is shown in Table 13.6 . Turmeric oil inhibits Trichophyton-induced dermatophytosis in guinea pigs. Apisariyakul, Vanittanakom, and Buddhasukh (1995) showed that 15 different isolates of dermatophytes are inhibited by turmeric oil at dilutions of 1:40 to 1:320. Interestingly, none of the dermatophyte isolates was inhibited by curcumin. Studies of the antiviral effects of the zedoary turmeric oil spray in the respiratory tract showed that whereas influenza virus, parainfluenza viruses I and III, respiratory syncytial virus, and adenoviruses 3 and 7 were inhibited slightly, parainfluenza virus II was significantly inhibited by this turmeric compound ( Huang et al. 2007 ). Curcuma oil ameliorated the ischemia-induced neurological functional deficits and the infarct and edema volumes in rats. It downregulated inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS)-derived NO produced during ischemic injury, which coincided with an increased survival rate of neurons ( Dohare et al. 2008 ). The neuroprotective activity of curcuma oil against cerebral ischemia is associated with its antioxidant activities. Further, cucurma oil attenuated delayed neuronal death via a caspase-dependent pathway. Thus, curcuma oil appears to be a promising agent for the treatment of not only cerebral stroke but also other disorders associated with oxidative stress ( Rathore et al. 2008 ). A study revealed that ingestion of turmeric oleoresin and essential oil inhibits the development of increased blood glucose and abdominal fat mass in obese, diabetic rats ( Honda et al. 2006 ).

Studies with Turmeric Oil.

Turmeric volatile oil is effective against disorders of the respiratory tract. The volatile oil is active in removing sputum, relieving cough, and preventing asthma. Thus, turmeric volatile oil may be an efficacious drug in the treatment of respiratory diseases ( Li et al. 1998 ). This oil acts as a repellent against both day- and night-biting mosquitoes ( Tawatsin et al. 2001 ).

Hexane extracts of C. comosa , an indigenous plant of Thailand that is traditionally used for the treatment of uterine inflammation, at concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, and 1 μM were found to significantly decrease LPS-induced NO and PGE2 production. It also decreased the expression of iNOS and COX-2 ( Thampithak et al. 2009 ).

13.8. SAFETY, EFFICACY, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS

The use of turmeric as a spice and as a household remedy has been known to be safe for centuries. To date, no studies in either animals or humans have discovered any toxic effects associated with the use of turmeric ( Lao et al. 2006 ), and it is clear that turmeric is not toxic even at very high doses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has conducted its own clinical trials with turmeric and published a 300-page monograph. The FDA has declared turmeric and its active component curcumin as GRAS (generally regarded as safe). Thus, in the United States, turmeric and its components are currently being used in mustard, cereals, chips, cheese, butter, and other products ( http://www.kalsec.com/products/color ). In a phase I clinical study on the safety and tolerance of turmeric oil use, the oil was administered orally to healthy volunteers for 3 months. No side effects of turmeric oil intake were observed in 3 months on body weight, blood pressure, and hematological, renal, or hepatic toxicity ( Joshi et al. 2003 ).

13.9. CONCLUSIONS

The beneficial effects of turmeric are traditionally achieved through dietary consumption, even at low levels, over long periods of time. A precise understanding of effective dose, safety, and mechanism of action is required for the rational use of turmeric in the treatment of human diseases. Further clinical studies are warranted if turmeric is to be employed in meeting human needs and improving human welfare. The activities of turmeric include antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antioxidant, antiseptic, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, radioprotective, and digestive activities. Phytochemical analysis of turmeric has revealed a large number of compounds, including curcumin, volatile oil, and curcuminoids, which have been found to have potent pharmacological properties.

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• Cite this Page Prasad S, Aggarwal BB. Turmeric, the Golden Spice: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Medicine. In: Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, editors. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd edition. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2011. Chapter 13.

In this Page

• INTRODUCTION
• ORIGIN, NOMENCLATURE, HISTORY, CULTIVATION, AND PROCESSING OF TURMERIC
• COMPOSITION OF TURMERIC
• CONSUMPTION AND IMPORTANCE OF TURMERIC
• TURMERIC AS A TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
• FROM TRADITIONAL MEDICINE TO MODERN MEDICINE
• STUDIES WITH TURMERIC OIL
• SAFETY, EFFICACY, AND CONTRAINDICATIONS
• CONCLUSIONS

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Essay on Indian Heritage for Students and Children

500+ words essay on indian heritage.

Heritage means what we inherit from our ancestors and from our past. India is a land of varied cultures and traditions. People from numerous castes, religions, and creeds reside in our country. Each ethnic group in our country has its own tale of origin and its set of unique traditions and culture. They have all contributed to the making of Indian history and culture. Nature has made India into a distinct geographical entity.

Indian Heritage: A Gift from the Older Generations

Indian heritage and culture are vast and vivid because of the large number of religious groups residing in our country. Every community has its own set of customs and traditions which it passes on to its younger generation.

However, some of our customs and traditions remain the same throughout IndiaOur traditions teach us to inculcate good habits and make us a good human being. Our cultural heritage is thus a beautiful gift from our older generation that will help us become a better human being and build a harmonious society.

Respect for our Indian Heritage

The elders should take responsibility to invoke love for the Indian heritage in the younger generations. This must be done from the very beginning only then we can preserve our rich heritage. It is the duty of the elders to invoke love for the Indian heritage in the younger generations.

This must be done from the very beginning only then we can preserve our rich heritage. Schools must teach students about Indian heritage and how it has survived for centuries. They must also share the importance of preserving it. This would help in invoking a feeling of pride in them and they would be inspired to continue the tradition and also pass it on to the new generation. This needs a collective effort by the teachers as well as parents.

Our Literature

Indian literature is as rich as its culture. We have various books written on many topics since ancient times. We have the Vedic literature, epic Sanskrit literature, Classic Sanskrit literature and Pali literature among other kinds of Indian literature. Many of our books are being translated to other languages to provide access to a greater number of readers so that more and people can benefit from the knowledge. Such a wonderful and rich literature must be preserved at any cost.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Beautiful Geological Structures

Numerous beautiful geological structures found in different parts of India. Best of the splendid geological structures that form a part of our country include Lonar Crater Lake, Siachen Glacier, Jammu and Kashmir, Pillar Rocks, Kodaikanal, Barren Island, Andamans, Magnetic Hill, Leh, Columnar Basaltic Lava, Udupi, and Toad Rock. All these structures are true wonders of nature. A lot of tourists every year from around the world especially visit these places just to catch a glimpse of these marvelous creations of God.

UNESCO World Natural Heritage Sites in India

The below geological places have been enlisted in UNESCO World Natural Heritage Sites. These sites include:

1. Home for the rare one-horned rhinoceros, Kaziranga National Park, in 1985.

2. Home for numerous species of beautiful birds, Keoladeo National Park, in 1985.

3. A beautiful wildlife sanctuary, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, in 1985.

4. The biggest mangrove forest, Sundarbans, in the year 1987.

5. Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Park, in 2004.

6. The Western Ghats, in 2012.

7. The Great Himalayan National Park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the year 2014.

India is an ancient country. We are blessed with a beautiful heritage. We are solely responsible to preserve the same so that our future generations also get to see and experience the same.

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Angered Desis Mock Indian Justice System After Pune Porsche Accident Accused Asked to Write Essay for Bail

Curated By : Purvi Khemani

Last Updated: May 21, 2024, 15:08 IST

Delhi, India

Juvenile Justice Board's bail to Pune Porsche accident accused sparks outrage (Photo Credits: X)

Porsche-driving Indian teenager who killed two people ordered to write essay

A n Indian court granted bail to a drink-driving teenager who rammed his Porsche into a motorbike and killed two people, on the condition that he “write an essay” about the incident.

The court also told the 17-year-old boy from Pune in the western state of Maharashtra to undergo treatment for his drinking habit, take counselling sessions and work with the local police for 15 days.

The teenager, who has not been named, is the son of a prominent real estate magnate, and the perceived leniency shown by the judge has sparked outrage in the country .

The accident occurred at around 3.15am in Kalyani Nagar in Pune on Sunday.

A group of friends was returning home on motorbikes after a party at a local restaurant. When they reached the Kalyani Nagar junction, one of their motorcycles was hit by the teenager’s Porsche, police say, causing its two riders to fall and die instantly.

After hitting the riders, the teenager crashed his car into some railings, police say.

A video that has been widely shared on social media shows a group of passersby attacking the driver as he tries to exit the vehicle.

The deceased were identified as software engineers Anis Awadhiya and Ashwini Koshta, both 25.

A case was registered against the driver at a local police station and he was charged with rash driving, causing death by rash or negligent act not amounting to culpable homicide and endangering life or personal safety of a person.

The accused is reportedly four months shy of 18, the minimum legal age to drive a car in India .

He was reportedly out celebrating his Class 12 exam results.

He was driving at 200 kmh when he collided with the motorcycle.

The boy’s lawyer, Prashant Patil said: “The juvenile accused who was arrested by Pune Police has been granted bail by the Juvenile Justice Board on certain conditions, including that the accused should work with the traffic police of Yerawada for 15 days, accused should write an essay on accident, should get treatment from the concerned doctor to help him quit drinking and should take psychiatric counselling and submit the report.”

Police said they will appeal the bail order and treat the accused as an adult.

“We will not leave any stone unturned to prove that this is a heinous crime,” Pune’s police chief, Amitesh Kumar, told India Today .

Police have also arrested the boy’s father and owners of the two bars that allegedly served him alcohol.

The legal drinking age in Maharashtra is 25.

“We’re in shock,” Jugal Kishor Koshta, an uncle of one of the victims, told NDTV. “It’s condemnable that he should get bail in 15 hours. He and his parents should be investigated. We will discuss the matter once Ashwini’s last rites are over tomorrow.”

“We want his bail cancelled and he should remain in police custody. Because of him, an innocent girl, who has seen nothing of life, died," Sachin Bokde, another uncle of the victim, said.

Sanjay Raut, a prominent member of the opposition party Shiv Sena in Maharashtra, accused Pune police of serving pizza and burgers to the accused teenager after the crash, India Today reported.

“Police commissioner should be suspended. He tried to protect the accused. A young couple was killed and the accused was granted bail within two hours,” he told the ANI news agency.

“In the video, it can be seen that he was drunk, but his medical report was negative. Who is helping the accused? Who is this police commissioner? He should be removed or the people of Pune will come on the streets.”

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There’s a New Covid Variant. What Will That Mean for Spring and Summer?

Experts are closely watching KP.2, now the leading variant.

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By Dani Blum

For most of this year, the JN.1 variant of the coronavirus accounted for an overwhelming majority of Covid cases . But now, an offshoot variant called KP.2 is taking off. The variant, which made up just one percent of cases in the United States in mid-March, now makes up over a quarter.

KP.2 belongs to a subset of Covid variants that scientists have cheekily nicknamed “FLiRT,” drawn from the letters in the names of their mutations. They are descendants of JN.1, and KP.2 is “very, very close” to JN.1, said Dr. David Ho, a virologist at Columbia University. But Dr. Ho has conducted early lab tests in cells that suggest that slight differences in KP.2’s spike protein might make it better at evading our immune defenses and slightly more infectious than JN.1.

While cases currently don’t appear to be on the rise, researchers and physicians are closely watching whether the variant will drive a summer surge.

“I don’t think anybody’s expecting things to change abruptly, necessarily,” said Dr. Marc Sala, co-director of the Northwestern Medicine Comprehensive Covid-19 Center in Chicago. But KP.2 will most likely “be our new norm,’” he said. Here’s what to know.

The current spread of Covid

Experts said it would take several weeks to see whether KP.2 might lead to a rise in Covid cases, and noted that we have only a limited understanding of how the virus is spreading. Since the public health emergency ended , there is less robust data available on cases, and doctors said fewer people were using Covid tests.

But what we do know is reassuring: Despite the shift in variants, data from the C.D.C. suggests there are only “minimal ” levels of the virus circulating in wastewater nationally, and emergency department visits and hospitalizations fell between early March and late April.

“I don’t want to say that we already know everything about KP.2,” said Dr. Ziyad Al-Aly, the chief of research and development at the Veterans Affairs St. Louis Healthcare System. “But at this time, I’m not seeing any major indications of anything ominous.”

Protection from vaccines and past infections

Experts said that even if you had JN.1, you may still get reinfected with KP.2 — particularly if it’s been several months or longer since your last bout of Covid.

KP.2 could infect even people who got the most updated vaccine, Dr. Ho said, since that shot targets XBB.1.5, a variant that is notably different from JN.1 and its descendants. An early version of a paper released in April by researchers in Japan suggested that KP.2 might be more adept than JN.1 at infecting people who received the most recent Covid vaccine. (The research has not yet been peer-reviewed or published.) A spokesperson for the C.D.C. said the agency was continuing to monitor how vaccines perform against KP.2.

Still, the shot does provide some protection, especially against severe disease, doctors said, as do previous infections. At this point, there isn’t reason to believe that KP.2 would cause more severe illness than other strains, the C.D.C. spokesperson said. But people who are 65 and older, pregnant or immunocompromised remain at higher risk of serious complications from Covid.

Those groups, in particular, may want to get the updated vaccine if they haven’t yet, said Dr. Peter Chin-Hong, an infectious disease specialist at the University of California, San Francisco. The C.D.C. has recommended t hat people 65 and older who already received one dose of the updated vaccine get an additional shot at least four months later.

“Even though it’s the lowest level of deaths and hospitalizations we’ve seen, I’m still taking care of sick people with Covid,” he said. “And they all have one unifying theme, which is that they’re older and they didn’t get the latest shot.”

The latest on symptoms and long Covid

Doctors said that the symptoms of both KP.2 and JN.1 — which now makes up around 16 percent of cases — are most likely similar to those seen with other variants . These include sore throat, runny nose, coughing, head and body aches, fever, congestion, fatigue and in severe cases, shortness of breath. Fewer people lose their sense of taste and smell now than did at the start of the pandemic, but some people will still experience those symptoms.

Dr. Chin-Hong said that patients were often surprised that diarrhea, nausea and vomiting could be Covid symptoms as well, and that they sometimes confused those issues as signs that they had norovirus .

For many people who’ve already had Covid, a reinfection is often as mild or milder than their first case. While new cases of long Covid are less common now than they were at the start of the pandemic, repeat infections do raise the risk of developing long Covid, said Fikadu Tafesse, a virologist at Oregon Health & Science University. But researchers are still trying to determine by how much — one of many issues scientists are trying to untangle as the pandemic continues to evolve.

“That’s the nature of the virus,” Dr. Tafesse said. “It keeps mutating.”

Dani Blum is a health reporter for The Times. More about Dani Blum